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Jisün

Jisün (Mongolian term), also known as zhisunfu (Chinese: 质孙服) or Zhisun (simplified Chinese: 质孙; traditional Chinese: 質孫, also written as Chinese: 只孙 or Chinese: 直孙), zhixun (Chinese: 只逊), jixun (Chinese: 济逊), zhama (Chinese: 诈玛; Chinese: 詐馬 Persian: جامه) or Jisun (Chinese: 济孙), was a very important male Mongol garment during the Yuan dynasty. : 29  They were also known as Mongol "robes of honour" (khil'at). The zhisun was a form of ceremonial clothing, which was worn during the jisün banquets (also known as zhama banquets), which were the most important ceremony of the Yuan dynasty court . : 63  The zhisun were made of textile woven with gold and silk of one colour. In China, the zhisun was introduced during the Yuan dynasty and was inherited by the Han Chinese during the Ming dynasty.

Jisün (Mongolian term), also known as zhisunfu (Chinese: 质孙服) or Zhisun (simplified Chinese: 质孙; traditional Chinese: 質孫, also written as Chinese: 只孙 or Chinese: 直孙), zhixun (Chinese: 只逊), jixun (Chinese: 济逊), zhama (Chinese: 诈玛; Chinese: 詐馬 Persian: جامه) or Jisun (Chinese: 济孙), was a very important male Mongol garment during the Yuan dynasty.: 29  They were also known as Mongol "robes of honour" (khil'at). The zhisun was a form of ceremonial clothing, which was worn during the jisün banquets (also known as zhama banquets), which were the most important ceremony of the Yuan dynasty court .: 63  The zhisun were made of textile woven with gold and silk of one colour. In China, the zhisun was introduced during the Yuan dynasty and was inherited by the Han Chinese during the Ming dynasty. In both the Yuan and Ming dynasty, the zhisun is a single-coloured court robe.: 29  The zhisun is a type of Mongol terlig. Terminology The term zhama came from the Persian word jāmah which is translated as "garment" or "robe" or "coat" or "clothing".: 64 : 82 The term jisün means "colour" in Mongolian.: 62–64  The term zhisun originates from the Mongolian term jisün. In the History of the Yuan dynasty, the zhisun are defined as "a dress of the same colour" or "being of one colour" or "robe of one colour" or "dress in one colour" (Chinese: 一色服; pinyin: yisefu).: 63 The term zhixun was used in the Ming dynasty and originated from the term zhisun. History Origins The zhisun likely originated in early period of the Mongol rule; it was first introduced under the rule of Genghis Khan, but it became more elaborate after the foundation of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan.: 29 Yuan dynasty In the Yuan dynasty, the zhisun was worn by the Yuan Emperors and officials. The zhisun was a ceremonial court dress which was bestowed by the Emperors to the higher-ranking officials, imperial relatives, those who had made great contributions and those who serve the emperors . It could only be worn when bestowed by the emperor as such it held an important place for every official's political life in the Yuan dynasty; and if it was bestowed by the Emperor, the zhisun had to be worn. In 1321 AD, during the rule of Emperor Yingzong, the zhisunfu (Chinese: 质孙服) dressing code was officially formulated. This dress code also combined the clothing characteristics of both the Han Chinese and the Mongol ethnicity.In 1332 AD, an imperial edict stated that all officials and imperial guards who had been bestowed with zhisun were required to wear it during the imperial banquets, and those would pawn off their zhisun would be punished. Distinguished higher-ranking imperial officials, in particular, wore it when they would meet with the Emperors or when they would attend banquets. The zhisun worn by the Han Chinese who would participate in the banquets organized by the Yuan imperial court were also bestowed by the Yuan Emperors. The participants of the jisun banquets had to be dressed in the same colour.The zhisun could also be worn by lower-ranking singers, musicians, and security guards. However, it appears that there were two kind of zhisun during the banquets: the first type which was worn as a formal dress for the Yuan Emperors, his officials and the nobilities, and the second type which was worn by the servants. Ming dynasty In the Ming dynasty, the Zhisun was mainly worn as a regular clothing by military officials, such as the court guards and guards of honour, who are referred as xiaowei (Chinese: 校尉). In 1373 AD, the clothing of the imperial body guards was changed to the zhisun, a solid colour robe which had been inherited from the Yuan dynasty.According to A Collection of the Code of the Great Ming, A Veritable Record of the Ming dynasty and the Writings after a dream in Shining Spring (Chinese: 春明梦余录), the xiaowei all wore zhisun robe. According to A Collection of the Code of the Great Ming, the jinyiwei who were on duties at the East and West City circuit and the other men in charged of whip throwing, fan holding, umbrella-like towel holding also wore zhisun robe. According to Understanding Elegance, the red or green robes which were made out of silk and which were worn by the jinyiwei was called zhixun; the zhixun was decorated with ground flowers. Design and construction The zhisun is described as being of a single colour.: 29  The zhisun worn by the Yuan emperor and higher-ranking officials during court banquets typically had the same colour, design and form, with the workmanship and exquisiteness of ornaments as the difference.: 63–64  All the zhisun worn by Han Chinese during court banquets all the same form and design. However, the zhisun was not made to have a fixed design or form. According to the History of the Yuan dynasty, the zhisun is described as not having a fixed design or form, and the summer design is different from the winter design. These robes were also different in design depending on the social classes of its wearer, but they were all referred as zhisun. For example, the emperor had 11 varieties of zhisun for the winter season and 15 varieties for summer while members of the nobility and the senior officials had 9 varieties of zhisun during winter and 14 in summer.: 63 The zhisun could also be made from variety of fabrics, including nasīj (or nasji; Chinese: 納石失; pinyin: Nàshíshī), silk, and wool (Chinese: 速夫; pinyin: sufu).: 62–64  They were also embellished with precious stones and pearls.: 62–64 In the Great statutes of statecraft《經世大典 - Jingshi dadian》by Yu Ji (1272–1348) recorded that the "[...] Zhisun is the robe worn by high officials when they attend an imperial banquet. Nowadays it takes the form of a bright red robe with string of large pearls sewn on the back and shoulders [...]". Derivatives and influences China The yesa robe, which was a new form garment in the Ming dynasty, has some of its mixed-elements either developed from the Mongol terlig, or from the zhisun robe, which is itself a form of terlig. Similar garments Feiyufu Terlig Yesa See also Fashion in Yuan dynasty List of Hanfu Hanfu Robe of honour - an ancient tradition of bestowing clothing Khalat - a loose, long-sleeved outer silk or cotton robe common in Central Asia and South Asia == References ==

The Living Daylights (song)

"The Living Daylights" is the theme song from the 1987 James Bond film of the same name, performed by Norwegian band A-ha. It was written by guitarist Pål Waaktaar. A revised version of the song was included on the band's third studio album, Stay on These Roads (1988).

"The Living Daylights" is the theme song from the 1987 James Bond film of the same name, performed by Norwegian band A-ha. It was written by guitarist Pål Waaktaar. A revised version of the song was included on the band's third studio album, Stay on These Roads (1988). Origin and recording John Barry is credited as co-writer and producer, and the initial release of the song was his version. A second version of the song, re-worked by A-ha in 1988, later appeared on their third studio album, Stay on These Roads. When interviewed on a late-night show in 1987, Barry said that he found working with the band exhausting secondary to the band's insistence on using their own version of the song for release. In an interview with Hot Rod magazine, keyboardist Magne Furuholmen said that "[the band's] fight with Barry left a rather unpleasant aftertaste. Apparently, he compared us to Hitlerjugend in a newspaper interview."Harket stated in an interview with Paul Lester of The Guardian in 2016 that Barry was "honestly not an easy guy to like. He was very strange in that he started to befriend us by talking bad about Duran Duran. He made some degrading comments about them and what they'd been doing and that didn't sit well with any of us". Harket stated further that; "he then made some derogatory comments about women and it was all uncalled for. There will be people who knew him who will have a very different view of him. But he didn't go down well with us."In an interview with NME in 2022, Harket commented further that; "It was down to a clash in mentalities. His mentality was the way it was and it surfaced in various ways. None of us agreed with his worldview and the way he spoke about other human beings. We couldn't speak a common language between each other. But his input in the song was essentially just making a few changes to the verse melody: the rest was already there."Waaktaar stated that although Barry produced the track, he never contributed to the songwriting process and should not have been credited as such. (The band Duran Duran made similar claims after they worked briefly with Barry on the theme to the previous Bond film, "A View to a Kill", in 1985.) The situation grew even more tense when Harket and company informed the producers they would not attend the London premiere. "We fell out with [Bond composer] John Barry, and also the whole Bond Broccoli people [the producers], because we didn't come to the premiere in London. We informed them that, on the date that they had set, we were booked fully in Japan for a big tour. We couldn't make it." The Bond camp assumed A-ha would change their minds. "They didn’t think we were serious. And we didn't show up. They went ballistic. They pulled the song from the American version." However, Waaktaar has also said: "I loved the stuff he [John Barry] added to the track. I mean, it gave it this sort of really cool string arrangement. That's when it, for me, started to sound like a Bond thing." Release and reception "The Living Daylights" was released in the summer of 1987. The song peaked at number five in the United Kingdom and number one in Norway. The song remains one of A-ha's most played songs in live concerts and has often been extended into a "sing-along" with the audience, as featured on the live album How Can I Sleep with Your Voice in My Head. In live performances, Waaktaar often included the main James Bond Theme in his guitar solo.Evan Cater of AllMusic said the song was "a strong sample of Seven and the Ragged Tiger-influenced Europop, enhanced by Morten Harket's powerhouse falsetto vocals."South African heavy metal band The Narrow released a cover version in 2005. Music video The music video, which was directed by Steve Barron, was shot at the 007 Stage in London, which was built specifically for the James Bond franchise. It features various scenes from the film projected on to the band as they perform in the empty 007 Stage. Separate footage from the movie itself is shown, along with footage from the film traced out and inserted to the footage of the band performing, which was a groundbreaking, yet expensive innovation at that time. Track listings 7-inch single: Warner Bros. / W 8305 United Kingdom "The Living Daylights" – 4:04 "The Living Daylights" (instrumental) – 4:3612-inch single: Warner Bros. / W 8305T United Kingdom "The Living Daylights" (extended mix) – 6:48 "The Living Daylights" (7 inch version) – 4:04 "The Living Daylights" (instrumental) – 4:36Track 1 is also known as the "extended version". Also released as a 12" picture disc (W 8305TP) Charts Alternative rejected theme song Like other Bond themes before it, A-ha's release was not the only recorded song for the film. English synth-pop band Pet Shop Boys also recorded a song for the film that was optioned to the studio. The duo later reworked the song they submitted into "This Must Be the Place I Waited Years to Leave", which was released on their Behaviour album in 1990. MTV Unplugged appearance In 2017, A-ha appeared on the television series MTV Unplugged and played and recorded acoustic versions of many of their popular songs for the album MTV Unplugged – Summer Solstice in Giske, Norway, including "The Living Daylights". See also James Bond music Outline of James Bond == References ==

Eirene (daughter of Poseidon)

In Greek mythology, Eirene (/aɪˈriːni/; Greek: Εἰρήνη, Eirēnē, [eːrɛ́ːnɛː], lit. "Peace") or Irene, was a daughter of Poseidon and Melanthea, daughter of Alpheus. She gave her name to Eirene, a small island near the Peloponnese. The island was later called Anthedonia and Hypereia, but eventually received the name Calauria after Calaurus, who was also a son of Poseidon.

In Greek mythology, Eirene (/aɪˈriːni/; Greek: Εἰρήνη, Eirēnē, [eːrɛ́ːnɛː], lit. "Peace") or Irene, was a daughter of Poseidon and Melanthea, daughter of Alpheus. She gave her name to Eirene, a small island near the Peloponnese. The island was later called Anthedonia and Hypereia, but eventually received the name Calauria after Calaurus, who was also a son of Poseidon. Note References Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, Moralia with an English Translation by Frank Cole Babbitt. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. 1936. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.

Elez Isufi

Elez Isufi (1861 – 29 December 1924) was an Albanian nationalist figure and guerrilla fighter.

Elez Isufi (1861 – 29 December 1924) was an Albanian nationalist figure and guerrilla fighter. Biography Elez Isufi was born in the village of Sllovë in the Dibër region, was son of Isuf Ndreu. He and his guerrilla band resisted Serb forces in 1912. A close ally of Bajram Curri, Isufi led an uprising in Dibra on 15 August 1921 to free the region from Serb forces. The fighting continued up to December 1921.He was involved in a further uprising on 1 March 1922 against the regime of Ahmet Zogu, and his Dibran fighters were able to cross the mountains and advance to Tirana. They reached the northeastern neighborhoods of the capital, went into skirmishes with the government forces led by Prenk Pervizi and withdrew only after the intervention of British diplomat Harry Eyres. They were first given death sentence by the military court and later received amnesty.He took the side of Fan Noli during the Democratic Revolution and was killed by Yugoslav troops at the end of 1924 during the insurgence for overthrowing Nolis' government. == References ==

Saroja Vaidyanathan

Saroja Vaidyanathan (19 September 1937 – 21 September 2023) was an Indian choreographer, guru, and notable proponent of Bharatanatyam. She was conferred the Padma Shri in 2002 and the Padma Bhushan in 2013 by the Government of India.

Saroja Vaidyanathan (19 September 1937 – 21 September 2023) was an Indian choreographer, guru, and notable proponent of Bharatanatyam. She was conferred the Padma Shri in 2002 and the Padma Bhushan in 2013 by the Government of India. Early life and education Saroja Vaidyanathan (née Dharmarajan) was born in Bellary, Karnataka, on 19 September 1937. Vaidyanathan's parents were both authors; her mother Kanakam Dharmarajan was a writer of detective fiction in Tamil.She received her initial training in Bharatanatyam at the Saraswati Gana Nilayam in Chennai and later studied under guru Kattumannar Muthukumaran Pillai of Thanjavur. She also studied Carnatic music under Professor P. Sambamoorthy at Madras University and had a D.Litt in dance from the Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwavidyalaya, Khairagarh. Bharatanatyam career Vaidyanathan gave up dancing after her marriage, following conservative and adverse reactions to her performing in public venues and took instead to teaching children dance at home. Following her husband's transfer to Delhi in 1972, she established the Ganesa Natyalaya there in 1974. She was monetarily supported by well wishers and sponsors and the building for the Natyalaya was built at the Qutab Institutional Area in 1988. Besides the dance itself, students at the Ganesa Natyalaya are also taught Tamil, Hindi, and Carnatic vocal music to give them a holistic understanding of Bharatanatyam.Vaidyanathan was a prolific choreographer and had to her credit ten full-length ballets and nearly two thousand individual Bharatanatyam pieces. She undertook a cultural tour of South East Asia in 2002, accompanying Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's visit to the ASEAN Summit in 2002. She had also published her renditions of Subramania Bharati's songs and poems and set some of her works to dance. Books Saroja Vidyanathan wrote a number of books on Bharatanatyam and Carnatic music including The Classical Dances of India, Bharatanatyam – An In-Depth Study, Carnataka Sangeetham, and The Science of Bharatanatyam. Personal life Saroja was married to Vaidyanathan, an IAS officer of the Bihar cadre. The couple had a son, Kamesh and their daughter-in-law Rama Vaidyanathan is a well-known Bharatanatyam artist of international fame. Saroja's grand-daughter, Dakshina Vaidyanathan Baghel, is also a sought-after Indian classical dancer.Vaidyanathan died from cancer on 21 September 2023, two days after her 86th birthday. Awards and honours Saroja was conferred the Padma Shri in 2002 and the Padma Bhushan in 2013. She is also the recipient of the Sahitya Kala Parishad Samman of the Government of Delhi, the Kalaimamani title bestowed by the Tamil Nadu Eyal Isai Nataka Manram and the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award. She was conferred the title of 'Bharata Kalai Sudar' in 2006. == References ==

EADS HC-144 Ocean Sentry

The EADS HC-144 Ocean Sentry is a medium-range, twin-engined turboprop aircraft used by the United States Coast Guard in the search-and-rescue and maritime patrol missions. Based on the Airbus Military CN-235, it was procured as a "Medium Range Surveillance Aircraft." The HC-144 is supplied by Airbus Group, Inc, formerly EADS North America, and is built in Spain by Airbus Military.

The EADS HC-144 Ocean Sentry is a medium-range, twin-engined turboprop aircraft used by the United States Coast Guard in the search-and-rescue and maritime patrol missions. Based on the Airbus Military CN-235, it was procured as a "Medium Range Surveillance Aircraft." The HC-144 is supplied by Airbus Group, Inc, formerly EADS North America, and is built in Spain by Airbus Military. Design and development Intended to replace the Dassault HU-25 Guardian jet, the HC-144A Ocean Sentry is part of the Coast Guard's Integrated Deepwater System Program of recapitalization and new-asset acquisition. Based on the CN-235-300 MP Persuader, the maritime patrol version of the CN-235 military transport, the HC-144 offers a longer endurance than the HU-25 it is replacing in U.S. Coast Guard service, as well as better performance in the low-level observation role.The HC-144A has an eight-hour endurance, which makes it suited for the command and control and search and rescue roles. Its rear ramp provides for transport of standard cargo pallets. It also features short takeoff and landing capability. Systems The HC-144A uses electronic systems on the Mission System Pallet roll-on, roll-off electronics suite from Lockheed Martin, that connects to the aircraft's systems upon installation. The HC-144A's equipment is similar to the Coast Guard's HC-130 aircraft, which reduces maintenance and training costs. Operational history The first HC-144 was delivered to the U.S. Coast Guard in December 2006. Initial Operational Capability (IOC) was achieved in April 2009; thirteen Ocean Sentry aircraft were operational with the Coast Guard in January 2011. A total of 36 aircraft were planned to be procured, with twelve Mission System Pallets being swapped between the operational aircraft.The HC-144A has been involved in several missions during its career, including involvement in the Marquis Cooper search-and-rescue mission, the response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, environmental missions monitoring the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, transporting endangered marine animals for rehabilitation, and being involved with Hurricane Sandy relief efforts. In June 2014, the Coast Guard's fleet of 17 HC-144s reached 50,000 flight hours, five years after achieving IOC. The Ocean Sentry is flown more hours per airframe in a year than any other Coast Guard aircraft.The 15th HC-144 was delivered in June 2013. The Coast Guard was considering supplementing the HC-144 with former Air Force C-27J Spartan aircraft. Budget strains have caused the service to reconsider acquiring a 36-plane fleet. Cancelling the remaining 18 to be manufactured and replacing them with up to 14 decommissioned C-27Js would save between $500–$800 million. Converting the Spartans to search-and-rescue aircraft would be faster and cheaper than funding and delivery of the full order. EADS responded by stating that the HC-144 is half as expensive to maintain and operate compared to the C-27J in terms of direct maintenance and fuel costs, calling into question the idea as a cost-saving measure. With the signing of the U.S. Defense Authorization Bill for Fiscal Year 2014 on 26 December 2013, the Coast Guard was given control of the 14 remaining C-27Js available. The 16th HC-144 was delivered on 22 January 2014, the 17th on 7 April 2014, and the 18th and final HC-144A was delivered on 7 October 2014.On 22 September 2017, a ceremony was held in Mobile, Alabama where Airbus and the Coast Guard celebrated the crafts' 100,000th hour of operation in service. The Coast Guard is only the third aircraft operator to reach 100,000 hours on this type aircraft, and the fastest to do so (only 8 years). Estimates are the type will reach 200,000 hours in Coast Guard service by 2022. Specifications Data from General characteristics Crew: six Length: 70 ft 3 in (21.41 m) Wingspan: 84 ft 8 in (25.81 m) Height: 26 ft 10 in (8.18 m) Wing area: 636 sq ft (59.1 m2) Empty weight: 21,605 lb (9,800 kg) Max takeoff weight: 36,380 lb (16,502 kg) Powerplant: 2 × General Electric CT7 turboprop, 1,870 shp (1,390 kW) eachPerformance Maximum speed: 272 mph (437 km/h, 236 kn) Range: 1,801 mi (2,898 km, 1,565 nmi) Endurance: 8.7 hours See also Related development CASA/IPTN CN-235 CASA C-295Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Alenia HC-27J Spartan References External links Airbus Military CN235 page US Coast Guard Acquisition Directorate page for HC-144A - broken link

List of sites and monuments in Morocco

This is a list of the national sites and monuments of cultural and historic value that are indexed by the Moroccan ministry of culture.The ministry classified the national sites and monuments in Morocco into two different lists. One list for monuments and another one for buildings.

This is a list of the national sites and monuments of cultural and historic value that are indexed by the Moroccan ministry of culture.The ministry classified the national sites and monuments in Morocco into two different lists. One list for monuments and another one for buildings. See also List of museums in Morocco == References ==

Heliades

In Greek mythology, the Heliades (Ancient Greek: Ἡλιάδες means 'daughters of the sun') also called Phaethontides (meaning "daughters of Phaethon") were the daughters of Helios and Clymene, an Oceanid nymph.

In Greek mythology, the Heliades (Ancient Greek: Ἡλιάδες means 'daughters of the sun') also called Phaethontides (meaning "daughters of Phaethon") were the daughters of Helios and Clymene, an Oceanid nymph. Names According to one version recorded by Hyginus, there were seven Heliades: Merope, Helie, Aegle, Lampetia, Phoebe, Aetheria and Dioxippe. Aeschylus's fragmentary Heliades names Phaethousa and Lampetia, who are otherwise called daughters of Neaera. A scholiast on the Odyssey gives their names as Phaethusa, Lampetia and Aegle. Mythology Their brother, Phaëthon, died after attempting to drive his father's chariot (the sun) across the sky. He was unable to control the horses and fell to his death (according to most accounts, Zeus struck his chariot with a thunderbolt to save the Earth from being set afire). The Heliades grieved for four months and the gods turned them into poplar trees and their tears into amber. According to some sources, their tears (amber) fell into the river Eridanus, in which Phaethon had fallen.According to Hyginus, the Heliades were turned to poplar trees because they yoked the chariot for their brother without their father Helios' permission. Notes References Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy translated by Way. A. S. Loeb Classical Library Volume 19. London: William Heinemann, 1913. Online version at theio.com Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy. Arthur S. Way. London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1913. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pliny the Elder, Pliny – Natural History, 10 volumes. Translated by Rackham, H.; Jones, W. H. S.; Eichholz, D. E. Loeb Classical Library. 1938–1962. Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Heliadae and Heliads" This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) External links Media related to Heliades at Wikimedia Commons HELIADES from The Theoi Project

Flounder Brewing

Flounder Brewing Company is a microbrewery in Hillsborough in Somerset County, New Jersey. Started by Jeremy Lees as a homebrewing hobby, it grew to encompass other members of the family including his brothers, Daniel and Michael, and his cousin William. The brewery opened to the public in October 2013, and was first sold to the public at the Fox and Hound Tavern in Lebanon, New Jersey. It was New Jersey's 12th Limited Brewery license and one of the first nano scale breweries in New Jersey, producing an estimated 50 barrels of beer per year.In June of 2021 the brewery moved operations to a renovated 250 year old Dutch Barn and 150 year old English Barn. The expansion included adding a 15 barrel brewhouse and now features a 100 person capacity tasting barn with mezzanine as well as two outdoor beer gardens.

Flounder Brewing Company is a microbrewery in Hillsborough in Somerset County, New Jersey. Started by Jeremy Lees as a homebrewing hobby, it grew to encompass other members of the family including his brothers, Daniel and Michael, and his cousin William. The brewery opened to the public in October 2013, and was first sold to the public at the Fox and Hound Tavern in Lebanon, New Jersey. It was New Jersey's 12th Limited Brewery license and one of the first nano scale breweries in New Jersey, producing an estimated 50 barrels of beer per year.In June of 2021 the brewery moved operations to a renovated 250 year old Dutch Barn and 150 year old English Barn. The expansion included adding a 15 barrel brewhouse and now features a 100 person capacity tasting barn with mezzanine as well as two outdoor beer gardens. Beers and other products Flounder Brewing best known for its signature Hill Street Honey Ale, an unfiltered American pale ale. Their other year round types are the Murky Brown, an American Brown Ale, and Saison du Flounder, a farmhouse ale. There are currently two seasonal releases in the rotation – Floundering Pumpkin in the fall based, a spiced pumpkin amber ale, and the Gingerbread Brown, a spiced brown winter ale. Licensing and associations Flounder has a limited brewery license from the New Jersey Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control, which allows it to produce up to 300,000 barrels of beer per year, to sell on-premises as part of a tour, and to distribute to wholesalers and at festivals. The brewery is a member of the Garden State Craft Brewers Guild and New Jersey Craft Beer Club. See also Alcohol laws of New Jersey Beer in New Jersey List of wineries, breweries, and distilleries in New Jersey == References ==

Church of St. Martin, Borschemich

The Church of St. Martin (German: Filialkirche St. Martinus) was a Roman Catholic church in the village of Borschemich, Erkelenz in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, dedicated to Saint Martin of Tours. It was built between 1906 and 1907 in the Gothic Revival style to designs of the architect Heinrich Renard. It took over the role from a medieval church which was located nearby, which was demolished upon completion of the new building. The church was deconsecrated in 2014, and it was demolished in February 2016 as part of the destruction of the entire village of Borschemich in order to make way for the Garzweiler surface mine. A new smaller church with the same dedication was built as its replacement in Neu-Borschemich between 2013 and 2015.

The Church of St. Martin (German: Filialkirche St. Martinus) was a Roman Catholic church in the village of Borschemich, Erkelenz in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, dedicated to Saint Martin of Tours. It was built between 1906 and 1907 in the Gothic Revival style to designs of the architect Heinrich Renard. It took over the role from a medieval church which was located nearby, which was demolished upon completion of the new building. The church was deconsecrated in 2014, and it was demolished in February 2016 as part of the destruction of the entire village of Borschemich in order to make way for the Garzweiler surface mine. A new smaller church with the same dedication was built as its replacement in Neu-Borschemich between 2013 and 2015. History The Church of St. Martin was built between 1906 and 1907 according to designs of the architect Heinrich Renard and under the direction of the contractor Max Sauer. It was blessed on 27 October 1907 by dean Hermann Josef Kamp from Erkelenz, on behalf of the Archbishop of Cologne, Anton Hubert Fischer. The church was consecrated in honour of Saint Martin of Tours on 9 October 1915 by the auxiliary bishop Peter Joseph Lausberg. The building took over the role of an earlier church, which was originally built in the 12th century, and was rebuilt in 1451 and renamed, extended and reconstructed in 1784. By the 19th century, the old church was insufficient, and it was demolished after the completion of the new church building The church was built out of brick, and it had a single aisle with three bays in the nave, behind which was a triumphal arch and a choir. It had arched groin vaults. The three-storey bell tower was 35 m (115 ft) high, and it stood at the southern corner of the church. The building had a capacity of 150 people seated and 100 standing. The church suffered some damage in 1945 during World War II, but it was repaired in 1950. A comprehensive renovation of both the exterior and interior was undertaken in 1982. Deconsecration and demolition The village of Borschemich was on the planned route for the extension of the Garzweiler surface mine, a large lignite mine operated by the company RWE. The entire village was therefore demolished in the 2010s, with the company building a new settlement known as Neu-Borschemich as its replacement. RWE purchased the Church of St. Martin in 2013, and it was deconsecrated on 23 November 2014. The village's other major landmark, the Haus Paland, was demolished in 2015. Demolition of the church began at 10:00 am on 15 February 2016. The sacristy was demolished first, followed by the sanctuary. The tower was demolished a few days later. See also Church of St. Lambertus, Immerath Church of Heilig Kreuz, Keyenberg Church of St. Simon and Judas Thaddäus, Otzenrath References External links Media related to Saint Martin Church (Borschemich) at Wikimedia Commons

Rita Panicker

Rita Panicker Pinto is the founder and director of Butterflies India.

Rita Panicker Pinto is the founder and director of Butterflies India. Early life and career Panicker received her undergraduate degree in English literature from Fatima Matha College, Kollam. In 1976 she earned her master's degree in Social Welfare Administration from the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. Later she finished her studies with a Masters in Development Studies from the Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, Netherlands in 1982.She has been a faculty member in the Women's Studies Unit, at The Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. While in Mumbai, Panicker was also the Founder of MASHAL – Maharashtra Association for Social Housing. Between 1988 and 1992, Panicker held the position of Director at the Board of ChildHope, which is a global organization dedicated to addressing the needs and concerns of working and street children. In 1990 she was appointed Consultant to UNICEF New York and Nigeria to assist the UNICEF Nigeria office in formulating a national policy and programme for Children Especially in Difficult Circumstances (CEDC). Today this whole area is known as Child Protection. Ms. Panicker was also the vice chair of the Board of Family for Every Child, a global alliance of local civil society organisations working together to improve the lives of vulnerable children around the world. Engagement with street and working children Rita Panicker's work with children living on the streets began when she lived in Mumbai and taught at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences. She lived in the suburbs and took the train to the institute every day. While traveling she saw a number of children at the station and on the trains. She wanted to know who they were, so she met these children and spent time getting to know them. Their stories were like Bollywood scripts. Although Panicker knew that all of their stories were not true, their positive spirit, generosity, resilience, their whole take on life are lessons which inspired her.When she moved to Delhi with her husband Late Gerry Pinto after his job transfer to UNICEF Delhi, she decided to work with children on the streets. Panicker, along with Assistant Professor P. Nangia produced a report - "Situational Analysis of Study of Street and Working Children in Delhi" for UNICEF in 1988. It was the first study on the subject in the country and provided insight into the children's lives, and why they were on the streets. Her interest deepened and she decided to work with this group of children.Rita visited eleven organisations in India to understand the programmes that existed for street children. She met the founders of these organizations who shared what they had learned with her. The lessons she learned from this exposure was that the approach and strategies to work with these children had to be different from the conventional intervention of institutionalising them. She founded Butterflies, an organization dedicated to protect and empower children and guided with the core value and belief that it must be a democratic organisation and children's voices have to be listened to seriously. Even today children's participation in decision making processes is central to the work ethos at Butterflies’ which also believes that institutionalising children should be the last resort. Panicker, and everyone at Butterflies, advocates the importance of strengthening families and communities to protect and to take care of children. Families are the first line of defence for children and emphasis must be laid on supporting children to continue their schooling, and impart life skills education so that they can exit from generational poverty. Since its founding in 1989, her organization Butterflies has changed the lives of almost 45,000 children and reaches out to almost 5,000 children every day through several intervention programmes. Personal life A native of Kollam, Kerala in Southern India, Panicker was born to Achutan Kunjukrishna Panicker and G.Rugmini Panicker. An early influence was an aunt who ran a Sanskrit school for Adivasi children in Paripally, Kollam. Her husband Late Gerry Pinto was a program officer at UNICEF. The couple decided not to have children of their own and dedicated their lives to serve the society. Awards and recognition Recipient of the International Cooperative Innovation Award 2020 by the U.S. Overseas Cooperative Development Council Lifetime Achievement Award 2016 by the National Association of Professional Social Workers in India for her distinct contribution in the domain of child rights, especially street & working children at the 4th Indian Social Work Congress. Rita Panicker was honoured by Shri Amitabh Bachchan on the new Star Plus show Aaj Ki Raat Hai Zindagi in 2015 Vanitha Woman of the Year 2012 by the Malayala Manorama group. The award was instituted to acknowledge the work done by Malayali women to serve Indian society IGSSS Shrestha Puraskar, 2011, by the Indo Global Social Service Society in New Delhi for Panicker's pioneering work with street and working children. Nominated and a finalist for the 2009 Right Livelihood Award. Awarded the Zee Pehal Pioneering Personalities L. N. Goel Award in 2006. Awarded the Women of Social Work Excellence by the Manava Seva Dharma Samvardhani Charitable Trust for Social Service Consciousness, Chennai, on 27 February 2002. Children's Development Khazana started by her organization Butterflies in 2001 received the Second Prize in the 2006 Global Development Network Award for the Most Innovative Development Project. The Ramachandran - Ikeda Award 1999 was conferred on Panicker's organization Butterflies Books Co-authored a Study on Children in Conflict with Law-Children and Crime in India- Causes, Narratives and Interventions- published by Palgrave Macmillan Co-authored two Studies: "Situational Analysis of Street and Working Children in Delhi" and "Status of Children in Andaman and Nicobar Islands" Published several papers on child rights issues == References ==

La Pitoune

La Pitoune was a log flume ride at the Montreal's La Ronde amusement park. Its final year of operation was during the 2016 season.

La Pitoune was a log flume ride at the Montreal's La Ronde amusement park. Its final year of operation was during the 2016 season. History La Pitoune opened the same year as La Ronde, in 1967, and operated for 50 seasons. In May 2017, on what would have been its 50th anniversary, Six Flags announced the ride had reached the end of its useful life and would not reopen. During its final season in 2016, it was one of the original rides of La Ronde still operating. Only 5 original rides remain, with 3 still in operation: Joyeux Moussaillons, La Marche du Mille Pattes (previously Petites Montagnes Russes), Le Galopant, La Spirale. Six Flags has not yet announced what will replace the ride. In 2018, most of La Pitoune was dismantled. Ride experience After a first 180 degrees turn, riders entered a conveyor belt. At the end, riders followed the flume, which brought them back to almost ground level during a series of gentle falls and turns, and after another conveyor belt, riders ended their ride with the last chute. The ride was themed around the chasse-galerie, a popular French-Canadian tale. Notes References External links Official webpage

Phil Hine

Philip M. Hine is a British occultist and writer. He became known internationally through his written works Condensed Chaos, Prime Chaos, and Pseudonomicon, as well as several essays on the topics of chaos magic and Cthulhu Mythos magic. He has facilitated workshops and seminars on modern magical practice in America and Europe and contributed to a wide range of occult journals, having been most active from 1986 to 1996.

Philip M. Hine is a British occultist and writer. He became known internationally through his written works Condensed Chaos, Prime Chaos, and Pseudonomicon, as well as several essays on the topics of chaos magic and Cthulhu Mythos magic. He has facilitated workshops and seminars on modern magical practice in America and Europe and contributed to a wide range of occult journals, having been most active from 1986 to 1996. Early life Growing up in Blackpool, Hine became involved with chaos magic theory in West Yorkshire in the 1980s. This was after he "picked up the fabled white edition of Liber Null by Peter J. Carroll" at Sorcerer's Apprentice bookshop. During the early years of his studies of psychology and sociology he was influenced by the works of the Swiss psychiatrist C. G. Jung. Career Hine was a founder and co-editor of occult magazine Pagan News in partnership with Rodney Orpheus. Hine subsequently published a series of booklets on urban shamanism in the late 1980s. His earliest popular work was a small pamphlet which outlined a brief and simple definition of magic, a brief history of the school of practice called chaos magic, and an outline of some of its basic approaches, which presented a number of simple techniques. This was followed in 1993 by Prime Chaos, which focused on the construction and uses of more formalised ritual techniques In 1995, he expanded his earlier pamphlet under the same title, Condensed Chaos. This book focuses on the basic techniques and the style of doing magic that has become associated with chaos magic. It has been described by William S. Burroughs as "the most concise statement of the logic of modern magic". Views Hine finds that the definition of "black magic" has been convoluted by people who define practices that they disapprove of as "black magic". Personal life As of 1997 he resides in South London.Hine is bisexual. Bibliography Books Walking Between The Worlds (PDF). Techniques of Modern Shamanism. Vol. 1. Pagan News Publications. 1986. Two Worlds & Inbetween (PDF). Techniques of Modern Shamanism. Vol. 2. Pagan News Publications. 1989a. Touched By Fire (PDF). Techniques of Modern Shamanism. Vol. 3. Pagan News Publications. 1989b. Chaos Servitors: A User Guide. Chaos International. 1991. Condensed Chaos. Chaos International. 1992. Prime Chaos. Chaos International. 1993. ISBN 978-0952132004. Condensed Chaos: An Introduction to Chaos Magic. New Falcon Publications. 1995. ISBN 1-56184-117-X. The Pseudonomicon. New Falcon Publications. 2004. ISBN 1-56184-195-1. Hine's Varieties: Chaos & Beyond. Original Falcon Press. 2019. ISBN 978-1-93515-076-3. As editor Starry Wisdom: Collected essays from the Esoteric Order of Dagon. Pagan News Publications. 1990. Hine, Phil; Orpheus, Rodney, eds. (2023). Delinquent Elementals: The Very Best Of Pagan News. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-1907222931. Contributions "Dark Entries". Starry Wisdom. Pagan News Publications. 1990. "The Physics of Evocation". The Nox Anthology. New World Publishing. 1990. "Bitter Venoms". A Taste of Things to Come. Revelations 23 Press. 1991. "Foreword". Chaos Ritual. Neptune Press. 1994. "Cthulhu Madness". The Starry Wisdom (2nd ed.). Creation Press. 1996. "Responses to Chaos Culture". Rebels & Devils. New Falcon Publications. 1996. "Riding the Serpent". Secrets of Western Tantra. New Falcon Publications. 1996. "Sexual Magick: A Chaos Perspective". Sex, Magick, Tantra & Tarot. New Falcon Publications. 1996. "Foreword". Chaotopia!: Magick & Ecstasy in the PandaemonAeon. Attractor. 1997. "Are You Illuminated?". The Book of Lies: the Disinformation Guide to Magick & the Occult. 2003. Articles Hine, Phil (2003). "Zimbu Xototl Time". Ashe Journal. 2 (3). Retrieved 4 December 2022. Hine, Phil (2003). "For the Love of God: Variations of the Vaisnava School of Krishna Devotion". Ashe Journal. 2 (4). Retrieved 4 December 2022. References External links Official website

July 1936 military uprising in Barcelona

The July 1936 military uprising in Barcelona was a military uprising in Barcelona, the capital and largest city of Catalonia, Spain on 19 July 1936 which contributed to the start of the Spanish Civil War. Most of the Spanish Army officers in the city supported the coup, but the Civil Guard, the Assault Guard (Guardia de Asalto) and the Mossos d'Esquadra remained loyal to the Republican government. Furthermore, Barcelona was one of the strongholds of the anarchist union, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT). The rebel troops were defeated after one day of bloody combat. The defeat of the military coup in Barcelona was a great success for the Republic, although after the defeat it became clear that the workers' militias – in particular, the anarcho-syndicalist militias – were the ones that really controlled the city.

The July 1936 military uprising in Barcelona was a military uprising in Barcelona, the capital and largest city of Catalonia, Spain on 19 July 1936 which contributed to the start of the Spanish Civil War. Most of the Spanish Army officers in the city supported the coup, but the Civil Guard, the Assault Guard (Guardia de Asalto) and the Mossos d'Esquadra remained loyal to the Republican government. Furthermore, Barcelona was one of the strongholds of the anarchist union, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT). The rebel troops were defeated after one day of bloody combat. The defeat of the military coup in Barcelona was a great success for the Republic, although after the defeat it became clear that the workers' militias – in particular, the anarcho-syndicalist militias – were the ones that really controlled the city. The coup attempt marked the beginning of the Spanish Revolution and also the beginning of a harsh repression in Catalonia against those suspected of being "fascist" or opposed to the revolution. Background On 17–18 July a part of the Spanish Army, led by a group of officers (among them the generals José Sanjurjo, Francisco Franco, Emilio Mola, Manuel Goded Llopis and Gonzalo Queipo de Llano), tried to overthrow the Popular Front government of the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish coup of July 1936. One of the main goals of the coup was to take control of the main cities of the country, among them Barcelona. Opposing forces In Barcelona, the plotters led by the General Fernández Burriel planned to use the troops of the garrisons in the periphery of the city, about 5000 men of the IV division of the Spanish Army in order to march towards the city center and join up in the Plaça de Catalunya. Then they would occupy the city and wait the arrival of General Goded. The general Llano de la Encomienda, commander of the IV division, stayed loyal to the government, but most of the officers supported the coup. Nevertheless, the Guardia Civil (Civil Guard) in Barcelona, led by General José Aranguren; the Guardia de Asalto; and the Catalan police, the Mossos d'Esquadra, led by Captain Frederic Escofet, (around 5000 men) remained loyal to the government. Also remaining loyal was El Prat air base, commanded by Colonel Felipe Díaz Sandino, whose planes bombed the rebel troops.On 18 July news about a rising of the Army of Africa in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco reached Barcelona, but the president of the Generalitat of Catalonia, Lluís Companys, refused to give weapons to the workers and ordered anarchists carrying weapons to be detained. Nevertheless, the CNT, led by Buenaventura Durruti and Francisco Ascaso, assaulted some army depots and the prison ship Uruguay, and started to make home-made grenades and improvised armoured cars. Furthermore, Assault Guards handed out rifles to the CNT. The fight in Barcelona On 19 July, during the early hours of the day, a few hundred civilian volunteers, chiefly Carlist requetés led by José Cunill, reported to various military quarters, mostly the San Andreu barracks. Before dawn at some four in the morning, the officers in the Pedralbes Barrack told their soldiers that the government had ordered them to crush an anarchist rising in Barcelona. The troops left the Barracks and marched towards the Plaça de Catalunya, through the Avinguda Diagonal. Soon after, Companys received the news of the troops advancing towards the city. At five in the morning, the Montesa cavalry regiment, the Santiago dragoons regiment and a battery of the 7th light Regiment left their barracks and marched towards the Plaça de Catalunya, but the deployment of troops was badly co-ordinated and the junction of the rebels columns was never achieved. The rebel troops were attacked by snipers and with home-made bombs. The anarchists built barricades with paving stones in order to block the city center, and the Guardia Civil and the Assault Guards joined them against the rebel troops. Some units were forced to retreat into their barracks and others never broke into the streets, but an infantry column, led by Major Lopez Amor, reached the Plaça de Catalunya and occupied the telephone exchange, and other units occupied the Hotel Colón and the Ritz and barricaded themselves. At 11 a.m., General Goded arrived from Mallorca, went to the captain-general's headquarters, and arrested the commander of the IV Division, General Llano de la Encomienda, but the situation of the rebel troops was hopeless. After bloody combats in the Plaça de Catalunya and other parts of the city, the anarchists and the loyal troops surrounded all the rebel-held buildings in the city. The Civil Guards, led by the Colonel Antonio Escobar, assaulted the Hotel Colón and the Ritz and the anarchists occupied the telephone exchange. After that, Goded surrendered and broadcast a statement over the radio to prevent further bloodshed. By nightfall, the rebel troops only held the Drassanes barracks, near the port and the Andreu barracks. The next morning the anarchists, led by Buenaventura Durruti, assaulted the barracks and the rebel troops surrendered. Ascaso died during the assault, but the CNT seized 30,000 rifles in the barracks. There were over 500 deaths and 3,000 wounded. Aftermath After the defeat of the coup in Barcelona, the CNT was the real power in the city until the May Days in 1937. After the coup, the CNT had 30,000 armed men and women in Barcelona, while the government had only 5000. Political implications After the failed uprising in Barcelona, the city was practically in the hands of the workers' militias, which had obtained the armament of the military arsenals and had a force of armed men far superior to the security forces with which both the Central Government as the Generalitat could count. Hugh Thomas believes that at the end of the military rebellion in Barcelona the security forces had 5,000 armed men, while the CNT-FAI had about 30,000 armed men. Thus, although the loyal forces had managed to defeat the insurgents, the reality was that the workers' movement had taken control of the city and had supplanted the authority and powers of Catalan government and Spanish State. Due to this situation, the same night of 20 July the anarchist leaders Juan García Oliver, Diego Abad de Santillán and Buenaventura Durruti visited Lluís Companys on the occasion of the new situation that had been created. Companys could have used the security forces to force the workers to return the rifles and ammunition they had confiscated, but he was in dangerous territory and preferred to offer the anarchists the possibility of taking power or collaborating with the state. The anarchist leaders, despite the historical experience of the liberal movement, opted for the second option, although the state would have a fairly limited role as would be demonstrated in the following months. From this meeting between Companys and the main anarchist leaders would come the creation of the Central Committee of Antifascist Militias of Catalonia (CCMA), which would be the real government in Barcelona for many months. This marked the beginning of what has become known as the Spanish Revolution.The situation would not be, far from it, consolidated and a large number of conflicts and confrontations would take place in the city during the following months, in an escalation that would end up leading to the May Days. The solid implementation of the control of the republican government over Barcelona allowed its counterintelligence agencies to significantly reduce the activities of the fifth column affects the rebel faction, as well as discover and arrest almost all the leaders of Falange that had survived the failed uprising. Repression and violence in the rear The officers and main leaders of the rebellion who had been arrested were initially taken to Castle of Montjuïc, where they remained until 26 July they were transferred to the prison ship Uruguay , in the city's port. During the time they were imprisoned on the prison ship, the prisoners were treated correctly: they were allowed to sit on the deck and read novels from the ship's library, however the provocative attitude of many of the detainees were grounds for the authorities to end these privileges. The officers involved in the conspiracy were tried in court martial by the republican authorities, aboard the Uruguay . The general Manuel Cardenal presided over the military tribunal that judged the rebellious officers. On August 11, Generals Goded and Fernández Burriel were tried for having directed the military rebellion, condemned to death and shot the next day in the moat of Montjuic Castle. The general Legorburu would also end up being executed A few days later, on August 26, after being tried in court martial, other ringleaders of the rebellion were also shot: the Infantry commander López-Amor, and the captains López Belda, López Varela and Lizcano de la Rosa. See also List of Spanish Republican military equipment of the Spanish Civil War List of Spanish Nationalist military equipment of the Spanish Civil War Notes References Bibliography Alpert, Michael (2013). The Republican Army in the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-32857-0. Alpert, Michael (2019). Franco and the Condor Legion: the Spanish Civil War in the Air. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78673-563-8. OCLC 1109829190. Beevor, Antony (2006). The Battle for Spain. The Spanish civil war, 1936-1939. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-303765-1. Cabanellas, Guillermo (1975). La guerra de los mil días: nacimiento, vida y muerte de la II República Española (in Spanish). Vol. 1. Buenos Aires: Heliasta. Preston, Paul (2013) [2011]. El Holocausto Español. Odio y Exterminio en la Guerra Civil y después (in Spanish). Barcelona: Debolsillo. Romero Salvadó, Francisco J. (2013). Historical dictionary of the Spanish Civil War. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-8009-2. OCLC 841033885. Thomas, Hugh (1976). Historia de la Guerra Civil Española (in Spanish). Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores. ISBN 9788497598323. Thomas, Hugh (2001). The Spanish Civil War. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-101161-5. Vallverdú i Martí, Robert (2014). La metamorfosi del carlisme català: del "Déu, Pàtria i Rei" a l'Assamblea de Catalunya (1936-1975) (in Catalan). Barcelona: Ediciones Montserrat.

Waǵay

Wáǵay (Pashto: وږی), is the name of the sixth month of the Afghan calendar. It occurs in the late summer season (from August 22/23 to September 21/22) and contains 31 days. Wáǵay corresponds with the tropical Zodiac sign Virgo. Wáǵay literally means "virgin" in Pashto.

Wáǵay (Pashto: وږی), is the name of the sixth month of the Afghan calendar. It occurs in the late summer season (from August 22/23 to September 21/22) and contains 31 days. Wáǵay corresponds with the tropical Zodiac sign Virgo. Wáǵay literally means "virgin" in Pashto. Observances Independence Day of Ukraine - 2 Waǵay Independence Day (Malaysia) - 9 Waǵay Victory over Japan Day - 11 Waǵay Martyrs' Day (Afghanistan) - 18 Wagay Mexican Independence Day and Malaysia Day - 25 Waǵay United States Air Force Day and Chilean Independence Day - 27-28 Waǵay Chilean Army Day - 28-29 Waǵay == References ==

Superman/Batman: Apocalypse

Superman/Batman: Apocalypse is a 2010 American animated superhero film based on the Superman/Batman comic book storyline "The Supergirl from Krypton" and is a standalone sequel to Superman/Batman: Public Enemies. The art style is partly based on that of Michael Turner, who penciled the Superman/Batman comic book arc. Directed by Lauren Montgomery and released on September 28, 2010, by Warner Premiere and Warner Bros. Animation, it is the ninth film of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies. The film stars Andre Braugher, Kevin Conroy, Tim Daly and Summer Glau.

Superman/Batman: Apocalypse is a 2010 American animated superhero film based on the Superman/Batman comic book storyline "The Supergirl from Krypton" and is a standalone sequel to Superman/Batman: Public Enemies. The art style is partly based on that of Michael Turner, who penciled the Superman/Batman comic book arc. Directed by Lauren Montgomery and released on September 28, 2010, by Warner Premiere and Warner Bros. Animation, it is the ninth film of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies. The film stars Andre Braugher, Kevin Conroy, Tim Daly and Summer Glau. Despite the title, the film focuses primarily on Supergirl and Superman, with Batman playing a supporting role. The two-disc special edition and Blu-ray also includes an animated short featuring Green Arrow. Plot Weeks after the events that led to Lex Luthor's arrest, the impeachment of his presidency, and Superman and Batman's success in saving the world from a kryptonite meteor, a spaceship crash-lands in Gotham City Harbor, from which a young girl emerges. She inadvertently wreaks havoc with her powers until Superman arrives to correct the damage, allowing Batman to eventually expose her to Kryptonite which weakens and injures her mentally. With Superman's help, they discover the girl is Kara Zor-El, Superman's cousin, who has been in suspended animation for decades. While Superman welcomes Kara, teaches her English, and helps her adjust to Earth society, Batman remains suspicious, even considering the possibility of Kara being an enemy. Tipped off by Batman, Wonder Woman and Lyla ambush Kara and Clark Kent, Superman's alter ego, in a park and suggest they train Kara at Themyscira. Superman reluctantly agrees, but Batman and Wonder Woman advise Superman to steer clear of Kara, criticizing his care of her. On the desolate planet Apokolips, Darkseid learns of Kara's presence on Earth and orders Granny Goodness to have her brought to Apokolips as a possible leader for the Female Furies. Two months later, Batman and Superman are checking on Kara on Themyscira during a sparring match against Artemis. When Kara and Lyla sneak away for a swim, a horde of Doomsday clones arrives from Apokolips. Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, and the Amazons fight them until Superman vaporizes them with his heat vision. Batman, however, discovers Kara missing and Lyla dead, with Darkseid ordering the attack as a diversion to allow time for Granny to kidnap Kara. On Apokolips, Darkseid brainwashes her into becoming the captain of the Furies. Batman, Superman and Wonder Woman ask Big Barda to help them to Apokolips, to which she reluctantly agrees. There, Superman infiltrates Darkseid's palace while Wonder Woman and Barda enter the fighting arena, fighting Granny Goodness and the Female Furies. After a fight with Barda killing Stompa to save Wonder Woman, Granny and the other Furies are subdued. Separating himself from the others, Batman finds Darkseid's supply of Hell Spores, the source of the fire pits on Apokolips. Superman encounters Darkseid and discovers the brainwashed Kara. When he tries to bring her back to Earth, Kara refuses to go with him and upon attacking him, Darkseid orders her to kill Superman. Darkseid watches them fight until Batman confronts Darkseid and informs him that he has activated the Hell Spores, which will destroy Apokolips. He issues Darkseid an ultimatum: free Kara and promise to leave her alone, and Batman will deactivate the Spores. Superman defeats Kara, and Barda and Wonder Woman present Darkseid with the subdued Granny, whereupon Darkseid finally releases Kara, and the heroes leave Apokolips, bringing Kara back to Themyscira. Back on Earth, with their lives apparently normal again, Clark takes Kara to meet his adoptive parents in Smallville, but they are ambushed by Darkseid, who overwhelms Superman and launches him into space. Kara engages Darkseid in a lengthy battle and manages to hold her own, but he eventually gains the upper hand and knocks her unconscious. Before Darkseid can leave, Superman returns to Earth and reengages him, but Darkseid still does not relent and again overwhelms Superman with his Omega Beams. Kara recovers and uses Darkseid's Mother Box to send him into space. While Superman anticipates Darkseid's eventual return, Kara informs him that she changed the coordinates, leaving him frozen in space. Having saved her cousin's life and found her place on Earth, Kara decides to use her powers to fight for altruism; under the alias of Supergirl, and she is met with applause by Wonder Woman, the Amazons, and finally Batman. Superman and Supergirl fly to Metropolis together. Cast Kevin Conroy as Bruce Wayne / Batman Tim Daly as Kal-El/Clark Kent / Superman Summer Glau as Kara Zor-El / Supergirl Andre Braugher as Uxas / Darkseid Susan Eisenberg as Diana Prince / Wonder Woman Julianne Grossman as Big Barda Ed Asner as Granny Goodness Rachel Quaintance as Harbinger / Lyla Michaels, Artemis (uncredited) Salli Saffioti as Gilotina, Mad Harriet (uncredited) Andrea Romano as Stompa, News Anchor Vicki Vale (uncredited) Jim Ward as Radio DJ, Cop (uncredited) Dave B. Mitchell as Bearded Longshoreman Greg Alan Williams as Terrified Longshoreman John Cygan as Male Radio Caller, Gus (uncredited) April Winchell as Female Radio Caller 1, Treasure (uncredited) Tara Strong as Female Radio Caller 2, Lashina (uncredited)Notably, Daly, Conroy, Eisenberg and Asner all reprise their respective roles of Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, and Granny Goodness from the DC Animated Universe. Reception The World's Finest said that it was "not something I'll be coming back to any time soon," and specifically targeted Andre Braugher's performance of Darkseid as lacking in any presence. Batman-on-Film gave the film a D, the lowest grade they have given to a DC animated film.IGN gave the film a positive review with a score of 8 out of 10. The reviewer forgives the misleading title, recognising the story is all about "Supergirl of Krypton" and once you know what you're in for the story is not bad. Glau is praised for giving depth to what could have come across as a whiny beautiful teenager girl, and her story is a complete journey but unfortunately the other characters are not given much to do.The film earned $6,370,838 from domestic DVD sales and $1,883,591 from domestic Blu-ray sales, bringing its total domestic home video earnings to $8,254,429.The Blu-ray presentation received an overall score of 8 out of 10 from IGN. References External links Warner Bros. page DC page Superman/Batman: Apocalypse at IMDb Superman/Batman: Apocalypse at Rotten Tomatoes Superman/Batman: Apocalypse at The World's Finest

Eugene R. Black Sr.

Eugene Robert Black Sr. (May 1, 1898 – February 20, 1992) was an American banker who was president of the World Bank Group from 1949 to 1962. He was the eldest son of Eugene Robert Black I, who served as the sixth chairman of the Federal Reserve from 1933 to 1934, during the height of the Great Depression. However, his father did not use the "Sr." suffix; Gene's son (the third in line) became Eugene Robert Black Jr.

Eugene Robert Black Sr. (May 1, 1898 – February 20, 1992) was an American banker who was president of the World Bank Group from 1949 to 1962. He was the eldest son of Eugene Robert Black I, who served as the sixth chairman of the Federal Reserve from 1933 to 1934, during the height of the Great Depression. However, his father did not use the "Sr." suffix; Gene's son (the third in line) became Eugene Robert Black Jr. Life and career Black was born in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1898. He attended the University of Georgia, where he was a member of the Chi Phi Fraternity and the Phi Kappa Literary Society. Upon graduating with an A.B. in 1917, he enlisted in the United States Navy. During World War I, he was assigned to convoy duty in the North Atlantic.Upon leaving the Navy after the War, he joined the investment firm of Harris, Forbes, & Co. He worked as a traveling salesperson for the firm, selling bonds and meeting with bankers and investors. He opened the firm's first southern office in Atlanta and later became a partner in the firm.In 1933, he was hired by Chase National Bank to be their vice president. He went on to become the senior vice president of Chase National's investment portfolio.He became the executive director of the World Bank in 1947. When the Bank's President, John J. McCloy, resigned in 1949, Black, against his will, became the President of the Bank.While not joining in the anti-communist fervor following World War II, Black was concerned about the spread of communism and its impact on the spread of global capitalism. He believed that economic prosperity was an essential prerequisite for political freedom. Black had wanted to return to work for Chase National, but his personal commitment to the objectives of the World Bank overrode that desire, and he remained as President of the Bank.At the time of his departure from the World Bank, he had been President for 13 of its 16 years of existence, and the force of his personality and connection with every employee led to it being known as "Black's Bank".In 1963, the United States was considering pursuing a program to create a supersonic transport (SST) to rival the British and French Concorde. President Kennedy commissioned an outside review of the feasibility of a federally funded SST program. Black and Stanley Osborne, chairman of Olin Mathieson Chemical Corporation, led the commission. The review was completed in December 1963 and given to President Lyndon B. Johnson. The report recommended not pursuing a race against the Concorde and instead focusing the effort initially on building a test aircraft for research.From 1962 to 1968, Black was chairman of the Brookings Institution.President Johnson selected Black in 1966 to be Special Adviser to the President on Southeast Asian Social and Economic Development. In this position, Black was charged with organizing and establishing the Asian Development Bank. This was a task that Black was initially quite hesitant to undertake, but Johnson would not take no for an answer. To President Johnson, the creation of the ADB was an important step in securing Asian support or at least acquiescence for the War in Vietnam.Black also served on a number of boards for corporations and foundations. The University of Georgia Foundation named a fellowship in honor of him and his achievements. Princeton University awarded him an honorary Doctor of Laws degree in 1960. Black was Chair of the Peabody Awards Board of Jurors from 1967 to 1977. References External links A film clip "Longines Chronoscope with Eugene Black (April 21, 1952)" is available for viewing at the Internet Archive

54 (film)

54 is a 1998 American drama film written and directed by Mark Christopher. Its plot focuses on the rise and fall of Studio 54, a famous nightclub in New York City during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The film stars Ryan Phillippe, Salma Hayek, Neve Campbell, and Mike Myers. 54 was released in the United States on August 28, 1998, by Miramax. Prior to its release, the film was extensively reshot and recut, and then released to poor critical reaction but a somewhat respectable box office.

54 is a 1998 American drama film written and directed by Mark Christopher. Its plot focuses on the rise and fall of Studio 54, a famous nightclub in New York City during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The film stars Ryan Phillippe, Salma Hayek, Neve Campbell, and Mike Myers. 54 was released in the United States on August 28, 1998, by Miramax. Prior to its release, the film was extensively reshot and recut, and then released to poor critical reaction but a somewhat respectable box office. In 2008, a bootleg version of the director's cut was screened at Outfest, leading to interest for its release. In 2015, Christopher and Miramax premiered a new edit of the film at the Berlin International Film Festival, with 45 minutes of original material restored and 30 minutes of studio re-shoots removed. Plot Theatrical version In the summer of 1979, 19-year-old Irish-American filling station attendant Shane O'Shea lives in Jersey City, New Jersey with his widowed, conservative father Harlan and two younger sisters Grace and Kelly. Shane longs for a more glamorous life across the river in New York City's Manhattan, so one night, he talks his two friends into going to Studio 54, a disco nightclub. Once inside, Shane is exposed to the flashy, hedonistic world of 54, with unbridled alcohol, drugs, and open sex. Against his father’s wishes, Shane returns to 54 the next night and is hired by Steve as a busboy. Shane eventually moves out of his family's house in Jersey City after fighting with his father over his new job and moves in with Greg and Anita in Manhattan. After a short time bussing tables, Shane gets promoted to bartender with the help of a club regular Billie Auster, a customer who has a one-night stand with Shane. Shane's promotion causes tension with Greg as Greg feels that he didn't get the job because he wouldn't let Steve perform oral sex on him. Shane gains status and does an interview article/beefcake photo shoot for Interview Magazine, uses drugs, and sleeps with multiple women as he makes a name for himself. After a while, Shane begins to feel as if people only want him for sex. Shane’s fame also affects his relationships with his friends and family. Greg, who now deals drugs on the side for extra money, criticizes Shane for his conceited attitude on Christmas Eve and accuses him of trying to sleep with Anita after catching him making a pass at her once before at their apartment. Shane’s father Harlan, whom he hasn’t seen or spoken to since he moved to New York City, rejects him when he comes home to visit on Christmas Day after a female family friend who got into 54 one night informs Harlan that she saw Shane doing drugs there. However, Shane does experience some brief happiness during the holidays when he strikes up a short-lived romance with his celebrity crush (and fellow New Jerseyan) Julie Black, a soap opera starlet determined to succeed in the film industry. Shane discovers Julie with Roland Sachs, an agent that she plans to sleep with, causing Shane to reject her. In his anger, Shane gets into a fight with Steve. Steve fires Shane and has him thrown out of the club. Simultaneously, the FBI raids 54 and arrests Steve, as he’s been skimming money from the club’s nightly take. As Shane leaves 54 in disgrace, Julie passes by him, and they part ways but agree to remain friends. An epilogue reveals the fates of the main characters. Julie moves to Hollywood and gets a small part in a movie. Anita records a moderately successful album with Casablanca Records and Greg gets a job in construction after six months' probation for dealing drugs at 54. Shane works nights as a restaurant manager in Greenwich Village and takes business classes at NYU during the day. Steve is convicted and sentenced to 18 months in jail, causing 54 to close as a result; upon release, he is forced to sell 54 but remains as a consultant under the new management. Greg and Anita reunite at the newly reopened 54, where Steve is hosting a one-night welcome-back party for all of his old friends and employees after his release from prison. Ultimately, 54 closes permanently in 1986, and Steve dies of AIDS in 1989 at age 45. Director's cut additions The director's cut opens with a new narration of the movie's original opening as Shane is seen leaving 54 after being thrown out on New Year’s Eve. Shane’s narration from the theatrical version is eliminated. Shane is openly bisexual. In a moment of confusion, he kisses Greg in the VIP room on Christmas Eve. Shane then has sex with Anita in the ladies’ room after she and Greg have a fight. Anita sees Steve watching them. She hits Shane in the stomach and runs out of the ladies' room in shame. When Shane runs low on cash due to his numerous debts, Greg lets him in on his drug-dealing operation. Shane steals some of Steve's skimmed cash as capital and repays it on New Year's Eve. Greg eventually agrees to let Steve perform oral sex on him for the bartender job, but Steve says he'd rather watch Greg and Anita have sex instead, as he did on Christmas Eve. Greg goes to the cloakroom to confront Anita and sees her hugging Shane. Greg gets into a fistfight with Shane. Shane freebases cocaine to ease his emotional pain. After Greg and Anita reconcile following her interrupted debut performance, Anita leaves with Billie for a photo op. Shane discovers G-men raiding Steve’s office and runs back upstairs to warn Greg, but Greg ignores him. Greg then runs to get his things from his locker when he sees Shane being thrown out of the club, but discovers that a G-man has already beat him to it and has found his drugs. After Shane is thrown out of 54, he sees Greg running up behind him. Shane offers him his garbage bag cloak, and Greg begrudgingly accepts. Anita runs to them in a fancy fur coat and cloaks Greg in it with her as they both depart. Greg calls for Shane to come along with them, just as Julie pulls up alongside in her limousine and offers Shane a ride. Shane declines and leaves with Greg and Anita, the three of them staying together as a family instead of drifting apart. Cast Production Based on two short films Mark Christopher made, Miramax Films persuaded Christopher to direct the full-length feature about Studio 54. He had spent five years researching the club and the time period while working on a screenplay. Miramax purchased a partial screenplay in 1995 and developed the script with the filmmaker for over a year.Christopher shot the film in Toronto over two months in the fall of 1997. However, studio head Harvey Weinstein and Christopher differed on their respective visions of the film. Christopher intended for the film to capture Studio 54’s notoriety as “the epicenter of the gay cultural explosion in New York City," and wanted the story to be told from the perspective of "Shane, a kid from New Jersey who sleeps his way to the top of the 54 pecking order, which means that he becomes one of the shirtless bartenders for which the club was notorious, golden boys who flexed and preened for the clientele of both sexes, occasionally deigning to grant sexual favors in return for money and drugs". Conversely, Weinstein wanted a more commercial film in the vein of Saturday Night Fever, with its gay storyline removed.Weinstein screen tested Christopher’s cut of the film on Long Island in early 1998. Audiences at this screening reacted negatively to the lead character's bisexuality, particularly to a scene where Shane and Greg kiss as well as the happy ending for both characters and Anita. Miramax subsequently requested the film remove any suggestions of bisexuality. The post-production process was a troubled one, with Weinstein hiring a second writing team to flesh out new scenes that play up a romance between Shane and Julie. Christopher was not allowed in the editing room, and though he agreed to shoot the new scenes after initial resistance, he did not get to see the final cut. Reception and legacy 54 opened at #4 in its opening weekend (August 28–30, 1998) with $6,611,532 behind Blade, There's Something About Mary, and Saving Private Ryan. Studio cut The studio cut of the film received almost universally poor reviews but was a modest commercial success, grossing $16 million on an estimated budget of $13 million. Mike Myers, in his first serious dramatic role, garnered some of the film's only positive word-of-mouth. The role was Myers’ only foray into drama until 2009's Inglourious Basterds and 2018's Bohemian Rhapsody. Though some critics noted Christopher manages to “[re-create] the club’s playfully subversive physical details: the glitter confetti and giant silver man-in-the-moon cokehead mobile, the VIP room hidden in the dank basement”, many were particularly disappointed with the film's fictional characters and storyline, believing that Studio 54's notorious, real-life past should have been explored with better detail and more realism.On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 15%, based on 67 reviews, and an average rating of 4.10/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Robbed of its integral LGBTQ themes, 54 is a compromised and disjointed glance at the glory days of disco". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale.The 1998 film was nominated for two Razzie Awards, including Worst Actor for Ryan Phillippe and Worst Supporting Actress for Ellen Albertini Dow. Neve Campbell was nominated for Worst Supporting Actress (also for Wild Things) at the 1998 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards. Director’s cut In the years after the theatrical cut's release, a bootleg VHS version of the two-hour-long rough cut began circulating. Strong word of mouth and support led to New York LGBTQ film festival Outfest screening the rough cut to a sold-out crowd in 2008. Christopher and his co-producer Jonathan King had been lobbying Miramax for years to allow them to remaster the director's cut for DVD. In 2014, the filmmakers received the greenlight to make 54: The Director's Cut from Zanne Devine, Miramax's then-VP of production. They completed the film in time for a screening in the Panorama section at the 65th Berlin International Film Festival in February 2015. The 105 minute-long cut included 44 minutes of restored footage, with all but a few seconds of the studio-dictated re-shot footage jettisoned.The director's cut has received a much more positive critical response, and the film has a huge cult following among the LGBT community. Of 54: The Director's Cut, critic Louis Jordan wrote, "Driven by character and atmosphere rather than soapy plot, Christopher’s film is permeated by a melancholy that adds depth to the ecstatic party scenes. Mike Myers nails the pathos and charm behind Rubell’s luded-out lechery, while Phillippe’s measured performance, finally given space to breathe, is vulnerable, amoral, and sexy. There are no easy heroes or villains in this 54, only people looking for something they’ll likely never find." Home media A 2012 Blu-ray release features several additional and alternate scenes that were not included in the theatrical release. This extended cut runs 100 minutes, eight minutes of which are not in the studio's 92-minute release. Miramax and Lionsgate Home Entertainment released 54: The Director's Cut in digital HD on streaming video providers on June 2, 2015. A Blu-ray version of this cut was released in 2016. References Bibliography Biskind, Peter (2004). Down and Dirty Pictures: Miramax, Sundance, and the Rise of Independent Film. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86258-3. External links 54 at IMDb 54 at AllMovie 54 at Box Office Mojo 54 at Rotten Tomatoes Official trailer

Gustav Hilger

Gustav Arthur Hilger (September 11, 1886 – July 27, 1965) was a German diplomat and expert on the Soviet Union. He was best known for his role in German–Soviet relations during the interwar period as a counselor at the German embassy in Moscow. After World War II, he advised the United States and the West German governments on Soviet issues. Hilger worked under the CIA aliases Stephen H. Holcomb and Arthur T. Latter. Joseph Stalin said of Hilger: "German heads of state and German ambassadors to Moscow came and went - but Gustav Hilger remained".

Gustav Arthur Hilger (September 11, 1886 – July 27, 1965) was a German diplomat and expert on the Soviet Union. He was best known for his role in German–Soviet relations during the interwar period as a counselor at the German embassy in Moscow. After World War II, he advised the United States and the West German governments on Soviet issues. Hilger worked under the CIA aliases Stephen H. Holcomb and Arthur T. Latter. Joseph Stalin said of Hilger: "German heads of state and German ambassadors to Moscow came and went - but Gustav Hilger remained". Life Born in Moscow, the son of a German businessman, Hilger spent most of his life in Russia until 1941. After World War I and the Russian Civil War, Hilger advocated German rapprochement with the Soviet Union and helped negotiate closer economic ties and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In 1941, he warned Adolf Hitler and German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop against invading the Soviet Union but to no effect. After Operation Barbarossa, Hilger was expelled from Russia and returned to Berlin, where he served as a deputy to Ribbentrop in the German Foreign Office. Responsible for advising Ribbentrop on eastern issues, Hilger received activity reports of the Einsatzgruppen from the Reich Security Main Office and was aware of the Holocaust in the East.In 1945, Hilger surrendered himself to allied occupation officials in Salzburg. He was brought to a secret military interrogation camp in Fort Hunt, Virginia, where US Army Intelligence interrogated him, along with other captured German military and civilian officials. American intelligence officials considered Hilger's knowledge of the Soviet Union and German wartime activities in Eastern Europe to be valuable. In 1946, Hilger returned to Germany as an analyst for the Gehlen Organization, the intelligence agency of the American occupation zone in Germany. In 1948, with the help of Carmel Offie and George Kennan, Hilger and his wife moved to Washington, DC, where he consulted for the State Department and the Office of Policy Coordination.In 1953, he published The Incompatible Allies: A Memoir-History of German–Soviet Relations, 1918–1941 with support from the Russian Research Center of Harvard University.Having acted as an unofficial envoy of Konrad Adenauer in Washington, Hilger returned in 1953 to West Germany, where he was a Counselor at the Foreign Office in Bonn until he retired in 1956. He then received a full pension for continuous civil service from 1923 to 1956. Hilger was awarded the Federal Cross of Merit in 1957, and he continued to provide informal advice to West German and American officials until his death in 1965. Although Hilger was never prosecuted for war crimes or atrocities committed under the Third Reich, controversy has surrounded his complicity in the activities of the Foreign Office during the Nazi period and his postwar employment by the US and the West German governments. == References ==

Bakutsuri Bar Hunter

Bakutsuri Bar Hunter (爆釣バーハンター, Bakutsuri Bā Hantā, "Big Catch Bar Hunter") is a Japanese media franchise created by Bandai, Shogakukan, Studio Gallop, and Toei Animation. It consists of a toy line that started releasing on March 17, 2018, a Nintendo 3DS game, a manga series and an anime television series.

Bakutsuri Bar Hunter (爆釣バーハンター, Bakutsuri Bā Hantā, "Big Catch Bar Hunter") is a Japanese media franchise created by Bandai, Shogakukan, Studio Gallop, and Toei Animation. It consists of a toy line that started releasing on March 17, 2018, a Nintendo 3DS game, a manga series and an anime television series. Characters Totta Tachitsute (立津手 トッタ, Tachitsute Totta) Voiced by: Ryō Hirohashi Potepen (ポテペン) Voiced by: Yumi Uchiyama Kiba Samejima (鮫島 キバ) Voiced by: Mitsuki Saiga Shuwajirō (シュワ次郎) Voiced by: Kouta Nemoto Touma Tachtute (立津手トウマ, Tachtute Touma) Voiced by: Takeshi Kusao Tonpei Tachtute (立津手トンペイ, Tachtute Tonpei) Voiced by: Daisuke Sakaguchi Totta Mother (トッタの母) Voiced by: Umeka Shōji Media Anime An anime television series by Toei Animation and Studio Gallop aired from October 2, 2018. The opening theme is "Bakutsuri Soul", performed by SymaG and the ending theme is "Yūjō ZABOOOON!!", performed by Mikako Komatsu. Manga A manga series has been serialized in Shogakukan's CoroCoro Comic since March 15, 2018. Video game A Nintendo 3DS game was released in March 2018. It consists of a barcode camera and a fishing reel accessory called a Bakutsuri Bar Rod. The game itself is a free download from the Nintendo eShop. The player uses the barcode camera on a barcode to open a fishing spot, which allows them to fish for "bar soul" lifeforms. References External links Official website (in Japanese) Anime official website (in Japanese) Bakutsuri Bar Hunter (anime) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia

Titan Aircraft

Titan Aircraft is an aircraft kit manufacturer, located in Austinburg, Ohio. They produce kits for the Titan T-51 Mustang, which is a 3/4 scale replica of the P-51 Mustang and several versions of the Tornado ultralight/light-sport aircraft.

Titan Aircraft is an aircraft kit manufacturer, located in Austinburg, Ohio. They produce kits for the Titan T-51 Mustang, which is a 3/4 scale replica of the P-51 Mustang and several versions of the Tornado ultralight/light-sport aircraft. Aircraft produced References External links Titan Aircraft

Carneddau

The Carneddau (lit. 'the cairns'; Carneddau is a Welsh plural form, and is sometimes anglicised to Carnedds) are a group of mountains in Snowdonia, Wales. They include the largest contiguous areas of high ground (over 2,500 feet (760 m) or 3,000 feet (910 m) high) in Wales and England (although larger areas over 2,000 feet (610 m) are found in Northern England), as well as six or seven of the highest peaks in the country—the Fifteen Peaks. The range also encloses a number of lakes such as Llyn Cowlyd and Llyn Eigiau, and the Aber Falls waterfall. It is delimited by the Irish Sea to the north, the Conwy valley to the east, and by the A5 road from Betws-y-Coed to Bethesda to the south and west.

The Carneddau (lit. 'the cairns'; Carneddau is a Welsh plural form, and is sometimes anglicised to Carnedds) are a group of mountains in Snowdonia, Wales. They include the largest contiguous areas of high ground (over 2,500 feet (760 m) or 3,000 feet (910 m) high) in Wales and England (although larger areas over 2,000 feet (610 m) are found in Northern England), as well as six or seven of the highest peaks in the country—the Fifteen Peaks. The range also encloses a number of lakes such as Llyn Cowlyd and Llyn Eigiau, and the Aber Falls waterfall. It is delimited by the Irish Sea to the north, the Conwy valley to the east, and by the A5 road from Betws-y-Coed to Bethesda to the south and west. The area covers nearly 200 square kilometres (80 sq mi), about 10% of the area of Snowdonia. The area is bordered by three main roads—the A55 (to the north), the A5 to the south and the A470 to the east. Geology In common with much of Snowdonia, the rocks forming the Carneddau originated largely during the Ordovician period between 485 and 444 Ma (million years ago). Principal among these are the mudstones and sandstones of the Arenig (478-470 Ma) to Caradoc age (459-449 Ma) Nant Ffrancon Subgroup and the tuffs etc. of the Caradoc age Llewelyn Volcanic Group. These are overlain by the sandstones, siltstones, tuffs and tuffites of the Cwm Eigiau Formation. Within the Nant Ffrancon sequence are a variety of igneous intrusions and the lavas and tuffs of the Foel Fras Volcanic Complex. The complex geology results from the plate tectonic processes taking place during the Caledonian orogeny involving continental landmasses on either side of the Iapetus Ocean moving together and colliding over a protracted period. Over time, these mountains have been eroded by the weather and scoured by advancing and retreating ice sheets. The Carneddau were formed in this way and consist of volcanic and sedimentary rock. The last ice sheet retreated about 10,000 years ago. It left behind a landscape of smooth summits above erratic boulders and scree at the foot of cliffs on the eastern side of the mountains, and moraines that created shallow lakes in the cwms. History This area was first colonised in Neolithic times, when Stone Age farmers started clearing the native forests of oak and birch that covered all but the uppermost ridges and summits. They were followed by Bronze Age people who cleared more forests and erected standing stones across the uplands. There are more than one thousand ancient monuments on the Carneddau estate (the land owned by the National Trust, which covers the Carneddau and the Glyderau ranges). The remains of circular stone huts dating back to this time have been found and the cairns on the mountain summits contain cremated human remains, presumably from prominent people of this time.On the north western slopes of Drosgl there are clusters of Iron Age huts and three cairns were built on the top of Moel Faban. This settlement endured for a thousand years, lasting until after the Romans arrived. There are other huts elsewhere and traces of field systems and numerous hill forts situated at strategic upland sites. The Romans subdued the area and built a road, Bwlch y Ddeufaen across the northern slopes of the Carneddau. After they left in 410, the land was controlled once again by Welsh princes who schemed and formed alliances among themselves. The clearance of the native forests continued and at one time goats were the main form of livestock. Their feral descendants are still found in the area today on the Glyderau. They were later followed by cattle and it was not till the 18th century desire for wool that sheep became numerous. By the thirteenth century, English ambitions were increasing under King Edward I of England in this part of Wales and the English castles encircled Snowdonia.The two highest mountains in the range are named Carnedd Llewellyn and Carnedd Dafydd after the thirteenth-century Prince of Wales, Llywelyn ap Iorwerth or Llywelyn the Great (1172-1240), and his grandson Prince Dafydd ap Gruffudd (1238-1283). It was in a bog in the northern foothills of Bera Mawr, at a place called Nanhysglain, that Prince Dafydd ap Gruffudd and his family were captured in June 1283. In October, Dafydd was executed at Shrewsbury by Edward I and this ended the seven-hundred-year rule of Gwynedd by the family descended from Cunedda Wledig and the end of independence for Wales. Legend Llyn Ogwen was reputed to be the place from which Sir Bedivere failed to draw King Arthur's sword Excalibur. Another legend has it that the two small lakes nestling below the towering cliffs to the east of Carnedd Llywelyn were haunted and that deformed fish with heads but no bodies lurked in their depths. A more recent legend records that the two great boulders known as the "Meini Gwynedd" near the summit of Carnedd Llywelyn were lifted there bodily in 1542 from the banks of one of these lakes. Henry VIII is said to have ordered the investigation of this claim and later proclaimed that it was true. Geography The Carneddau are the largest continuous stretch of mountain land over 2,500 feet in the country. They are not as rugged as the Snowdon massif or the Glyderau but are impressive nevertheless. Much of the higher ground is covered with rough grass and heather, with patches of shattered rocks. Pen-yr-Ole-Wen lies on the western edge of the range and dominates the Nant Ffrancon pass. To the northeast along the main Carneddau ridge is Carnedd Dafydd, then Carnedd Llewellyn and beyond are other lower summits. To the north and west of the ridge are mostly grassy slopes, while to the east there are some high cliffs, deep valleys and small lakes. The Carneddau range is home to the only population of wild horses in the United Kingdom.The peaks in the central Carnedd ridge are: Pen yr Ole Wen (978 metres, 3,209 ft) Carnedd Dafydd (1,044 metres, 3,425 ft) Carnedd Llewelyn (1,064 metres, 3,491 ft) Yr Elen (962 metres, 3,156 ft) Foel Grach (976 metres, 3,202 ft) Carnedd Gwenllian (926 metres, 3,038 ft) Foel-fras (942 metres, 3,091 ft)In September 2009 the peak referred to as Garnedd Uchaf was renamed Carnedd Gwenllian following a campaign by the Gwenllian Society to honour Princess Gwenllian, the daughter of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales. Flora and fauna The plants growing on the Carneddau need to be extremely hardy to withstand the snow, frosts, and gales they will encounter during the year and those found by sheltered streams in the valleys are very different from those clinging to crevices on windswept rocks. Sheep graze the mountains and impact the composition of the sward, nibbling out the most succulent young growth. Where the sheep are fenced out globe flowers, wood avens, angelica, red campion and roseroot can be found at lower elevations, along with ash, alder, hawthorn, holly and rowan. Higher up on scree there are Welsh poppies and in damp crevices under rocks the rare Wilson's filmy fern. Boggy areas support cotton grass, marsh orchid, sundew and bog asphodel. The better-drained rocky slopes have bilberry, ling, bell heather and cross-leaved heath and the summit ridge has prostrate dwarf willows, sedges, mosses and lichens.Until five hundred years ago, wolves and deer would have roamed the Carneddau. They have long gone, and, besides the ubiquitous sheep, there are now red foxes, moles, mice, a few pine martens (probably extinct), polecats, and an increasing number of otters. Birds breeding here include common buzzard, kestrel, merlin and peregrine, raven and chough. The rare ring ouzel, the wheatear and the stonechat are all at home here, as are the skylark and the meadow pipit. Common sandpipers nest beside the lakes, the rare twite inhabits the Nant Ffrancon Valley and dotterels are found passing through the upper slopes.Wild ponies roam the Carneddau, and a study of their DNA in 2012 revealed that they have been isolated as a breed for at least several hundred years. Numbers were severely reduced by the heavy snows of spring 2013. List of summits See also Carneddau ponies == References ==

Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden

Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden (KFBG) (Chinese: 嘉道理農場暨植物園), formerly known as Kadoorie Experimental and Extension Farm (嘉道理試驗及推廣農場), or Kadoorie Farm (嘉道理農場), was originally set up to aid poor farmers in the New Territories in Hong Kong. It later shifted its focus to promote biodiversity conservation in Hong Kong and south China, and greater environmental awareness. It is located near Pak Ngau Shek, encompassing Kwun Yam Shan in the central New Territories; The Farm was built in a valley with streams, woodlands and terraces in 1956 by the Kadoorie Agricultural Aid Association. Now it is managed to integrate nature conservation, including a rescue and rehabilitation programme for native animals, along with holistic education and practices in support of a transition to sustainable living. The farm attracts about 3000 to 5000 visitors per week.

Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden (KFBG) (Chinese: 嘉道理農場暨植物園), formerly known as Kadoorie Experimental and Extension Farm (嘉道理試驗及推廣農場), or Kadoorie Farm (嘉道理農場), was originally set up to aid poor farmers in the New Territories in Hong Kong. It later shifted its focus to promote biodiversity conservation in Hong Kong and south China, and greater environmental awareness. It is located near Pak Ngau Shek, encompassing Kwun Yam Shan in the central New Territories; The Farm was built in a valley with streams, woodlands and terraces in 1956 by the Kadoorie Agricultural Aid Association. Now it is managed to integrate nature conservation, including a rescue and rehabilitation programme for native animals, along with holistic education and practices in support of a transition to sustainable living. The farm attracts about 3000 to 5000 visitors per week. History The Kadoorie brothers, Lord Lawrence Kadoorie and Sir Horace Kadoorie, planted the seeds for Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden when they founded the Kadoorie Agricultural Aid Association in 1951. The aim of the association was to encourage the right mental outlook by helping people to help themselves through training, supply of agricultural inputs and interest-free loans. In 1956, the association established an experimental and extension farm at Pak Ngau Shek on the present site as a centre for demonstrating crop production and animal husbandry, improving livestock breeds and training local farmers and Hong Kong based Gurkha soldiers. Special breeds of pigs and chickens were developed which could cope with the local conditions. On 20 January 1995, the Legislative Council passed an ordinance that established the Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden Corporation. This opened the door for a new era of flora and fauna conservation, organic agriculture, creative education and a focus on sustainability in Hong Kong. Its mission is to harmonise our relationship with the environment. The chairman is Andrew McAulay (son of Ronald McAulay and nephew of Sir Michael Kadoorie); the executive director is Wander Meijer. Programmes Programmes run by KFBG's Education Department include tree planting, improving wildlife habitat, art and environment workshops, as well as outreach programmes for schools and the local community. Increasingly there is an emphasis on holistic education, encouraging visitors to explore their relationship with nature by artistic means, internal inquiry, mindfulness and compassion. Meanwhile, through its Sustainable Living & Agriculture Department KFBG works to support community transition by developing new and economically workable opportunities for all parties in the food system. KFBG is actively trying to reduce the ecological footprint of its own operations. KFBG has a range of biodiversity conservation programmes. Its Ecological Advisory Programme, launched in 1998, advises government, environmental NGOs, villagers, ecological consultants, academics and private developers, seeking to influence policy and practice in support of conservation. The Fauna and Flora Conservation Departments contribute through wildlife rescue work, ex-situ breeding and propagation programmes, and educational projects. KFBG seeks to integrate its multiple management objectives, for biodiversity, ecosystem services and holistic education, on its own 150-hectare estate. Conservation work has been extended to Mainland China since 1998. Following some pilot surveys in Guangdong and Guangxi in 1997, the KFBG China Programme launched a series of collaborative rapid biodiversity assessments in the nature reserves of Hainan, Guangxi and Guangdong, leading to a series of reports [1] highlighting the distribution, status and threats of the region's wildlife, focusing on vertebrates, plants, dragonflies, ants and some other groups. At the same time the Programme provided a communication platform among those involved in forest conservation in south China through its Living Forests magazine and website. Since 2000 the Programme's attention has gradually shifted to helping protected-areas authorities and communities with the conservation of key sites and species, especially in Hainan and Guangxi [2]. A particular focus has been the great tropical forest of Yinggeling, central Hainan, which is now a provincial Nature Reserve called the Yinggeling National Nature Reserve. Since 2003 KFBG has been involved with conserving the Hainan gibbon (Nomascus hainanus), thought to be the rarest ape in the world, at its last refuge at Hainan Bawangling National Nature Reserve. In 2011 the KFBG China Programme was renamed Kadoorie Conservation China. Facilities T.S. Woo Memorial Pavilion Signpost Corner Jim Ades Raptor Sanctuary Insect House Piers Jacobs Wildlife Sanctuary Reptile Lookout Pigsties Sun Garden Animal Exhibit Native Mammal Display Amphibian and Reptile House Wildlife Walkthrough Monkey Haven See also List of non-governmental organizations in the People's Republic of China Agriculture in Hong Kong Lions Nature Education Centre List of zoos Ocean Park Hong Kong References External links Official website A Partnership with the People: KAAA and Post-war Agricultural Hong Kong, Hong Kong Memory Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden - Illustrated guide for visitors. Living Forests magazine Kadoorie Conservation China's Weibo

Henry Cholmley

Sir Henry Cholmley (1609–1666) was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1641 and 1666. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War.

Sir Henry Cholmley (1609–1666) was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1641 and 1666. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War. Biography Cholmley was the second surviving son of Sir Richard Cholmley of Whitby and his first wife Susan Legard, daughter of John Legard, merchant of London and Ganton, Yorkshire. He was baptised on 2 February 1609. He entered Inner Temple in 1628. His father died in 1631, and he travelled abroad in 1633. In 1634, he was expelled from Inner Temple after the Christmas disorders. He was lieutenant-colonel of militia in Yorkshire by 1640.In January 1641, Cholmley was elected Member of Parliament for Malton in the Long Parliament. He was knighted on 27 December 1641 and was a J.P. for Yorkshire West Riding from 1642 to 1648. He supported the parliamentary cause and was colonel of foot in the parliamentary army from 1642 to 1644. He was commissioner for levying money for Yorkshire in 1643, commissioner for assessment for the North and West Ridings of Yorkshire from 1644 to 1648 and commissioner for the northern association (North and West Ridings) and commissioner for regulating excise in 1645. In 1646 he was commissioner for abuses in heraldry and commissioner for exclusion from sacrament. He was commissioner for scandalous offences in 1648 and also commissioner for militia in Yorkshire. He was colonel of foot in the parliamentary army and directed the siege of Pontefract. In December 1648 he was secluded from parliament under Pride's Purge.By the end of the interregnum, he had become a Royalist and supported Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax of Cameron, in overthrowing the military junta. He was arrested by order of the restored Rump Parliament on 18 February 1660 but three days later he returned to the House of Commons when the secluded Members were readmitted. He was commissioner for militia for Yorkshire from March 1660, a JP for Yorkshire and Westmorland from March to July 1660 and a JP for the North and West Ridings of Yorkshire from March 1660 to his death.In April 1660, Cholmley was elected MP for Appleby in the Convention Parliament. He was colonel of foot from June to October 1660, commissioner for oyer and terminer on the Northern circuit in July 1660 and commissioner for assessment for North and West Ridings from August 1660 to 1661. In 1661 he became commissioner for assessment for the North Riding and Deputy Lieutenant for North Riding until his death. In 1666 he was persuaded to deputise for his nephew, Sir Hugh Cholmley, in superintending harbour works at Tangier. However, the deputy governor, Henry Norwood, found his excessive zeal and uncontrollable temper intolerable. He died in Tangier a few months later and his body was brought home for burial in his private chapel at West Newton Grange on 30 June 1666. Family Cholmley married in about 1638 Lady Katharine Twisleton, widow of Sir George Twisleton, 1st Baronet of Barley, and daughter of Henry Stapleton of Wighill. They had two sons, Hugh (1642 – 7 January 1674) and Richard (15 September 1643 – before June 1672) and a daughter Henrietta Catherine (24 May 1645 – 25 June 1680) who married Sir John Tempest of Tong, Bracewell, Yorkshire and had issue. He was the brother of Sir Hugh Cholmeley, 1st Baronet. == References ==

Certosa di Bologna

The Certosa di Bologna is a former Carthusian monastery (or charterhouse) in Bologna, northern Italy, which was founded in 1334 and suppressed in 1797. In 1801 it became the city's Monumental Cemetery which would be much praised by Byron and others. In 1869 an Etruscan necropolis, which had been in use from the sixth to the third centuries BC, was discovered here. The Certosa is located just outside the walls of the city, near the Stadio Renato Dall'Ara, at the foot of the Monte della Guardia and the Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca.

The Certosa di Bologna is a former Carthusian monastery (or charterhouse) in Bologna, northern Italy, which was founded in 1334 and suppressed in 1797. In 1801 it became the city's Monumental Cemetery which would be much praised by Byron and others. In 1869 an Etruscan necropolis, which had been in use from the sixth to the third centuries BC, was discovered here. The Certosa is located just outside the walls of the city, near the Stadio Renato Dall'Ara, at the foot of the Monte della Guardia and the Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca. The church The church is dedicated to Saint Jerome (San Girolamo). The painting over the high altar is The Crucifixion by Bartolomeo Cesi; to the left is a Prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane and to the right a Deposition, also by Cesi. The wooden inlaid choir stalls were restored by Biagio De' Marchi in 1538 after a fire started by the Landsknechts of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. There is a series of large (450 x 350 cm) paintings of episodes from the life of Christ which were commissioned to Giovanni Andrea Sirani (Christ in the House of Simon, 1652), Elisabetta Sirani (The Baptism of Christ, 1658), Francesco Gessi (The Miraculous Draught of Fishes and The Expulsion from the Temple, 1645), Giovanni Maria Galli da Bibiena (The Ascension, 1651), Lorenzo Pasinelli (Entry into Jerusalem, 1657), Domenico Maria Canuti, and the Neapolitan Nunzio Rossi (Adoration of the Shepherds). There are paintings of several Carthusian martyrs including the Englishmen Blessed William Exmew, Blessed Thomas Johnson, Blessed Richard Bere, and Blessed Thomas Green. Other works by Antonio and Bartolomeo Vivarini, Ludovico and Agostino Carracci, in addition to Guercino, were taken to Paris by Napoleon, and when returned to Bologna were deposited in the Pinacoteca Nazionale. The cemetery The public cemetery was established in 1801 using the pre-existing structure of the Certosa di San Girolamo di Casara, founded in the middle of the 14th century that was closed by Napoleon in 1797. The passion of the local nobility and aristocracy for monumental family tombs transformed the Certosa in an "open-air museum," a stage of the Italian grand tour: it was visited by Byron, Dickens, Theodor Mommsen, and Stendhal. In particular the third cloister (or that of the chapel) is noteworthy: a tour of neoclassicism-inspired structures with symbology from the age of enlightenment. Some tombs are painted in tempera, others are made of stucco and scagliola. An aspect that distinguishes the Certosa of Bologna from other monumental cemeteries of Europe is derived from the complex articulation of its use of space. To the original convent nucleus were added lodges, rooms, and porticos that recreate glimpses of a setting that recalls the city of the "living". Even the porticoed eastern entrance of the cemetery, which is linked to the one that leads to the Sanctuary of San Luca with only a small break, creates continuity between necropolis and city. The discoveries from an Etruscan necropolis during archeological excavations organized by the engineer Antonio Zannoni, in order to extend the cemetery at the end of the 19th century, are now in the Civic Archeological Museum of Bologna. Tombs Among those buried in the Certosa are the following: Farinelli (1705–1782), singer Gaetano Gandolfi (1734–1802), painter, tomb Mauro Gandolfi (1764–1834), painter Giuseppina Gargano (1853-1939), opera singer Giuseppe Grabinski (1771–1843), Polish military officer Maria Dalle Donne (1778–1842), pioneer woman physician and professor of obstetrics Isabella Colbran (1785–1845), singer and wife of Gioacchino Rossini Letizia Murat (1802–1859), daughter of Joachim Murat, tomb Giuseppe Ferlini (1797–1870), tomb plunderer/treasure hunter Gioacchino Napoleone Pepoli (1825–1881), Italian senator Nicola Zanichelli (1819–1884), publisher Marco Minghetti (1818–1886), Italian prime minister Severino Ferrari (1856–1905), poet Giosuè Carducci (1835–1907), poet Alfieri Maserati (1887–1932), car manufacturer Ottorino Respighi (1879–1936), composer Edoardo Weber (1889–1945), engineer, tomb Assunta Viscardi (1890–1947), school teacher in the process of beatification Riccardo Stracciari (1875–1955), singer Giorgio Morandi (1890–1964), painter Bruno Saetti (1902–1984), painter Riccardo Bacchelli (1891–1985), novelist Ferruccio Lamborghini (1916–1993), industrialist Farpi Vignoli (1907–1997), sculptor Lucio Dalla (1943–2012), singer See also Monumental Cemetery of Staglieno, in Genoa Cimitero Monumentale di Milano External links Comune of Bologna [1]. Official website [2]. Certosa di Bologna at Find a Grave Link to the third cloister [3]. Link to the fallen during the resistance of World War II [4]. Link to fallen during World War I [5].

List of skeptical organizations

This is a list of notable organizations that promote or practice scientific skepticism.

This is a list of notable organizations that promote or practice scientific skepticism. See also Humanism Lists about skepticism List of books about skepticism List of secularist organizations List of skeptical conferences List of skeptical magazines List of skeptical podcasts List of notable skeptics Rationalism References External links CSI – International Network of Skeptical Organizations Somewhere To Think – Introduction portal to several thought-provoking groups around Australia and New Zealand

Aberarth – Carreg Wylan

Aberarth – Carreg Wylan is a Site of Special Scientific Interest in Ceredigion, west Wales. It is a small coastal marine protected area with a reported marine area of3.57 km2 and reported total area of 9.89 km2, which was designated in 1982 to conserve biodiversity, natural heritage, habitats, species or landscapes with legal protection, and to maintain key ecological functions. The management authority is the Countryside Council for Wales.The habitats listed for protection include reefs, shallow submerged sandbanks, and submerged or partly submerged sea caves. The human activities within the site include water sports such as swimming, surfing or windsurfing, kayaking or canoeing, scuba diving, walking, sailing, anchoring, grazing of domestic animals on salt pastures and scientific research.Marine species with protection status which are known from the site include the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena).Several extractive and non-extractive activities are regulated, and bivalve dredging is prohibited.

Aberarth – Carreg Wylan is a Site of Special Scientific Interest in Ceredigion, west Wales. It is a small coastal marine protected area with a reported marine area of3.57 km2 and reported total area of 9.89 km2, which was designated in 1982 to conserve biodiversity, natural heritage, habitats, species or landscapes with legal protection, and to maintain key ecological functions. The management authority is the Countryside Council for Wales.The habitats listed for protection include reefs, shallow submerged sandbanks, and submerged or partly submerged sea caves. The human activities within the site include water sports such as swimming, surfing or windsurfing, kayaking or canoeing, scuba diving, walking, sailing, anchoring, grazing of domestic animals on salt pastures and scientific research.Marine species with protection status which are known from the site include the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena).Several extractive and non-extractive activities are regulated, and bivalve dredging is prohibited. See also List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Ceredigion == References ==

Folke Bergman

Folke Bergman (29 August 1902 — 22 May 1946) was a Swedish explorer and archaeologist.

Folke Bergman (29 August 1902 — 22 May 1946) was a Swedish explorer and archaeologist. Biography Hans Folke Bergman was born at Klara parish in Stockholm, Sweden. He participated in the 1924–1926 excavations of Stora Torget in Visby. From 1929–1935, he participated in the Sino-Swedish Expedition as a member of the Sino-Swedish Northwest China Scientific Inspection Team led by Sven Hedin (1865-1952). He is best known for his discovery of the Xiaohe Tomb complex in Lop Nur, China during 1934. Another of his finds, the Juyan bamboo strips of the Han dynasty, zh:居延漢簡 (Inner Mongolia, 1930), is known for its transportation from Beiping to Hong Kong, then to the USA, and finally to Taiwan, in a preservation effort during the Sino-Japanese war. Literature Primary Folke Bergman: Archäologische Funde. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 1935, Gotha 1935, Seiten 292-293. Folke Bergman: Lou-Lan Wood-Carvings and Small Finds Discovered by Sven Hedin. In: Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 7 (1935), S. 71-144. Folke Bergman: Archaeological Researches in Sinkiang. Especially in the Lop-Nor Region. (Reports from the Scientific Expedition to the Northwestern Provinces of China under the Leadership of Dr. Sven Hedin / Scientific Expedition to the North-Western Provinces of China: Publication 7). Thule, Stockholm 1939 (englisch; das grundlegende Werk über die damaligen archäologischen Funde in der Wüste Lop Nor mit wichtigem Kartenmaterial; dieses Werk wurde erst um das Jahr 2000 in die chinesische Sprache übersetzt und ist dann für die chinesische Archäologie in Xinjiang bedeutsam geworden). Sven Hedin und Folke Bergman: History of an Expedition in Asia 1927–1935. Reports: Publication 24 - 4 : Part II 1928 - 1933 Statens Etnografiska Museum, Stockholm 1943. Sven Hedin und Folke Bergman: History of an Expedition in Asia 1927–1935. Reports: Publication 25: Part III 1933-1935, Statens Etnografiska Museum, Stockholm 1944. Folke Bergman: Travels and Archaeological Field-work in Mongolia and Sinkiang: a Diary of the Years 1927-1934. In: Sven Hedin und Folke Bergman: History of an Expedition in Asia 1927–1935. Part IV: 1933–1935. General reports, travels and field-work. (Reports: Publication 26.), Statens Etnografiska Museum, Stockholm 1945. Johannes Maringer und Folke Bergman: Contribution to the prehistory of Mongolia : A study of the prehistoric collections from inner Mongolia. (Reports: Publication 34 = 7, 7.) Thule, Stockholm 1950. Bo Sommarström: Archaeological researches in the Edsen-gol region, Inner Mongolia. Together with the catalogue prepared by Folke Bergman. Statens Etnografisk Museum, Stockholm 1956–1958. 2 Bde. (Reports … Publication 39. VII, 8–9.) Folke Bergman: The Kansu-Hohsi Corridor and the Suloho-Ochinaho drainage regions. (Reports: Publication 50 : 1, Geography ; 4, Sven Hedin Central Asia atlas : memoir on maps ; Vol. 3, Fasc. 3) Etnografiska Museet, The Sven Hedin Foundation, Stockholm 1980. Secondary Hedin, Sven: Central Asia atlas, Stockholm, Statens etnografiska museum, Stockholm 1966. In diesem Atlas sind die Reiserouten der Expeditionsteilnehmer eingetragen. Siehe dazu: Hedin, Sven: Zum Zentralasien-Atlas und Haack, Hermann: Sven Hedins Zentralasien-Atlas. In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, 87. Jahrgang 1941, Seite 1 bis 7, Verlag Justus Perthes, Gotha. V. H. Mair: The rediscovery and complete excavation of Ördek's Necropolis. In: Journal of Indo-European Studies 34, 2006, Heft 3/4, S. 273–318 (Grundlegender Grabungsbericht in englischer Sprache). Alfried Wieczorek und Christoph Lind: Ursprünge der Seidenstraße. Sensationelle Neufunde aus Xinjiang, China. Ausstellungskatalog der Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen, Mannheim. Theiss, Stuttgart 2007. ISBN 3-8062-2160-X (Neue Funde auf den Grabungsstätten von Folke Bergman.) Carter, T: Paper and block printing - from China to Europe., Seite 86. In: Crowley, D., Heyer, P., (Hrsg.): Communication in history: technology, culture, society. Pearson Allyn & Bacon, 2007. References External links 'Archaeological Researches in Sinkiang: Vol. 1,', Folke Bergman, Digital Silk Road Project, Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books

Robert M. Huffstutler

Robert M. Huffstutler was director of National Photographic Interpretation Center from February 1984 to January 1988.At the time of his appointment as director of NPIC, Huffstutler was a twenty-five year veteran of Central Intelligence Agency, and head of the intelligence directorate's Office of Soviet Analysis. He had served in Office of Strategic Research from 1967 to 1982.

Robert M. Huffstutler was director of National Photographic Interpretation Center from February 1984 to January 1988.At the time of his appointment as director of NPIC, Huffstutler was a twenty-five year veteran of Central Intelligence Agency, and head of the intelligence directorate's Office of Soviet Analysis. He had served in Office of Strategic Research from 1967 to 1982. Early life, and career Huffstutler received a BA in economics and an MA in international economics from the University of California at Berkeley. He also attended the Institute for Defense Analysis, University of Maryland and at the Royal College of Defense Studies, London, England. After completing his graduate degree in 1958, he joined the CIA as an international economist. Within a few months he was reassigned to work as a military force analyst in the office that was later designated the Office of Strategic Research (OSR) in the Directorate of Intelligence. Career In 1967, he was reassigned to the Strategic Defense Branch of OSR. From 1976 to 1978 he served as deputy director of the Office of Weapons Intelligence, and in late 1978 he became director of Strategic Research. In 1982, when the Directorate of Intelligence was reorganized, he became the director of Soviet Analysis. During his tenure as director of NPIC (February 1984 to January 1988), Huffstutler transformed imagery analysis with a large technical modernization program. He established the National Exploitation Laboratory to enhance imagery exploitation, launched a product quality improvement program, and implemented a new personnel system. In early 1988 Huffstutler returned to the CIA as deputy director for Administration; four years later he was named executive director. He retired from the CIA in 1994. Accolades Huffstutler was twice awarded the National Intelligence Distinguished Service Medal and holds two of CIA's Distinguished Intelligence Medals. In April 2003 he was inducted into the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) Hall of Fame, at which time he was cited for encouraging NPIC analysts to "push the threshold of imagery's contributions to tough intelligence issues." References Citations Sources

Detroit Beer Company

Detroit Beer Co. is a brewpub located on Broadway Street in downtown Detroit, Michigan, United States. Detroit Beer Co. opened in the fall of 2003 and is part of a trio of local breweries, including the Royal Oak Brewery (1995) and the Rochester Mills Beer Co. (1998). The Detroit Beer Co. was launched by Drew Ciora and Mike Pelsz, who purchased and renovated the historical Hartz building at a cost of $5.3 million. The Hartz Building was an early 20th-century surgical supply store and was renovated to accommodate a restaurant, brewery equipment, office space, and even a loft apartment. Within close proximity of both Comerica Park and Ford Field, is readily accessible for fans of those teams within the Motor City.

Detroit Beer Co. is a brewpub located on Broadway Street in downtown Detroit, Michigan, United States. Detroit Beer Co. opened in the fall of 2003 and is part of a trio of local breweries, including the Royal Oak Brewery (1995) and the Rochester Mills Beer Co. (1998). The Detroit Beer Co. was launched by Drew Ciora and Mike Pelsz, who purchased and renovated the historical Hartz building at a cost of $5.3 million. The Hartz Building was an early 20th-century surgical supply store and was renovated to accommodate a restaurant, brewery equipment, office space, and even a loft apartment. Within close proximity of both Comerica Park and Ford Field, is readily accessible for fans of those teams within the Motor City. History Significant to the development of Detroit Beer Co. is its location in Detroit, Michigan. The city of Detroit continues to work hard at its revival and renaissance begun in the 1990s and Detroit Beer Co. has become a part that revival, as well. Detroit Beer Co. is housed in the historic 100-year-old Hartz Building at 1529 Broadway Street; it is part of the Broadway Avenue Historic District located on a single block along Broadway Avenue between Gratiot and East Grand River. The Hartz building is in the center of a cultural and sporting spot in Detroit, with the Detroit Opera house standing across the street, and Comerica Park and Ford Field both short walks away. The six-story Hartz building was built in 1902; it was named after J. Frederick Hartz, who was Chairman of the Board of the J.F. Hartz Company, a medical and surgical supply company. Malcomson & Higginbotham, architects, 1902. J. Frederick Hartz, the namesake of this building, was Chairman of the board of the J.F. Hartz Company, suppliers of medical supplies and surgical instruments for physicians, nurses, hospitals and sick rooms. Malcomson and Higginson, architects, were issued the building permit for the construction of the building for Hartz. It was to cost an estimated $15,000. In the early 2000s the Hartz building underwent a complete renovation by Kraemer Design Group with the Detroit Beer Co. in mind; the building also has mixed-use functions. The Kraemer Design Group planned a brewery and pub in the basement, first and second floor, loft offices on the third, fourth and fifth, and finally a loft apartment on the sixth floor. While the renovations updated the building to fit the current surrounding locale, the historic character of the building was preserved and it is being considered for a listing on the National Register of Historic places. The Beer Detroit Beer Co. has an extensive selection of award winning ales and lagers that are brewed on-site. The brewhouse was constructed to fit the space requirements of the historic Hartz building; the basement houses four fermentation tanks. The design of the brewhouse, along with the sophisticated beer delivery system, permits the brewery to offer up to 8 house beers on tap at any time. The brewmaster, Kevin Rodger, oversees the brewery operation.Detroit Beer Co. has seven beers offered year round: Broadway Light, Detroit Lager, Detroit Red, Local 1529 IPA, and The Detroit Dwarf (named after the "Nain Rouge" dwarf who haunts the city and serves as a harbinger of doom), The People Mover Porter (named after Detroit's downtown public transportation system) and Steam Tunnel Stout. Awards The company's first award was won at the first annual Michigan Brewers Olympics in 2004. It is still on display behind the bar, even though nobody knows what it is anymore (it's the one with the king, holding a scepter and flanked by roller skates). Events included a race where contestants picked up a 55-pound bag of grain and ran 15 yards to a pallet and stacked it, 20 times, and then had to slam a can of Stroh's, a Keg toss, a quiz, and, finally, an obstacle course. At the Great American Beer Festival, the Detroit Dwarf took the bronze in the category of "Beer with Yeast" in 2004 and gold in the category "Düsseldorf Alt" in 2008. The Detroit Lager won bronze for "Bohemian Pilsener" in 2007. Head Brewer Justin Riopelle and Assistant Brewer Richard Chesstnutt took the bronze medal for Broadway Light in the American Cream Ale category in 2016.The Detroit Dwarf also took home the silver medal for "Düsseldorf Alt" at the World Beer Cup in 2010. At the World Expo of Beer, Lager holds a gold medal once again for "Bohemian Pilsener". A since discontinued brew, St. Brigid's Oatmeal Stout was awarded the gold for "Oatmeal Stout" at the Michigan Beer Cup in 2004. Le Nain Rouge The Detroit Dwarf actually has some historical significance. Its mascot, the Nain Rouge (French for "Red Dwarf") has been known as the mythical demon responsible for all of the hardships that have befallen the city of Detroit over the decades. The brew was given its namesake for the "devilish" hops flavor balanced by a red malty undertone, each characteristic of a German Alt-style beer. References External links Official website

Black Adam (soundtrack)

Black Adam (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) is the score album composed by Lorne Balfe, for the 2022 film Black Adam, based on the DC Comics character of the same name. The album features 43 tracks and was released by WaterTower Music on October 21, 2022,. It was preceded by two singles – Black Adam and the Justice Society's themes, released on September 30 and October 5, respectively.

Black Adam (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) is the score album composed by Lorne Balfe, for the 2022 film Black Adam, based on the DC Comics character of the same name. The album features 43 tracks and was released by WaterTower Music on October 21, 2022,. It was preceded by two singles – Black Adam and the Justice Society's themes, released on September 30 and October 5, respectively. Development The film marked Lorne Balfe's first composition for a live-action DC film and his first film in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) after previously writing additional music and assisting Hans Zimmer on Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight trilogy, and scoring The Lego Batman Movie (2017), an animated film based on the DC comics character Batman, although not a DCEU film. He also scored for Marvel Studios' Black Widow (2021), based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Balfe revealed the biggest thing that "uniquely appealed him" on Black Adam was the creative team involved — director Jaume Collet-Serra, producer Beau Flynn and executive producer Hiram Garcia — as he felt "you choose your projects because of the team, and not the scripts. Because the scripts change" and further added "I've been on films where the characters' names have changed, and the countries have changed. So, don't rely too much on that." They collaborated remotely through Zoom in the pre-production, due to COVID-19 pandemic.The score for Black Adam was mostly inspired from Dwayne Johnson's off-screen and on-screen persona, as his characterisation is also a "part of the theme". Balfe thought of a marching football team band, for writing the Black Adam theme, inspiring Johnson's early-days of his sports career as a football player. He knew a band music is quite difficult due to "becoming patriotic and old-fashioned", hence he wanted to feel it as "a commercial track that you literally feel that you've heard before", due to the nature of the fanfare. He wanted a high school marching band to produce that theme, but could not do so due to their school vacation. The Black Adam theme was originally a longer theme, and was much "overcomplicated", which Balfe altered it to suit the commercial sensibilities. Balfe described the theme as "a pop song sans the lyrics". He also created a father-son theme for Black Adam and his son.Balfe wanted each characters have their own themes, but after getting introduced to five other characters, he felt it as "complicated" and wanted it to look for a bigger arc, and as those individual characters were looked as part of the Society, "being a unit and working as a team", which resulted in the Justice Society theme. He said "I really wanted to try to make a theme for them that you felt was very nostalgic. [Like it] had been part of a TV show in the 1950s, for example. So it was very, very old-fashioned. It’s that pomp and circumstance, fanfare, very [Johannes] Brahms and [Edward] Elgar, but with a contemporary beat to it, so that the audience felt, “Oh, well, we know these characters” even though a lot won't."Balfe experimented with the score by "matching the epic-ness of an orchestra" with contemporary beats. The scoring session included large brass section, french hornes, trumpets, trombones, tubas, violins. Johnson had visited the recording sessions of the score at Eastwood Scoring Stage, saying " [It's very rare that] you get the stars and the producers wanting to come to recording sessions. He came, and it was his first ever recording session that he'd been to. It was fantastic. He went, and he talked to the orchestra, and they played the theme for him. That was very special, seeing that." Track listing Additional music In addition to Balfe's score, the other songs that are featured in the film, includes "Bullet with Butterfly Wings" by the Smashing Pumpkins, "Paint It Black" by the Rolling Stones, "Baby Come Back" by Player, "The Trio" from The Good, The Bad and The Ugly (1966) by Ennio Morricone, "Power" by Kanye West ft. Dwele and "Exile" by Eric Zayne. The latter, which was featured in the end credits, received positive response from fans. Johnson earlier asked Zayne, and fellow songwriters, Lauren Hashian (Johnson's wife) and Naz Tokio, to write the song " that was commensurate with the power and attitude of the character of Black Adam and people all over the world who refuse to be held down", and appreciated their work. A rendition of John Williams' Superman theme is played during the mid-credits scene, which Superman actor Henry Cavill said was selected over Hans Zimmer's Man of Steel theme because it was more recognizable to audiences. Reception Zanobard Reviews gave a mixed response for Black Adam score, saying "Lorne Balfe’s score for Black Adam is at least moderately entertaining, though I’m afraid to say I did also find it a little boring at times. The main reason for this is that to be honest, there’s not a whole lot the two hour soundtrack album here does that the two main theme tracks don’t simply cover in ten minutes [...] the two main themes of the score – Black Adam and Justice Society – play in almost deafeningly loud, thunderously grandiose and heroic form throughout their two thematic debut cues (to the point where they’re almost a little much at times), and while this is pretty enjoyable, they then essentially repeat in this form throughout the two hour soundtrack album, reprising in the same or very similar epic grandiose manner to that of the main theme tracks, without really building or growing, or progressing narratively in much if any way. The way you hear the themes in their debut tracks is the way they play across the entire album, which makes the score overall sadly just a bit… dull as a result."In a positive note, Jonathan Broxton wrote "Black Adam is another illustration of just what a good, reliable composer Lorne Balfe is becoming, continuing the trend he has shown over the past three or four years. It’s a score very much steeped in the modern action superhero genre, and anyone who has an aversion to that heavy sound, or to the electronic percussion and manipulation that is often found in films of the type, may find it not to their taste [...] the various elements that combine to make up the two main themes are excellent, both individually and together, and the creativity Balfe shows in his orchestration and his choral ideas is impressive. The energy levels are high throughout, and it avoids the trap of simply relying on basic drum loops and endless drones" and concluded "Overall, this is good stuff – perhaps a step down from Black Widow, but certainly good enough to recommend to anyone who enjoyed those previous efforts." == References ==

Santa Maria Nuova, Cortona

The church of Santa Maria Nuova is a Roman Catholic place of worship, located just outside the walls of the town of Cortona, in Tuscany, Italy.

The church of Santa Maria Nuova is a Roman Catholic place of worship, located just outside the walls of the town of Cortona, in Tuscany, Italy. Construction The church was built to house a miraculous image of the Blessed Virgin that previously had been in a private chapel. Construction was begun in 1550, and the church was consecrated in 1610. The original church design is attributed to Giorgio Vasari, and modified by Battista Cristoforo Fanelli. Nestled half-way up and against a hillside, the ground plan is a square, and the church is surmounted by a dome with a lantern, completed in 1600. Furnishings The high altar was completed by Cortonese artist Bernardino Radi. The altarpiece to the right of the entrance holds a painting by Alessandro Allori, depicting the Birth of the Virgin Mary (16th century). The rosette window on the facade was designed by Urbano Urbani (16th century) and depicts an Adoration of the Magi. == References ==

Shamsul Mulk

Shamsul Mulk, Ph.D., HI, is a Pakistani civil engineer and a Technocrat. Shamsul Mulk also served as the 24th Chief Minister of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Province under the Military Government of Chief of Army Staff General Pervez Musharraf. He also served as Chairman Water and Power Development Authority WAPDA of Pakistan. He was 3rd Chairperson of Board of Governors of Sustainable Development Policy Institute. He is a strong supporter for the construction of the Kalabagh Dam.

Shamsul Mulk, Ph.D., HI, is a Pakistani civil engineer and a Technocrat. Shamsul Mulk also served as the 24th Chief Minister of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Province under the Military Government of Chief of Army Staff General Pervez Musharraf. He also served as Chairman Water and Power Development Authority WAPDA of Pakistan. He was 3rd Chairperson of Board of Governors of Sustainable Development Policy Institute. He is a strong supporter for the construction of the Kalabagh Dam. Views on Kalabagh Dam He is considered as the most hardline supporter of Kalabagh Dam. He has indicated inter provinces prejudices as well as alleged foreign lobbies supporting anti-Kalabag dam movement in Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. He also argued that the worst floods in Noshera history in 1929 and 2010 flooded Noshera which denies the ANP fears of Noshera being flooded on construction of Kalabagh Dam. External links Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Provincial government Shamsul Mulk was the third Chairperson of SDPI Board of Governors WAPDA homepgae

E. R. Ward Neale

Ernest Richard Ward Neale, (July 3, 1923 – May 20, 2008) was a Canadian geologist. His scientific research contributed to the understanding of the large-scale structure of the northern Appalachian mountains of Atlantic Canada. Neale used his enthusiasm for geology to inform students and the general public about discoveries in his field through television, radio, pamphlets, booklets, news magazines, and the popular press. Neale worked with the Geological Survey of Canada and Memorial University of Newfoundland. He, along with John Rodgers of Yale University, were the first to recognize the transported oceanic sedimentary rocks that overlie ancient shelf deposits in western Newfoundland.

Ernest Richard Ward Neale, (July 3, 1923 – May 20, 2008) was a Canadian geologist. His scientific research contributed to the understanding of the large-scale structure of the northern Appalachian mountains of Atlantic Canada. Neale used his enthusiasm for geology to inform students and the general public about discoveries in his field through television, radio, pamphlets, booklets, news magazines, and the popular press. Neale worked with the Geological Survey of Canada and Memorial University of Newfoundland. He, along with John Rodgers of Yale University, were the first to recognize the transported oceanic sedimentary rocks that overlie ancient shelf deposits in western Newfoundland. Early life Neale was born in Beaconsfield, Québec in July 1923. He served in the Royal Canadian Navy during the Second World War between 1943 and 1945. After the war he went to study at McGill University, Montreal. He completed his BSc in 1949. In 1950, Ward married Roxie and they moved to New Haven, Connecticut so Ward could attend Yale University. There he obtained his MSc. (1951) and PhD (1952). Career Neale worked briefly as an assistant professor at the University of Rochester, New York, between 1952 and 1954. After that he went on to work for the Geological Survey of Canada. His first position was as to head the Appalachian Geology Section. Between 1963 and 1965, Neale served as the Commonwealth Geology Liaison Officer. When he returned he was given the responsibility to head the Precambrian Geology Section. In 1968, Neale left the Survey to become Professor and head of the Geology Department at Memorial University of Newfoundland. In 1972, he organized a Montreal-based symposium for the International Geological Congress on Geoscience Aid to developing Countries. This symposium led to the creation of the Association of Geoscientists for International Development. In 1976, Neale moved to Calgary as Head of the Geological Information Subdivision of the Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology. He retained his ties to academia whilst in Calgary by holding an adjunct position at the University of Calgary and acting on the University Senate. In 1982, Neale returned to Newfoundland to accept the position of Vice-President Academic of Memorial University. He held that position until retiring in 1987. After retirement, Ward and his wife moved to Calgary, Alberta. Other positions held 1972-1973, President of the Geological Association of Canada 1973-1978, Director of the Canadian Geological Foundation 1974-1980, Editor of the Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 1976, President of the Canadian Geoscience Council Chaired the Royal Society of Canada's Committee on Public Awareness of Science co-Founder of the Calgary Science Network 1989, Chair of the Calgary Science Network Honours and awards was a Fellow of the Geological Society of America for over 50 years was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada 1975, awarded the Bancroft Award by the Royal Society of Canada 1977, awarded an honorary degree from the University of Calgary 1977, awarded a Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal 1977, awarded the R. T. Bell Medal by the Canadian Mining Journal 1981, awarded a Distinguished Service Award by the Geological Association of Canada 1986, awarded the Ambrose Medal of the Geological Association of Canada 1990, made an Officer of the Order of Canada 1992, awarded the 125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal by the Government of Canada 1994, honored by the creation of the E. R. Ward Neale Medal by the Geological Association of Canada 2003, awarded an honorary award for a significant contribution to the field of education by the International Geoscience Education Organization References Neale's Obituary. Retrieved May 26, 2008. Memorial University of Newfoundland Gazette August 25, 1995. Retrieved May 26, 2008. Memorial University of Newfoundland Gazette June 19, 1997. Retrieved May 26, 2008. Geological Society of America 50+ years. Retrieved May 26, 2008. University of Calgary Honorary Degree List. Retrieved May 26, 2008. International Geoscience Education Organization. Retrieved May 26, 2008. External links The E.R. Ward Neale Medal

Lewis Watson, 1st Baron Sondes

Lewis Watson, 1st Baron Sondes (28 November 1728 – 30 March 1795), called Hon. Lewis Monson before 1746 and Hon. Lewis Watson from 1746 to 1760, was a British Whig politician and peer.

Lewis Watson, 1st Baron Sondes (28 November 1728 – 30 March 1795), called Hon. Lewis Monson before 1746 and Hon. Lewis Watson from 1746 to 1760, was a British Whig politician and peer. Biography Sondes was the second son of John Monson, 1st Baron Monson, and Lady Margaret Watson, youngest daughter of Lewis Watson, 1st Earl of Rockingham. He was educated at Westminster School between 1737 and 1745. He assumed the surname of Watson in 1746 after inheriting the estates of his cousin, Thomas Watson, 3rd Earl of Rockingham. Watson afterwards went on the Grand Tour with his second cousin the Earl of Malton (later Marquess of Rockingham) and his third cousin Thomas Pelham.While abroad in Europe in 1750, his third cousin once removed, the Duke of Newcastle, arranged for Watson to be returned in April as Member of Parliament for Boroughbridge in place of the Earl of Dalkeith, who had died. That autumn, the three kinsmen visited Hanover, where Newcastle presented them, together with Viscount Downe and three other young Englishmen, to George II of Great Britain, who was holding court in the Electorate. The king was not pleased and snubbed the party when they were presented. On 12 October 1752, he married his third cousin Grace Pelham (d. 30 July 1777), the third surviving daughter and co-heiress of Prime Minister Henry Pelham, Newcastle's brother. They had four sons: Lewis Watson, 2nd Baron Sondes (18 April 1754 – 21 June 1806). Rev. Hon. Henry Watson (20 April 1755 – 1 August 1833), rector of East Carlton and Kettering. Hon. Charles Watson (24 October 1761 – 16 April 1769). Hon. George Watson (1768–1824).In February 1754, his father-in-law procured for him the lucrative sinecure of auditor of the imprests, in succession to William Benson. The by-election that followed his appointment was not contested. In the 1754 general election that spring, Newcastle had him returned for Boroughbridge again; Watson also led the poll in Kent, where he and Robert Fairfax stood as Whigs and defeated Sir Edward Dering, one of the sitting Tory members. Watson chose to sit for Kent. However, he aspired to the House of Lords, as he enjoyed the estates of the extinct earldom of Rockingham and could well afford to support a title. Nor did he wish to stand for the county again. Newcastle pressed his claims strongly on the King, and was ultimately successful; Watson was created Baron Sondes, of Lees Court in the Peerage of Great Britain on 22 May 1760 and vacated his seat in the Commons. In 1785, the office of auditor of the imprests was abolished, and he received an annuity of £7,000 a year for life in compensation.He died on 30 March 1795 and was succeeded in his title by his eldest son, Lewis Watson. Sondes was buried at Rockingham, Northamptonshire. == References ==

Van's Aircraft

Van's Aircraft, Inc. is an American kit aircraft manufacturer founded by Richard "Van" VanGrunsven in 1973. The Van's RV series aircraft are all-aluminum, low-wing monoplanes of monocoque construction. In 2023, over 11,000 Van's aircraft were flying worldwide, one third of the USA's experimental aircraft fleet.The Van's Aircraft factory is located at Aurora State Airport, Oregon. The company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December 2023.

Van's Aircraft, Inc. is an American kit aircraft manufacturer founded by Richard "Van" VanGrunsven in 1973. The Van's RV series aircraft are all-aluminum, low-wing monoplanes of monocoque construction. In 2023, over 11,000 Van's aircraft were flying worldwide, one third of the USA's experimental aircraft fleet.The Van's Aircraft factory is located at Aurora State Airport, Oregon. The company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December 2023. History The company was founded by Richard "Van" VanGrunsven in 1973. In 2013, the company announced it would begin selling assembled RV-12 model aircraft as well on a limited basis.In December 2017, the company reported that its 10,000th aircraft had flown, an RV-7 built in Martinsburg, West Virginia.As of November 2019, about 10,600 RV kits had been completed and flown, and thousands more are under construction. Completion rates currently average about 1.5 per day, making the series the most numerous of all homebuilt aircraft.After announcing financial difficulties in October 2023, on December 4 2023 Van's filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Factors leading to the reorganization included corrosion issues (a "multi million" dollar problem), laser-cutting instead of punched parts (affecting 1800 kits), and kit pricing under the cost of production and shipping. Regulatory status RVs are deemed Experimental Amateur Built (EAB) aircraft by the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States and are accepted under the corresponding category by the aviation authorities in many other countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. A modified version of the RV-6 was sold to the Nigerian government as a kit-assembled military trainer. The RV-12iS is available as an experimental light sport aircraft (ELSA) or special light-sport aircraft (SLSA), which allows for commercial use for purposes like rental and flight training. RV aircraft series RV-1: single example of a modified Stits SA-3 Playboy built by VanGrunsven in 1965 and modified with a 125 hp (93 kW) Lycoming engine, larger tail, modified cowling, modified fuselage and a custom metal wing RV-2: wooden flying-wing sailplane prototype that was never completed RV-3: single-seat kit aircraft, aerobatic, debuted in 1972; genesis design for rest of the RV series RV-4: two-seat kit aircraft, tandem seating, aerobatic, bubble canopy RV-5: single example of a small metal single-seat aircraft that was originally flown with a half-Volkswagen engine and then with a two-stroke Rotax 447 engine RV-6: two-seat, side-by-side seating aircraft, aerobatic; the most-built model of the RV series and likely the most popular kitplane ever produced RV-7: modernized kit with similarity to the RV-6, with longer wingspan and larger rudder, aerobatic; replaced the RV-6 model RV-8: two-seat tandem seating, aerobatic aircraft, with larger cockpit and greater overall size than the RV-4 RV-9: two seat, side-by-side aircraft; non-aerobatic, with larger wing and more docile handling qualities than others in the RV line RV-10: largest of the RV fleet with four seats, non-aerobatic, tricycle landing gear only RV-11: single-seat motorglider; under development until c. 2012 RV-12: two-seat, side-by-side light-sport aircraft, updated to RV-12iS variant in 2017 RV-13: designation not used RV-14: two-seat, side-by-side aerobatic aircraft, considered similar to the RV-7 in design but larger and roomier RV-15: future high-wing, back-country capable aircraft Timeline Gallery References External links Official website

Piaggio

Piaggio & C. SpA (Piaggio [ˈpjaddʒo]) is an Italian motor vehicle manufacturer, which produces a range of two-wheeled motor vehicles and compact commercial vehicles under four brands: Piaggio, Vespa, Aprilia, Moto Guzzi and Derbi. Its corporate headquarters are located in Pontedera, Italy. The company was founded by Rinaldo Piaggio in 1884, initially producing locomotives and railway carriages. Piaggio's subsidiaries employ a total of 7,053 employees and produced a total of 519,700 vehicles in 2014. The manufacturer has six research-and-development centres and operates in over 50 countries.

Piaggio & C. SpA (Piaggio [ˈpjaddʒo]) is an Italian motor vehicle manufacturer, which produces a range of two-wheeled motor vehicles and compact commercial vehicles under four brands: Piaggio, Vespa, Aprilia, Moto Guzzi and Derbi. Its corporate headquarters are located in Pontedera, Italy. The company was founded by Rinaldo Piaggio in 1884, initially producing locomotives and railway carriages. Piaggio's subsidiaries employ a total of 7,053 employees and produced a total of 519,700 vehicles in 2014. The manufacturer has six research-and-development centres and operates in over 50 countries. History In 1882, Enrico Piaggio purchased land in Sestri Ponente (Genoa) to set up a timber yard. Two years later, in 1884, his 20-year-old son, Rinaldo Piaggio (1864–1938), founded Piaggio & C. The company initially built locomotives and railway carriages. In 1917, towards the end of World War I, Rinaldo Piaggio turned to the military sector: The company started to produce MAS anti-submarine motorboats, aeroplanes and seaplanes under Ansaldo, Macchi, Caproni, and Dornier licenses. Later the company progressed to vehicles constructed according to Piaggio's own drawings.Between 1937 and 1939 Piaggio achieved 21 world records with its aircraft and engines built at the company's new factory in Pontedera, culminating in the four-engine Piaggio P.108 bomber. Rinaldo died in 1938, by which time Piaggio was owned by multiple shareholders within the family, along with the entrepreneur Attilio Odero. Management of the company passed to his sons Enrico and Armando.By 1940 Piaggio was manufacturing trains, nautical fittings, aircraft engines, aeroplanes, trucks, trams, buses, funiculars and aluminium windows and doors. The Pontedera plant was destroyed by Allied bombing and production activities were relocated to the Biella area. After the war, Enrico Piaggio decided to diversify the company's activities outside the aeronautical industry to address a perceived need for a modern, affordable mode of transport for the Italian mass market. The first attempt, based on a small motorcycle made for parachutists, was known as the MP5 and nicknamed the "Paperino" (the Italian name for Donald Duck) because of its strange shape. Ultimately Enrico Piaggio did not like it and asked Corradino D'Ascanio to redesign it. D'Ascanio, an aeronautical engineer responsible for the design and construction of the first modern helicopter by Agusta, was not naturally enthusiastic about motorcycles, judging them to be uncomfortable and bulky, with wheels that were difficult to change after a puncture. When asked to design a motorcycle for Ferdinando Innocenti, D'Ascanio had come up with a step through scooter design but D'Ascanio and Innocenti disagreed over use of a pressed steel frame rather than tubular, so D'Ascanio took his design to Piaggio. Innocenti would ultimately use D'Ascanio's original design for their Lambretta scooter. Piaggio asked D'Ascanio to create a simple, robust and affordable vehicle. The motorcycle had to be easy to drive for both men and women, be able to carry a passenger, and not get its driver's clothes dirty. The engineer's drawings proved a significant departure from the Paperino. With the help of Mario D'Este he prepared the first Vespa project, manufactured at Piaggio newly-rebuilt Pontedera headquarters in April 1946. Piaggio launched the Vespa (Italian for "wasp") and within ten years more than a million units had been produced. The Italian language gained a new word, "vespare", meaning to go somewhere on a Vespa. Ownership Vespa thrived until 1992 when Giovanni Alberto Agnelli, son of Antonella Bechi Piaggio and Umberto Agnelli, became CEO. Agnelli was very successful in expanding production and modernising the offer. He died unexpectedly of cancer in 1997, aged 33. In 1999 Morgan Grenfell Private Equity acquired Piaggio, but hopes for a quick sale were dashed by a failed joint venture in China. In Italy, Piaggio invested 15 million euros in a new motorcycle but dropped it after building a prototype. By the end of 2002, the company had run up 577 million Euros in debt on revenues of 945 million Euros, and booked a loss of 129 million Euros. In 2003 Piaggio's debt was reduced by a 100 million Euro investment made by IMMSI, a holding company of the Colaninno family. 150 million shares were also converted by creditor banks. Reflecting on his investment, Roberto Colaninno said, "A lot of people told me I was crazy. Piaggio wasn't dying. It just needed to be treated better."" Colaninno became the new chairman of Piaggio, and Rocco Sabelli the managing director. Sabelli redesigned the production line according to Japanese principles so that every Piaggio scooter could be made on any assembly line. Contrary to expectations, Colaninno did not sack a single worker; a move which helped seduce the company's skeptical unions. "Everyone in a company is part of the value chain," said Colaninno. All bonuses for blue-collar workers and management were based on the same criteria: profit margins and customer satisfaction. Air conditioning was installed in the factory for the first time, increasing productivity. He also gave the company's engineers, who had been idled by the company's financial crisis, deadlines for projects. They rolled out two world firsts in 2004: a gas-electric hybrid scooter and a sophisticated tilting scooter with two wheels in front and one in back to grip the road better. One of Piaggio's problems Colaninno couldn't fix from the inside was its scale. Even though Piaggio was the European market leader, it was dwarfed by rivals Honda and Yamaha. A year after restoring Piaggio's health, Colaninno directed Piaggio's takeover of the Italian scooter and motorcycle manufacturer Aprilia, and with it the Aprilia-owned Moto Guzzi, a storied Italian manufacturer of motorcycles. In 2006, Piaggio was floated on the Milan Stock Exchange, becoming a public company. Production In 1956, with production of the millionth Vespa scooter, Italy had its first mass-produced motorised vehicle. Taking advantage of increased cash flow thanks to the success of the Vespa, Piaggio developed other products, including the 1957 Vespa 400, a compact passenger car. In 1959 Piaggio came under the control of the Agnelli family, the owners of car maker Fiat SpA. By 1960 Vespa had produced and sold 4 million units worldwide.In 1964 the aeronautical and motorcycle divisions of Piaggio split to become two independent companies as a result of the wide ownership by Fiat in Italian industry. The aeronautical division was named IAM Rinaldo Piaggio. The aircraft company Piaggio Aero was controlled by the family of Piero Ferrari, who still hold 10% of Ferrari. In 1969 Piaggio purchased the motorcycle company Gilera, one of the oldest European motorcycle manufacturers (founded in 1909), famous for its sporting achievements and world titles in the Motorcycle World Championship.In 1971 a steering wheel was added to the Piaggio Ape, a model first produced in 1948, culminating in the Ape Car. Four years later, in 1975, the company made the first prototype of an electric Ape.In 1988 the Vespa reached 10 million units produced.In 1996, on the fiftieth anniversary of the first model, Vespa passed 15 million units produced and the new 4-stroke Vespa ET, the first completely new Vespa for 18 years, was launched. Piaggio was still in poor financial health but its brand recognition remained strong, boosted by the appearance of the ET4 in several Hollywood films. In 1999, in Baramati, production began on a three-wheeler Ape for the Indian market.In 2000 Piaggio and Vespa returned to the United States with the opening of the first Vespa Boutique in Los Angeles. In that same year the Piaggio Historical Museum was inaugurated in Pontedera. The museum showcases the Piaggio Historical Archive, one of the most comprehensive company archives on the industrial history of Italy.In 2001 the Piaggio Group acquired Derbi-Nacional Motor SA, an historical Spanish brand founded in 1922 that had won 18 world titles and was a continental leader in the small displacement motorbike segment. In the same year Gilera returned to the Motorcycle World Championship and immediately won the world title in the 125 category with Manuel Poggiali.In April 2004 Piaggio and Chinese manufacturer Zongshen signed a memorandum of understanding for the creation of the “Zongshen Piaggio Foshan Motorcycle” joint venture with a plant in Foshan for the production of scooters for the Chinese market.In 2004, at the end of December, the final contract for the acquisition of the Aprilia-Moto Guzzi Group was signed. The most important European two-wheeler group is born.In 2007 Piaggio Group arrived in Vietnam. The Vinh Phuc plant includes R&D, welding and painting activities, as well as final assembly of the scooters, with warehouse, testing, quality control and office areas.In 2009 the Piaggio Mp3 Hybrid made its debut on the market which was first hybrid scooter in the world, integrating the conventional low-environmental-impact internal combustion engine with a zero-emission electric motor and combining the advantages of the two power trains.In Baramati (State of Maharashtra), in 2012, the Piaggio Group's new plant for the production of Vespa's for the local market was opened.In 2013 the PADC, Piaggio Advanced Design Center opened in Pasadena (California, United States). The Vespa 946 was also launched this year, along with the new Vespa Primavera, the latest evolution of the "small body" family. In 2013 Vespa's worldwide sales numbered almost 190,000 units; in 2004 the figure stood at 58,000. In ten years of continuous progression over 1.3 million new Vespas have been produced. Since 1946 over 18 million Vespas have been produced and sold.In September 2017 Foton and Piaggio agreed to form a joint venture to develop and produce light commercial vehicle. Based on Foton chassis the new vehicle was sold by Piaggio Commercial Vehicle division globally apart from China. The vehicle is intended to be a successor of the Piaggio Porter and production was planned to start in mid-2019 in Pontedera (Italy) with all components produced by Foton in China. "Cultural Project" Piaggio Piaggio's "cultural project" promotes the reconstruction and enhancement of the company's heritage and is composed by three initiatives: the Piaggio Foundation, the Historical Archives and the Piaggio Museum. In 2003 the Museum and Archives were recognised as the Best Corporate Museum and Archive by winning the Italian prize "Premio Impresa e Cultura". In 2016, under the patronage of the Italian Ministry of Culture, Piaggio received the Corporate Art Award from pptArt for its Corporate Museum. Brands and models Group brands Aprilia – motorcycles, scooter and mopeds Piaggio – scooters, mopeds. Vespa – scooters and mopeds Scarabeo – scooters and mopeds Derbi – motorcycles, scooters, mopeds and recreational ATVs (quads) Gilera – motorcycles, scooters, mopeds and recreational ATVs (quads) Laverda – motorcycles Moto Guzzi – motorcycles Piaggio Commercial Vehicles – light commercial vehicles Vehicle Current production 2-wheeled vehicles Piaggio Fly (Asian market) Piaggio Beverly Piaggio Liberty Piaggio Medley Piaggio Vespa Piaggio Zip Piaggio X7 (Asian market) Piaggio 13-wheeled vehicles Piaggio MP3 Piaggio Ape Piaggio MyMooverCommercial vehicles Piaggio Porter Discontinued 2-wheeled vehicles Piaggio Boss Piaggio Boxer Piaggio Bravo Piaggio Carnaby Piaggio Ciao Piaggio Cosa Piaggio Diesis Piaggio Free Piaggio Grande Piaggio Grillo Piaggio Hexagon Piaggio NRG Piaggio Quartz Piaggio Scatto Piaggio Sfera Piaggio Skipper Piaggio Si Piaggio Toledo Piaggio Typhoon Piaggio Vespino Piaggio Velofax Piaggio X7 Piaggio X8 Piaggio X9 Piaggio X10 Piaggio Xevo3-wheeled vehicles Piaggio Ciao PorterCommercial vehicles Piaggio QuargoAll-terrain vehicles Piaggio Trackmaster (rebadged Arctic Cat TRV)Quadricycles Piaggio M500 (rebadged Casalini Ydea) Piaggio AL500 (rebadged Grecav Eke) Piaggio PK500 (rebadged Grecav Eke Pick-up)Aircraft engines (1920-1950) Piaggio P.VI Piaggio P.VII Piaggio P.VIII Piaggio P.IX Piaggio P.X Piaggio P.XI Piaggio P.XII Piaggio P.XV Electric scooters The new plug-in hybrid version of the Piaggio MP3 will be equipped with a 125 cc petrol engine and electric motor, which offers about 60 km/L (141 mpg‑US) and travels 21 km (13 mi) using battery power alone. This machine could be out in 2009.Piaggio/Vespa are also developing hybrid electric scooters. There are two models in the works, based on the popular Vespa LX 50 and the beefier Piaggio X8 125.At the Beijing Motor Show 2021, Piaggio unveiled the brand new electric scooter Piaggio 1. This model was produced in three versione: 1 base, 1+ and 1 Active. The 1 base has a 1.4 kWh and 48V battery, a 1.2 kW engine, a torque of 85 Nm, a maximum speed of 45 km/h (it is therefore approved as a moped) and a range of 55 km. The 1+ version differs in the battery that rises to 2.3 kWh and the autonomy that reaches 100 kilometers. The 1 Active model has the same 2.3 kWh battery, but the engine has a maximum power of 2 kW, the torque goes to 95 Nm and the speed rises to 60 km/h (motorcycle homologation), the average range is 85 km. For all versions the charging times are 6 hours. See also List of companies of Italy List of motor scooter manufacturers and brands References External links Piaggio official website Piaggio Commercial Vehicles Piaggio Museum - Museo Piaggio

Hywel Williams

Hywel Williams (born 1953) is a Welsh Plaid Cymru politician serving as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Arfon, previously Caernarfon, since 2001.

Hywel Williams (born 1953) is a Welsh Plaid Cymru politician serving as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Arfon, previously Caernarfon, since 2001. Early life Williams was born in Pwllheli in 1953, and received his education at Ysgol Troed yr Allt, Pwllheli Grammar School and then Ysgol Glan y Môr.He studied Psychology at the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire (now Cardiff University) before qualifying as a social worker at University College of North Wales (now Bangor University) in 1977/78. He was a mental health social worker in the Dwyfor area before joining the Centre for Social Work Practice at the University of Wales, Bangor in 1985.He was a project worker at the centre, specialising in developing practice through the medium of Welsh, developing a host of short courses available in Welsh for the first time, as well as producing and editing numerous books and training packages with his colleagues, including the first ever social work vocabulary in Welsh. He was appointed Head of the Centre in 1993.In 1995, Williams left to work as a freelance lecturer, consultant and writer in the fields of social policy, social work, and social care, working primarily through the medium of Welsh. For the next six years, he worked for a variety of universities and colleges in Wales and abroad, as well as working for public bodies, charities, private companies and local and central government, including spending time as an adviser to the House of Commons Welsh Affairs Committee.He has been a member of numerous professional bodies in relation to social work and training, and was also spokesman for the Child Poverty Action Group in Wales. Political career Williams was elected to represent the Caernarfon constituency in the 2001 general election, following Dafydd Wigley's retirement, and again in 2005, with a significantly increased majority. In 2010, he won the new Arfon seat, which, following boundary changes, was at that time considered a Labour seat in Westminster terms. He was re-elected as Plaid Cymru MP for the Arfon constituency in May 2015 with an increased majority. He was a member of the Welsh Affairs Select Committee between 2004 and 2010 and joined the Science and Technology Select Committee and the House Works of Art Committee in 2012.In 2005 he joined the Panel of Chairs. This role involves chairing backbench debates, standing committees on legislation, committees on secondary legislation and from time to time, meetings of the whole House as a Committee in the main chamber. His parliamentary responsibilities within Plaid Cymru are work and pensions, defence, international development and culture.He served as leader of Plaid Cymru in Westminster from September 2015 until June 2017.Williams' majority was cut to just 92 votes at the 2017 election, with Labour's Mary Clarke coming close to unseating him, but at the 2019 General Election increased his majority to 2,781 In March 2019, he voted for an amendment tabled by members of The Independent Group calling for a second public vote on EU membership.In November 2022, Williams announced that he would not seek re-election as an MP at the next general election.In December 2023 Williams was a member of the team for Bangor University which participated in BBC's Christmas University Challenge. The team lost to Middlesex University in the semi-final. References External links Profile at Parliament of the United Kingdom Contributions in Parliament at Hansard Contributions in Parliament at Hansard 1803–2005 Voting record at Public Whip Record in Parliament at TheyWorkForYou Appearances on C-SPAN

Derek Holland (activist)

Derek Holland is a figure on the European far-right noted for his Catholic Integralism.Holland was brought up in Huntingdon and was already trying to recruit new members to the National Front while a student at Cambridgeshire College of Art and Technology. He then went to Leicester Polytechnic to study history and to bolster support for the already-established Young National Front Student Organisation. In the May 1979 general election, he contested Cambridge for the NF, receiving 311 votes (0.6%). After his studies Holland became closely associated with the Political Soldier wing of the party. One of the party's main writers in a time when their ideology was shifting, he contributed regularly not only to the party journal Nationalism Today, but was also co-editor of Rising, a radical nationalist journal that was independent of the NF and drew heavily from Julius Evola and Corneliu Zelea Codreanu.

Derek Holland is a figure on the European far-right noted for his Catholic Integralism.Holland was brought up in Huntingdon and was already trying to recruit new members to the National Front while a student at Cambridgeshire College of Art and Technology. He then went to Leicester Polytechnic to study history and to bolster support for the already-established Young National Front Student Organisation. In the May 1979 general election, he contested Cambridge for the NF, receiving 311 votes (0.6%). After his studies Holland became closely associated with the Political Soldier wing of the party. One of the party's main writers in a time when their ideology was shifting, he contributed regularly not only to the party journal Nationalism Today, but was also co-editor of Rising, a radical nationalist journal that was independent of the NF and drew heavily from Julius Evola and Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. Holland became one of the leading lights on the Political Soldier wing of the party when his pamphlet The Political Soldier was published in 1984. Along with Nick Griffin and Patrick Harrington he became effective joint leader of the Official National Front following the resignation of Andrew Brons from overall leadership in 1984. In 1988 the three travelled to Libya on a fund-raising trip as an official representatives of the NF, although in the end they were given only copies of The Green Book.In 1989, Holland broke with Patrick Harrington and joined Michael Fishwick in following Nick Griffin and Roberto Fiore into the International Third Position (ITP) after Harrington had contacted The Jewish Chronicle with regards to opening dialogue. Holland injected his sympathies for anti-Zionist groups, as part of his nationalist philosophy, into the ITP. He supported the ideas of Muammar Gaddafi and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who had previously featured on a cover of National Front News.Holland's last public appearance was at a Swedish nationalist convention in 2002, during this time Holland lived in the Irish Midlands. Since that time the ITP appears to have gravitated towards the European National Front, and Holland has retired from active involvement in politics.Holland has received considerable treatment in works on European extremist nationalism, including Fascism: A History by Roger Eatwell (1997) and Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (2002). Holland’s writings on the Political Soldier are also featured in Fascism: A Reader published by Oxford University Press (1995). Elections contested == References ==

Aerolíneas de Guinea Ecuatorial

Aerolíneas de Guinea Ecuatorial was a cargo airline based in Malabo, Equatorial Guinea. It was established in 2003. The company was closed in 2004 by order of the government and its Antonov aircraft was used to create Equatair.

Aerolíneas de Guinea Ecuatorial was a cargo airline based in Malabo, Equatorial Guinea. It was established in 2003. The company was closed in 2004 by order of the government and its Antonov aircraft was used to create Equatair. Fleet The Aerolíneas de Guinea Ecuatorial fleet consisted of 1 – Antonov An-24B aircraft (at January 2005) See also List of defunct airlines of Equatorial Guinea == References ==

Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Ass'n

Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association, 485 U.S. 439 (1988), was a United States Supreme Court landmark case in which the Court ruled on the applicability of the Free Exercise Clause to the practice of religion on Native American sacred lands, specifically in the Chimney Rock area of the Six Rivers National Forest in California. This area, also known as the High Country, was used by the Yurok, Karuk, and Tolowa tribes as a religious site. The ruling is considered a key example of judicial restraint by the Supreme Court.

Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association, 485 U.S. 439 (1988), was a United States Supreme Court landmark case in which the Court ruled on the applicability of the Free Exercise Clause to the practice of religion on Native American sacred lands, specifically in the Chimney Rock area of the Six Rivers National Forest in California. This area, also known as the High Country, was used by the Yurok, Karuk, and Tolowa tribes as a religious site. The ruling is considered a key example of judicial restraint by the Supreme Court. Background In 1982, the United States Forest Service drew up a report known as the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) that examined the environmental impact of constructing a proposed road through and possibly harvesting timber in the Six Rivers National Forest. Due to the religious importance of the area, the study found that if the U.S. Forest Service’s plans went forward, the damage done to the land would be severe and irreparable. Therefore, the report advised against both the road and timber harvesting. Additionally, the EIS suggested possible alternative was routes that avoided key religious sites. However, this recommendation and the rest of the report was rejected by the U.S. Forest Service. The report commissioned by the United States Forest Service recognized that the construction of the road would destroy the religion of the American Indian tribes. American Indian groups (led by the Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association) and the State of California sued for an injunction, challenging both the road building and timber harvesting decisions. The court issued a permanent injunction that prohibited the Government from constructing the Chimney Rock section of the road or putting the timber harvesting plan into effect, holding, inter alia, that such actions would violate respondent Indians' rights under the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment and would violate certain federal statutes.The Trial Court found for Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association and issued an injunction. The USFS appealed. The Appellate Court affirmed and the USFS appealed again bringing the case to the U.S. Supreme Court. As a case before the U.S. Supreme Court, Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective was argued on November 30, 1987. The petitioner, Richard E. Lyng, the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture at the time, claimed that constructing a road and harvesting timber through lands considered sacred by Native American tribes did not violate the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment of the United States Constitution. The respondent in the case was the Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association, et al. With the claim at hand, the U.S. Supreme Court decided to rule on the question of whether the First Amendment’s Free Exercise Clause prohibited the government from harvesting or developing the Chimney Rock Area. Opinion of the Court After much deliberation, the holding of the court was released on April 19, 1988. In a vote of 5-3 (Anthony M. Kennedy did not participate), the court ruled that "construction of the proposed road does not violate the First Amendment regardless of its effect on the religious practices of the respondents because it compels no behavior contrary to their belief". In support of the decision, Justice Sandra Day O’Connor cited Bowen v. Roy (1986), a previous U.S. Supreme Court case that involved a family who did not wish to give their child a social security number for religious reasons. Also argued with regard to the Free Exercise Clause, this holding of the court in this case was that the government could not change its system and make an exception for an individual because of religiously based reasons. Judging by the parallels in this case with that of Lyng, Justice O’ Connor found that although damage would certainly be done to the Six Rivers/Chimney Rock area, the road construction and timber harvesting would not force individuals to violate their beliefs or be denied of the equal rights shared by other citizens of the United States. In deciding the case, the Supreme Court had to determine whether a government action would cause a "substantial burden" on religion. Since the United States Forest Service's report had recognized that the religion of tribes would effectively be irreparably harmed, the tribes had a strong argument that they met this element of the law. However, the Supreme Court set out new requirements for proving substantial burden. The Court stated that a substantial burden only exist where the government imposes a sanction (fine or imprisonment) or denies a benefit to individuals that they would otherwise be entitled to receive. Since this case involved neither, the decision found that no substantial burden existed. Justice William J. Brennan Jr. disagreed with the majority opinion and, with a citation of the case Sherbert v. Verner (1963), declared that the holding of Lyng stripped Native Americans of their Constitutional protection against threats to their religious practices.The United States Supreme Court reversed and allowed the road to be built. The Supreme Court cited Bowen v. Roy (476 U.S. 693 (1986)) and, in a 3-5 decision, found that the Free Exercise Clause affords an individual protection from certain forms of governmental compulsions, but it does not afford an individual a right to dictate the conduct of the government's internal procedures. Subsequent developments After the case was decided, Congress intervened and designated the area a "wilderness" under the Wilderness Act, and the road was not built. The Act protected the High Country, by adding it to the Siskiyou Wilderness Area. Suzan Shown Harjo, a Cheyenne-Muskogee writer and activist who influenced the drafting of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) of 1978, called Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association a "stunning defeat" for the Native American cause. In a twenty-five-year retrospective of AIRFA, published in 2004, she described how the Lyng decision galvanized Native American activists to press for other claims, for example in fishing rights, and how it helped to inspire efforts towards the "repatriation" of Native American cultural materials while contributing to the establishment of the Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian. See also List of U.S. Supreme Court Cases involving Indian tribes American Indian Religious Freedom Act Related cases Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972) Thomas v. Review Board of the Indiana Employment Security Division, 450 U.S. 707 (1981) References Further reading Canby, William C. Jr. (2004). American Indian Law. Minnesota: Thomson West External links Text of Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Ass'n, 485 U.S. 439 (1988) is available from: Cornell Justia Library of Congress Oyez (oral argument audio)

The British School, Kathmandu

The British School is a private international school in Sanepa, Kathmandu, Bagmati Province, Nepal. It was established in 1966 to serve the British community but is an inclusive school which has over 40 different nationalities and over 500 students as of 2020. The British school offers education from foundation up to Year 13. The British School does many events over the course of the year. Some of these events are Sports Day, International Day, Productions, and many more.

The British School is a private international school in Sanepa, Kathmandu, Bagmati Province, Nepal. It was established in 1966 to serve the British community but is an inclusive school which has over 40 different nationalities and over 500 students as of 2020. The British school offers education from foundation up to Year 13. The British School does many events over the course of the year. Some of these events are Sports Day, International Day, Productions, and many more. It delivers the English National Curriculum with full-time UK recruited staff. The school has its own artificial turf pitches, two multi-purpose sports areas, science laboratories, and two libraries, one for primary and one for secondary. It also has many small gardens, a duck pond, and parking for staff and students, including bike stands. History The British School Started in 1966 as a school for British and Commonwealth parents who wanted British style education for their children. The school originally contained Primary Education. On the 7th of July 1967, the Government of Nepal gave official recognition to The British School and has since been supported by the British EmbassyIn 1997, the school expanded its curriculum to include Key Stage 3 students and they moved their campus to Jhamsikhel, Lalitpur.In February 1998, the Prince of Wales opened the new campus.In August 2004, the school expanded its curriculum to include A-Levels Academics Primary Key Stage 1 Foundation 1 & 2 In Foundation 1, Students are taught with a play-based curriculum. It is aimed to develop Communication, Maths, Literacy as well as early versions of History, Geography, ICT, Art, Music and Drama. Students also engage in Outdoor Learning, where they go outside and explore the outdoors. In Foundation 2 students are prepared to enter Year 1. Year 1 & 2 Year One and Two teaches Key Stage 1 Maths and Phase 2 Phonics, as well as IPC.'. Students also get Exercise books from the school. In Year 2, there are more advanced topics in Subjects like Stage 3 and 5 phonics and students are prepared to enter Key Stage 2. Key Stage 2 Year 3, 4, 5 and 6. In Year Three, students have subjects such as English, Maths, IPC, World Languages (formerly Modern Foreign Languages), Nepali, as well as having 30 minute assembly. Students also get access to After School Clubs. In each year the topics in IPC are different. In Year 6, students are also prepared to enter Key Stage 3. Secondary Key Stage 3 Year 7 & 8 In Year 7 & 8 Students have the subjects Maths, English, Science (Biology, Chemistry, Physics), History, Geography, Art, Drama, Music, Performing Arts Workshop (PAWs), Physical Education (PE), ICT/Computer Science, Design and Technology (DT) and Information Literacy. Students also have to pick 2 languages from French, Spanish, Mandarin and Nepali. Students also have an extra period at the beginning of the day called mentor time, where Notices are shared and students participate in Well-being activities. Students are required to either bring a Tablet or Laptop, or borrow one from the School however phones aren't allowed in class. Students will now have to source their own equipment such as Stationary and Calculators. Year 9 Year 9 is very similar to year 8, however students get more opportunities for leadership roles and are prepared to enter Key Stage 4, with a day that resembles Year 10 and IGSCE option evenings. Key Stage 4 Year 10 & 11 In Year 10 and 11, students are prepared for IGCSE exams. In Year 10, students can choose to study up to 9 subjects and are required to complete English Literature, English Language, Science and Maths. Other Subjects offered are Art, Business Studies, Drama, Physical Education (PE), Design and Technology (DT), History, Computer Science, Geography, Music and Psychology. Students are also required to select one language, French, Spanish or Mandarin. In Year 11, Students take their IGCSE exams, take a two week break, then come back for "Bridging Week", where they get to take part in small lessons for the subjects they have chosen to take for Years 12 and 13. Key Stage 5 Year 12 & 13 In Year 12 and 13, students study for four A-Levels. The British School, Kathmandu offers Art, Economics, Geography, French, Maths, Media Studies, Biology, Computer Science, History, Music, Chemistry, Desgin and Technology, Literature, Physics, Psychology and Sociology. Students can pick up to 4 A-Levels. Events Drama Dragon Days (2019) Dragon Days was a play performed by Key Stage 2 High School Musical JR. (12th March 2020 - 13th March 2020) High School Musical Jr. was a musical performed by Secondary that was based on a Disney Channel Movie called High School Musical Porridge! (2020) Porridge was a cancelled play meant to be performed by Key Stage 2 Shakespeare Festival (4th April 2022 - 2nd May 2022) The Shakespeare festival is a Drama Festival where Years 3-9 Perform Shakespeare Plays. Year 3&4 - Shakespeare Rocks Year 5&6 - The Tempest Year 7 - A Midsummer-Night's Dream Year 8 - The Tragedy Of Macbeth Year 9 - Romeo and Juliet Sports House Competition (28th February 2022 - 1st April 2022) A competition where each Year Group between Year 3 and Year 11 played different sport games every week to earn points for their house == References ==

Morana (goddess)

Marzanna (in Polish), Morė (in Lithuanian), Marena (in Russian), Mara (in Ukrainian), Morana (in Czech, Slovene and Serbo-Croatian), Morena (in Slovak and Macedonian) or Mora (in Bulgarian) is a pagan Slavic goddess associated with seasonal rites based on the idea of death and rebirth of nature. She is an ancient goddess associated with winter's death, rebirth and dreams. In ancient Slavic rites, the death of the Goddess Marzanna at the end of winter becomes the rebirth of Spring of the Goddess Kostroma (Russian), Lada or Vesna representing the coming of Spring.Some medieval Christian sources such as the Czech 13th century Mater Verborum compare her to the Greek goddess Hecate, associating her with sorcery. 15th century Polish chronicler Jan Długosz likened her in his Annales to Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture (together with another Slavic goddess Dziewanna). In modern times the rituals associated with Marzanna have lost their sacred character and are a pastime – an occasion to have fun and celebrate the beginning of spring.

Marzanna (in Polish), Morė (in Lithuanian), Marena (in Russian), Mara (in Ukrainian), Morana (in Czech, Slovene and Serbo-Croatian), Morena (in Slovak and Macedonian) or Mora (in Bulgarian) is a pagan Slavic goddess associated with seasonal rites based on the idea of death and rebirth of nature. She is an ancient goddess associated with winter's death, rebirth and dreams. In ancient Slavic rites, the death of the Goddess Marzanna at the end of winter becomes the rebirth of Spring of the Goddess Kostroma (Russian), Lada or Vesna representing the coming of Spring.Some medieval Christian sources such as the Czech 13th century Mater Verborum compare her to the Greek goddess Hecate, associating her with sorcery. 15th century Polish chronicler Jan Długosz likened her in his Annales to Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture (together with another Slavic goddess Dziewanna). In modern times the rituals associated with Marzanna have lost their sacred character and are a pastime – an occasion to have fun and celebrate the beginning of spring. The tradition is usually celebrated around the spring equinox (March 21). Usually schoolchildren and young people participate in the celebrations alongside local folklore groups and other residents. A procession consisting of men, women and children carries handmade Marzanna (and often also Marzaniok dolls, the male counterpart to Marzanna) to the nearest river, lake or pond. The participants sing traditional songs and throw effigies of Marzanna into the water. Sometimes the effigies are first set on fire, or their clothes are torn. On the journey back to the village the focus falls on the copses, adorned with ribbons and blown egg shells. The procession, still singing, returns to the village. In some locations (e.g. in Brynica – a district of Miasteczko Śląskie), the beginning of spring is then celebrated with a feast. Names and etymology Marzanna's name most likely comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *mar-, *mor-, signifying death. The Slovak form of the theonym – Ma(r)muriena – suggests that the goddess may have originally been connected to the Roman god of war Mars (known under a variety of names, including Marmor, Mamers and Mamurius Veturius). The connection to Mars is supported by, among others, Vyacheslav Ivanov and Vladimir Toporov, who underline that he was originally an agricultural deity.Other theories claim her name is derived from the same Indo-European root as Latin mors 'death' and Russian mor 'pestilence'. Some authors also likened her to mare, an evil spirit in Germanic and Slavic folklore, associated with nightmares and sleep paralysis. In Belarusian, Polish, Ukrainian and in some Russian dialects the word 'mara' means dream. But Vladimir Dahl says it means 'phantom', 'vision', 'hallucination'. Traditions The tradition of burning or drowning an effigy of Marzanna to celebrate the end of winter is a folk custom that survives in the Czech Republic, Poland, Lithuania, and Slovakia. In the past, the festival was held on the fourth Sunday of Lent. In the 20th century the date March 21 was fixed (March 20–21). The rite involves preparing an effigy in female clothing, and either setting it on fire or drowning in a river (or both). This is often performed during a field trip by children in kindergarten and primary schools. The effigy, often made by the children themselves, can range in size from a puppet to a life-size dummy. This ritual represents the end of the dark days of winter, the victory over death, and the welcoming of the spring rebirth. It concerns the "drowning of Marzanna," a large figure of a woman made from various rags and bits of clothing which is thrown into a river on the first day of the spring calendar. Along the way, she is dipped into every puddle and pond ... Very often she is burned along with herbs before being drowned and a twin custom is to decorate a pine tree with flowers and colored baubles to be carried through the village by the girls. There are of course many superstitions associated with the ceremony: you can't touch Marzanna once she's in the water, you can't look back at her, and if you fall on your way home you're in big trouble. One, or a combination of any of these can bring the usual dose of sickness and plague. Drowning of Marzanna Marzanna is also the name used to describe the effigy of the goddess, which was ritually burned and/or drowned during an early spring rite called Jare Święto to hasten the approach of spring. The custom of drowning the effigy of Marzanna derives from sacrificial rites; its function was to ensure a good harvest in the upcoming year. Following the principles of sympathetic magic – as described by James Frazer – it was believed that burning an effigy representing the goddess of death would remove any results of her presence (i.e., the winter) and thus bring about the coming of spring. The effigy has usually been made of straw, wrapped in white cloth and adorned with ribbons and necklaces. Traditionally the effigy has initially been carried past every house in the village by a group of children holding green juniper twigs. During this procession Marzanna was repeatedly dipped in every encountered puddle or stream. In the evening the effigy passed to the young adults; the juniper twigs were lit, and thus illuminated Marzanna was carried out of the village, burned, and thrown into water. There is a number of superstitions related to the custom of drowning Marzanna: one cannot touch the effigy once it's in the water or one's hand will wither; looking back while returning home may cause an illness, while stumbling and falling may lead to a relative's death within the coming year. The Catholic Church attempted to forbid this old pagan custom. In 1420, the Synod of Poznań instructed the Polish clergy: Do not allow the superstitious Sunday custom, do not permit them to carry around the effigy they call Death and drown in puddles. However, both the custom and tradition prevailed. At the turn of the 18th century there has been an attempt to replace it (on the Wednesday preceding Easter) with a newly introduced custom of throwing an effigy symbolizing Judas down from a church tower. This attempt also failed. Today, the custom is celebrated at spring equinox on March 21, which coincides with the traditional date of Jare Święto. Marzanna and the copse The rite of drowning Marzanna, often conducted together with carrying bouquets of green twigs and branches (dubbed gaik in Polish, literally "copse") was originally performed on the fourth Sunday of Lent, called the White Sunday. The tradition of celebrating it on March 21 only began in the 20th century. Most researchers agree that the custom of carrying the copse (also known as grove, new summer, or walking with the Queen) from house to house was earlier performed much later in the year, probably shortly after Easter. The effigy of Marzanna Details of the ritual vary from region to region. Typically the effigy or doll representing Marzanna is made of straw and dressed in traditional local costume, rags, or even bridesmaid's clothes. Marzanna may resemble a young woman wearing a garland as well as an old crone. Village dwellers carry the effigy away from the village, often singing event-related songs. Jerzy Pośpiech points out that at first only adults participated in the ritual; only when the custom became a fun game did the young join in.Depending on local tradition, the ritual that takes place after the procession reaches its chosen destination can be performed in various ways: sometimes the effigy is first torn into pieces, its clothes ripped off, and then drowned in a lake, river or even a puddle. In some variants of the ritual, the effigy is burned; in others, it is first set on fire and then thrown into water. A number of superstitions (also locally varied) are connected to the ritual, e.g.: the person who last returns to the village after the ritual is sure to die in the coming year. In some locations, a tradition functions in which Marzanna is given a male counterpart – Marzaniok. Walking with the copse Walking with the Copse is a ritual in which pine branches, twigs or even entire small trees (pine or spruce) – adorned with ribbons, handmade ornaments, egg shells or flowers – are carried from house to house. In some variations of the ritual, a doll is tied to the top branch; in others, a local girl accompanies the copse (hence "walking with the Queen"). The copse is usually carried by girls, who walk from house to house, dance, sing and extend best wishes to the hosts. Some sources relate that the group also collected donations. Today the ritual often takes the form of bringing a decorated copse to the village after the ritual of drowning Marzanna is completed. This type of a two-part ritual (destroying the effigy and then returning with the copse) had been observed in the Opole region, the western parts of Kraków Voivodeship, Podhale, Slovakia, Moravia, Bohemia, Lusatia and Southern Germany (Thuringia, Franconia). In the 19th century Oskar Kolberg noted that the copse had been carried around as a standalone custom (without the prior destruction of Marzanna) around Kraków and Sandomierz, as well as in the regions of Mazovia (on Easter Tuesday) and Lesser Poland (beginning of May or the Green week). Traditions related to Marzanna and the copse in Silesia The date when the customs of drowning Marzanna and carrying the copse originated in Silesia is unknown. Although the Catholic Church considered these to be pagan traditions, and persecuted them accordingly, the custom nevertheless survived in Silesia even at times when it had been almost extinct in other regions of Poland. Researchers point out that traditionally only women and girls would walk with a hand-made Marzanna; only later was the custom taken over by young adults and children. In some regions – such as around Gliwice and Racibórz – local girls were followed by boys carrying Marzanna's male equivalent – Marzaniok. The effigies were carried around the village. Songs, often improvised, were sung in front of each house, especially if a girl lived in it. Hosts would reward the singers with money or eggs. Afterwards, the singing procession left the village and went to a nearby body of water – a stream, pond, lake or even a puddle. If there was no lake or pond nearby, the effigy was burned; its clothes had been ripped off or it had been pelted with snow or mud.The procession would usually return carrying a copse – a small spruce or pine tree adorned with eggs and ribbons. Nicknamed latko (summer), the copse symbolised the spring and blooming nature. The procession carried it into the village, accompanied by songs and best wishes. Significance Today Marzanna is often perceived as a personification of winter and the symbolic drowning ends this season and returns life. In this interpretation, the corpse is used to welcome spring and to affirm the re-awakening of nature. However, modern interpretations simplify the ritual: one example is merging two originally separate rituals and changing the time of the year at which they were celebrated. Moreover, even medieval chroniclers suggested that the custom had already evolved into a light-hearted, fun event and its original meaning had been almost forgotten. Researchers emphasise that Marzanna functioned not merely as a symbol of winter, but also as a Slavic goddess. Marzanna's later association with death (in some regions Marzanna is called Death Crone) trivialized the importance of the goddess, who was the lady of not only death, but also life, and commanded the natural world. Drowning Marzanna in water (an element of high importance in season-related folk celebrations) is understood as the goddess' symbolic descent into the underworld, to be reborn with next winter. Some researchers underline the sacrificial character of this ritual and suggest that Marzanna is sacrificed to appease Winter. The authors of Wyrzeczysko propose that Marzanna is sacrificed to the demons of water, whose favour was necessary to ensure a plentiful harvest in the coming year.Celebrating the Copse after Easter – in full spring – performs an individual function in the cycle of rebirth: it announces the coming of spring, a time of joy and song, a time when the Earth bears new fruit. Popular culture Polish black metal band Furia released an album under the title "Marzannie, Królowej Polski" (To Marzanna, the Queen of Poland). Polish folk metal band Żywiołak released a song titled "Marzanna" in 2019. Russian folk metal band Arkona sings about Morana on their 2004 album Lepta. In the 2016 BBC television series Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency, holistic assassin Bartine "Bart" Curlish is designated "Project Marzanna" by Project Blackwing. Virginian brewery Devils Backbone brew a 14° Czech style dark lager named in honour of Marzanna, using her Czech name Morana. The 1994 film Morana is about explorers exploring Triglav, the famous mountain in Slovenia which is supposedly where Morana lives Morana appears in the 2021 Slovak-Ukrainian television show Slovania, a show based on Slavic history and mythology Komi folk band Горань (Goran') shows the tradition of burning an effigy of goddess associated with winter to celebrate the end of winter in their music video titled "Йӧввыв кад". Croatian folk metal band Manntra released a song titled "Morana". See also Böögg in Switzerland Māra Mara (Hindu goddess) Jarilo Martenitsa Maslenitsa Dhumavati Santa Muerte References Sources Dixon-Kennedy, Mike. Encyclopedia of Russian & Slavic myth and legend. ABC-CLIO Publisher, 1998 Marjorie Yovino-Young. Pagan Ritual and Myth in Russian Magic Tales: A Study of Patterns. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1993. Skvortzov, Konstantin. Mater Verborum, 13th century Czech manuscript, with comments. Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences, 1853. http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art171090.asp

Françoise Tisseur

Françoise Tisseur is a numerical analyst and Professor of Numerical Analysis at the Department of Mathematics, University of Manchester, UK. She works in numerical linear algebra and in particular on nonlinear eigenvalue problems and structured matrix problems, including the development of algorithms and software.She is a graduate of the University of St-Etienne, France, from where she gained her Maitrise (Mathematical Engineering) in 1993, Diplome d'Etude Approfondie in 1994, and PhD (Numerical Analysis) in 1997. She has contributed software to LAPACK, ScaLAPACK, and the MATLAB distribution. Tisseur is a member of the editorial boards of the SIAM Journal on Matrix Analysis and Applications, the IMA Journal of Numerical Analysis and the Electronic Journal of Linear Algebra.

Françoise Tisseur is a numerical analyst and Professor of Numerical Analysis at the Department of Mathematics, University of Manchester, UK. She works in numerical linear algebra and in particular on nonlinear eigenvalue problems and structured matrix problems, including the development of algorithms and software.She is a graduate of the University of St-Etienne, France, from where she gained her Maitrise (Mathematical Engineering) in 1993, Diplome d'Etude Approfondie in 1994, and PhD (Numerical Analysis) in 1997. She has contributed software to LAPACK, ScaLAPACK, and the MATLAB distribution. Tisseur is a member of the editorial boards of the SIAM Journal on Matrix Analysis and Applications, the IMA Journal of Numerical Analysis and the Electronic Journal of Linear Algebra. Awards and honours Tisseur was awarded the 2010 Whitehead Prize by the London Mathematical Society for her research achievements in numerical linear algebra, including polynomial eigenvalue and structured matrix problems. She was awarded the 2011–2012 Adams Prize of the University of Cambridge for her work on polynomial eigenvalue problems and holds a Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit Award in 2014–2019. She delivered the Olga Taussky-Tood Lecture at the International Congress on Industrial and Applied Mathematics in Valencia, Spain, in 2019. She is the 2020 winner of the Fröhlich Prize of the London Mathematical Society "for her important and highly innovative contributions to the analysis, perturbation theory, and numerical solution of nonlinear eigenvalue problems".Tisseur became a Fellow of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics in 2016 "for contributions to numerical linear algebra, especially numerical methods for eigenvalue problems". She held an EPSRC Leadership Fellowship in 2011–2016, and is a Fellow of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications. References External links "MathSciNet". Retrieved October 25, 2010. "Zentralblatt MATH". Retrieved October 25, 2010. Françoise Tisseur publications indexed by Google Scholar

Liu Ji (politician)

Liu Ji (Chinese: 劉驥; 1887–1967) was a Chinese general and politician. Closely associated with Feng Yuxiang, he began his career by joining the Qing Imperial Army, then served under both the Beiyang and Nationalist regimes, and finally ended up joining Mao Zedong and holding political office in the Communist People's Republic of China.

Liu Ji (Chinese: 劉驥; 1887–1967) was a Chinese general and politician. Closely associated with Feng Yuxiang, he began his career by joining the Qing Imperial Army, then served under both the Beiyang and Nationalist regimes, and finally ended up joining Mao Zedong and holding political office in the Communist People's Republic of China. Life Liu was born in Zhongxiang, Hubei. He joined the Qing Imperial Army in 1905 and then studied at the Northeastern Military Academy in Shenyang, that was founded in 1906 by Viceroy Zhao Erxun. After graduation, he joined the New Army and served under Zhang Shaozeng. Later, he served under Feng Yuxiang, beginning a long association. After the Xinhai Revolution broke out, he returned to his native Hubei and served as the staff officer of the Hubei Governor's Office. The following year, he enrolled in the Beijing Army University of the Beiyang Government, the highest-level military college at that time in China. After graduation, he served as a major staff officer of the 16th Army Mixed Brigade led by Feng Yuxiang. In 1915, he was named a Senator of the Provisional Senate of the Beiyang Government. In 1919, he served as the chief of staff of the 11th Army Division, again commanded by Feng Yuxiang. The following year, he served as the chief of staff of the military governor's office in Shaanxi and Henan, supporting Feng Yuxiang. In 1921, he served as the chief of staff of the Northwest Frontier Inspection Office. In 1924 he participated in the Beijing Coup launched by Feng Yuxiang, and was Mayor of Beijing from 1925 to 1926. In 1926 he visited the Soviet Union as part of Feng's entourage. In June of that year, he was ordered by Feng to go to Guangzhou and negotiate with the Central Committee of the Kuomintang (KMT) on the formalities of Feng's forces joining the KMT. In January 1927, after officially joining the National Revolutionary Army, Liu became a member of the Hubei Political Affairs Committee and of the Wuhan Branch of the Central Political Committee of the KMT. In March, he served as commander of the Army Division of the Military Commission of the Wuhan Nationalist Government. In the same month, he served as Feng Yuxiang's plenipotentiary representative of the National Government in Wuhan. In June, he served as chief of staff of the 2nd Army and commander of the 30th Army, participating in the second phase of the Northern Expedition. In 1928, Liu served as a member of the Military Affairs Commission of the Nationalist Government, but in 1929 he participated in Feng Yuxiang's war against Chiang Kai-shek and was chief of staff of the anti-Chiang coalition army. In September the following year, after Feng's defeat, he served as a Senator of the Military Senate. In 1933, he was appointed administrative inspector of Hubei Province, having little influence, and he resigned a few months later. When the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out, Liu regained influence and served as Chief of Staff of the Third Theater Command and Chief of Staff of the Sixth Theater. At the end of 1938, he served in Sichuan Province. In 1941 he retired due to eye disease. After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War and the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Liu decided to remain on the mainland and support the new regime of Mao Zedong, and he joined the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang under Li Jishen. Liu was then appointed as Counsellor of the Counsellors' Office of the Wuhan Municipal People's Government, Chairman of the Wuhan Municipal Committee of the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang, and, finally, Counsellor of the Counsellors' Office of the Nanjing Municipal People 's Government. Liu Ji died in Nanjing in 1967, at the age of 80. References Bibliography 「Liu驥」 Wuhan方志網（武漢市地方志編纂委員会弁公室ホームページ） Xu Youchun (徐友春) (main ed.) (2007). Unabridged Biographical Dictionary of the Republic, Revised and Enlarged Version (民国人物大辞典 增订版). Hebei People's Press (Hebei Renmin Chubanshe; 河北人民出版社). ISBN 978-7-202-03014-1. Liu寿林ほか編 (1995). 民国職官年表. Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 7-101-01320-1.

Kane Brewing

Kane Brewing is a craft brewery in Ocean Township, Monmouth County, New Jersey. It was started in 2011. It is New Jersey's third-largest craft brewery, after Flying Fish Brewery and River Horse Brewery.

Kane Brewing is a craft brewery in Ocean Township, Monmouth County, New Jersey. It was started in 2011. It is New Jersey's third-largest craft brewery, after Flying Fish Brewery and River Horse Brewery. History Kane Brewing was founded by Michael Kane. He started homebrewing at age 22 in order to recreate a German/Belgian style beer he tasted while on a trip in College. After he won gold and silver medals at the 2009 National Homebrew Competition, he took his hobby more seriously and researched opening a brewery. He took a job at a Wall Street mergers and acquisitions firm, but after four years, he quit to open his own brewery in 2011 in a former casket shop. The following year, New Jersey beer laws were harmonized with those of surrounding states, allowing production limits to increase and giving Kane an opportunity to grow quickly into one of New jersey's biggest breweries. See also Alcohol laws of New Jersey Beer in New Jersey Beer in the United States List of wineries, breweries, and distilleries in New Jersey == References ==

Electromechanics

In engineering, electromechanics combines processes and procedures drawn from electrical engineering and mechanical engineering. Electromechanics focuses on the interaction of electrical and mechanical systems as a whole and how the two systems interact with each other. This process is especially prominent in systems such as those of DC or AC rotating electrical machines which can be designed and operated to generate power from a mechanical process (generator) or used to power a mechanical effect (motor). Electrical engineering in this context also encompasses electronics engineering. Electromechanical devices are ones which have both electrical and mechanical processes.

In engineering, electromechanics combines processes and procedures drawn from electrical engineering and mechanical engineering. Electromechanics focuses on the interaction of electrical and mechanical systems as a whole and how the two systems interact with each other. This process is especially prominent in systems such as those of DC or AC rotating electrical machines which can be designed and operated to generate power from a mechanical process (generator) or used to power a mechanical effect (motor). Electrical engineering in this context also encompasses electronics engineering. Electromechanical devices are ones which have both electrical and mechanical processes. Strictly speaking, a manually operated switch is an electromechanical component due to the mechanical movement causing an electrical output. Though this is true, the term is usually understood to refer to devices which involve an electrical signal to create mechanical movement, or vice versa mechanical movement to create an electric signal. Often involving electromagnetic principles such as in relays, which allow a voltage or current to control another, usually isolated circuit voltage or current by mechanically switching sets of contacts, and solenoids, by which a voltage can actuate a moving linkage as in solenoid valves. Before the development of modern electronics, electromechanical devices were widely used in complicated subsystems of parts, including electric typewriters, teleprinters, clocks, initial television systems, and the very early electromechanical digital computers. Solid-state electronics have replaced electromechanics in many applications. History The first electric motor was invented in 1822 by Michael Faraday. The motor was developed only a year after Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that the flow of electric current creates a proportional magnetic field. This early motor was simply a wire partially submerged into a glass of mercury with a magnet at the bottom. When the wire was connected to a battery a magnetic field was created and this interaction with the magnetic field given off by the magnet caused the wire to spin. Ten years later the first electric generator was invented, again by Michael Faraday. This generator consisted of a magnet passing through a coil of wire and inducing current that was measured by a galvanometer. Faraday's research and experiments into electricity are the basis of most of modern electromechanical principles known today.Interest in electromechanics surged with the research into long distance communication. The Industrial Revolution's rapid increase in production gave rise to a demand for intracontinental communication, allowing electromechanics to make its way into public service. Relays originated with telegraphy as electromechanical devices were used to regenerate telegraph signals. The Strowger switch, the Panel switch, and similar devices were widely used in early automated telephone exchanges. Crossbar switches were first widely installed in the middle 20th century in Sweden, the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, and these quickly spread to the rest of the world. Electromechanical systems saw a massive leap in progress from 1910-1945 as the world was put into global war twice. World War I saw a burst of new electromechanics as spotlights and radios were used by all countries. By World War II, countries had developed and centralized their military around the versatility and power of electromechanics. One example of these still used today is the alternator, which was created to power military equipment in the 1950s and later repurposed for automobiles in the 1960s. Post-war America greatly benefited from the military's development of electromechanics as household work was quickly replaced by electromechanical systems such as microwaves, refrigerators, and washing machines. The electromechanical television systems of the late 19th century were less successful. Electric typewriters developed, up to the 1980s, as "power-assisted typewriters". They contained a single electrical component, the motor. Where the keystroke had previously moved a typebar directly, now it engaged mechanical linkages that directed mechanical power from the motor into the typebar. This was also true of the later IBM Selectric. At Bell Labs, in the 1946, the Bell Model V computer was developed. It was an electromechanical relay-based device; cycles took seconds. In 1968 electromechanical systems were still under serious consideration for an aircraft flight control computer, until a device based on large scale integration electronics was adopted in the Central Air Data Computer. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) have roots in the silicon revolution, which can be traced back to two important silicon semiconductor inventions from 1959: the monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor, and the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs. MOSFET scaling, the miniaturisation of MOSFETs on IC chips, led to the miniaturisation of electronics (as predicted by Moore's law and Dennard scaling). This laid the foundations for the miniaturisation of mechanical systems, with the development of micromachining technology based on silicon semiconductor devices, as engineers began realizing that silicon chips and MOSFETs could interact and communicate with the surroundings and process things such as chemicals, motions and light. One of the first silicon pressure sensors was isotropically micromachined by Honeywell in 1962.An early example of a MEMS device is the resonant-gate transistor, an adaptation of the MOSFET, developed by Harvey C. Nathanson in 1965. During the 1970s to early 1980s, a number of MOSFET microsensors were developed for measuring physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters. In the early 21st century, there has been research on nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS). Modern practice Today, electromechanical processes are mainly used by power companies. All fuel based generators convert mechanical movement to electrical power. Some renewable energies such as wind and hydroelectric are powered by mechanical systems that also convert movement to electricity. In the last thirty years of the 20th century, equipment which would generally have used electromechanical devices became less expensive. This equipment became cheaper because it used more reliably integrated microcontroller circuits containing ultimately a few million transistors, and a program to carry out the same task through logic. With electromechanical components there were only moving parts, such as mechanical electric actuators. This more reliable logic has replaced most electromechanical devices, because any point in a system which must rely on mechanical movement for proper operation will inevitably have mechanical wear and eventually fail. Properly designed electronic circuits without moving parts will continue to operate correctly almost indefinitely and are used in most simple feedback control systems. Circuits without moving parts appear in a large number of items from traffic lights to washing machines. Another electromechanical device is Piezoelectric devices, but they do not use electromagnetic principles. Piezoelectric devices can create sound or vibration from an electrical signal or create an electrical signal from sound or mechanical vibration. To become an electromechanical engineer, typical college courses involve mathematics, engineering, computer science, designing of machines, and other automotive classes that help gain skill in troubleshooting and analyzing issues with machines. To be an electromechanical engineer a bachelor's degree is required, usually in electrical, mechanical, or electromechanical engineering. As of April 2018, only two universities, Michigan Technological University and Wentworth Institute of Technology, offer the major of electromechanical engineering. To enter the electromechanical field as an entry level technician, an associative degree is all that is required. As of 2016, approximately 13,800 people work as electro-mechanical technicians in the US. The job outlook for 2016 to 2026 for technicians is 4% growth which is about an employment change of 500 positions. This outlook is slower than average. See also References Citations SourcesDavim, J. Paulo, editor (2011) Mechatronics, John Wiley & Sons ISBN 978-1-84821-308-1 . Furlani, Edward P. (August 15, 2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications. Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-269951-1. OCLC 47726317. Krause, Paul C.; Wasynczuk, Oleg (1989). Electromechanical Motion Devices. McGraw-Hill Series in Electrical and Computer Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-035494-4. OCLC 18224514. Szolc T., Konowrocki R., Michajlow M., Pregowska A., An Investigation of the Dynamic Electromechanical Coupling Effects in Machine Drive Systems Driven by Asynchronous Motors, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, ISSN 0888-3270, Vol.49, pp. 118–134, 2014 "WWI: Technology and the weapons of war | NCpedia". www.ncpedia.org. Retrieved 2018-04-22. Further reading A first course in electromechanics. By Hugh Hildreth Skilling. Wiley, 1960. Electromechanics: a first course in electromechanical energy conversion, Volume 1. By Hugh Hildreth Skilling. R. E. Krieger Pub. Co., Jan 1, 1979. Electromechanics and electrical machinery. By J. F. Lindsay, M. H. Rashid. Prentice-Hall, 1986. Electromechanical motion devices. By Hi-Dong Chai. Prentice Hall PTR, 1998. Mechatronics: Electromechanics and Contromechanics. By Denny K. Miu. Springer London, Limited, 2011.

New Horizon (textbook)

New Horizon is an English language textbook used by junior high school students in Japan. It first came out in 1966. It is published by Tokyo Shoseki. There are three volumes, one for each of the three years of school. As of 2003, around 40% of schools were using New Horizon as their English textbook.

New Horizon is an English language textbook used by junior high school students in Japan. It first came out in 1966. It is published by Tokyo Shoseki. There are three volumes, one for each of the three years of school. As of 2003, around 40% of schools were using New Horizon as their English textbook. Characters There are several characters whose adventures centered on the fictional Wakaba Junior High School inspire the books' grammar and vocabulary lessons. These characters, updated in the revised 2006 edition of the text, are as follows: Judy Brown – An African-American girl from New York. Emi Ito (伊藤 絵美 Itō Emi) – A young Japanese girl. Shin Tanaka (田中 慎 Tanaka Shin) – A young Japanese boy. Mike Davis – A young Australian. Lisa – Ms. Green's sister who lives in Toronto, Canada. Koji (浩司 Kōji) – Lisa's Japanese husband. Bill – Ms. Green's little brother. Bin – Koji's Chinese friend.Their teachers are a Canadian Assistant Language Teacher (ALT) named Ann Green and Kazuko Sato (佐藤 和子 Satō Kazuko), a Japanese woman who is mostly ignored by the authors. The 2006 edition has only minor changes from the previous edition; e.g., there are T-shirts on sale instead of shoes, and the kids visit Canada instead of Australia. In April 2016, new characters and visuals in the fictional Midori (green) High School are introduced: Saki Andou (安藤咲 Andou Saki) – A first year student in the Judo (柔道) club. Haruki Andou (安藤春樹 Andou Haruki) – Saki's older brother who studies in an Australian University. Becky Jones – Born in Australia and met Saki during the school's cultural festival. Kouta Ito (伊藤光太 Ito Kouta) – A first year student in the soccer club. Emi Ito (伊藤絵美 Ito Emi) – Kouta's older sister. Paulo Fernandes – Born in Brazil, the coach of the soccer team. Deepa Mitra – Born in India, first year student. She loves music and is in the school's band. Alex Green – Born in Canada, first year student. He joins the dance team of the Japanese culture club.Their ALT is named Ellen Baker who was born in Boston, USA. Her brother Mike works in a Chinese cuisine restaurant in Japan. Mary Brown is her friend who also hails from Boston. Popular culture The appearance of Ellen Baker went viral, with much fan art causing concern to the original artist, prompting him to call for restraint on her fans. See also English textbooks in use in Japan Sunshine New Crown Total English References External links Englipedia Tokyo Shoseki publishing company (Japanese)

Nanjing University Town

Nanjing has a total area of 6582.31 square kilometers and a population of about 9.3146 million. Local development and education and cultural industries coexist. Four university towns have begun to take shape in recent years. From north to south, they are Xianlin University Town in Qixia District, Pukou University Town in Pukou District, Jiangning University Town in Jiangning District and Lishui University Town in Lishui District.

Nanjing has a total area of 6582.31 square kilometers and a population of about 9.3146 million. Local development and education and cultural industries coexist. Four university towns have begun to take shape in recent years. From north to south, they are Xianlin University Town in Qixia District, Pukou University Town in Pukou District, Jiangning University Town in Jiangning District and Lishui University Town in Lishui District. Xianlin University Town Xianlin University Town is located at the northern end of Nanjing City. Construction started in January 2002, covering an area of about 80 square kilometers. The city is rich in educational resources and has convenient transportation for technology and medical care. Colleges such as Nanjing University Xianlin Campus, Nanjing Normal University Xianlin campus, Nanjing Industrial Vocational and Technical University are all located in Xianlin University Town. In 2020,some incentive measures be announced, and a scientific and technological innovation fund be established. It is hoped that the university will become functional, which is regarded as an important development center in Nanjing in the future. Pukou University Town Pukou University Town, located in the northwest of Nanjing City, was established in September 1988. It is the earliest university town built in Nanjing. It includes Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing Audit College, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Second Normal College, Jiangsu Police Academy, and Nanjing University Jinling College, Southeast University Chengxian College. Jiangning University Town Jiangning University Town is located in the south of the main city of Nanjing, with a planned area of 27 square kilometers. It included the largest number of universities in Nanjing, except Xianlin University Town. Lishui University Town Lishui University Town is located in the southern district of Nanjing. It is a newly emerging university town in recent years. It actively attracts high-quality educational resources of all ages to set up, such as Jinling Middle School, Suzhou Foreign Language School, Nanjing Foreign Language School, Nanjing Art Institute, etc. The government hope to create a new university town full of literature, art, science and education. == References ==

Not evaluated

A not evaluated (NE) species is one which has been categorized under the IUCN Red List of threatened species as not yet having been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.This conservation category is one of nine IUCN threat assessment categories for species to indicate their risk of global extinction. The categories range from 'extinct' (EX) at one end of the spectrum, to 'least concern' (LC) at the other. The categories 'data deficient' and 'not evaluated' (NE) are not on the spectrum, because they indicate species that have not been reviewed enough to assign to a category.The category of 'not evaluated' does not indicate that a species is not at risk of extinction, but simply that the species has not yet been studied for any risk to be quantified and published. The IUCN advises that species categorised as 'not evaluated' "...should not be treated as if they were non-threatened. It may be appropriate ... to give them the same degree of attention as threatened taxa, at least until their status can be assessed.

A not evaluated (NE) species is one which has been categorized under the IUCN Red List of threatened species as not yet having been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.This conservation category is one of nine IUCN threat assessment categories for species to indicate their risk of global extinction. The categories range from 'extinct' (EX) at one end of the spectrum, to 'least concern' (LC) at the other. The categories 'data deficient' and 'not evaluated' (NE) are not on the spectrum, because they indicate species that have not been reviewed enough to assign to a category.The category of 'not evaluated' does not indicate that a species is not at risk of extinction, but simply that the species has not yet been studied for any risk to be quantified and published. The IUCN advises that species categorised as 'not evaluated' "...should not be treated as if they were non-threatened. It may be appropriate ... to give them the same degree of attention as threatened taxa, at least until their status can be assessed.": 7 : 76 By 2015, the IUCN had assessed and allocated conservation statuses to over 76,000 species worldwide. From these it had categorised some 24,000 species as globally threatened at one conservation level or another. However, despite estimates varying widely as to the number of species existing on Earth (ranging from 3 million up to 30 million), this means the IUCN's 'not evaluated' (NE) category is by far the largest of all nine extinction risk categories. Other applications The global IUCN assessment and categorization process has subsequently been applied at country and sometimes at regional levels as the basis for assessing conservation threats and for establishing individual Red Data lists for those areas.Assessment criteria have also begun to be applied as a way of categorizing threats to ecosystems, with every ecosystem falling into the IUCN category 'not evaluated' prior to the start of the assessment process. See also Data deficient Convention on Biological Diversity == Notes and references ==

Schaubühne

The Schaubühne am Lehniner Platz (Theatre on Lehniner Square) is a famous theatre in the Wilmersdorf district of Berlin, located on the Kurfürstendamm boulevard. It is a conversion of the Universum cinema, built according to plans designed by Erich Mendelsohn in 1928.

The Schaubühne am Lehniner Platz (Theatre on Lehniner Square) is a famous theatre in the Wilmersdorf district of Berlin, located on the Kurfürstendamm boulevard. It is a conversion of the Universum cinema, built according to plans designed by Erich Mendelsohn in 1928. History The cinema was the centrepiece of the wider WOGA housing complex, designed by Mendelsohn in a New Objectivity-styled urban development ensemble, with a shopping walkway, apartment blocks, lawns, and a tennis court in the back. It possibly was the first Modernist cinema built in the world, as opposed to the Moorish, Egyptian, and baroque styles that predominated. Mendelsohn wrote a short text on his cinema, declaring 'no Baroque palaces for Buster Keaton'. The cinema would become very influential on Streamline Moderne cinema design in the 1930s. Heavily damaged in World War II, it was rebuilt and re-opened and from 1969 served as a dance hall and for musical theatre. The building's current use as a lyric-style theatre dates from the late 1970s, when the Schaubühne ensemble around Peter Stein, formerly residing on Hallesches Ufer in Kreuzberg, searched for a new venue. From 1978 to 1981, the interiors were completely changed, centred on a theatre hall with adjustable spaces and no separation of audience and performers. The Schaubühne ensemble itself was founded in 1962. It became the domain of Peter Stein in 1970. Stein had sparked a theatre scandal in Munich, where he had staged Peter Weiss' Viet Nam Diskurs, by collecting money among the theatre-goers in order to support the Viet Cong. Strongly influenced by the Protests of 1968 and the German student movement, his first production of Brecht's The Mother, starring Therese Giehse, immediately earned fierce protests by conservative West Berlin politicians, who spoke of "communist agitation". The next year, the ensemble received the Deutscher Kritikerpreis award for the performance of Ibsen's Peer Gynt. In the following years, the Schaubühne directed by Stein and his dramaturgical assistant Botho Strauß became one of the leading theatre stages in Germany. In 1999, Thomas Ostermeier took over as artistic director at Schaubühne am Lehniner Platz in Berlin, alongside co-directors Jens Hillje and Sasha Waltz. Waltz opened the Schaubühne under new direction with the debut of Körper (2000). With a move towards social theatre, attendance increased by 14%. Since 2000, the theatre has hosted Streitraum, a series of political public panel discussions now moderated by Carolin Emcke. Waltz left on the expiration of her five-year contract and reactivated her independent company Sasha Waltz & Guests, based in Berlin. Since 2005, Thomas Ostermeier and Jens Hillje have been responsible for a vigorous modern orientation of Stein's former theatre, where tradition still has its place with a focus on interpretations of classic works. Touring Under Ostermeier and intendant Tobias Veit, Schaubühne productions have toured internationally. Australia in particular has seen Schaubühne productions since 2006. The ensemble made its Australian debut with Nora at the 2006 Adelaide Festival, followed by Cat on a Hot Tin Roof at the 2008 Adelaide Festival (both under the artistic direction of Brett Sheehy). Hamlet was staged at the 2010 Sydney Festival (under the artistic direction of Lindy Hume), and Trust was performed at the 2011 Perth International Arts Festival (under the artistic direction of Shelagh Magazda). Schaubühne's Hedda Gabler appeared at the 2011 Melbourne Festival, and the following year, An Enemy of the People was staged at the same festival (both under the artistic direction of Brett Sheehy). All productions which have toured Australia have been directed by Ostermeier, except for Trust, which was directed by Falk Richter and Anouk van Dijk. References Bruno Zevi (1999) E. Mendelsohn – The Complete Works. Birkhäuser Verlag ISBN 3-7643-5975-7 External links Schaubühne Berlin

Alex Wood (politician)

Alex Wood (born 1950, Dundee) is a former Labour leader of Edinburgh City Council in Scotland.

Alex Wood (born 1950, Dundee) is a former Labour leader of Edinburgh City Council in Scotland. Biography He was educated at Paisley Grammar School, the New University of Ulster, Moray House College of Education, the University of Edinburgh, the University of Stirling and the University of Strathclyde. He was a member of the Labour Party from 1969 until 1987. He was a member of the National Committee of the Labour Party Young Socialists from 1973 to 1975. In the early 1970s Wood was a leading figure in the entryist Militant tendency in Scotland who left that party after it decided to support the creation of a devolved Scottish Assembly. Subsequently, he became a trenchant critic of Militant.He subsequently became a leading figure in the Labour Co-ordinating Committee in Scotland and wrote its pamphlet on Labour and Ireland. He was Labour Parliamentary candidate for Dumfries in 1979, and for West Edinburgh in 1983 (having been elected to Edinburgh District Council in 1980 and having become leader of the Edinburgh District Council Labour Group in 1982) and in May 1984 became leader of the first ever majority Labour administration in the city.Members of the Labour group of councillors felt however that his politics were further left than theirs and in May 1986 voted they had no confidence in his leadership. He was replaced as council leader with Mark Lazarowicz.Subsequently, Wood resigned his council seat, left Labour and joined the 1988 version of the Scottish Socialist Party.Shortly after the demise of the SSP, Wood joined the Scottish National Party.A teacher by profession, he retired as headteacher of Wester Hailes Education Centre in Edinburgh in August 2011. He had also been seconded (2008–09) as Headteacher to Tynecastle High School. He writes on educational issues in The Herald, and writes regular columns on educational matters in SecEd, Holyrood Magazine, the Times Educational Supplement Scotland and contributes to the Scottish Review, Lothian Life and the Caledonian Mercury. == Notes ==

Hoti language

Hoti is an extinct language of Seram, Indonesia. == External links ==

Hoti is an extinct language of Seram, Indonesia. == External links ==

The War College: Universal Military Simulator 3

The War College: Universal Military Simulator 3 is a 1996 computer wargame developed by Intergalactic Development and published by GameTek. It is the sequel to The Universal Military Simulator and UMS II: Nations at War.

The War College: Universal Military Simulator 3 is a 1996 computer wargame developed by Intergalactic Development and published by GameTek. It is the sequel to The Universal Military Simulator and UMS II: Nations at War. Gameplay The War College is a computer wargame that simulates four battles from different historical periods: the Battle of Pharsalus, Battle of Antietam, Battle of Austerlitz and Battle of Tannenberg. The game eschews the traditional hex map format in favor of free unit movement based on algorithmic data. Reception According to designer Ezra Sidran, The War College's sales were hurt by the closure of the game's publisher. He wrote in 2016, "To this day I have no idea how many units it sold. We never got a royalty statement."William R. Trotter was largely positive toward the game in his review for PC Gamer US, dubbing it "a mature, deep, thoughtful simulation that embodies a radical departure from the wargaming norm". Barry Brenesal of PC Games was less impressed: "this simulation's sum doesn't live up to the promise of its parts", he argued. In Computer Game Review, Scott Gehrs wrote, "While I cannot say that The War College is a title that everyone will like, I can say that for the serious war strategist or student of military history, The War College is the place to study." References External links The War College: Universal Military Simulator 3 at MobyGames

Iltasadum

Iltasadum of Kish was the twenty-first Sumerian king in the First Dynasty of Kish, according to the Sumerian King List. His name does not appear in Early Dynastic inscriptions, meaning that he is unlikely to have been a real historical person. == References ==

Iltasadum of Kish was the twenty-first Sumerian king in the First Dynasty of Kish, according to the Sumerian King List. His name does not appear in Early Dynastic inscriptions, meaning that he is unlikely to have been a real historical person. == References ==

Arthur I. Appleton

Arthur Ivar Appleton (October 14, 1915 – January 15, 2008) was a businessman from the Northbrook area of Chicago. He lived part of the year in Chicago and split time between his Indian Creek estate near Miami Beach, Florida, and his thoroughbred farm, Bridlewood Farm in Ocala, Florida. He was one of the leading thoroughbred horse breeders and owners in the United States. He made his fortune in the family's electrical supply business, Appleton Electric Company, founded by his father, Albert Ivar Appleton, in Chicago in 1903.

Arthur Ivar Appleton (October 14, 1915 – January 15, 2008) was a businessman from the Northbrook area of Chicago. He lived part of the year in Chicago and split time between his Indian Creek estate near Miami Beach, Florida, and his thoroughbred farm, Bridlewood Farm in Ocala, Florida. He was one of the leading thoroughbred horse breeders and owners in the United States. He made his fortune in the family's electrical supply business, Appleton Electric Company, founded by his father, Albert Ivar Appleton, in Chicago in 1903. Early life and education Appleton was born in Chicago on October 14, 1915, the son of the founder of the Appleton Electric Company, Swedish industrialist Albert I. Appleton, and Lillian W. Appleton. Appleton loved art and antiques from an early age. His mother was a concert pianist, singer and collector of fine art, who instilled in Arthur and his sister, Edith-Marie, her love of beautiful things. Appleton entered Dartmouth College at age 16, receiving his degree from the Amos Tuck School of Business Administration and Finance in 1936. Appleton served in the Navy during World War II, achieving the rank of Lieutenant. Appleton married actress Martha O'Driscoll in 1947. The Appletons lived in the Northbrook area, and they had another home in Indian Creek Village, Florida. Career Appleton joined the family business, which manufactured electrical products used in chemical and steel plants as well as indoor and outdoor lighting equipment. In 1947, Appleton became president and chairman of Appleton Electric Company. He contributed many inventions to the electronics field, acquiring more than 160 patents. Upon his retirement in 1982, the business was sold to Emerson Electric. He was also involved in real estate development in California and the oil business in Oklahoma. He appeared on the Forbes 400 list one time, in 1984, with a net worth of $200 million. Horse breeding and racing Appleton was interested in thoroughbred horse racing in Chicago and later in Florida; he served on the board of Gulfstream Park in Hallandale Beach. In the 1970s, he started accumulating the land that became Bridlewood Farm in Ocala, Florida. The farm bred over 90 stakes winners. Notable horses he bred include Southern Image and David Junior. The farm also trained 2004 Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes winner Smarty Jones. Bridlewood was sold to media mogul John C. Malone in 2013. Appleton Museum of Art Appleton, his wife, and his sister started the Appleton Museum of Art in 1987. It was Ocala's first art museum. Death Appleton died at home on January 15, 2008, at the age of 92. See also Appleton Stakes References External links Goldman, Dave (October 11, 2001). "Arthur Appleton, a many-splendored breeder". Daily Racing Form.

Culture of capitalism

The culture of capitalism or capitalist culture is the set of social practices, social norms, values and patterns of behavior that are attributed to the capitalist economic system in a capitalist society. Capitalist culture promotes the accumulation of capital and the sale of commodities, where individuals are primarily defined by their relationship to business and the market. The culture is composed of people who, behaving according to a set of learned rules, act as they must act in order to survive in capitalist societies.Elements of capitalist culture include the mindset of business and corporate culture, consumerism and working class culture.

The culture of capitalism or capitalist culture is the set of social practices, social norms, values and patterns of behavior that are attributed to the capitalist economic system in a capitalist society. Capitalist culture promotes the accumulation of capital and the sale of commodities, where individuals are primarily defined by their relationship to business and the market. The culture is composed of people who, behaving according to a set of learned rules, act as they must act in order to survive in capitalist societies.Elements of capitalist culture include the mindset of business and corporate culture, consumerism and working class culture. Capitalist culture and ideology While certain political ideologies, such as neoliberalism, assume and promote the view that the behavior that capitalism fosters in individuals is natural to humans, anthropologist Richard Robbins opines that there is nothing natural about this behavior - people are not naturally dispossessed to accumulate wealth and driven by wage-labor.Political ideologies such as neoliberalism abstract the economic sphere from other aspects of society (politics, culture, family etc., with any political activity constituting an intervention into the natural process of the market, for example) and assume that people make rational exchanges in the sphere of market transactions. However, applying the concept of embeddedness to market societies, the sociologist Granovetter demonstrates that rational economic exchanges are actually heavily influenced by pre-existing social ties and other factors.In a capitalist system, society and culture revolve around exploitative business activity (the accumulation of capital derived from the surplus generated by the labor of workers). As such, proponents of capitalism would have us believe that business activity and the market exchange are absolute, or "natural", in that all other human social relations revolve around these processes (or should exist to facilitate one's ability to perform these processes). See also Capital accumulation Capitalism Capitalist mode of production Capitalist state Consumerism Cultural capital Cultural economics Economic sociology Neoliberalism Organizational culture Protestant work ethic == References ==

Scranton Area Community Foundation

The Scranton Area Community Foundation is a public 501(c)(3) community foundation headquartered in Scranton, Pennsylvania, which was established in 1954 as a community trust by Worthington Scranton and Marion Margery Scranton to support charitable and educational organizations in the city of Scranton.The organization's 2021 mission statement notes that its objective "is to enhance the quality of life for all people in Northeastern Pennsylvania through the development of organized philanthropy."

The Scranton Area Community Foundation is a public 501(c)(3) community foundation headquartered in Scranton, Pennsylvania, which was established in 1954 as a community trust by Worthington Scranton and Marion Margery Scranton to support charitable and educational organizations in the city of Scranton.The organization's 2021 mission statement notes that its objective "is to enhance the quality of life for all people in Northeastern Pennsylvania through the development of organized philanthropy." History Established as a community trust in 1954, the Scranton Foundation was created by Worthington Scranton and Marion Margery Scranton to support charitable and educational organizations in the city of Scranton, Pennsylvania, and was launched by their initial donation of one million dollars e. According to The Plain Speaker, at the time of the foundation's creation, Margery Scranton "made it clear [the foundation] was named after the city, not the donors."In 1970, the organization's name was changed to the Scranton Area Community Foundation. Officially designated as a public community foundation by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service in 1988, the foundation was converted from a trust to a corporation in 1998, at which time it adopted the name Scranton Area Community Foundation, Inc. According to a 2020 article in Scranton's Times-Tribune, the foundation "accepts and administers donors’ gifts and bequests," providing a "tax advantage to donors," and also "acts as a catalyst for change, convening diverse groups to take action on community issues."As of late 2020, leaders of the foundation were overseeing more than 210 charitable funds with more than $44 million in assets, and were engaged in the distribution of more than one million dollars annually via scholarships to students and grants to arts, civic affairs, educational, environmental, health, and human services organizations.In 2022, the Scranton Area Community Foundation provided grant funding to the University of Scranton Police Department to present free de-escalation training for roughly forty area police officers to help them "reduce injuries and the need to use physical force by training officers to safely and effectively respond to situations involving people in crisis with effective communication and active listening," according to a university news report. References External links Annual Reports to the Community. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Scranton Area Community Foundation, retrieved online July 14, 2021. Scranton Area Foundation Inc.(profile and accountability assessment). Glen Rock, New Jersey: Charity Navigator, retrieved online July 14, 2021.

Black Panther (film)

Black Panther is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the 18th film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was directed by Ryan Coogler, who co-wrote the screenplay with Joe Robert Cole, and it stars Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther alongside Michael B. Jordan, Lupita Nyong'o, Danai Gurira, Martin Freeman, Daniel Kaluuya, Letitia Wright, Winston Duke, Sterling K. Brown, Angela Bassett, Forest Whitaker, and Andy Serkis. In Black Panther, T'Challa is crowned king of Wakanda following his father's death, but he is challenged by Killmonger (Jordan), who plans to abandon the country's isolationist policies and begin a global revolution. Wesley Snipes planned to make a Black Panther film in 1992, but the project did not come to fruition.

Black Panther is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the 18th film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was directed by Ryan Coogler, who co-wrote the screenplay with Joe Robert Cole, and it stars Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther alongside Michael B. Jordan, Lupita Nyong'o, Danai Gurira, Martin Freeman, Daniel Kaluuya, Letitia Wright, Winston Duke, Sterling K. Brown, Angela Bassett, Forest Whitaker, and Andy Serkis. In Black Panther, T'Challa is crowned king of Wakanda following his father's death, but he is challenged by Killmonger (Jordan), who plans to abandon the country's isolationist policies and begin a global revolution. Wesley Snipes planned to make a Black Panther film in 1992, but the project did not come to fruition. In September 2005, Marvel Studios listed a Black Panther film as one of ten films based on Marvel characters intended to be distributed by Paramount Pictures. Mark Bailey was hired to write a script in January 2011. Black Panther was officially announced in October 2014, and Boseman made his first appearance as the character in Captain America: Civil War (2016). Cole and Coogler had joined by then, with additional casting in May. Black Panther was the first Marvel Studios film with a Black director and a predominantly Black cast. Principal photography took place from January to April 2017 at EUE/Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, and in Busan, South Korea. Black Panther premiered at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and was released theatrically in the United States on February 16, as part of Phase Three of the MCU. Critics praised its direction, writing, acting (particularly that of Boseman, Jordan, and Wright), costume design, production values, and soundtrack, but some criticized the visual effects. Many critics considered the film to be one of the best in the MCU, and it was also noted for its cultural significance. The National Board of Review and the American Film Institute named Black Panther one of the top-ten films of 2018. It grossed over $1.3 billion worldwide and broke numerous box office records, becoming the highest-grossing film directed by a Black filmmaker, the ninth-highest-grossing film at the time of its release, the third-highest-grossing film in the U.S. and Canada, and the second-highest-grossing film of 2018. Black Panther was nominated for seven awards at the 91st Academy Awards, winning three, and received numerous other accolades. It was the first superhero film to receive a Best Picture nomination, and the first MCU film to win several categories. A sequel, Black Panther: Wakanda Forever, was released on November 11, 2022, while a television series set in Wakanda is in development for Disney+. Plot Thousands of years ago, five African tribes war over a meteorite containing the metal vibranium. One warrior ingests a "heart-shaped herb" affected by the metal and gains superhuman abilities, becoming the first "Black Panther". He unites all but the Jabari Tribe to form the nation of Wakanda. Over centuries, the Wakandans use vibranium to develop advanced technologies and isolate themselves from the world by posing as an underdeveloped country. In 1992, Wakanda king T'Chaka visits his brother N'Jobu, who is working undercover in Oakland, California. T'Chaka accuses N'Jobu of assisting black-market arms dealer Ulysses Klaue with stealing vibranium from Wakanda. N'Jobu's partner reveals he is Zuri, another undercover Wakandan, and confirms T'Chaka's suspicions. In the present day, following T'Chaka's death, his son T'Challa returns to Wakanda to assume the throne. He and Okoye, leader of the Dora Milaje, extract T'Challa's ex-lover Nakia from an undercover assignment so she can attend his coronation ceremony with his mother Ramonda and younger sister Shuri. At the ceremony, the Jabari Tribe's leader M'Baku challenges T'Challa for the crown in ritual combat. T'Challa defeats M'Baku and persuades him to yield rather than die. When Klaue and his accomplice Erik Stevens steal a Wakandan artifact from a London museum, T'Challa's friend and Okoye's husband W'Kabi urges him to bring Klaue back alive. T'Challa, Okoye, and Nakia travel to Busan, South Korea, where Klaue plans to sell the artifact to CIA agent Everett K. Ross. A firefight erupts, and Klaue attempts to flee but is caught by T'Challa, who reluctantly releases him to Ross's custody. Klaue tells Ross that Wakanda's international image is a front for a technologically advanced civilization. Erik attacks and extracts Klaue as Ross is gravely injured protecting Nakia. Rather than pursue Klaue, T'Challa takes Ross to Wakanda, where their technology can save him. While Shuri heals Ross, T'Challa confronts Zuri about N'Jobu, as Erik was wearing a necklace that belonged to him. Zuri explains that N'Jobu had grown disillusioned with Wakanda's isolationism and planned to share Wakanda's technology with people of African descent around the world to help them conquer their oppressors with the help of Klaue. Before T'Chaka could arrest N'Jobu, the latter attacked Zuri and forced T'Chaka to kill him. T'Chaka ordered Zuri to lie that N'Jobu had disappeared and left behind N'Jobu's American son N'Jadaka to maintain the lie. This boy grew up to be Erik, a black ops U.S. Navy SEAL who adopted the nickname "Killmonger". Meanwhile, Killmonger kills Klaue and takes his body to Wakanda. He is brought before the tribal elders, revealing his identity to be N'Jadaka and stating his claim to the throne. Killmonger challenges T'Challa to ritual combat, where he kills Zuri, badly injures T'Challa, and hurls him over a waterfall. Killmonger ingests the heart-shaped herb and orders the rest incinerated, but Nakia extracts one of them. Killmonger, supported by W'Kabi and his army, prepares to distribute shipments of Wakandan weapons to operatives around the world. Nakia, Shuri, Ramonda, and Ross flee to the Jabari Tribe for aid. They find a comatose T'Challa, rescued by the Jabari as repayment for sparing M'Baku's life. Healed by Nakia's herb, T'Challa returns to fight Killmonger, who also dons a nanotech suit similar to T'Challa's. W'Kabi and his army fight Shuri, Nakia, and the Dora Milaje, while Ross remotely pilots a jet and shoots down the planes carrying vibranium weapons before they can leave Wakanda. M'Baku and the Jabari arrive to reinforce T'Challa. Confronted by Okoye, W'Kabi and his army stand down. Fighting in Wakanda's vibranium mine, T'Challa disrupts Killmonger's suit and stabs him. Killmonger refuses to be healed, choosing to die a free man rather than be incarcerated; T'Challa shows him the Wakanda sunset and Killmonger dies peacefully. T'Challa establishes an outreach center at the building where N'Jobu died, to be run by Nakia and Shuri. In a mid-credits scene, T'Challa appears before the United Nations to reveal Wakanda's true nature to the world. In a post-credits scene, Shuri helps Bucky Barnes with his rehabilitation. Cast Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther:The king of the African nation of Wakanda who gains superhuman strength by ingesting the heart-shaped herb. He ascends to the throne following the death of his father T'Chaka in Captain America: Civil War (2016). Boseman called T'Challa an anti-hero who is "very much aware" of his responsibility as the leader of Wakanda. Black Panther's suit, which forms around his body, was inspired by a similar design by artist Brian Stelfreeze in Ta-Nehisi Coates's comic book series Black Panther: A Nation Under Our Feet. For his Wakandan accent, Boseman worked with the same dialect coach he had for Message from the King (2016), and worked with Marrese Crump to stay in shape between Civil War and Black Panther. To prepare for the role, Boseman visited South Africa twice; examined Shaka Zulu, Patrice Lumumba, speeches from Nelson Mandela, and Fela Kuti songs; talked to a Yoruba Babalawo; trained in Dambe, Capoeira Angola, and Zulu stick fighting; and took a DNA test to better understand his African ancestry. He signed a five-film contract with Marvel, beginning with Civil War. Ashton Tyler plays a young T'Challa.: i  Michael B. Jordan as N'Jadaka / Erik "Killmonger" Stevens:A black ops mercenary and former U.S. Navy SEAL who seeks to overthrow his cousin T'Challa and enforce his own opinion on how Wakanda should be ruled. Jordan had wanted to play a villain for "a while", and likened Killmonger and T'Challa's relationship to the X-Men characters Magneto and Professor X. He added that Killmonger is strategic, thoughtful, patient, and "trained to a T". Killmonger's bumpy, ritualistic tribal markings on his chest and torso resemble the scar tattoos of the Mursi and Surma tribes, and consisted of 90 individually sculpted silicone molds that took two-and-a-half hours to apply.: 21  Jordan would have to sit in a sauna for two hours at the end of the day to remove the prosthetics. Killmonger's dreadlocks hairstyle was a modern take on the character's long hair in the comics. To prepare for the role, Jordan studied Malcolm X, Marcus Garvey, Huey P. Newton, Fred Hampton, and Tupac Shakur. He also cited Heath Ledger's portrayal of the Joker in The Dark Knight (2008) as an influence. Corey Calliet, who had previously worked with Jordan on Creed (2015), served as his trainer. Seth Carr plays a young Stevens.: i  Lupita Nyong'o as Nakia:T'Challa's former lover and a War Dog, an undercover spy for Wakanda, from the River Tribe. Nyong'o called Nakia a "departure" from her comic counterpart. She begins the film fighting for enslaved women in Nigeria. Nyong'o trained in judo, jujitsu, silat, and Filipino martial arts. Danai Gurira as Okoye:An "extremely proud" Wakandan traditionalist from the Border Tribe who is the head of the Dora Milaje, Wakanda's all-female special forces and T'Challa's bodyguards. Director Ryan Coogler cast Gurira based on her performance in Mother of George (2013), rather than her popular role of Michonne in the television series The Walking Dead, which Coogler had not seen. Gurira said that the fighting skills she learned playing Michonne complemented the skills of Okoye, but noted that the Dora Milaje are a secret service, which covers intel as well as fighting. She explained that though the character is stoic, "she also has an unexpected sense of humor. She has a heart, but for her country and for her people." Gurira's head was re-shaved every day to have her head tattoos applied, which took two-and-a-half to three-and-a-half hours. Martin Freeman as Everett K. Ross:A member of the Central Intelligence Agency whom Freeman described as having an "uneasy peace" with T'Challa. He added that the character goes on an "enlightening journey to Wakanda" in the film. Freeman and the filmmakers sought to depict Ross as a capable agent rather than just comic relief as he is in the comics. Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi: A confidant to T'Challa and his best friend who is the head of security for the Border Tribe, serving as the first line of defense for Wakanda. Letitia Wright as Shuri:T'Challa's 16-year-old sister who designs new technology for the country. Wright described Shuri as innovative of spirit and mind, wanting to take Wakanda to "a new place", and felt she was a good role model for young Black girls. Executive producer Nate Moore called Shuri the smartest person in the world, even more so than Tony Stark. Winston Duke as M'Baku:A powerful, ruthless warrior who is the leader of Wakanda's mountain tribe, the Jabari, who protest T'Challa being the new king. Duke described the Jabari as people who "strongly believe that to move forward, you have to have a strong adherence and respect for the past. So they have a deep moral conscience." Character elements from Christopher Priest's 1998–2003 Black Panther series were adapted for M'Baku's portrayal in the film. M'Baku is not referred to in the film by his comics alter ego "Man-Ape", since Marvel felt there were "a lot of racial implications that don't sit well" in having a Black character dress up as an ape. This aspect of the character was instead reworked to have the Jabari tribe worship the gorilla gods, with M'Baku still wearing elements of fur on his arms and legs and a chest-plate that hints at the gorilla. Moore continued, "Man-Ape is a problematic character for a lot of reasons, but the idea behind Man-Ape we thought was really fascinating ... It's a line I think we're walking, and hopefully walking successfully." To further differentiate the Jabari, Duke spoke a version of the Nigerian Igbo language rather than the Xhosa language spoken by other Wakandans.: 23  Sterling K. Brown as N'Jobu: T'Chaka's brother and Killmonger's father. Angela Bassett as Ramonda:T'Challa and Shuri's mother, the Queen Mother of Wakanda. Ramonda serves as an adviser to T'Challa for when he would otherwise have turned to his father. Bassett wore a silver, waist-length wig for the role that was made from 120 pieces of hair hand-rolled into dreadlocks.: 22  Calliet also served as Bassett's trainer before and during filming, creating high-intensity interval training circuits and helping to craft her diet. Forest Whitaker as Zuri:An elder statesman of Wakanda and the keeper of the heart-shaped herb. Coogler called Zuri a religious and spiritual figure, referencing the spirituality of Wakanda from the comics, and compared him to Obi-Wan Kenobi from the Star Wars series. Zuri is also a "major tie back" to T'Chaka for T'Challa. Denzel Whitaker, who is not related to Forest, plays a young Zuri. Andy Serkis as Ulysses Klaue:A South African black-market arms dealer, smuggler and gangster who is allied with Killmonger. Klaue uses a segment of advanced Wakandan mining equipment as a sonic disruptor arm-cannon that serves to replace his left arm, which was lost in Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015). Boseman described Klaue as a threat to Wakanda, one of the few outsiders to enter the country, and someone with access to vibranium. He compared the character to Osama bin Laden. Serkis added that in addition to his desire for vibranium, Klaue is motivated by a "personal" vendetta against T'Challa, and "to expose what he thinks is the hypocrisy of Wakanda".Additionally, Florence Kasumba and John Kani reprise their respective roles of Ayo and T'Chaka from Captain America: Civil War; Kani's son Atandwa Kani portrays a young T'Chaka. Wakandan elders in the film include Isaach de Bankolé for the River Tribe,: i  Connie Chiume for the Mining Tribe,: i  Dorothy Steel for the Merchant Tribe, and Danny Sapani for the Border Tribe.: i  Sydelle Noel appears as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje. Marija Abney, Janeshia Adams-Ginyard, Maria Hippolyte, Marie Mouroum, Jénel Stevens, Zola Williams, Christine Hollingsworth, and Shaunette Renée Wilson also play Doras.: i  Nabiyah Be initially announced that she was playing criminal Tilda Johnson, but her character was simply named Linda in the final film due to Gabrielle Dennis being cast as Johnson in the second season of Luke Cage.: i  Comedian Trevor Noah voices Griot, a Wakandan ship A.I., Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo as a patron in the South Korean casino, and Sebastian Stan makes an uncredited appearance in the post-credits scene reprising his role as Bucky Barnes, now named the White Wolf. Production Development In June 1992, Wesley Snipes announced his intention to make a film about Black Panther, and began work on it by that August. Snipes felt that Africa had been portrayed poorly in Hollywood films previously, and that this film could highlight the majesty of the continent due to the title character being noble and "the antithesis of [African] stereotypes". The next July, Snipes planned to begin The Black Panther after starring in Demolition Man (1993), and a month later he expressed interest in making sequels to the film as well. In January 1994, Snipes entered talks with Columbia Pictures to portray Black Panther, and Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee joined the film by March; it entered early development by May. Snipes had discussions with several different screenwriters and directors about the project, including Mario Van Peebles and John Singleton. When the film had not progressed by January 1996, Lee explained that he had not been pleased with the scripts for the project. Snipes said that one of the issues with the project's development was confusion among those unfamiliar with the comics, who thought the film was about the Black Panther Party. In July 1997, Black Panther was listed as part of Marvel Comics' film slate, and in March 1998, Marvel reportedly hired Joe Quesada and Jimmy Palmiotti, who at the time were editors of the Black Panther comics, to work on it; Quesada and Palmiotti have both denied this. That August, corporate problems at Marvel put the project on hold. A year later, Snipes was set to produce, and possibly star, in the film, while Artisan Entertainment announced a deal with Marvel in May 2000 to co-produce, finance, and distribute the film. In March 2002, Snipes planned to make the film or Blade 3 (2004) over the next year. In July 2004, Blade 3 director David S. Goyer stated that he felt Snipes starring as Black Panther in addition to Marvel's Blade "might be overkill".In September 2005, Marvel chairman and CEO Avi Arad announced Black Panther as one of ten films being developed by the new Marvel Studios. Marvel Studios received financing to produce the slate of ten films to be distributed by Paramount Pictures. In June 2006, Snipes said he hoped to have a director for the project soon, and Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige reiterated in February 2007 that Black Panther was in development. By that July, Singleton had been approached to direct the film. Two months earlier, Fantastic Four (2005) director Tim Story expressed his interest in casting Djimon Hounsou as Black Panther if he were to direct another Fantastic Four film after Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007), but a third Fantastic Four film helmed by Story went unproduced. In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser-known properties, including Black Panther; Nate Moore, the head of the writers program, was overseeing the development of Black Panther specifically. Snipes's involvement stalled at this time, as he was convicted of failing to file a tax return, serving his sentence from June 2010 to April 2013. In January 2011, Marvel Studios hired documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey to write a script for Black Panther, to be produced by Feige. By October 2013, the metal vibranium, which comes from Black Panther's home nation Wakanda, was introduced in the Marvel Cinematic Universe; Marvel had considered showing Wakanda itself as early as Iron Man 2 (2010), but were waiting until they had "a full idea" of how to depict it.In October 2014, Feige announced that Black Panther would be released on November 3, 2017, with Chadwick Boseman cast as T'Challa / Black Panther. Boseman did not audition for the role, instead discussing what he wanted to do with the part with Marvel, and earned $2 million for appearing in the film. The actor was set to first portray the character in Captain America: Civil War (2016). Snipes gave his support for the project, despite no longer being involved. Feige said that Marvel was considering minority writers and directors for the film, but would prioritize "the best filmmakers, the best writers, the best directors possible. So I'm not going to say for sure that we're going to hire from any one demographic". He added that they had met with former Black Panther comics writer Reginald Hudlin. In January 2015, Boseman said that the film was going through a "brainstorming phase", and the next month Marvel pushed back the release date to July 6, 2018. Also in February, Feige stated that casting for the film was underway, and added that he was set to meet with directors about the film following the release of Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) at the end of April.By May 2015, Marvel had discussions with Ava DuVernay to work on either Black Panther or Captain Marvel (2019) as director. In June, Feige confirmed that he had met with several directors, including DuVernay, and said that he expected a decision to be made by mid- to late 2015. By early July, DuVernay had passed on directing the film, explaining that she had been drawn to the cultural importance of depicting a Black hero to the whole world, but disagreed with Marvel on the story and did not want to compromise her vision. By October 2015, F. Gary Gray and Ryan Coogler had been considered as directors for the film, though negotiations with Coogler had cooled, and Gray had chosen to direct The Fate of the Furious (2017) instead. Joe Robert Cole, a member of the Marvel writers program, was in talks to write the screenplay, and Marvel changed the release date once again, moving it to February 16, 2018. By December, discussions with Coogler were reignited after the successful opening of his film Creed (2015). Pre-production Coogler was confirmed as director in January 2016, and said that the film was his "most personal movie to date" in part because he grew up reading comics, adding, "I feel really fortunate to be able to work on something I'm this passionate about again." After being "wooed" by Feige for months, Coogler agreed to direct the film if he could bring collaborators from his previous films to differentiate the film from other MCU films that are often "shot, composed, and edited by the same in-house people". This included Fruitvale Station (2013) cinematographer Rachel Morrison, as well as production designer Hannah Beachler and composer Ludwig Göransson, who both worked with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Coogler felt Black Panther would be unique while still fitting within the MCU's overall narrative. In April 2016, Feige said that Coogler was working on the script with Cole, and that filming would begin at the beginning of 2017. He added that the film would be the first Marvel Studios production to feature a "primarily African-American cast": Lupita Nyong'o soon entered negotiations to star as T'Challa's love interest, and Michael B. Jordan joined in an undisclosed role, after previously working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Nate Moore, serving as a producer on the film by the end of May, stated that filming would occur in Atlanta, Georgia, with Marvel "definitely investigating shooting in Africa" as well.At San Diego Comic-Con 2016, Nyong'o was confirmed for the film, in the role of Nakia, while Jordan's role was revealed to be Erik Killmonger. Also announced was Danai Gurira as Okoye. Coogler confirmed that filming would begin in January 2017. Additional casting occurred from September 2016 until the start of filming, with Winston Duke cast as M'Baku, a role that Yahya Abdul-Mateen II had also tested for as well as Michael James Shaw, who was later cast as Corvus Glaive in Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and Avengers: Endgame (2019), out of interest of visiting Africa before passing on the role; Forest Whitaker as Zuri; Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi; Angela Bassett as T'Challa's mother, Ramonda; Sterling K. Brown as N'Jobu; and Letitia Wright in an unspecified role, later to be revealed as Shuri. Dominique Thorne, who would go on to play Riri Williams / Ironheart in the sequel Black Panther: Wakanda Forever (2022), also auditioned to play Shuri. Florence Kasumba was revealed to be reprising her role as Ayo from Captain America: Civil War. Amandla Stenberg, who is biracial and light skinned, was considered for a role in the film but was not comfortable taking the place of a dark-skinned actor, and described her decision to pass on the role as "really challenging". By January 2017, Marvel received permission from the Oakland, California-based public transit agency AC Transit to use their logo in the film for the opening flashback sequence. The setting was chosen due to Coogler growing up in that area. Writing The production team was inspired by Ta-Nehisi Coates's run on Black Panther, who was writing the comic at the same time as they were working on the film. Of particular inspiration was Coates's poetic dialogue, Brian Stelfreeze's art, and "some of the questions that it's asking". The film was also inspired by the comic runs of Jack Kirby, Christopher Priest (which Coogler felt most influenced the film), Jonathan Hickman, and Hudlin. Characters for the film were picked from throughout the comics based on what worked for the film's story. The ceremonial betrothal aspect of the Dora Milaje was not adapted from the comics for the film. Coogler had hoped to include Spider-Man villain Kraven the Hunter early in the process because of a scene in Priest's run that had T'Challa fighting Kraven, but the rights to the character were not available due to Sony Pictures owning all rights to Spider-Man characters. Donald Glover and his brother Stephen made some minor contributions to an early draft of the script, developing the relationship between T'Challa and his younger sister Shuri. Moore noted that an early script had more scenes outside of Wakanda to explore "what it means to be African and African-American in the world a bit more", and hoped these could be revisited in a later film, particularly a "super cool" sequence that was storyboarded before being cut. Coogler and Robert Cole had considered including the Golden Age black hero Eli Bradley / Patriot for a while, but they ultimately excluded him to focus on Wakanda. Eli Bradley was eventually featured in the Disney+ miniseries The Falcon and the Winter Soldier (2021), portrayed by Elijah Richardson.Feige described Black Panther as "a big geopolitical action adventure" that focuses on family and T'Challa learning to be king, with Civil War laying the groundwork for T'Challa's morality and establishing the geopolitical landscape that he would have to deal with on returning to Wakanda. Moore compared the politics and humor of the film to Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), saying that the former would be inherent but not "preachy", and that the latter would avoid the tones of Guardians of the Galaxy (2014) and Ant-Man (2015). He also said the film would be a cross between The Godfather (1972) and the James Bond films as a "big, operatic family drama centered around a world of international espionage". Coogler was influenced by 1970s films such as the works of Francis Ford Coppola in that decade, as well as crime fiction. He also watched the film A Prophet (2009) for inspiration. Feige called the film's story "rich in culturally relevant ideas", with Boseman indicating there were parallels to "pull from" in the film in relation to Donald Trump becoming President of the United States after Barack Obama, though Feige added that "these are conversations we were having two years ago because that is inherently the story within the comics." Moore said the film does not depend on the plots of any other MCU films, but it does affect the wider MCU moving forward, with Feige stating the film was "a very important" link to Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and Avengers: Endgame (2019). Civil War did introduce the Wakandan language, based on the Xhosa language, which Boseman was taught by John Kani, who portrays T'Challa's father, King T'Chaka. Additional actors portraying Wakandans in Black Panther learned the language, with Coogler making the use of the language "a priority... as much as possible". Coogler tried to incorporate Xhosa "in natural and authentic situations", such as when multiple Wakandans were speaking in the presence of nonnatives and wanted to say something they would not understand. John Kani's son Atandwa served as a dialect coach on the film along with his father. Design Cole called the film an historic opportunity to depict a Black superhero "at a time when African-Americans are affirming their identities while dealing with vilification and dehumanization". It was important to root the film in the actual cultures of Africa, with the filmmakers consulting with experts on the region of Africa that Wakanda is supposed to be located in, rooting the film "in reality first and then build[ing] out from there". Coogler's vision for Wakanda was inspired by the southern African country Lesotho, a country which has historically been "an enclave, able to protect its independence because of its terrain" and was only lightly colonized by the British; the country's traditional blankets are also featured in the film. Coogler compared the rarity of vibranium existing only in Wakanda to the real-life mineral coltan that can almost only be found in Congo. He wanted Wakanda to feel like a full country with multiple distinct tribes, and created a project bible that detailed each Wakandan tribe to guide the design process. Special care was taken to create a futuristic look that was not alien, as some of Jack Kirby's original comic designs appeared. Sets Beachler wanted to honor the comic designs, but fill in the gaps with research concentrated on Sub-Saharan Africa, pulling inspiration from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo-Kinshasa, Ethiopia, as well as the designs of Zaha Hadid, and the pre-colonization architecture of the historic Mali Empire and the city of Timbuktu. Moore described this approach of taking inspiration from many different sources as a love letter to Africa. Beachler looked at the architecture of existing tribes, and then tried to advance the technology naturally rather than if Wakanda had been colonized. Circular motifs, signifying the transmission of energy, were an important theme throughout the film. Older locations depicted in the film, such as Warrior Falls, the City of the Dead, and the Hall of Kings, were juxtaposed with the more modern Afro-punk style of the Golden City, the capital. Rondavels were incorporated into the tops of Wakanda's skyscrapers, inspired by the appearance of mountains at Blyde River Canyon in South Africa.Beachler created different sigils and architecture for each of the Wakandan tribes, with the Border Tribe inspired by Lesotho, the Merchant Tribe having a sigil based on Nigerian writing, and the Golden Tribe using a sun symbol found throughout Africa. Gorilla City, home to the Jabari Tribe, was originally set in a rain forest, but Coogler suggested that it be found up a mountain in snow. Beachler based the written form of the Wakandan language on an old Nigerian language. She consulted with mining and metallurgy experts for the vibranium technology,: 15  including for the vibranium mine where the substance is depicted as glowing blue rocks before it is refined into the stainless steel look previously seen in the MCU. The film also adapts the kimoyo bead technology from the comics, and features sand-based technology. Beachler wanted futuristic elements of the film to be consistent with projections of what real world technology may be like in 25 or 30 years, such as the maglev and hovercraft technology used in vehicles. The Wakandan vehicles include a maglev train for carrying vibranium; the king's Royal Talon Fighter, which looks like a mask from the top and bottom; and the Dragon Flyer, inspired by the Congo peafowl.The majority of Beachler's sets were constructed on sound stages in Atlanta, including the Tribal Council, Shuri's design space, and the Hall of Kings. The Tribal Council set was built with a glass floor through which an old ruin can be seen. The exterior set for Warrior Falls was built on a backlot north of Atlanta, and was inspired by the Oribi Gorge. The set was 36 feet (11 m), made up of a six-foot-high (1.8 m) pool, and then 30-foot-high (9.1 m) cliff faces that were designed to be extended to 100 feet (30 m) with visual effects. A framework for the cliffs was hand-sculpted from industrial styrofoam, with a system of tunnels built-in to the design to allow extras to climb up to different areas of the cliffs. The framework was then covered with 25,000 cubic feet (710 m3) of foam that was sculptured to match rocks found at Oribi Gorge. The pool was filled using six large pumps, so as to create a waterfall above the ledge at the bottom. The base of the pool was made from padding so stunts could safely be carried out on the set, but designed to look like rocks and to have enough grip that the actors would not fall over in the water. The set was completed in four months, and was used for two weeks of filming.: 16 Costumes Costume designer Ruth E. Carter referenced the Maasai, Himba, Dogon, Basotho, Tuareg, Turkana, Xhosa, Zulu, Suri and Dinka people in her designs. She also examined appropriate works by Japanese fashion designer Issey Miyake, French fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent, and American fashion designer Donna Karan. Winnie Mandela provided inspiration to Carter for Angela Bassett's costumes.The Dora Milaje costumes primarily used red to reflect different African cultures, and included beaded tabards that feature talismans that would be passed down from mother to daughter. Carter wanted to avoid the "girls in the bathing suits" look, and instead have the Dora Milaje wear full armor that they would practically need for battle. She also had to take actors' stunt work into consideration. Anthony Francisco, the Senior Visual Development Illustrator, noted the Dora Milaje costumes were based 80 percent on the Maasai, five percent on samurai, five percent on ninjas, and five percent on the Ifugao people from the Philippines. The arm band and neck rings were a reference to the Southern Ndebele people and denote stature. As such, General Okoye has gold bands and rings while the other Dora Milaje wear silver.The costumes for T'Challa combined his role as king and as the head of the military, including combining a kente cloth cloak with military boots. Carter also used distinct colors and patterns for each of Wakanda's tribes, such as green with shells for the River Tribe based on the Suri; blue with wood for the Border Tribe; black with royal purple for the Black Panther and the Royal Palace; plums and purples for the Merchant Tribe in reference to the Tuareg; and ochre for the Mining Tribe inspired by the Himba. Three out of every five people in Wakanda go barefoot. The Wakandans wear "normal" clothes outside of the country, with the colors of their costumes kept consistent. Overall, Carter created 700 costumes for the film, working with "an army" of illustrators, designers, mold makers, fabric dyers, jewelry makers and more.Hair department head Camille Friend referenced traditional African art, fabrics, hair, and textures, and the current-day natural hair movement in her designs. Friend strived to keep the actors' hair natural, using "braids, locs and twists", and when necessary, extensions and wigs. As with Carter, Friend designed each tribe to have their own identifiable aesthetic, such as the Jabari Tribe having hair styled with "very straight, clean lines" and war-paint detail, inspired by Senegalese warriors. Filming Principal photography had begun by January 21, 2017, at EUE/Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, under the working title Motherland. Filming also took place at Pinewood Atlanta Studios, and in the Sweet Auburn neighborhood in Atlanta, which doubled as Oakland; the High Museum of Art, which served as the fictional Museum of Great Britain in London; and Atlanta City Hall, which served as a United Nations building. Cinematographer Rachel Morrison, who was eager to work on Black Panther after working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station, first watched all of the other MCU films to understand the established "language". She wanted to "push" that language and feature more contrast in color. Visual effects supervisor Geoff Baumann provided Morrison with before-and-after shots of scenes from Civil War so she could understand what elements are captured on set and what is created digitally. She filmed in 3.4K ArriRaw with Arri Alexa XT Plus cameras and Panavision Primo lenses, primarily using a two-camera set-up with a third or fourth camera on occasion. Morrison said that lighting was her biggest challenge, the magnitude of which "was much bigger than I'd experienced before", and made extensive use of Arri SkyPanel LED light fixtures, which she could preprogram from an iPad. Some sets were completely surrounded by SkyPanels.Shortly after filming started, Atandwa Kani stated that he would appear in the film alongside his father, the latter reprising the role of T'Chaka, while on-set photographs revealed that Martin Freeman would reprise his role as Everett K. Ross. Marvel announced that production was underway on January 26, and confirmed the casting of Freeman, Wright, and John Kani, while revealing that Andy Serkis would reprise his role as Ulysses Klaue from Avengers: Age of Ultron. Atandwa portrays a younger version of his father's character, and also served as a cultural consultant during filming. Dialect coach Beth McGuire worked to ensure there was continuity between the various actors who had to use "Wakandan accents".: 22  Jordan joined the production later than the rest of the core cast. He felt that this aided his performance, since his character is separate from and in conflict with the other characters. Because of this, Jordan kept to himself while he was on set. Since Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War were filming simultaneously in Atlanta, both production teams worked together closely to ensure a unified presentation of Wakanda in the films, as the country also plays a large role in Infinity War.Additional filming took place in South Korea, with the city of Busan serving as the setting of a car chase scene that involved 150 cars and over 700 people. Coogler and Morrison referenced the car chase sequences from Bullitt (1968), Drive (2011), and The French Connection (1971), taking the best elements from each for Black Panther's sequence. Filming in Busan began on March 17, at the Jagalchi Fish Market. Filming moved to Gwangalli Beach on March 21, with other South Korean filming locations including Marine City in the Haeundae District and at the Gwangandaegyo Bridge. The production crew hired hundreds of current and former film students from local universities as staff or assistant staff during the South Korea filming. Filming in the country wrapped on March 27, with additional location shooting also taking place at the Rwenzori Mountains and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. John Marzano served as cinematographer for aerial footage of South Africa, Zambia, Uganda, and South Korea. At CinemaCon 2017, Wright was revealed to be portraying Shuri in the film. Filming concluded on April 19, 2017. Post-production Editing Black Panther was edited by Michael Shawver and Debbie Berman, with Shawver spending time on set during filming as well as at an editing suite near the Atlanta production base. Berman joined the film after an initial director's cut had been produced, two weeks after she completed work on Marvel's Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), because Coogler likes to have both a male and female editing his films. She believed that she was chosen by Marvel because she is South African, and had been expressing interest in Black Panther throughout the editing process for Homecoming after first seeing the character in Civil War. Shawver said that a lot of their time editing was spent discussing how their work was affecting the audience. For instance, Shawver felt that initial versions of the first Warrior Falls fight fell "flat" and used techniques he learned working with Coogler on Creed to have the editing move back-and-forth to mimic the back-and-forth of the fighters. He also felt that adding more reaction shots to the crowd during the fight gave more weight to T'Challa's victory at the end. During work on the final battle, Berman pointed out to Coogler that the female Dora Milaje are rescued by the all-male Jabari tribe, which she felt undermined the focus on female characters leading up to that moment. Coogler agreed, and subsequently added female Jabari fighters to the scene through additional photography, including the first onscreen Jabari fighter in the scene. Berman felt that this was an important change that would not have been made if only men were editing the film.As first hinted by Coogler in January 2018, the film includes two post-credit scenes: one showing T'Challa address the United Nations; and one featuring Sebastian Stan reprising his role as Bucky Barnes. The first scene was originally intended to be part of the actual ending of the film, but was moved to during the credits so the film could conclude in Oakland, where it begins. Coogler felt having this symmetry was important. In the scene, T'Challa says "The foolish build barriers, while the wise build bridges." Some felt this was a reference to the political climate of the presidency of Donald Trump, but Coogler stated that the line was added before Trump's election and was simply an African proverb that his wife had found. His intention with the scene was to inspire the audience by making T'Challa seem like a real person in a familiar, real-world environment, similar to how Tony Stark was treated in Iron Man (2008). Coogler was not mandated by Marvel to feature connections to other films, but was interested in addressing the fact that Barnes was in Wakanda (per the end of Civil War) because it would be fun for the audience. He did not feel the character fit in the body of the film, but felt that an end-credits scene was appropriate. Coogler originally pitched a post-credits scene teasing Namor, which would have depicted wet footprints leading to the throne in the Wakandan palace; this did not occur in part because of rights issues with the character. Namor debuts instead in Black Panther: Wakanda Forever, portrayed by Tenoch Huerta. Visual effects Visual effects for the film were created by: Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) with help from Virtuos, Stereo D, and Scanline VFX; Double Negative; Luma Pictures; Mammal Studios; Method Studios; Perception; Rise Visual Effects Studios; Torm Studios; Trixter; Cantina Creative; Lola VFX; Capital T; Exceptional Minds; Technicolor VFX; Rodeo FX; Imageloom VFX; Anibrain; Method Pune; Bot VFX; Pixstone Images; Futureworks; Vertigo Visual; FX3X; and Yannix Thailand Co.: xii–xx  Previsualization was completed by Digital Domain and The Third Floor.: xi  Geoffrey Baumann served as visual effects supervisor. Comparing Black Panther to other MCU films, Baumann noted that the visual effects department often have free rein when creating otherworldly science fiction designs, but had to be more specific with this film due to the need to be authentic to African culture and geography. For the Warrior Falls environment, the amphitheater-like cliff walls had to be populated with digital spectators that could not simply be copy-and-pasted around the set due to the precise costume designs created by Carter for each tribe and character. Instead, the visual effects department had to work with the costumers to individually model each digital extra for the sequence. Additionally, visual effects were also used to adjust the opening sequence after test audiences were confusing the characters of T'Chaka and T'Challa, both dressed as the Black Panther. Artists digitally added some grey to T'Chaka's beard and gold trimmings to his suit to help differentiate the characters.ILM was primarily responsible for creating the digital urban environments of Wakanda. ILM VFX supervisor Craig Hammack compared this work to his time on Tomorrowland (2015), but noted the additional challenge of not just building a futuristic city, but also one that was culturally appropriate. He explained that African culture has a "certain amount of earthy material qualities that make things difficult to design as a futuristic city," which would typically use much steel and glass. ILM looked to real life examples that blend modern architecture with natural environments like One Central Park in Sydney and The Pearl of Africa Hotel in Kampala, but also had to "depart from a strict understanding of physics and go into a movie cheat world" at times to produce the desired look. Hammack was also inspired by the architecture of Uganda, where he spent time while aerial footage for the film was being shot. 60,000 individual buildings were designed and modeled for the city, which Hammack said was the first thing ILM began work on and also the last thing they were doing when the film was completed. Other things that ILM worked on during the production included set extensions and blue-screen replacements for interior sets, and the first rhinoceros shown in the film. For T'Challa's ancestral plane scenes, ILM replaced the basic set that was used with a full CG environment including an acacia tree and animated panthers. The sky was based on the Northern Lights, with this first designed for nighttime scenes before being replicated for daytime scenes in which the animators had to work hard to keep the effects visible. ILM also added additional sand for the burial sequences so Boseman could breathe during filming, and additional flames when Killmonger burns the heart-shaped herb.Method Studios created many of the natural environments of Wakanda. The company built a 3,600 km2 (1,400 sq mi) landscape that is visible in various aerial shots in the film, which was based on multiple landscapes from across Africa. Method was also responsible for creating Black Panther's and Killmonger's digital suits, including developing the look of the nanotechnology they use. They created many of the film's digital characters, vehicles, and weapons, with some of those digital creatures being rhinoceroses for the final battle, a sequence that Method did the majority of the work for. Because these rhinoceroses did not have to be seen on screen with the one designed by ILM, only basic structures, scale, and details of the character models had to be shared between the two companies. Much of the work for the final fight included crowd simulation, with Method working alongside the stunt coordinators in motion capture sessions to give each fighter a unique style. In addition to randomizing the height and weight of each digital fighter, the models had to incorporate specific design elements from the costumers. Method also worked on the vibranium mine and Shuri's laboratory, including animating the gadgets seen in the latter. Luma Pictures worked on the Busan car chase sequence, digitally creating the cars featured in the sequence based on CAD models and on-set reference. Multiple digital versions of the same car were created, so the production could have the actual cars crash and do various stunts with them, with Luma then inserting the digital versions to augment these moments. Luma also created the sonic forces from Klaue's cannon, while Scanline VFX worked on digitally removing Serkis's left arm for the London museum heist sequence. Several companies worked on the vibranium sand effects used in Wakandan technology, including ILM for the beginning of the film. Perception spent 18 months researching real-world technologies, phenomena, and visual themes to aid them in their work on the film. Their designs for the vibranium sand were based on research being done with ultrasonic transducers for the purpose of mid-air haptics and acoustic levitation. They integrated this research into the kimoyo beads worn by Wakandans and as a working interface on the royal talon fighter. Perception also created the traditional displays on the talon fighter and in Shuri's lab. For the talon fighter, the company "experimented with parallax, depth, and volume in the information being displayed, as well as developing a unique color palette to brand the Wakandan tech". In Shuri's lab, Perception adjusted the hues on the wall to match her attire, and for her healing room "proposed that the hexagonal pattern seen on the wall actually reveal itself to be articulating panels" that "pulse and ripple". The company also created the function of Black Panther's suit with nano technology and "layering the suit with different patterns as well as adding 'sub-dermal' luminescent tattoos", the virtual car chase with Shuri and T'Challa, and designed the opening prologue, with the final version created by Storm VFX. Perception also created the main-on-end title sequence. Music After reading the script, composer Ludwig Göransson decided to go to Africa to do research for the film. He spent a month in Senegal, first traveling around with musician Baaba Maal on his tour, and then spending several weeks working with local musicians to form the "base" of his score. Göransson was particularly drawn to the talking drum and the tambin, or Fula flute, to use in his character themes, along with horns. Nate Moore compared the work Göransson did in defining the sound of the film to the use of music by James Gunn in the Guardians of the Galaxy films, with the composer pushing Marvel out of their comfort zone.Kendrick Lamar produced the film's curated soundtrack, Black Panther: The Album, along with Top Dawg Entertainment founder Anthony Tiffith, after Coogler wanted to include original songs from Lamar in the film because his "artistic themes align with those we explore in the film". The soundtrack features songs that are heard in the film as well as others that are inspired by it, with the other artists featured the majority of "top-billing names" under Top Dawg Entertainment. Göransson collaborated with Lamar and producer Sounwave on the soundtrack. Three singles from the album were released throughout January and February 2018: "All the Stars", "King's Dead", and "Pray for Me". Black Panther: The Album was released on February 9, 2018, while a soundtrack of Göransson's score was released on February 16. An extended play titled Black Panther: Wakanda Remixed, featuring remixes of five cues from Göransson's score, was released on August 16, 2018. Göransson worked with several other artists to create the remixes. Marketing Marvel debuted early footage and concept art from the film at a press event in April 2017. Kyle Buchanan of Vulture praised the cinematography, costume and production design, and Black cast, saying "Black Panther doesn't look like any of the other Marvel movies ... If this is what the future of superhero movies looks like, deal me in." The screened footage was the first time Marvel had shown raw dailies, which Feige said they did to show off the "highest-class cast we've had" despite editing having not yet begun. A poster was released ahead of the first teaser trailer, which premiered during Game 4 of the 2017 NBA Finals. Fans on Twitter felt the poster was poorly photoshopped, and it was compared to a real-life picture of Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton. The trailer received a much more positive response, with Peter Sciretta of /Film finding it unexpected and refreshing, io9's Charles Pulliam-Moore calling it "every bit as intense as you were hoping it would be", and Andrew Husband for Uproxx feeling the single teaser outshone the entire Homecoming marketing campaign. It was viewed 89 million times in 24 hours, generating 349,000 mentions (second only to the amount the Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017) teaser received) and "dominated the conversation on social media" over Game 4. Per comScore and its PreAct service, the film was the subject of the most new social media conversations for the rest of the week, and the second-most for the week ending June 18, behind Homecoming. Costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 and the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con, with Coogler, Boseman, and other members of the cast presenting exclusive footage of the film at the latter event, to a standing ovation from the audience. In September, Coogler, Gurira, and Moore participated in a panel at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation's Annual Legislative Conference, where exclusive footage from the film was also shown and met with a positive response. On October 16, 2017, a full trailer was released. Dave Trumbore for Collider praised the trailer for showing an "unmistakable sense of style" unique to the character, while BamSmackPow's Brendan Day felt the trailer "does everything right". Writing for Rolling Stone, Tre Johnson felt the trailer showed T'Challa as "someone with the arrogance of [John] Shaft, the coolness of [Barack] Obama and the hot-headed impulsiveness of Kanye West". A few days later, Marvel Comics published a prelude tie-in comic focusing on one of T'Challa's first missions as the Black Panther set around the time of Iron Man. The first College Football Playoff National Championship halftime show was organized by Disney for the 2018 championship game, with Kendrick Lamar performing to promote Black Panther: The Album and the beginning of ticket sales for the film.By February 12, Black Panther was the most-tweeted about film of 2018 with more than 5 million tweets globally, and in mid-March it became the most-tweeted-about film ever with 35 million. During New York Fashion Week, designers Cushnie et Ochs, Ikiré Jones, Tome, Sophie Theallet, Fear of God, Chromat, and LaQuan Smith created custom pieces that were inspired by the film for an event titled "Welcome to Wakanda: Fashion for the Black Panther Era". Marvel Studios formed a partnership with Lexus on the film, with the 2018 Lexus LC being featured in it. The partnership produced a graphic novel, Black Panther: Soul of a Machine, which was released in December 2017 from writers Fabian Nicieza, Geoffrey Thorne, and Chuck Brown; a concept coupe from Lexus inspired by the character; and a Super Bowl LII commercial featuring Boseman, Gurira and Wright, which had 4.3 million views on social media after its Super Bowl airing, according to RelishMix. Other marketing partners included shoe manufacturer Clarks creating a film-inspired variant of their Originals' Trigenic Evo shoe; PepsiCo and Unilever launching an arts program for young people in urban areas to be mentored by established artists; Brisk created an interactive Black Panther installation at the 2018 NBA All-Star Game; Lancôme highlighted a line of makeup that Nyong'o and Wright used at the film's premiere; and Synchrony Financial with Marvel awarded the Ghetto Film School Fellows program with a $50,000 grant, with Coogler speaking to the school's students.Overall, Black Panther had the most expansive advertising budget and biggest line of merchandise of any Marvel non-sequel. Deadline Hollywood estimated that budget to be $150 million. Asad Ayaz, Executive Vice President of Marketing for Marvel films, said the campaign was about "super-serving" Black audiences while still trying to appeal to all, in order to make the film "feel like a cultural event". Disney and Marvel created a "synergy program" with the College Football Playoffs on ESPN, the ABC television series Black-ish, Grey's Anatomy, Scandal, and How to Get Away With Murder, the Freeform series Grown-ish, and the Bravo franchise The Real Housewives. Marketing outside the United States was "fairly uniform", though in the Middle East the focus was kept on Black Panther in-costume as superhero films "just keep working" there according to Gianluca Chakra of Middle East distributor Front Row. This was the same for Asian territories. A Wakanda exhibit was featured in malls in seven Chinese cities, along with displays showing Black Panther with other MCU characters. A special trailer created for China had Boseman explain the character's connection to other MCU films. Weibo attended the Los Angeles premiere to take pictures and videos with the cast and crew in real time for China, the first time the company has partnered with a foreign studio for this type of engagement. Release Theatrical Black Panther had its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018. The premiere featured a purple carpet that was flanked by women dressed as the Dora Milaje, while Coogler, cast members, and other guests wore African clothing at the request of Marvel for attendees to wear "royal attire", honoring the African setting of the film. Ahead of the premiere screening, Coogler received an extended standing ovation before he announced the cast of the film. Black Panther was released in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and Taiwan on February 13, in South Korea on February 14, and the United States on February 16. In the United States, the film opened in 4,020 theaters, with over 3,200 of those in 3D, 404 in IMAX, over 660 in premium large format, and over 200 D-Box locations. In addition, Black Panther was the first MCU film to be converted to ScreenX, a 270-degree wraparound format, that played in over 101 locations in eight countries. The film opened in most markets in its first weekend of release including a "cross-nation release" in Africa, a first for a Disney film. Black Panther was originally scheduled for release on November 3, 2017, before moving to July 6, 2018, to accommodate Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017). It was then moved to the final February date to accommodate Ant-Man and the Wasp (2018). Black Panther is part of Phase Three of the MCU.When Black Panther premiered in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on April 18, 2018, it was the first public film viewing after a nearly-30-year-old ban on cinemas was rescinded in December 2017. The premiere took place in a cinema owned by AMC Theatres in the King Abdullah Financial District of Riyadh. Disney's regional distributor, Italia Film, said 40 seconds of the film had been removed, which was in line with cuts made to the film across the region. Awwad Alawwad, Saudi Arabia's Minister of Culture and Information, and Adam Aron, CEO of AMC Entertainment, were in attendance for the premiere along with other diplomats and industry experts; no one from the cast or production team was in attendance. Black Panther screened there for five days before Avengers: Infinity War premiered on April 26.Black Panther returned to 250 AMC Theatres in the United States from February 1 until February 7, 2019, for free, with two showings of the film occurring at each theater for the week. The week-long return was in honor of the start of Black History Month and the film winning two Screen Actors Guild Awards and earning an Academy Award Best Picture nomination. Disney also gave a $1.5 million grant to the United Negro College Fund. Home media Black Panther was released for digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on May 8, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray, and DVD on May 15, 2018. The digital and Blu-ray releases included several bonus features: behind-the-scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, a blooper reel, an exclusive look at Ant-Man and the Wasp, and a featurette on the first ten years of the MCU. As of November 11, 2018, the film's Blu-ray and DVD releases have sold 4.2 million units and grossed $87 million in the United States, making it the best-selling film of 2018. Black Panther was originally made available on Netflix, but was removed in March 2020 after Disney regained license for the film. It was released on Disney+ on March 4, 2020, in the United States and Canada.On June 19, 2020, TBS, TNT, and truTV aired the film, along with Just Mercy (2019), another film which also starred Jordan, to coincide with the celebrations of Juneteenth and to support social justice against systemic racism in response to the murder of George Floyd. On August 30, 2020, ABC hosted a television special Chadwick Boseman: A Tribute for a King, aired after the film's commercial-free premiere on the same day, to honor Boseman, who died on August 28, 2020, from colon cancer. The special was presented by Robin Roberts, and featured about Boseman's life, career and legacy, as well as tributes served by celebrities, political figures and fans; it also featured other Marvel co-stars, Robert Downey Jr., Scarlett Johansson, Jeremy Renner, Mark Ruffalo, and Paul Rudd, along with Marvel Studios chief Kevin Feige, and Disney CEO Bob Iger, sharing their experiences on working with Boseman, and the legacy he had left behind. The special released on Disney+ after its television debut. On November 29, 2020, Marvel changed the studio's production logo animation in the opening of the film to include images of Boseman from the film, as well as his appearances in Captain America: Civil War, Avengers: Infinity War, and Avengers: Endgame. Black Panther concept art and excerpts from the script were also included. This change was done on the Disney+ version of the film, to honor Boseman on what would have been his 44th birthday. Despite being released in IMAX theaters in the 1.90:1 aspect ratio, the home media release only includes the cropped 2.39:1 aspect ratio version that was used for non-IMAX screenings. The IMAX Enhanced version of the film was made available on Disney+ beginning on November 12, 2021. Reception Box office Black Panther grossed $700.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $681.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.382 billion. It became the highest-grossing solo superhero film, the third-highest-grossing film of the MCU and superhero film overall, the ninth-highest-grossing film of all time, and the highest-grossing film by an African-American director. It is the fifth MCU film and 33rd overall to surpass $1 billion, and the second-highest-grossing film of 2018. Deadline Hollywood calculated the film's net profit as $476.8 million, accounting for production budgets, marketing, talent participations, and other costs; box office grosses and home media revenues placed it second on their list of 2018's "Most Valuable Blockbusters". Pre-sale tickets The film had the fourth-highest pre-sale tickets sold on Fandango, and became the top pre-seller for a superhero film and for a film released in February as well as the first quarter of a year. The first 24 hours of ticket pre-sales on the site were the largest for a Marvel film. Black Panther also had the highest number of ticket pre-sales for any superhero film at Alamo Drafthouse Cinema, while out-selling all previous Marvel films at AMC Theatres, and having strong pre-sales at Atom Tickets. Four days before its United States opening, IMAX Entertainment CEO Greg Foster revealed that Black Panther had the most advanced IMAX ticket sales of any Marvel film, which did not appear to have peaked 10 days before opening as with most films; Black Panther, he said, "feels like it's going to peak the day it opens". Fandango's pre-sales ultimately accounted for 30% of the film's United States and Canada opening weekend gross, one of the largest box office shares for any film in Fandango's history. United States and Canada Early projections for Black Panther's opening weekend ranged from $80–170 million, with rival film studios projecting the total to be as high as $180–200 million; Disney projected the gross to be around $150 million. It ultimately earned $75.8 million on its opening day (including $25.2 million from Thursday night previews), and $242.1 million over the four-day Presidents' Day weekend. This was the best Presidents' Day weekend opening, and the best opening weekend for a Black director and predominantly Black cast. With a total gross of $202 million, the film had the highest February opening weekend, surpassing Deadpool (2016). For AMC Theatres, Black Panther became the highest-grossing film ever at 33 locations, and had the biggest opening weekend for 150 of them. Overall, this was the second-largest opening weekend ever for the chain with 4.4 million admissions. Atom Tickets sold more tickets for Black Panther than any other superhero film. Anthony D'Alessandro of Deadline Hollywood described the success as "summer box office records during the second month of the year".The week after its opening weekend was also strong, with a record-setting Tuesday and Thursday earnings, becoming the MCU film with the highest first-week gross. It also surpassed $300 million in eight days, becoming the fastest MCU film to do so. In its second weekend, the film earned $112 million, which was a 45 percent decrease from its opening week, the smallest decline in a second weekend for any MCU film. It was the second-best second weekend ever, and the best second weekend for a Marvel film beating The Avengers ($103 million). Black Panther also became the highest-grossing film released in February, surpassing The Passion of the Christ (2004) ($370.3 million).Black Panther was the first film to hold the number one spot at the box office for at least five weekends since Avatar (2009), and the first February release to hold the top box office spot for five weekends since Wayne's World in 1992. The film declined over subsequent weekends, but remained in the top ten through its tenth. In its eleventh weekend, the film rose back up at the box office, in part because of the release of Avengers: Infinity War the same weekend, and the following weekend it earned $3.14 million from over 1,600 locations. D'Alessandro noted the gross from that number of locations indicated people were continuing to see Black Panther in conjunction with Infinity War. Black Panther was in the top ten again in its thirteenth weekend.In its 25th weekend, Disney increased the film's theater count from 10 to 25 to help the film become the third ever to surpass $700 million. Brian Gallagher of IGN felt the film surpassing $700 million was more impressive than Infinity War's $2.045 billion worldwide gross at the time. Gallagher pointed to Black Panther being more consistent each week, never having more than a 50% weekend decrease until the 15th frame while Infinity War dropped 55% in its second weekend, its February release date without any major competition from other films, and the fact it was "a rallying cry for diversity and representation". Black Panther is the highest-grossing film of 2018 and became the third-highest-grossing film of all time, as well as the highest-grossing superhero film. Its IMAX total of $36 million is the most for any MCU film. In July 2020, due to the worldwide closure of cinemas during the COVID-19 pandemic and limits on which films played, Black Panther returned to 421 theaters—mostly drive-ins—and grossed $367,000, the second-highest for the weekend behind The Empire Strikes Back's (1980) re-release. Other territories Outside the United States and Canada, the film opened in 48 territories in its first weekend and earned $184 million, opening at number one in most territories (though second in some where Fifty Shades Freed performed better, such as Germany and Italy). It became the top February opening in many countries, including in the African market and the Middle East, while taking the top spot across Latin America. IMAX accounted for $11.5 million of the opening weekend gross, from 272 screens, which included record opening weekends in the format for Nigeria, Kenya, and Indonesia. In its second weekend, in 55 territories, the film earned $83.5 million and remained number one in most, including across Latin America, while becoming the top film in Germany. The West Africa region saw a 7% increase, which resulted in the biggest three-day weekend ever there. Trinidad had the biggest opening weekend ever ($700,000) and the IMAX release in Russia ($1.7 million) was a February record for that country.In its third weekend, the film remained number one across many of its 56 territories, including the entire Latin America region, while its opening in Japan was the top Western film for the weekend, the second overall. In its fourth weekend, Black Panther opened in China ($66.5 million) with the fourth-highest MCU and superhero opening ever in the country. This included the biggest opening day and opening weekend ($7.3 million) of March for IMAX in China. The film also remained at number one in the United Kingdom and the Latin America region (except Argentina) for the fourth straight weekend, as well as number one in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Black Panther was the top film in South Africa for seven weeks, where it became the highest-grossing film ever. It also became the highest-grossing film of all time in West and East Africa, and the southern Africa region, and the highest-grossing superhero film ever in the Netherlands. As of April 8, 2018, the film's largest markets were China ($104.6 million), the United Kingdom ($67.7 million), and South Korea ($42.8 million). It became the fifth-highest-grossing MCU film of all time in other territories. Critical response The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 96%, with an average score of 8.3/10, based on 532 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Black Panther elevates superhero cinema to thrilling new heights while telling one of the MCU's most absorbing stories—and introducing some of its most fully realized characters." As of February 18, 2018, it was the best-reviewed live-action superhero film on the site, beating The Dark Knight (2008) and Iron Man (both 94%). Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 88 out of 100 based on 55 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, the second live-action superhero film to receive that grade after Marvel's The Avengers. Filmgoers polled by comScore's PostTrak service gave the film a 95% positive score and an 88% "definite recommend", with a third of people planning to see the film again. RelishMix reported that the use of Twitter hashtags for #BlackPanther and tagging of the film's Twitter account from those leaving the theater was the highest for a film's opening weekend, with 559,000 unique posts in one day (100,000 posts for a film is average). Black Panther was listed on many critics' top ten lists as a top film of 2018.Critics called Black Panther one of the best standalone Marvel films, one of the best Marvel origin films, one of the best superhero films of the century, and a "refreshing answer to the increasingly stale world of superhero cinema". Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it unlike any other Marvel film, "an exhilarating triumph on every level from writing, directing, acting, production design, costumes, music, special effects to you name it". Jamelle Bouie put the film in the same league as Superman (1978), Spider-Man 2 (2004), and The Dark Knight, superhero films that do not "transcend the genre as much as they embrace it in all its respects". Bouie concluded, "Black Panther could have been just another Marvel romp [but] Coogler and company had the power, and perhaps the responsibility, to do much more. And they did." The cast was acclaimed. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter stated Boseman "certainly holds his own, but there are quite a few charismatic supporting players" including Jordan, Nyong'o, and Wright.The writing was praised for its handling of themes of Africans. Manohla Dargis honored Black Panther as an "emblem of a past that was denied and a future that feels very present" due to its focus on Black imagination, creation, and liberation. At the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan praised the themes of the film and their exploration of what wealthy countries owe to the poor and oppressed, and noted that the film "draws energy from Coogler's sense of excitement at all he's attempting", saying that the film was worth seeing twice which he felt was rare for a modern superhero film. Richard Roeper, writing for the Chicago Sun-Times, said audiences should watch the film if they appreciate "finely honed storytelling with a Shakespearean core; winning performances from an enormously talented ensemble; provocative premises touching on isolationism, revolution and cultures of oppression, and oh yeah, tons of whiz-bang action sequences and good humor". Brian Truitt of USA Today stated, "While the themes are deep, Black Panther is at the same time a visual joy to behold, with confident quirkiness, insane action sequences and special effects, and the glorious reveal of Wakanda".Natasha Alford of The Grio called the film a "movement, a revolution in progress, and a joy to experience all wrapped into one", and called it "a master class in what it means to be proud of who you are". Jamie Broadnax of Black Girl Nerds called the film a masterpiece that is "afro-futuristic and Blackity-black as hell. It's everything I've ever desired in a live-action version of this popular superhero and yet so much more." Bouie said, "it is fair to say that Black Panther is the most political movie ever produced by Marvel Studios, both in its very existence... and in the questions its story raises." Devindra Hardawar at Engadget was critical of the CGI, notably the digital actors used, calling them "weightless, ugly and, worst of all, incredibly distracting". Hardawar felt two "particularly disappointing" CGI shots were when T'Challa flips over a car during the Korea chase, and when T'Challa and Killmonger punch each other as they fall within the vibranium mines. Analysis Cultural importance Writing for Time, Jamil Smith felt Black Panther would "prove to Hollywood that African-American narratives have the power to generate profits from all audiences", and described it as a resistance to "a regressive cultural and political moment fueled in part by the white-nativist movement... Its themes challenge institutional bias, its characters take unsubtle digs at oppressors, and its narrative includes prismatic perspectives on Black life and tradition." Discussing the film as a defining moment for Black America in The New York Times Magazine, Carvell Wallace said that in contrast to earlier Black superhero films, Black Panther "is steeped very specifically and purposefully in its Blackness". He felt Wakanda would become a "promised land" for future generations of Black Americans, "untroubled by the criminal horrors of our [current] American existence." Historian Nathan D. B. Connolly said Black Panther was "a powerful fictional analogy for real-life struggles" that taps into a "500-year history of African-descended people imagining freedom, land and national autonomy." Connolly also felt, culturally, the film would be this generation's A Raisin in the Sun (1961). Writer and activist Shaun King found the film to be a cultural moment in American Black history similar to Rosa Parks' Montgomery bus boycott, Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech, or Barack Obama being elected president.By contrast, James Wilt, writing for Canadian Dimension, stated that "at its core, Black Panther contains a fundamentally reactionary understanding of Black liberation that blatantly advocates respectability politics over revolution" allowing "white folks such as myself to feel extremely comfortable watching it". Wilt found the scene where Ross is portrayed as "the hero" for shooting down the Wakandan ships to be the film's way of approving the vanquishing of armed resistance against oppression. Wilt also felt that Killmonger was given the "most hideous traits imaginable [making] the only major African-American character and agitator for revolution a manic killer consumed by rage and violence". Russell Rickford of Africa is a Country wrote that Killmonger's role as a character is "to discredit radical internationalism". Faisal Kutty from Middle East Eye felt the film had underlying Islamophobic themes, with the only Islamic characters being a Boko Haram-based group that kidnapped several girls and forced them to wear hijab.Science & Entertainment Exchange Director for the National Academy of Sciences Richard Loverd felt the film would increase interest in science, technology, and Africa for young Black Americans, similarly to how The Hunger Games films and Brave (2012) sparked girls' interest in archery. Broadnax felt many people who generally do not watch comic book films would go to Black Panther since "they're going to see themselves reflected in a huge way that they just haven't been able to see before", especially since the film avoided the plight typically depicted in films about the Black experience. She also stated that the strong female characters, such as Shuri, would be an inspiration for girls.Gil Robertson, co-founder and president of the African American Film Critics Association, called the film "critically important" and "a gate-opener opportunity for other Black-centered projects". In 2022, producer and actress Viola Davis credited the film for helping her film The Woman King (2022) get made. Child development expert Deborah Gilboa felt the film would "make a huge impact on children's spirits" by offering positive role models. Scholar Marlene D. Allen felt the saying "if you can see it, you can be it" applied to the film, especially with the female characters in the film. Allen felt the women of Wakanda "are the very definition of 'Black Girl Magic', a term coined by CaShawn Thompson in 2013 'to celebrate the beauty, power, and resilience of Black women.'" Tre Johnson of Rolling Stone felt that "after decades of trying to nail the modern Black superhero, we may finally be getting what we've asked for", with Johnson saying Black Panther felt different from the Blaxploitation films of the 1970s and the "Blaxploitation-lite" attempts at Black superhero films in the 1990s and 2000s because it was "respectable, imaginative and powerful", setting "a new direction" for the depiction of Black superheroes. In the film's opening weekend, 37% of audiences in the United States were African-American, according to PostTrak, compared to 35% Caucasian, 18% Hispanic, and 5% Asian. This was the most diverse audience for a superhero film ever (African-Americans generally make up 15% of audiences for superhero films). In its second weekend, demographics were 37% Caucasian, 33% African American, 18% Hispanic and 7% Asian.In early January 2018, philanthropist Frederick Joseph created a GoFundMe drive to raise money for children of color at the Boys & Girls Club in Harlem to see Black Panther. Joseph said the film was a "rare opportunity" for underserved children of color to see "a Black major ... comic book character" brought to film. Joseph promoted the drive with Boseman on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. The drive went on to raise over $45,000, exceeding its goal, with the money also funding other programs for children in Harlem. Joseph also started the "Black Panther Challenge" where he encouraged other people to create similar drives for their communities. GoFundMe made a centralized site for those wishing to start a drive for the challenge. 400 additional drives were started around the world, and the overall drive became the largest GoFundMe in history for an entertainment event, raising over $400,000. Many celebrities offered their support and contributions to the drives, including Ellen DeGeneres, Snoop Dogg, Chelsea Clinton, J. J. Abrams, Octavia Spencer, and British actress Jade Anouka.In June 2018, the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of African American History and Culture announced they had acquired several items from the film for their collection, including Boseman's Black Panther costume and a shooting script for the film signed by Coogler, Feige, Moore, and Cole. The museum said that the collection provides a "fuller story of Black culture and identity" by showing the progression of Black Americans in film, "an industry that [once] regulated them to flat, one-dimensional and marginalized figures." In conjunction with The Hollywood Reporter's Women in Entertainment Mentorship Program, and its partner the Greater Los Angeles chapter of Big Brothers Big Sisters, Walt Disney Studios created "The Black Panther Scholarship", worth US$250,000 to Loyola Marymount University. Boseman, Nyong'o, and Gurira presented the scholarship to its first recipient at The Hollywood Reporter's 2018 Women in Entertainment event in early December 2018. African and African-American representation Dwayne Wong (Omowale) writing in HuffPost saw the film and its comic origins as addressing "serious political issues concerning Africa's relationship to the West that is very rarely given the serious attention that it deserves", with Wakandans portrayed as suspicious towards outsiders. He concluded that while the country is fictional, the politics "are very real. The end of colonialism did not end Western tampering in Africa's politics". Carlos Rosario Gonzalez of Bam! Smack! Pow! said the struggle between T'Challa and Killmonger represents the collision of "what it means to be African" and "what Africa means to Afro-minorities today". In this view, Wakanda represents Africa without Western colonialism, and Killmonger shows us that "we can sometimes inevitably become what we seek to destroy," concluding that Killmonger wants to use Wakanda's resources to become a colonizer of the West while "Wakanda's conservative ways created the very problem that sought to destroy them, Erik Killmonger". Jelani Cobb, writing in The New Yorker, discussed the divide between Africans and African Americans, which he called a "fundamental dissonance". He felt T'Challa and Killmonger represented "dueling responses to five centuries of African exploitation at the hands of the West. The villain, to the extent that the term applies, is history itself". Cobb added that Black Panther is political in a way previous MCU films were not because in those "we were at least clear about where the lines of fantasy departed from reality [while this film is set in] in an invented nation in Africa, a continent that has been grappling with invented versions of itself ever since white men first declared it the 'dark continent' and set about plundering its people and its resources." Writing for The Atlantic, Adam Serwer argued against the assertion that Erik Killmonger was a representation for Black liberation, positing instead that he represented imperialism. He felt that this was emphasized through his actions, as Killmonger's attempts to take over several of the world's major cities notably include Hong Kong. Since China does not have a white Western hegemony in need of overthrowing, Killmonger's desire to conquer China was purely for the sake of power. Ultimately, he argues that "Black Panther does not render a verdict that violence is an unacceptable tool of Black liberation—to the contrary, that is precisely how Wakanda is liberated. It renders a verdict on imperialism as a tool of Black liberation, to say that the master's tools cannot dismantle the master's house."Patrick Gathara, writing in The Washington Post, described the film as offering a "regressive, neocolonial vision of Africa", which—rather than a "redemptive counter-mythology"—offers "the same destructive myths". Gathara highlighted the Africa that is portrayed, still essentially a European creation, as being divided and tribalized, with Wakanda run by a wealthy and feuding elite that despite its advanced technical abilities does not have a means of succession beyond lethal combat. The Wakandans "still cleanly fit into the Western molds [of] a dark people in a dark continent" according to Gathara, and they "remain so remarkably unsophisticated that a 'returning' American can basically stroll in and take over ... [The film] should not be mistaken for an attempt at liberating Africa from Europe. Quite the opposite. Its 'redemptive counter-mythology' entrenches the tropes that have been used to dehumanize Africans for centuries." Christopher Lebron, in a piece for Boston Review, called the film racist because it depicts Black Americans who had been left in poverty and oppression, as exemplified by Killmonger, as still being "relegated to the lowest rung of political regard" in the film, treated as less deserving of empathy and less capable of their acts being deemed heroic, than even Ross's white spy. Lebron felt that T'Challa could have shown himself a good person by understanding how Killmonger was affected by American racism and T'Chaka's "cruelty", and could have agreed that justice sometimes requires violence as a last resort against oppression. He summed up by commenting that "In 2018, a world home to both the Movement for Black Lives and a president [Donald Trump] who identifies white supremacists as fine people, we are given a movie about Black empowerment where the only redeemed Blacks are African nobles [who] safeguard virtue and goodness against the threat not of white Americans or Europeans, but a Black American". Accolades At the 91st Academy Awards, Black Panther received nominations for Best Picture, Best Original Song, Best Sound Editing, and Best Sound Mixing; and won Best Costume Design, Best Production Design and Best Original Score. The film's other nominations include a British Academy Film Award (which it won), twelve Critics' Choice Movie Awards (winning three), and three Golden Globe Awards. Its nominations for the Academy Award for Best Picture and Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama were firsts for a superhero film, while its Academy Award wins were the first for Marvel Studios and an MCU film. The National Board of Review and the American Film Institute named Black Panther one of the ten-best films of 2018. The film was the top entertainment Google Search of 2018 along with the sixth overall. In December 2021, its screenplay was listed number fifty-seven on the Writers Guild of America's "101 Greatest Screenplays of the 21st Century (So Far)". Oscars campaign By late August 2018, Disney hired Academy Award campaign strategist Cynthia Swartz to create a nomination campaign on behalf of the film for the 91st Academy Awards, with Feige and Marvel Studios said to have given the film a noteworthy budget for the awards season, an obligation which Marvel didn't consider for previous films. The campaign was focused to highlight "the film's creative accomplishments and the global impact it made" in the hopes of receiving a Best Picture nomination; the campaign was not altered with the announcement of the new Best Popular Film award, which appeared to be "designed to reward blockbusters like Black Panther" in the event they did not receive a Best Picture nomination. The Best Popular Film award was ultimately not implemented for the 91st Academy Awards, in order for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to "examine and seek additional input regarding" it. Glenn Whipp of the Los Angeles Times felt the "blueprint" for the film's Best Picture campaign was to "communicate to Oscar voters that this is an auteur-driven superhero movie possessing a deep significance both to its director and to people historically underrepresented in Hollywood films." Another Oscar campaign consultant felt reminding the Oscar voters Black Panther "wasn't just a movie, it was a phenomenon" would help the film earn a nomination. Another said voters "want to reward good movies and they also want to reward movies that say something significant and make the industry look good." The consultants also felt if Black Panther could earn multiple nominations in the craft award categories, it would bolster its chances for a Best Picture nomination; Whipp believed that Morrison, Beachler, Carter, Friend and Harlow, and Lamar all had the possibility to be nominated for Best Cinematography, Best Production Design, Best Costume Design, Best Makeup and Hairstyling, and Best Original Song, respectively. A few weeks later, Disney revealed their For Your Consideration list, with consideration in all Awards of Merit categories, aside from Best Actress and categories it was not eligible for, such as those for animation, short films, and documentaries.Black Panther was ultimately nominated for seven Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Costume Design, Best Production Design, Best Original Score, Best Original Song (for "All the Stars"), Best Sound Editing, and Best Sound Mixing. The film was the first superhero film ever to be nominated for Best Picture, while Beachler's nomination for Best Production Design was the first for an African American. Feige called the Best Picture nomination "the highest form of recognition from our peers". On her nomination, Beachler said she felt "a certain responsibility. It means breaking down walls ... for young women of color and boys and girls of color to see that this is not impossible." Future Sequel A sequel, Black Panther: Wakanda Forever, was released on November 11, 2022, with Coogler returning to write and direct. Nyong'o, Gurira, Freeman, Wright, Duke, and Bassett reprise their roles, while Tenoch Huerta was cast as Namor. In August 2020, Boseman died from colon cancer; Coogler, Feige, and executives at Marvel Studios had been unaware of Boseman's illness. Feige stated in December 2020 that the role of T'Challa would not be recast, with Shuri expected to have a more prominent role in the sequel. Untitled Wakanda series In February 2021, a drama series set in Wakanda was revealed to be in development from Coogler for Disney+, as part of the larger overall deal between Coogler's production company Proximity Media and Walt Disney Television. By May 2021, Gurira had signed a deal to reprise her role as Okoye in the series, which was said to be an origin spin-off for the character. In January 2023, Gurira confirmed there had been discussions surrounding an Okoye-led series. See also "What If... T'Challa Became a Star-Lord?" and "What If... Killmonger Rescued Tony Stark?", episodes of the MCU television series What If...? that reimagine some events of this film List of Afrofuturist films List of black films of the 2010s Notes References External links Official website Black Panther at IMDb Black Panther at AllMovie Black Panther at Disney A to Z

Dieter Lüst

Dieter Lüst (born 21 September 1956 in Chicago) is a German physicist, full professor for mathematical physics at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich since 2004 and a director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics in Munich. His research focusses on string theory. In 2000, he received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, which is the highest honour awarded in German research.

Dieter Lüst (born 21 September 1956 in Chicago) is a German physicist, full professor for mathematical physics at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich since 2004 and a director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics in Munich. His research focusses on string theory. In 2000, he received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, which is the highest honour awarded in German research. Education Dieter's parents, Reimar Lüst and Rhea Lüst, were also physicists. He studied physics from 1976 to 1982 at the Technical University of Munich before receiving a doctorate from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 1985 and habilitation was completed in 1990. Career Lüst performed his postgrad work at the California Institute of Technology and Max Planck Institute for Physics. He was a Fellow at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Geneva between 1988 and 1990, and was there again with a Heisenberg fellowship in 1990/93. In 1993, he took up a chair in quantum field theory at the Humboldt University of Berlin. He has been an external scientific member of the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics in Golm. He has been an editor of Fortschritte der Physik and a co-editor of Journal of High Energy Physics. Awards 2000: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize 2000: Member of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities 2005: Gay-Lussac-Humboldt-Prize References External links Max-Planck-Institute for Physics (Werner-Heisenberg-Institute) Dieter Lüst's homepage at the LMU

HoDoMS

HoDoMS (Heads of Departments of Mathematical Sciences) is an educational company that acts as a body to represent the heads of United Kingdom higher education departments of mathematical sciences. It aims to discuss and promote the interests of higher education mathematics in the UK and to facilitate dialogue between departments.

HoDoMS (Heads of Departments of Mathematical Sciences) is an educational company that acts as a body to represent the heads of United Kingdom higher education departments of mathematical sciences. It aims to discuss and promote the interests of higher education mathematics in the UK and to facilitate dialogue between departments. Governance HoDoMS is operated by a committee including four officer roles which are listed below with incumbents. The committee includes observers from the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications, The OR Society, the Royal Statistical Society, the Council for the Mathematical Sciences and the Edinburgh Mathematical Society. Activities The main activity of HoDoMS is to run an annual conference bringing members together for briefings and discussion on current issues. For example, the 2020 conference heard briefings on policy issues such as research funding, the Research Excellence Framework 2021, the Teaching Excellence Framework as well as practicalities such as online marking, knowledge exchange, teaching as a career for mathematics undergraduates, and academics and mental health.HoDoMS also collaborates with other organisations, for example with the London Mathematical Society on an 'Education Day' in 2019 and with the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications and the Isaac Newton Institute on an 'Induction Course for New Lecturers in the Mathematical Sciences' in 2021 History The first meeting of HoDoMS took place on 14th September 1995 at University College, London under its first chair, Graham Wilks. On 14th August 2018, HoDoMS was incorporated as a Private company limited by guarantee. Affiliations HoDoMS is a member of the Joint Mathematical Council of the United Kingdom (JMC). References External links HoDoMS Web site

Balter Brewing Company

The Balter Brewing Company is an Australian craft brewery business based in Currumbin, Queensland. The company was established in 2016 by multiple investors including Australian Surfing Champions Mick Fanning, Joel Parkinson, Josh Kerr and Bede DurbidgeBalter Brewing Company was sold to Carlton & United Breweries in 2019. CUB has since been sold to Asahi Breweries.Tins of Glory World Tinnie Hurling Championships is a version of table shuffleboard using beer cans instead of pucks started in 2017 at the Currumbin brewery.

The Balter Brewing Company is an Australian craft brewery business based in Currumbin, Queensland. The company was established in 2016 by multiple investors including Australian Surfing Champions Mick Fanning, Joel Parkinson, Josh Kerr and Bede DurbidgeBalter Brewing Company was sold to Carlton & United Breweries in 2019. CUB has since been sold to Asahi Breweries.Tins of Glory World Tinnie Hurling Championships is a version of table shuffleboard using beer cans instead of pucks started in 2017 at the Currumbin brewery. See also Beer in Australia List of breweries in Australia References External links Official website

Paul Calello

Paul Calello (February 14, 1961 – November 16, 2010) was the chairman and CEO of the investment banking division of Credit Suisse Group.Callelo was born in Boston, and earned his undergraduate degree from Villanova University in 1983. He received his MBA from Columbia Business School in 1987, where, in October 2010, the Paul Calello Professorship of Leadership and Ethics was endowed in his honor by former colleagues.He worked for the Federal Reserve in Boston and New York before starting his career in banking.Calello was part of a derivatives team from Bankers Trust who joined Credit Suisse in 1990 and was a member of the group that founded Credit Suisse Financial Products. He was named chairman of Credit Suisse First Boston's Asian operations in 2002, and was widely credited for managing the bank's significant growth in the region. Leaving Hong Kong in 2007, Calello returned to New York to assume the role of global CEO of Credit Suisse's investment banking business. After being diagnosed with non-Hodgkin lymphoma in 2009, he stepped down as CEO of the investment bank, but was appointed chairman ten months later.Calello died at the age of 49 on November 16, 2010, at his home in Brooklyn due to non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

Paul Calello (February 14, 1961 – November 16, 2010) was the chairman and CEO of the investment banking division of Credit Suisse Group.Callelo was born in Boston, and earned his undergraduate degree from Villanova University in 1983. He received his MBA from Columbia Business School in 1987, where, in October 2010, the Paul Calello Professorship of Leadership and Ethics was endowed in his honor by former colleagues.He worked for the Federal Reserve in Boston and New York before starting his career in banking.Calello was part of a derivatives team from Bankers Trust who joined Credit Suisse in 1990 and was a member of the group that founded Credit Suisse Financial Products. He was named chairman of Credit Suisse First Boston's Asian operations in 2002, and was widely credited for managing the bank's significant growth in the region. Leaving Hong Kong in 2007, Calello returned to New York to assume the role of global CEO of Credit Suisse's investment banking business. After being diagnosed with non-Hodgkin lymphoma in 2009, he stepped down as CEO of the investment bank, but was appointed chairman ten months later.Calello died at the age of 49 on November 16, 2010, at his home in Brooklyn due to non-Hodgkin lymphoma. He was survived by his wife and their four children. References See also Ovide, Shira; Lucchetti, Aaron (November 16, 2010). "Paul Calello, Ex-CEO of Credit Suisse Investment Bank, Dies". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved November 17, 2010. Abelson, Max (November 22, 2010). "Requiem for a Banker". The New York Observer. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved November 24, 2010.

History of Western civilization

Western civilization traces its roots back to Europe and the Mediterranean. It is linked to ancient Greece, the Roman Empire and Medieval Western Christendom which emerged during the Middle Ages and experienced such transformative episodes as the development of Scholasticism, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, the Scientific Revolution, and the development of liberal democracy. The civilizations of Classical Greece and Ancient Rome are considered seminal periods in Western history. Major cultural contributions also came from the Christianized Germanic peoples, such as the Franks, the Goths, and the Burgundians. Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire and he is referred to as the "Father of Europe."

Western civilization traces its roots back to Europe and the Mediterranean. It is linked to ancient Greece, the Roman Empire and Medieval Western Christendom which emerged during the Middle Ages and experienced such transformative episodes as the development of Scholasticism, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, the Scientific Revolution, and the development of liberal democracy. The civilizations of Classical Greece and Ancient Rome are considered seminal periods in Western history. Major cultural contributions also came from the Christianized Germanic peoples, such as the Franks, the Goths, and the Burgundians. Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire and he is referred to as the "Father of Europe." Contributions also emerged from pagan peoples of pre-Christian Europe, such as the Celts and Germanic pagans as well as some significant religious contributions derived from Judaism and Hellenistic Judaism stemming back to Second Temple Judea, Galilee, and the early Jewish diaspora; and some other Middle Eastern influences. Western Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, which throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture. (There were Christians outside of the West, such as China, India, Russia, Byzantium and the Middle East). Western civilization has spread to produce the dominant cultures of modern Americas and Oceania, and has had immense global influence in recent centuries in many ways. Following the 5th century Fall of Rome, Europe entered the Middle Ages, during which period the Catholic Church filled the power vacuum left in the West by the fall of the Western Roman Empire, while the Eastern Roman Empire (or Byzantine Empire) endured in the East for centuries, becoming a Hellenic Eastern contrast to the Latin West. By the 12th century, Western Europe was experiencing a flowering of art and learning, propelled by the construction of cathedrals, the establishment of medieval universities, and greater contact with the medieval Islamic world via Al-Andalus and Sicily, from where Arabic texts on science and philosophy were translated into Latin. Christian unity was shattered by the Reformation from the 16th century. A merchant class grew out of city states, initially in the Italian peninsula (see Italian city-states), and Europe experienced the Renaissance from the 14th to the 17th century, heralding an age of technological and artistic advance and ushering in the Age of Discovery which saw the rise of such global European empires as those of Portugal and Spain. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 18th century. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, the Age of Revolution emerged from the United States and France as part of the transformation of the West into its industrialised, democratised modern form. The lands of North and South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand became first part of European empires and then home to new Western nations, while Africa and Asia were largely carved up between Western powers. Laboratories of Western democracy were founded in Britain's colonies in Australasia from the mid-19th centuries, while South America largely created new autocracies. In the 20th century, absolute monarchy disappeared from Europe, and despite episodes of Fascism and Communism, by the close of the century, virtually all of Europe was electing its leaders democratically. Most Western nations were heavily involved in the First and Second World Wars and protracted Cold War. World War II saw Fascism defeated in Europe, and the emergence of the United States and Soviet Union as rival global powers and a new "East-West" political contrast. Other than in Russia, the European empires disintegrated after World War II and civil rights movements and widescale multi-ethnic, multi-faith migrations to Europe, the Americas and Oceania lowered the earlier predominance of ethnic Europeans in Western culture. European nations moved towards greater economic and political co-operation through the European Union. The Cold War ended around 1990 with the collapse of Soviet-imposed Communism in Central and Eastern Europe. In the 21st century, the Western World retains significant global economic power and influence. The West has contributed a great many technological, political, philosophical, artistic and religious aspects to modern international culture: having been a crucible of Catholicism, Protestantism, democracy, industrialisation; the first major civilisation to seek to abolish slavery during the 19th century, the first to enfranchise women (beginning in Australasia at the end of the 19th century) and the first to put to use such technologies as steam, electric and nuclear power. The West invented cinema, television, radio, telephone, the automobile, rocketry, flight, electric light, the personal computer and the Internet; produced artists such as Michelangelo, Shakespeare, Leonardo da Vinci, Beethoven, Vincent van Gogh, Picasso, Bach, and Mozart; developed sports such as soccer, cricket, golf, tennis, rugby and basketball; and transported humans to an astronomical object for the first time with the 1969 Apollo 11 Moon Landing. Antiquity: before AD 500 The Middle Ages Early Middle Ages: 500–1000 While the Roman Empire and Christian religion survived in an increasingly Hellenised form in the Byzantine Empire centered at Constantinople in the East, Western civilization suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476. Gradually however, the Christian religion re-asserted its influence over Western Europe. After the Fall of Rome, the papacy served as a source of authority and continuity. In the absence of a magister militum living in Rome, even the control of military matters fell to the pope. Gregory the Great (c 540–604) administered the church with strict reform. A trained Roman lawyer and administrator, and a monk, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook and was a father of many of the structures of the later Roman Catholic Church. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he looked upon Church and State as co-operating to form a united whole, which acted in two distinct spheres, ecclesiastical and secular, but by the time of his death, the papacy was the great power in Italy: Pope Gregory the Great made himself in Italy a power stronger than emperor or exarch, and established a political influence which dominated the peninsula for centuries. From this time forth the varied populations of Italy looked to the pope for guidance, and Rome as the papal capital continued to be the center of the Christian world. According to tradition, it was a Romanized Briton, Saint Patrick who introduced Christianity to Ireland around the 5th century. Roman legions had never conquered Ireland, and as the Western Roman Empire collapsed, Christianity managed to survive there. Monks sought out refuge at the far fringes of the known world: like Cornwall, Ireland, or the Hebrides. Disciplined scholarship carried on in isolated outposts like Skellig Michael in Ireland, where literate monks became some of the last preservers in Western Europe of the poetic and philosophical works of Western antiquity.By around 800 they were producing illuminated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells. The missions of Gaelic monasteries led by monks like St Columba spread Christianity back into Western Europe during the Middle Ages, establishing monasteries initially in northern Britain, then through Anglo-Saxon England and the Frankish Empire during the Middle Ages. Thomas Cahill, in his 1995 book How the Irish Saved Civilization, credited Irish Monks with having "saved" Western Civilization during this period. According to art historian Kenneth Clark, for some five centuries after the fall of Rome, virtually all men of intellect joined the Church and practically nobody in western Europe outside of monastic settlements had the ability to read or write.Around AD 500, Clovis I, the King of the Franks, became a Christian and united Gaul under his rule. Later in the 6th century, the Byzantine Empire restored its rule in much of Italy and Spain. Missionaries sent from Ireland by the Pope helped to convert England to Christianity in the 6th century as well, restoring that faith as the dominant in Western Europe. Muhammed, the founder and Prophet of Islam was born in Mecca in AD 570. Working as a trader he encountered the ideas of Christianity and Judaism on the fringes of the Byzantine Empire, and around 610 began preaching of a new monotheistic religion, Islam, and in 622 became the civil and spiritual leader of Medina, soon after conquering Mecca in 630. Dying in 632, Muhammed's new creed conquered first the Arabian tribes, then the great Byzantine cities of Damascus in 635 and Jerusalem in 636. A multiethnic Islamic empire was established across the formerly Roman Middle East and North Africa. By the early 8th century, Iberia and Sicily had fallen to the Muslims. By the 9th century, Malta, Cyprus, and Crete had fallen – and for a time the region of Septimania.Only in 732 was the Muslim advance into Europe stopped by the Frankish leader Charles Martel, saving Gaul and the rest of the West from conquest by Islam. From this time, the "West" became synonymous with Christendom, the territory ruled by Christian powers, as Oriental Christianity fell to dhimmi status under the Muslim Caliphates. The cause to liberate the "Holy Land" remained a major focus throughout medieval history, fueling many consecutive crusades, only the first of which was successful (although it resulted in many atrocities, in Europe as well as elsewhere). Charlemagne ("Charles the Great" in English) became king of the Franks. He conquered Gaul (modern day France), northern Spain, Saxony, and northern and central Italy. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor. Under his rule, his subjects in non-Christian lands like Germany converted to Christianity. After his reign, the empire he created broke apart into the kingdom of France (from Francia meaning "land of the Franks"), Holy Roman Empire and the kingdom in between (containing modern day Switzerland, northern-Italy, Eastern France and the low-countries). Starting in the late 8th century, the Vikings began seaborne attacks on the towns and villages of Europe. Eventually, they turned from raiding to conquest, and conquered Ireland, most of England, and northern France (Normandy). These conquests were not long-lasting, however. In 954 Alfred the Great drove the Vikings out of England, which he united under his rule, and Viking rule in Ireland ended as well. In Normandy the Vikings adopted French culture and language, became Christians and were absorbed into the native population. By the beginning of the 11th century Scandinavia was divided into three kingdoms, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, all of which were Christian and part of Western civilization. Norse explorers reached Iceland, Greenland, and even North America, however only Iceland was permanently settled by the Norse. A period of warm temperatures from around 1000–1200 enabled the establishment of a Norse outpost in Greenland in 985, which survived for some 400 years as the most westerly outpost of Christendom. From here, Norseman attempted their short-lived European colony in North America, five centuries before Columbus.In the 10th century another marauding group of warriors swept through Europe, the Magyars. They eventually settled in what is today Hungary, converted to Christianity and became the ancestors of the Hungarian people. A West Slavic people, the Poles, formed a unified state by the 10th century and having adopted Christianity also in the 10th century but with pagan rising in the 11th century. By the start of the second millennium AD, the West had become divided linguistically into three major groups. The Romance languages, based on Latin, the language of the Romans, the Germanic languages, and the Celtic languages. The most widely spoken Romance languages were French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish. Four widely spoken Germanic languages were English, German, Dutch, and Danish. Irish and Scots Gaelic were two widely spoken Celtic languages in the British Isles. High Middle Ages: 1000–1300 Art historian Kenneth Clark wrote that Western Europe's first "great age of civilisation" was ready to begin around the year 1000. From 1100, he wrote: "every branch of life – action, philosophy, organisation, technology [experienced an] extraordinary outpouring of energy, an intensification of existence". Upon this period rests the foundations of many of Europe's subsequent achievements. By Clark's account, the Catholic Church was very powerful, essentially internationalist and democratic in its structures and run by monastic organisations generally following the Rule of Saint Benedict. Men of intelligence usually joined religious orders and those of intellectual, administrative or diplomatic skill could advance beyond the usual restraints of society – leading churchmen from faraway lands were accepted in local bishoprics, linking European thought across wide distances. Complexes like the Abbey of Cluny became vibrant centres with dependencies spread throughout Europe. Ordinary people also trekked vast distances on pilgrimages to express their piety and pray at the site of holy relics. Monumental abbeys and cathedrals were constructed and decorated with sculptures, hangings, mosaics and works belonging to one of the greatest epochs of art and providing stark contrast to the monotonous and cramped conditions of ordinary living. Abbot Suger of the Abbey of St. Denis is considered an influential early patron of Gothic architecture and believed that love of beauty brought people closer to God: "The dull mind rises to truth through that which is material". Clark calls this "the intellectual background of all the sublime works of art of the next century and in fact has remained the basis of our belief of the value of art until today".By the year 1000 feudalism had become the dominant social, economic and political system. At the top of society was the monarch, who gave land to nobles in exchange for loyalty. The nobles gave land to vassals, who served as knights to defend their monarch or noble. Under the vassals were the peasants or serfs. The feudal system thrived as long as peasants needed protection by the nobility from invasions originating inside and outside of Europe. So as the 11th century progressed, the feudal system declined along with the threat of invasion. In 1054, after centuries of strained relations, the Great Schism occurred over differences in doctrine, splitting the Christian world between the Catholic Church, centered in Rome and dominant in the West, and the Orthodox Church, centered in Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. The last pagan land in Europe was converted to Christianity with the conversion of the Baltic peoples in the High Middle Ages, bringing them into Western civilization as well.As the Medieval period progressed, the aristocratic military ideal of Chivalry and institution of knighthood based around courtesy and service to others became culturally important. Large Gothic cathedrals of extraordinary artistic and architectural intricacy were constructed throughout Europe, including Canterbury Cathedral in England, Cologne Cathedral in Germany and Chartres Cathedral in France (called the "epitome of the first great awakening in European civilisation" by Kenneth Clark). The period produced ever more extravagant art and architecture, but also the virtuous simplicity of such as St Francis of Assisi (expressed in the Prayer of St Francis) and the epic poetry of Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy. As the Church grew more powerful and wealthy, many sought reform. The Dominican and Franciscan Orders were founded, which emphasized poverty and spirituality.Women were in many respects excluded from political and mercantile life, however, leading churchwomen were an exception. Medieval abbesses and female superiors of monastic houses were powerful figures whose influence could rival that of male bishops and abbots: "They treated with kings, bishops, and the greatest lords on terms of perfect equality;. . . they were present at all great religious and national solemnities, at the dedication of churches, and even, like the queens, took part in the deliberation of the national assemblies...". The increasing popularity of devotion to the Virgin Mary (the mother of Jesus) secured maternal virtue as a central cultural theme of Catholic Europe. Kenneth Clark wrote that the 'Cult of the Virgin' in the early 12th century "had taught a race of tough and ruthless barbarians the virtues of tenderness and compassion".In 1095, Pope Urban II called for a Crusade to re-conquer the Holy Land from Muslim rule, when the Seljuk Turks prevented Christians from visiting the holy sites there. For centuries prior to the emergence of Islam, Asia Minor and much of the Mid East had been a part of the Roman and later Byzantine Empires. The Crusades were originally launched in response to a call from the Byzantine Emperor for help to fight the expansion of the Turks into Anatolia. The First Crusade succeeded in its task, but at a serious cost on the home front, and the crusaders established rule over the Holy Land. However, Muslim forces reconquered the land by the 13th century, and subsequent crusades were not very successful. The specific crusades to restore Christian control of the Holy Land were fought over a period of nearly 200 years, between 1095 and 1291. Other campaigns in Spain and Portugal (the Reconquista), and Northern Crusades continued into the 15th century. The Crusades had major far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts on Europe. They further served to alienate Eastern and Western Christendom from each other and ultimately failed to prevent the march of the Turks into Europe through the Balkans and the Caucasus.After the fall of the Roman Empire, many of the classical Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved in the medieval Islamic world, from where the Greek classics along with Arabic science and philosophy were transmitted to Western Europe and translated into Latin during the Renaissance of the 12th century and 13th century.Cathedral schools began in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education, some of them ultimately evolving into medieval universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of enquiry and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation; and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research The Italian University of Bologna is considered the oldest continually operating university.Philosophy in the High Middle Ages focused on religious topics. Christian Platonism, which modified Plato's idea of the separation between the ideal world of the forms and the imperfect world of their physical manifestations to the Christian division between the imperfect body and the higher soul was at first the dominant school of thought. However, in the 12th century the works of Aristotle were reintroduced to the West, which resulted in a new school of inquiry known as scholasticism, which emphasized scientific observation. Two important philosophers of this period were Saint Anselm and Saint Thomas Aquinas, both of whom were concerned with proving God's existence through philosophical means. The Summa Theologica by Aquinas was one of the most influential documents in medieval philosophy and Thomism continues to be studied today in philosophy classes. Theologian Peter Abelard wrote in 1122 "I must understand in order that I may believe... by doubting we come to questioning, and by questioning we perceive the truth".In Normandy, the Vikings adopted French culture and language, mixed with the native population of mostly Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock and became known as the Normans. They played a major political, military, and cultural role in medieval Europe and even the Near East. They were famed for their martial spirit and Christian piety. They quickly adopted the Romance language of the land they settled in, their dialect becoming known as Norman, an important literary language. The Duchy of Normandy, which they formed by treaty with the French crown, was one of the great large fiefs of medieval France. The Normans are famed both for their culture, such as their unique Romanesque architecture, and their musical traditions, as well as for their military accomplishments and innovations. Norman adventurers established a kingdom in Sicily and southern Italy by conquest, and a Norman expedition on behalf of their duke led to the Norman Conquest of England. Norman influence spread from these new centres to the Crusader States in the Near East, to Scotland and Wales in Great Britain, and to Ireland.Relations between the major powers in Western society: the nobility, monarchy and clergy, sometimes produced conflict. If a monarch attempted to challenge church power, condemnation from the church could mean a total loss of support among the nobles, peasants, and other monarchs. Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, one of the most powerful men of the 11th century, stood three days bare-headed in the snow at Canossa in 1077, in order to reverse his excommunication by Pope Gregory VII. As monarchies centralized their power as the Middle Ages progressed, nobles tried to maintain their own authority. The sophisticated Court of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II was based in Sicily, where Norman, Byzantine, and Islamic civilization had intermingled. His realm stretched through Southern Italy, through Germany and in 1229, he crowned himself King of Jerusalem. His reign saw tension and rivalry with the Papacy over control of Northern Italy. A patron of education, Frederick founded the University of Naples.Plantagenet kings first ruled the Kingdom of England in the 12th century. Henry V left his mark with a famous victory against larger numbers at the Battle of Agincourt, while Richard the Lionheart, who had earlier distinguished himself in the Third Crusade, was later romanticised as an iconic figure in English folklore. A distinctive English culture emerged under the Plantagenets, encouraged by some of the monarchs who were patrons of the "father of English poetry", Geoffrey Chaucer. The Gothic architecture style was popular during the time, with buildings such as Westminster Abbey remodelled in that style. King John's sealing of the Magna Carta was influential in the development of common law and constitutional law. The 1215 Charter required the King to proclaim certain liberties, and accept that his will was not arbitrary — for example by explicitly accepting that no "freeman" (non-serf) could be punished except through the law of the land, a right which is still in existence today. Political institutions such as the Parliament of England and the Model Parliament originate from the Plantagenet period, as do educational institutions including the universities of Cambridge and Oxford.From the 12th century onward inventiveness had re-asserted itself outside of the Viking north and the Islamic south of Europe. Universities flourished, mining of coal commenced, and crucial technological advances such as the lock, which enabled sail ships to reach the thriving Belgian city of Bruges via canals, and the deep sea ship guided by magnetic compass and rudder were invented. Late Middle Ages: 1300–1500 A cooling in temperatures after about 1150 saw leaner harvests across Europe and consequent shortages of food and flax material for clothing. Famines increased and in 1316 serious famine gripped Ypres. In 1410, the last of the Greenland Norseman abandoned their colony to the ice. From Central Asia, Mongol invasions progressed towards Europe throughout the 13th century, resulting in the vast Mongol Empire which became the largest empire of history and ruled over almost half of the human population and expanded through the world by 1300.The Papacy had its court at Avignon from 1305 to 1378 This arose from the conflict between the Papacy and the French crown. A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon; all were French, and all were increasingly under the influence of the French crown. Finally in 1377 Gregory XI, in part because of the entreaties of the mystic Saint Catherine of Sienna, restored the Holy See to Rome, officially ending the Avignon papacy. However, in 1378 the breakdown in relations between the cardinals and Gregory's successor, Urban VI, gave rise to the Western Schism — which saw another line of Avignon Popes set up as rivals to Rome (subsequent Catholic history does not grant them legitimacy). The period helped weaken the prestige of the Papacy in the buildup to the Protestant Reformation. In the Later Middle Ages the Black Plague struck Europe, arriving in 1348. Europe was overwhelmed by the outbreak of bubonic plague, probably brought to Europe by the Mongols. The fleas hosted by rats carried the disease and it devastated Europe. Major cities like Paris, Hamburg, Venice and Florence lost half their population. Around 20 million people – up to a third of Europe's population – died from the plague before it receded. The plague periodically returned over the coming centuries.The last centuries of the Middle Ages saw the waging of the Hundred Years' War between England and France. The war began in 1337 when the king of France laid claim to English-ruled Gascony in southern France, and the king of England claimed to be the rightful king of France. At first, the English conquered half of France and seemed likely to win the war, until the French were rallied by a peasant girl, who would later become a saint, Joan of Arc. Although she was captured and executed by the English, the French fought on and won the war in 1453. After the war, France gained all of Normandy excluding the city of Calais, which it gained in 1558. Following the Mongols from Central Asia came the Ottoman Turks. By 1400 they had captured most of modern-day Turkey and extended their rule into Europe through the Balkans and as far as the Danube, surrounding even the fabled city of Constantinople. Finally, in 1453, one of Europe's greatest cities fell to the Turks. The Ottomans under the command of Sultan Mehmed II, fought a vastly outnumbered defending army commanded by Emperor Constantine XI — the last "Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire" — and blasted down the ancient walls with the terrifying new weaponry of the cannon. The Ottoman conquests sent refugee Greek scholars westward, contributing to the revival of the West's knowledge of the learning of Classical Antiquity. Probably the first clock in Europe was installed in a Milan church in 1335, hinting at the dawning mechanical age. By the 14th century, the middle class in Europe had grown in influence and number as the feudal system declined. This spurred the growth of towns and cities in the West and improved the economy of Europe. This, in turn helped begin a cultural movement in the West known as the Renaissance, which began in Italy. Italy was dominated by city-states, many of which were nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire, and were ruled by wealthy aristocrats like the Medicis, or in some cases, by the pope. Renaissance and Reformation The Renaissance: 14th to 17th century The Renaissance, originating from Italy, ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. The merchant cities of Florence, Genoa, Ghent, Nuremberg, Geneva, Zürich, Lisbon and Seville provided patrons of the arts and sciences and unleashed a flurry of activity. The Medici became the leading family of Florence and fostered and inspired the birth of the Italian Renaissance along with other families of Italy, such as the Visconti and Sforza of Milan, the Este of Ferrara, and the Gonzaga of Mantua. Greatest artists like Brunelleschi, Botticelli, Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Giotto, Donatello, Titian and Raphael produced inspired works – their paintwork was more realistic-looking than had been created by Medieval artists and their marble statues rivalled and sometimes surpassed those of Classical Antiquity. Michelangelo carved his masterpiece David from marble between 1501 and 1504. Humanist historian Leonardo Bruni, split the history in the antiquity, Middle Ages and modern period. Churches began being built in the Romanesque style for the first time in centuries. While art and architecture flourished in Italy and then the Netherlands, religious reformers flowered in Germany and Switzerland; printing was establishing itself in the Rhineland and navigators were embarking on extraordinary voyages of discovery from Portugal and Spain.Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. Secular thinkers like Machiavelli re-examined the history of Rome to draw lessons for civic governance. Theologians revisited the works of St Augustine. Important thinkers of the Renaissance in Northern Europe included the Catholic humanists Desiderius Erasmus, a Dutch theologian, and the English statesman and philosopher Thomas More, who wrote the seminal work Utopia in 1516. Humanism was an important development to emerge from the Renaissance. It placed importance on the study of human nature and worldly topics rather than religious ones. Important humanists of the time included the writers Petrarch and Boccaccio, who wrote in both Latin as had been done in the Middle Ages, as well as the vernacular, in their case Tuscan Italian. As the calendar reached the year 1500, Europe was blossoming – with Leonardo da Vinci painting his Mona Lisa portrait not long after Christopher Columbus reached the Americas (1492), Amerigo Vespucci proofed that America is not a part of India, the Portuguese navigator Vasco Da Gama sailed around Africa into the Indian Ocean and Michelangelo completed his paintings of Old Testament themes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome (the expense of such artistic exuberance did much to spur the likes of Martin Luther in Northern Europe in their protests against the Church of Rome).For the first time in European history, events North of the Alps and on the Atlantic Coast were taking centre stage. Important artists of this period included Bosch, Dürer, and Breugel. In Spain Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote, other important works of literature in this period were the Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer and Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory. The most famous playwright of the era was the Englishman William Shakespeare whose sonnets and plays (including Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet and Macbeth) are considered some of the finest works ever written in the English language. Meanwhile, the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia continued their centuries-long fight to reconquer the peninsula from its Muslim rulers. In 1492, the last Islamic stronghold, Granada, fell, and Iberia was divided between the Christian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. Iberia's Jewish and Muslim minorities were forced to convert to Catholicism or be exiled. The Portuguese immediately looked to expand outward sending expeditions to explore the coasts of Africa and engage in trade with the mostly Muslim powers on the Indian Ocean, making Portugal wealthy. In 1492, a Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus found the Americas during an attempt to find a western route to East Asia. From the East, however, the Ottoman Turks under Suleiman the Magnificent continued their advance into the heart of Christian Europe — besieging Vienna in 1529.The 16th century saw the flowering of the Renaissance in the rest of the West. In the Kingdom of Poland, astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus deduced that the geocentric model of the universe was incorrect, and that in fact the planets revolve around the sun. In the Netherlands, the invention of the telescope and the microscope resulted in the investigation of the universe and the microscopic world. The father of modern science Galileo and Christiaan Huygens developed more advance telescopes and used these in their scientific research. The father of microbiology, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek pioneered the use of the microscope in the study of microbes and established microbiology as a scientific discipline. Advances in medicine and understanding of the human anatomy also increased in this time. Gerolamo Cardano partially invented several machines and introduced essential mathematics theories. In England, Sir Isaac Newton pioneered the science of physics. These events led to the so-called scientific revolution, which emphasized experimentation. The Reformation: 1500–1650 The other major movement in the West in the 16th century was the Reformation, which would profoundly change the West and end its religious unity. The Reformation began in 1517 when the Catholic monk Martin Luther wrote his 95 Theses, which denounced the wealth and corruption of the church, as well as many Catholic beliefs, including the institution of the papacy and the belief that, in addition to faith in Christ, "good works" were also necessary for salvation. Luther drew on the beliefs of earlier church critics, like the Bohemian Jan Hus and the Englishman John Wycliffe. Luther's beliefs eventually ended in his excommunication from the Catholic Church and the founding of a church based on his teachings: the Lutheran Church, which became the majority religion in northern Germany. Soon other reformers emerged, and their followers became known as Protestants. In 1525, Ducal Prussia became the first Lutheran state. In the 1540s the Frenchman John Calvin founded a church in Geneva which forbade alcohol and dancing, and which taught God had selected those destined to be saved from the beginning of time. His Calvinist Church gained about half of Switzerland and churches based on his teachings became dominant in the Netherlands (the Dutch Reformed Church) and Scotland (the Presbyterian Church). In England, when the Pope failed to grant King Henry VIII a divorce, he declared himself head of the Church in England (founding what would evolve into today's Church of England and Anglican Communion). Some Englishmen felt the church was still too similar to the Catholic Church and formed the more radical Puritanism. Many other small Protestant sects were formed, including Zwinglianism, Anabaptism and Mennonism. Although they were different in many ways, Protestants generally called their religious leaders ministers instead of priests, and believed only the Bible, and not Tradition offered divine revelation. Britain and the Dutch Republic allowed Protestant dissenters to migrate to their North American colonies – thus the future United States found its early Protestant ethos – while Protestants were forbidden to migrate to the Spanish colonies (thus South America retained its Catholic hue). A more democratic organisational structure within some of the new Protestant movements – as in the Calvinists of New England – did much also to foster a democratic spirit in Britain's American colonies.The Catholic Church responded to the Reformation with the Counter Reformation. Some of Luther and Calvin's criticisms were heeded: the selling of indulgences was reined in by the Council of Trent in 1562. But exuberant baroque architecture and art was embraced as an affirmation of the faith and new seminaries and orders were established to lead missions to far off lands. An important leader in this movement was Saint Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuit Order) which gained many converts and sent such famous missionaries as Saints Matteo Ricci to China, Francis Xavier to India and Peter Claver to the Americas. As princes, kings and emperors chose sides in religious debates and sought national unity, religious wars erupted throughout Europe, especially in the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Charles V was able to arrange the Peace of Augsburg between the warring Catholic and Protestant nobility. However, in 1618, the Thirty Years' War began between Protestants and Catholics in the empire, which eventually involved neighboring countries like France. The devastating war finally ended in 1648. In the Peace of Westphalia ending the war, Lutheranism, Catholicism and Calvinism were all granted toleration in the empire. The two major centers of power in the empire after the war were Protestant Prussia in the north and Catholic Austria in the south. The Dutch, who were ruled by the Spanish at the time, revolted and gained independence, founding a Protestant country. The Elizabethan era is famous above all for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Sir Francis Drake. Her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability and helped forge a sense of national identity. One of her first moves as queen was to support the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor of what was to become the Church of England. By 1650, the religious map of Europe had been redrawn: Scandinavia, Iceland, north Germany, part of Switzerland, Netherlands and Britain were Protestant, while the rest of the West remained Catholic. A byproduct of the Reformation was increasing literacy as Protestant powers pursued an aim of educating more people to be able to read the Bible. Rise of Western empires: 1500–1800 From its dawn until modern times, the West had suffered invasions from Africa, Asia, and non-Western parts of Europe. By 1500 Westerners took advantage of their new technologies, sallied forth into unknown waters, expanded their power and the Age of Discovery began, with Western explorers from seafaring nations like Portugal and Castile (later Spain) and later Holland, France and England setting forth from the "Old World" to chart faraway shipping routes and discover "new worlds". In 1492, the Genovese born mariner, Christopher Columbus set out under the auspices of the Crown of Castile (Spain) to seek an oversea route to the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean. Rather than Asia, Columbus landed in the Bahamas, in the Caribbean. Spanish colonization followed and Europe established Western Civilization in the Americas. The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama led the first sailing expedition directly from Europe to India in 1497–1499, by the Atlantic and Indian oceans, opening up the possibility of trade with the East other than via perilous overland routes like the Silk Road. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer working for the Spanish Crown (under the Crown of Castile), led an expedition in 1519–1522 which became the first to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean and the first to cross the Pacific. The Spanish explorer Juan Sebastián Elcano completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth (Magellan was killed in the Philippines). The Americas were deeply affected by European expansion, due to conquest, sickness, and introduction of new technologies and ways of life. The Spanish Conquistadors conquered most of the Caribbean islands and overran the two great New World empires: the Aztec Empire of Mexico and the Inca Empire of Peru. From there, Spain conquered about half of South America, all of Central America and much of North America. Portugal also expanded in the Americas, attempting to establish some fishing colonies in northern North America first (with a relatively limited duration) and conquering half of South America and calling their colony Brazil. These Western powers were aided not only by superior technology like gunpowder, but also by Old World diseases which they inadvertently brought with them, and which wiped out large segments of the Amerindian population. The native populations, called Indians by Columbus, since he originally thought he had landed in Asia (but often called Amerindians by scholars today), were converted to Catholicism and adopted the language of their rulers, either Spanish or Portuguese. They also adopted much of Western culture. Many Iberian settlers arrived, and many of them intermarried with the Amerindians resulting in a so-called Mestizo population, which became the majority of the population of Spain's American empires. Other European colonial powers followed in their wake, most prominently the English, Dutch, and French. All three nations established colonies through North and South America and the West Indies. English colonies were established on Caribbean islands such as Barbados, Saint Kitts and Antigua and on North America (largely through a proprietary system) in regions such as Maryland, Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Dutch and French colonization efforts followed a similar pattern, focusing on the Caribbean and North America. The islands of Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten gradually came under Dutch control, while the Dutch established the colony of New Netherland in North America. France gradually colonized Louisiana and Quebec during the 17th and 18th centuries, and transformed its West Indian colony of Saint-Domingue into the wealthiest European overseas possession in the 18th century through a slave-based plantation economy.In the Americas, it seems that only the most remote peoples managed to stave off complete assimilation by Western and Western-fashioned governments. These include some of the northern peoples (i.e., Inuit), some peoples in the Yucatán, Amazonian forest dwellers, and various Andean groups. Of these, the Quechua people, Aymara people, and Maya people are the most numerous- at around 10–11 million, 2 million, and 7 million, respectively. Bolivia is the only country in the Americas with an indigenous majority. Contact between the Old and New Worlds produced the Columbian Exchange, named after Columbus. It involved the transfer of goods unique to one hemisphere to another. Westerners brought cattle, horses, and sheep to the New World, and from the New World Europeans received tobacco, potatoes, and bananas. Other items becoming important in global trade were the sugarcane and cotton crops of the Americas, and the gold and silver brought from the Americas not only to Europe but elsewhere in the Old World. As European settlers began to colonize the Americas, numerous cash crop plantations sprung up to accommodate increasing demand in Europe. Initially, the labour source of these plantations came from European indentured servants; however, soon this system was supplemented by enslaved Africans imported by European slavers from Africa to the Americas via the transatlantic slave trade. Roughly 12 million enslaved Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas, primarily to the West Indies and South America. Once there, they were primarily forced to work on these plantations in brutal conditions, cultivating crops such as sugar, cotton and tobacco. Together with European trade to Africa and American trade to Europe, this trade was known as the "triangular trade". Slavery continued to underpin the economies of European colonies throughout the Americas until the abolitionist movement and slave resistance led to its abolition in the 19th century.After trading with African rulers for some time, Westerners began establishing colonies in Africa. The Portuguese conquered ports in North, West and East Africa and inland territory in what is today Angola and Mozambique. They also established relations with the Kingdom of Kongo in central Africa before, and eventually the Kongolese converted to Catholicism. The Dutch established colonies in modern-day South Africa, which attracted many Dutch settlers. Western powers also established colonies in West Africa. However, most of the continent remained unknown to Westerners and their colonies were restricted to Africa's coasts. Westerners also expanded in Asia. The Portuguese controlled port cities in the East Indies, India, Persian Gulf, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and China. During this time, the Dutch began their colonisation of the Indonesian archipelago, which became the Dutch East Indies in the early 19th century, and gained port cities in Sri Lanka and Malaysia and India. Spain conquered the Philippines and converted the inhabitants to Catholicism. Missionaries from Iberia (including some from Italy and France) gained many converts in Japan until Christianity was outlawed by Japan's emperor. Some Chinese also became Christian, although most did not. Most of India was divided up between England and France. As Western powers expanded they competed for land and resources. In the Caribbean, pirates attacked each other and the navies and colonial cities of countries, in hopes of stealing gold and other valuables from a ship or city. This was sometimes supported by governments. For example, England supported the pirate Sir Francis Drake in raids against the Spanish. Between 1652 and 1678, the three Anglo-Dutch wars were fought, of which the last two were won by the Dutch. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, England gained New Netherland (which was traded with Suriname and Dutch South Africa). In 1756, the Seven Years' War, or French and Indian War began. It involved several powers fighting on several continents. In North America, English soldiers and colonial troops defeated the French, and in India the French were also defeated by England. In Europe Prussia defeated Austria. When the war ended in 1763, New France and eastern Louisiana were ceded to England, while western Louisiana was given to Spain. France's lands in India were ceded to England. Prussia was given rule over more territory in what is today Germany. The Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon had been the first documented Westerner to land in Australia in 1606 Another Dutchman, Abel Tasman later touched mainland Australia, and mapped Tasmania and New Zealand for the first time, in the 1640s. The English navigator James Cook became first to map the east coast of Australia in 1770. Cook's extraordinary seamanship greatly expanded European awareness of far shores and oceans: his first voyage reported favourably on the prospects of colonisation of Australia; his second voyage ventured almost to Antarctica (disproving long held European hopes of an undiscovered Great Southern Continent); and his third voyage explored the Pacific coasts of North America and Siberia and brought him to Hawaii, where an ill-advised return after a lengthy stay saw him clubbed to death by natives.Europe's period of expansion in early modern times greatly changed the world. New crops from the Americas improved European diets. This, combined with an improved economy thanks to Europe's new network of colonies, led to a demographic revolution in the West, with infant mortality dropping, and Europeans getting married younger and having more children. The West became more sophisticated economically, adopting Mercantilism, in which companies were state-owned and colonies existed for the good of the mother country. Enlightenment Absolutism and the Enlightenment: 1500–1800 The West in the early modern era went through great changes as the traditional balance between monarchy, nobility and clergy shifted. With the feudal system all but gone, nobles lost their traditional source of power. Meanwhile, in Protestant countries, the church was now often headed by a monarch, while in Catholic countries, conflicts between monarchs and the Church rarely occurred and monarchs were able to wield greater power than they ever had in Western history. Under the doctrine of the Divine right of kings, monarchs believed they were only answerable to God: thus giving rise to absolutism. At the opening of the 15th century, tensions were still going on between Islam and Christianity. Europe, dominated by Christians, remained under threat from the Muslim Ottoman Turks. The Turks had migrated from central to western Asia and converted to Islam years earlier. Their capture of Constantinople in 1453, thus extinguishing the Eastern Roman Empire, was a crowning achievement for the new Ottoman Empire. They continued to expand across the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans. Under the leadership of the Spanish, a Christian coalition destroyed the Ottoman navy at the battle of Lepanto in 1571 ending their naval control of the Mediterranean. However, the Ottoman threat to Europe was not ended until a Polish led coalition defeated the Ottoman at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. The Turks were driven out of Buda (the eastern part of Budapest they had occupied for a century), Belgrade, and Athens – though Athens was to be recaptured and held until 1829.The 16th century is often called Spain's Siglo de Oro (golden century). From its colonies in the Americas it gained large quantities of gold and silver, which helped make Spain the richest and most powerful country in the world. One of the greatest Spanish monarchs of the era was Charles I (1516–1556, who also held the title of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). His attempt to unite these lands was thwarted by the divisions caused by the Reformation and ambitions of local rulers and rival rulers from other countries. Another great monarch was Philip II (1556–1598), whose reign was marked by several Reformation conflicts, like the loss of the Netherlands and the Spanish Armada. These events and an excess of spending would lead to a great decline in Spanish power and influence by the 17th century. After Spain began to decline in the 17th century, the Dutch, by virtue of its sailing ships, became the greatest world power, leading the 17th century to be called the Dutch Golden Age. The Dutch followed Portugal and Spain in establishing an overseas colonial empire — often under the corporate colonialism model of the East India and West India Companies. After the Anglo-Dutch Wars, France and England emerged as the two greatest powers in the 18th century. Louis XIV became king of France in 1643. His reign was one of the most opulent in European history. He built a large palace in the town of Versailles. The Holy Roman Emperor exerted no great influence on the lands of the Holy Roman Empire by the end of the Thirty Years' War. In the north of the empire, Prussia emerged as a powerful Protestant nation. Under many gifted rulers, like King Frederick the Great, Prussia expanded its power and defeated its rival Austria many times in war. Ruled by the Habsburg dynasty, Austria became a great empire, expanding at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and Hungary. One land where absolutism did not take hold was England, which had trouble with revolutionaries. Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII, had left no direct heir to the throne. The rightful heir was actually James VI of Scotland, who was crowned James I of England. James's son, Charles I resisted the power of Parliament. When Charles attempted to shut down Parliament, the Parliamentarians rose up and soon all of England was involved in a civil war. The English Civil War ended in 1649 with the defeat and execution of Charles I. Parliament declared a kingless Commonwealth but soon appointed the anti-absolutist leader and staunch Puritan Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. Cromwell enacted many unpopular Puritan religious laws in England, like outlawing alcohol and theaters, although religious diversity may have grown. (It was Cromwell, after all, that invited the Jews back into England after the Edict of Expulsion.) After his death, the monarchy was restored under Charles's son, who was crowned Charles II. His son, James II succeeded him. James and his infant son were Catholics. Not wanting to be ruled by a Catholic dynasty, Parliament invited James's daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange, to rule as co-monarchs. They agreed on the condition James would not be harmed. Realizing he could not count on the Protestant English army to defend him, he abdicated following the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Before William III and Mary II were crowned however, Parliament forced them to sign the English Bill of Rights, which guaranteed some basic rights to all Englishmen, granted religious freedom to non-Anglican Protestants, and firmly established the rights of Parliament. In 1707, the Act of Union of 1707 were passed by the parliaments of Scotland and England, merging Scotland and England into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with a single parliament. This new kingdom also controlled Ireland which had previously been conquered by England. Following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, in 1801 Ireland was formally merged with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Ruled by the Protestant Ascendancy, Ireland eventually became an English-speaking land, though the majority population preserved distinct cultural and religious outlooks, remaining predomininantly Catholic except in parts of Ulster and Dublin. By then, the British experience had already contributed to the American Revolution. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by philosophers such as Erasmus; and, during the Counter-Reformation, was known for near-unparalleled religious tolerance, with peacefully coexisting Catholic, Jewish, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant and Muslim communities. With its political system the Commonwealth gave birth to political philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–1572), Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki (1530–1607) and Piotr Skarga (1536–1612). Later, works by Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826) and Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the Constitution of 3 May 1791, which historian Norman Davies calls "the first constitution of its kind in Europe". Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's constitution enacted revolutionary political principles for the first time on the European continent. The Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, Polish for Commission of National Education, formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education and an important achievement of the Polish Enlightenment.The intellectual movement called the Age of Enlightenment began in this period as well. Its proponents opposed the absolute rule of the monarchs, and instead emphasized the equality of all individuals and the idea that governments should derive their existence from the consent of the governed. Enlightenment thinkers called philosophes (French for philosophers) idealized Europe's classical heritage. They looked at Athenian democracy and the Roman Republic as ideal governments. They believed reason held the key to creating an ideal society. The Englishman Francis Bacon espoused the idea that senses should be the primary means of knowing, while the Frenchman René Descartes advocated using reason over the senses. In his works, Descartes was concerned with using reason to prove his own existence and the existence of the external world, including God. Another belief system became popular among philosophes, Deism, which taught that a single god had created but did not interfere with the world. This belief system never gained popular support and largely died out by the early 19th century. Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory. The theory was examined also by John Locke (Second Treatise of Government (1689)) and Rousseau (Du contrat social (1762)). Social contract arguments examine the appropriate relationship between government and the governed and posit that individuals unite into political societies by a process of mutual consent, agreeing to abide by common rules and accept corresponding duties to protect themselves and one another from violence and other kinds of harm. In 1690 John Locke wrote that people have certain natural rights like life, liberty and property and that governments were created in order to protect these rights. If they did not, according to Locke, the people had a right to overthrow their government. The French philosopher Voltaire criticized the monarchy and the Church for what he saw as hypocrisy and for their persecution of people of other faiths. Another Frenchman, Montesquieu, advocated division of government into executive, legislative and judicial branches. The French author Rousseau stated in his works that society corrupted individuals. Many monarchs were affected by these ideas, and they became known to history as the enlightened despots. However, most only supported Enlightenment ideas that strengthened their own power.The Scottish Enlightenment was a period in 18th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. Scotland reaped the benefits of establishing Europe's first public education system and a growth in trade which followed the Act of Union with England of 1707 and expansion of the British Empire. Important modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by the philosopher/historian David Hume. Adam Smith developed and published The Wealth of Nations, the first work in modern economics. He believed competition and private enterprise could increase the common good. The celebrated bard Robert Burns is still widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland. European cities like Paris, London, and Vienna grew into large metropolises in early modern times. France became the cultural center of the West. The middle class grew even more influential and wealthy. Great artists of this period included El Greco, Rembrandt, and Caravaggio. By this time, many around the world wondered how the West had become so advanced, for example, the Orthodox Christian Russians, who came to power after conquering the Mongols that had conquered Kiev in the Middle Ages. They began westernizing under Czar Peter the Great, although Russia remained uniquely part of its own civilization. The Russians became involved in European politics, dividing up the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with Prussia and Austria. Revolution: 1770–1815 During the late 18th century and early 19th century, much of the West experienced a series of revolutions that would change the course of history, resulting in new ideologies and changes in society. The first of these revolutions began in North America. The Thirteen Colonies of British North America had by this period. The majority of the population was of English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish descent, while significant minorities included people of French, Dutch and German and Africa descent, as well as some Native Americans. Most of the population was Anglican, others were Congregationalist or Puritan, while minorities included other Protestant churches like the Society of Friends and the Lutherans, as well as some Roman Catholics and Jews. The colonies had their own great cities and universities and continually welcomed new immigrants, mostly from Britain. After the expensive Seven Years' War, Britain needed to raise revenue, and felt the colonists should bare the brunt of the new taxation it felt was necessary. The colonists greatly resented these taxes and protested the fact they could be taxed by Britain but had no representation in the government. After Britain's King George III refused to seriously consider colonial grievances raised at the first Continental Congress, some colonists took up arms. Leaders of a new pro-independence movement were influenced by Enlightenment ideals and hoped to bring an ideal nation into existence. On 4 July 1776, the colonies declared independence with the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence. Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, the document's preamble eloquently outlines the principles of governance that would come to increasingly dominate Western thinking over the ensuing century and a half: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government. George Washington led the new Continental Army against the British forces, who had many successes early in this American Revolution. After years of fighting, the colonists formed an alliance with France and defeated the British at Yorktown, Virginia in 1781. The treaty ending the war granted independence to the colonies, which became The United States of America. The other major Western revolution at the turn of the 19th century was the French Revolution. In 1789 France faced an economical crisis. The King called, for the first time in more than two centuries, the Estates General, an assembly of representatives of each estate of the kingdom: the First Estate (the clergy), the Second Estate (the nobility), and the Third Estate (middle class and peasants); in order to deal with the crisis. As the French society was gained by the same Enlightenment ideals that led to the American revolution, in which many Frenchmen, such as Lafayette, took part; representatives of the Third Estate, joined by some representatives of the lower clergy, created the National Assembly, which, unlike the Estates General, provided the common people of France with a voice proportionate to their numbers. The people of Paris feared the King would try to stop the work of the National Assembly and Paris was soon consumed with riots, anarchy, and widespread looting. The mobs soon had the support of the French Guard, including arms and trained soldiers, because the royal leadership essentially abandoned the city. On the fourteenth of July 1789 a mob stormed the Bastille, a prison fortress, which led the King to accept the changes. On 4 August 1789 the National Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. It was the first time in Europe, where feudalism was the norm for centuries, that such a thing happened. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. At first, the revolution seemed to be turning France into a constitutional monarchy, but the other continental Europe powers feared a spread of the revolutionary ideals and eventually went to war with France. In 1792 King Louis XVI was imprisoned after he had been captured fleeing Paris and the Republic was declared. The Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France. His execution on 21 January 1793 led to more wars with other European countries. During this period France effectively became a dictatorship after the parliamentary coup of the radical leaders, the Jacobin. Their leader, Robespierre oversaw the Reign of Terror, in which thousands of people deemed disloyal to the republic were executed. Finally, in 1794, Robespierre himself was arrested and executed, and more moderate deputies took power. This led to a new government, the French Directory. In 1799, a coup overthrew the Directory and General Napoleon Bonaparte seized power as dictator and even an emperor in 1804. Liberté, égalité, fraternité (French for "Liberty, equality, fraternity"), now the national motto of France, had its origins during the French Revolution, though it was only later institutionalised. It remains another iconic motto of the aspirations of Western governance in the modern world. Some influential intellectuals came to reject the excesses of the revolutionary movement. Political theorist Edmund Burke had supported the American Revolution, but turned against the French Revolution and developed a political theory which opposed governing based on abstract ideas, and preferred 'organic' reform. He is remembered as a father of modern Anglo-conservatism. In response to such critiques, the American revolutionary Thomas Paine published his book The Rights of Man in 1791 as a defence of the ideals of the French Revolution. The spirit of the age also produced early works of feminist philosophy – notably Mary Wollstonecraft's 1792 book: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Napoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts involving Napoleon's French Empire and changing sets of European allies by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionized European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to the application of modern mass conscription. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe, but collapsed rapidly after France's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. Napoleon's empire ultimately suffered complete military defeat resulting in the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France. The wars resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and sowed the seeds of nascent nationalism in Germany and Italy that would lead to the two nations' consolidation later in the century. Meanwhile, the Spanish Empire began to unravel as French occupation of Spain weakened Spain's hold over its colonies, providing an opening for nationalist revolutions in Spanish America. As a direct result of the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire became the foremost world power for the next century, thus beginning Pax Britannica. France had to fight on multiple battlefronts against the other European powers. A nationwide conscription was voted to reinforce the old royal army made of noble officers and professional soldiers. With this new kind of army, Napoleon was able to beat the European allies and dominate Europe. The revolutionary ideals, based no more on feudalism but on the concept of a sovereign nation, spread all over Europe. When Napoleon eventually lost and the monarchy reinstated in France these ideals survived and led to the revolutionary waves of the 19th century that brought democracy to many European countries.With the success of the American Revolution, the Spanish Empire also began to crumble as their American colonies sought independence as well. In 1808, when Joseph Bonaparte was installed as the Spanish King by the Napoleonic French, the Spanish resistance resorted to governing Juntas. When the Supreme Central Junta of Seville fell to the French in 1810, the Spanish American colonies developed themselves governing Juntas in the name of the deposed King Ferdinand VII (upon the concept known as "Retroversion of the Sovereignty to the People"). As this process led to open conflicts between independentists and loyalists, the Spanish American Independence Wars immediately ensued; resulting, by the 1820s, in the definitive loss for the Spanish Empire of all its American territories, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Rise of the English-speaking world: 1815–1870 The years following Britain's victory in the Napoleonic Wars were a period of expansion for Britain as it rebuilt the British Empire. The new United States grew even more rapidly. This period of expansion would help establish Anglicanism as the dominant religion, English as the dominant language, and English and Anglo-American culture as the dominant culture of two continents and many other lands outside the British Isles. Industrial Revolution in the English-speaking world Rapid economic growth following the Napoleonic Wars was the continuing product of the ever-expanding Industrial Revolution. The revolution began in Britain, where Thomas Newcomen developed a steam engine in 1712 to pump seeping water out of mines. This engine at first was powered by water, but soon coal and wood were heavily used. The British first learned to use steam power effectively. In 1804, the first steam powered railroad locomotive was developed in Britain, which allowed goods and people to be transported at faster speeds than ever before in history. Soon, large numbers of goods were being produced in factories. This resulted in great societal changes, and many people settled in the cities where the factories were located. Factory work could often be brutal. With no safety regulations, people became sick from contaminants in the air in textile mills for, example. Many workers were also horribly maimed by dangerous factory machinery. Since workers relied only on their small wages for sustenance, entire families were forced to work, including children. These and other problems caused by industrialism resulted in some reforms by the mid-19th century. The economic model of the West also began to change, with mercantilism being replaced by capitalism, in which companies, and later, large corporations, were run by individual investors.New ideological movements began as a result of the Industrial Revolution, including the Luddite movement, which opposed machinery, feeling it did not benefit the common good, and the socialists, whose beliefs usually included the elimination of private property and the sharing of industrial wealth. Unions were founded among industrial workers to help secure better wages and rights. Another result of the revolution was a change in societal hierarchy, especially in Europe, where nobility still occupied a high level on the social ladder. Capitalists emerged as a new powerful group, with educated professionals like doctors and lawyers under them, and the various industrial workers at the bottom. These changes were often slow however, with Western society as a whole remaining primarily agricultural for decades. Great Britain: 1815–1870 From 1837 until 1901, Queen Victoria reigned over Great Britain and the ever-expanding British Empire. The Industrial Revolution accelerated, making Britain the most powerful nation. It enjoyed relative peace and stability from 1815 until 1914, this period is often called the Pax Britannica, from the Latin "British Peace". The monarch became more a figurehead and symbol of national identity; actual power was in the hands of the prime minister and the cabinet, and was based on a majority in the House of Commons. Two rival parties were the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. The Liberal constituency was made up mostly of businessmen, as many Liberals supported the idea of a free market. Conservatives were supported by the aristocracy and gentry landowners. Control of Parliament switched back and forth between the parties. Overall it was a period of reform. In 1832 more representation was granted to new industrial cities, and laws barring Catholics from serving in Parliament were repealed, although discrimination against Catholics, especially Irish Catholics, continued. Other reforms granted near universal manhood suffrage, and state-supported elementary education for all Britons. More rights were granted to workers as well. Ireland had been ruled from London since the Middle Ages. After the Protestant Reformation the British Establishment began a campaign of discrimination against Roman Catholic and Presbyterian Irish, who lacked many rights under the Penal Laws, and the majority of the agricultural land was owned by the Protestant Ascendancy. Great Britain and Ireland had become a single nation ruled from London without the autonomous Parliament of Ireland after the Act of Union of 1800 was passed, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In the mid-19th century, Ireland suffered a devastating famine, which killed 10% of the population and led to massive emigration: see Irish diaspora. British Empire: 1815–1870 Throughout the 19th century, Britain's power grew enormously and the sun quite literally "never set" on the British Empire, for it had outposts on every occupied continent. It consolidated control over such far flung territories as Canada and Jamaica in the Americas, Australia and New Zealand in Oceania; Malaya, Hong Kong and Singapore in the Far East and a line of colonial possessions from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope through Africa. All of India was under British rule by 1870. In 1804, the Shah of the declining Mughal Empire had formally accepted the protection of the British East India Company. Many Britons settled in India, establishing a rich ruling class. They then expanded into neighbouring Burma. Among the British born in India were the immensely influential writers Rudyard Kipling (1865) and George Orwell (1903). In the Far East, Britain went to war with the declining Qing dynasty of China when it tried to stop British merchants in China from selling the opium to the Chinese public. The First Opium War (1840–1842), ended in a British victory, and China was forced to remove barriers to British trade and cede several ports and the island of Hong Kong to Britain. Soon, other powers sought these same privileges with China and China was forced to agree, ending Chinese isolation from the rest of the world. In 1853 an American expedition opened up Japan to trade with first the U.S., and then the rest of the world. In 1833 Britain ended slavery by buying out all the owners throughout its empire after a successful campaign by abolitionists. Furthermore, Britain had a great deal of success attempting to get other powers to outlaw the practice as well. As British settlement of southern Africa continued, the descendants of the Dutch in southern Africa, called the Boers or Afrikaners, whom Britain had ruled since the Anglo-Dutch Wars, migrated northward, disliking British rule. Explorers and missionaries like David Livingstone became national heroes. Cecil Rhodes founded Rhodesia and a British army under Lord Kitchener secured control of Sudan in the 1898 Battle of Omdurman. Canada: 1815–1870 Following the American Revolution, many Loyalists to Britain fled north to what is today Canada (where they were called United Empire Loyalists). Joined by mostly British colonists, they helped establish early colonies like Ontario and New Brunswick. British settlement in North America increased, and soon there were several colonies both north and west of the early ones in the northeast of the continent, these new ones included British Columbia and Prince Edward Island. Rebellions broke out against British rule in 1837, but Britain appeased the rebels' supporters in 1867 by confederating the colonies into Canada, with its own prime minister. Although Canada was still firmly within the British Empire, its people now enjoyed a great degree of self-rule. Canada was unique in the British Empire in that it had a French-speaking province, Quebec, which Britain had gained rule over in the Seven Years' War. Australia and New Zealand: 1815–1870 The First Fleet of British convicts arrived at New South Wales, Australia in 1788 and established a British outpost and penal colony at Sydney Cove. These convicts were often petty 'criminals', and represented the population spill-over of Britain's Industrial Revolution, as a result of the rapid urbanisation and dire crowding of British cities. Other convicts were political dissidents, particularly from Ireland. The establishment of a wool industry and the enlightened governorship of Lachlan Macquarie were instrumental in transforming New South Wales from a notorious prison outpost into a budding civil society. Further colonies were established around the perimeter of the continent and European explorers ventured deep inland. A free colony was established at South Australia in 1836 with a vision for a province of the British Empire with political and religious freedoms. The colony became a cradle of democratic reform. The Australian gold rushes increased prosperity and cultural diversity and autonomous democratic parliaments began to be established from the 1850s onward.The native inhabitants of Australia, called the Aborigines, lived as hunter-gatherers before European arrival. The population, never large, was largely dispossessed without treaty agreements nor compensations through the 19th century by the expansion of European agriculture, and, as had occurred when Europeans arrived in North and South America, faced superior European weaponry and suffered greatly from exposure to Old World diseases such as smallpox, to which they had no biological immunity. From the early 19th century, New Zealand was being visited by European explorers, sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers (known as Pākehā) and was administered by Britain from the nearby colony of New South Wales. In 1840 Britain signed the Treaty of Waitangi with the natives of New Zealand, the Māori, in which Britain gained sovereignty over the archipelago. As more Pākehā settlers arrived, clashes resulted and the New Zealand colonial government fought several wars before defeating the Māori. By 1870, New Zealand had a population made up mostly of European descent. United States: 1815–1870 Following independence from Britain, the United States began expanding westward, and soon a number of new states had joined the union. In 1803, the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from France, whose emperor, Napoleon I, had regained it from Spain. Soon, America's growing population was settling the Louisiana Territory, which geographically doubled the size of the country. At the same time, a series of revolutions and independence movements in Spain and Portugal's American empires resulted in the liberation of nearly all of Latin America, as the region composed of South America, most of the Caribbean, and North America from Mexico south became known. At first Spain and its allies seemed ready to try to reconquer the colonies, but the U.S. and Britain opposed this, and the reconquest never took place. From 1821 on, the U.S. bordered the newly independent nation of Mexico. An early problem faced by the Mexican republic was what to do with its sparsely populated northern territories, which today make up a large part of the American West. The government decided to try to attract Americans looking for land. Americans arrived in such large numbers that both the provinces of Texas and California had majority white, English-speaking populations. This led to a culture clash between these provinces and the rest of Mexico. When Mexico became a dictatorship under General Antonio López de Santa Anna, the Texans declared independence. After several battles, Texas gained independence from Mexico, although Mexico later claimed it still had a right to Texas. After existing as a republic modeled after the U.S. for several years, Texas joined the United States in 1845. This led to border disputes between the U.S. and Mexico, resulting in the Mexican–American War. The war ended with an American victory, and Mexico had to cede all its northern territories to the United States, and recognize the independence of California, which had revolted against Mexico during the war. In 1850, California joined the United States. In 1848, the U.S. and Britain resolved a border dispute over territory on the Pacific coast, called the Oregon Country by giving Britain the northern part and the U.S. the southern part. In 1867, the U.S. expanded again, purchasing the Russian colony of Alaska, in northwestern North America. Politically, the U.S. became more democratic with the abolishment of property requirements in voting, although voting remained restricted to white males. By the mid-19th century, the most important issue was slavery. The Northern states generally had outlawed the practice, while the Southern states not only had kept it legal but came to feel it was essential to their way of life. As new states joined the union, lawmakers clashed over whether they should be slave states or free states. In 1860, the anti-slavery candidate Abraham Lincoln was elected president. Fearing he would try to outlaw slavery in the whole country, several southern states seceded, forming the Confederate States of America, electing their own president and raising their own army. Lincoln countered that secession was illegal and raised an army to crush the rebel government, thus the advent of the American Civil War (1861–65). The Confederates had a skilled military that even succeeded in invading the northern state of Pennsylvania. However, the war began to turn around, with the defeat of Confederates at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and at Vicksburg, which gave the Union control of the important Mississippi River. Union forces invaded deep into the South, and the Confederacy's greatest general, Robert E. Lee, surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant of the Union in 1865. After that, the south came under Union occupation, ending the American Civil War. Lincoln was tragically assassinated in 1865, but his dream of ending slavery, exhibited in the wartime Emancipation Proclamation, was carried out by his Republican Party, which outlawed slavery, granted blacks equality and black males voting rights via constitutional amendments. However, although the abolishment of slavery would not be challenged, equal treatment for blacks would be. The Gettysburg Address, Lincoln's most famous speech and one of the most quoted political speeches in United States history, was delivered at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania on 19 November 1863, during the Civil War, four and a half months after the Battle of Gettysburg. Describing America as a "nation conceived in Liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal", Lincoln famously called on those gathered: [We here] highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain;that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. Continental Europe: 1815–1870 The years following the Napoleonic Wars were a time of change in Europe. The Industrial Revolution, nationalism, and several political revolutions transformed the continent. Industrial technology was imported from Britain. The first lands affected by this were France, the Low Countries, and western Germany. Eventually the Industrial Revolution spread to other parts of Europe. Many people in the countryside migrated to major cities like Paris, Berlin, and Amsterdam, which were connected like never before by railroads. Europe soon had its own class of wealthy industrialists, and large numbers of industrial workers. New ideologies emerged as a reaction against perceived abuses of industrial society. Among these ideologies were socialism and the more radical communism, created by the German Karl Marx. According to communism, history was a series of class struggles, and at the time industrial workers were pitted against their employers. Inevitably the workers would rise up in a worldwide revolution and abolish private property, according to Marx. Communism was also atheistic, since, according to Marx, religion was simply a tool used by the dominant class to keep the oppressed class docile. Several revolutions occurred in Europe following the Napoleonic Wars. The goal of most of these revolutions was to establish some form of democracy in a particular nation. Many were successful for a time, but their effects were often eventually reversed. Examples of this occurred in Spain, Italy, and Austria. Several European nations stood steadfastly against revolution and democracy, including Austria and Russia. Two successful revolts of the era were the Greek and Serbian wars of independence, which freed those nations from Ottoman rule. Another successful revolution occurred in the Low Countries. After the Napoleonic Wars, the Netherlands was given control of modern-day Belgium, which had been part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Dutch found it hard to rule the Belgians, due to their Catholic religion and French language. In the 1830s, the Belgians successfully overthrew Dutch rule, establishing the Kingdom of Belgium. In 1848 a series of revolutions occurred in Prussia, Austria, and France. In France, the king, Louis-Philippe, was overthrown and a republic was declared. Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I was elected the republic's first president. Extremely popular, Napoleon was made Napoleon III (since Napoleon I's son had been crowned Napoleon II during his reign), Emperor of the French, by a vote of the French people, ending France's Second Republic. Revolutionaries in Prussia and Italy focused more on nationalism, and most advocated the establishment of unified German and Italian states, respectively. In the city-states of Italy, many argued for a unification of all the Italian kingdoms into a single nation. Obstacles to this included the many Italian dialects spoken by the people of Italy, and the Austrian presence in the north of the peninsula. Unification of the peninsula began in 1859. The powerful Kingdom of Sardinia (also called Savoy or Piedmont) formed an alliance with France and went to war with Austria in that year. The war ended with a Sardinian victory, and Austrian forces left Italy. Plebiscites were held in several cities, and the majority of people voted for union with Sardinia, creating the Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II. In 1860, the Italian nationalist Garibaldi led revolutionaries in an overthrow of the government of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. A plebiscite held there resulted in a unification of that kingdom with Italy. Italian forces seized the eastern Papal States in 1861. In 1866 Venetia became part of Italy after Italy's ally, Prussia, defeated that kingdom's rulers, the Austrians, in the Austro-Prussian War. In 1870, Italian troops conquered the Papal States, completing unification. Pope Pius IX refused to recognize the Italian government or negotiate settlement for the loss of Church land. Prussia in the middle and late parts of the 19th century was ruled by its king, Wilhelm I, and its skilled chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. In 1864, Prussia went to war with Denmark and gained several German-speaking lands as a result. In 1866, Prussia went to war with the Austrian Empire and won, and created a confederation of it and several German states, called the North German Confederation, setting the stage for the 1871 formation of the German Empire. After years of dealing with Hungarian revolutionaries, whose kingdom Austria had conquered centuries earlier, the Austrian emperor, Franz Joseph agreed to divide the empire into two parts: Austria and Hungary, and rule as both Emperor of Austria and king of Hungary. The new Austro-Hungarian Empire was created in 1867. The two peoples were united in loyalty to the monarch and Catholicism. There were changes throughout the West in science, religion and culture between 1815 and 1870. Europe in 1870 differed greatly from its state in 1815. Most Western European nations had some degree of democracy, and two new national states had been created, Italy and Germany. Political parties were formed throughout the continent and with the spread of industrialism, Europe's economy was transformed, although it remained very agricultural. Culture, arts and sciences: 1815–1914 The 19th and early 20th centuries saw important contributions to the process of modernisation of Western art and Literature and the continuing evolution in the role of religion in Western societies. Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801. The end of the Napoleonic wars, signaled by the Congress of Vienna, brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States. In 1801, a new political entity was formed, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, thus increasing the number of Catholics in the new state. Pressure for abolition of anti-Catholic laws grew and in 1829 Parliament passed the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, giving Catholics almost equal civil rights, including the right to vote and to hold most public offices. While remaining a minority religion in the British Empire, a steady stream of new Catholics would continue to convert from the Church of England and Ireland, notably John Henry Newman and the poets Gerard Manley Hopkins and Oscar Wilde. The Anglo-Catholic movement began, emphasizing the Catholic traditions of the Anglican Church. New churches like the Methodist, Unitarian, and LDS Churches were founded. Many Westerners became less religious in this period, although a majority of people still held traditional Christian beliefs. The 1859 publication of On the Origin of Species, by the English naturalist Charles Darwin, provided an alternative hypothesis for the development, diversification, and design of human life to the traditional poetic scriptural explanation known as Creationism. According to Darwin, only the organisms most able to adapt to their environment survived while others became extinct. Adaptations resulted in changes in certain populations of organisms which could eventually cause the creation of new species. Modern genetics started with Gregor Johann Mendel, a German-Czech Augustinian monk who studied the nature of inheritance in plants. In his 1865 paper "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" ("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically. Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister made discoveries about bacteria and its effects on humans. Geologists at the time made discoveries indicating the world was far older than most believed it to be. Early batteries were invented and a telegraph system was also invented, allowing global communication. In 1869 Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his Periodic table. The success of Mendeleev's table came from two decisions he made: The first was to leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the corresponding element had not yet been discovered. The second decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic weights and switch adjacent elements, such as cobalt and nickel, to better classify them into chemical families. At the end of the 19th century, a number of discoveries were made in physics which paved the way for the development of modern physics – including Maria Skłodowska-Curie's work on radioactivity. In Europe by the 19th century, fashion had shifted away from such artistic styles as Mannerism, Baroque and Rococo and sought to revert to the earlier, simpler art of the Renaissance by creating Neoclassicism. Neoclassicism complemented the intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment, which was similarly idealistic. Ingres, Canova, and Jacques-Louis David are among the best-known neoclassicists.Just as Mannerism rejected Classicism, so did Romanticism reject the ideas of the Enlightenment and the aesthetic of the Neoclassicists. Romanticism emphasized emotion and nature, and idealized the Middle Ages. Important musicians were Franz Schubert, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Richard Wagner, Fryderyk Chopin, and John Constable. Romantic art focused on the use of color and motion in order to portray emotion, but like classicism used Greek and Roman mythology and tradition as an important source of symbolism. Another important aspect of Romanticism was its emphasis on nature and portraying the power and beauty of the natural world. Romanticism was also a large literary movement, especially in poetry. Among the greatest Romantic artists were Eugène Delacroix, Francisco Goya, Karl Bryullov, J. M. W. Turner, John Constable, Caspar David Friedrich, Ivan Aivazovsky, Thomas Cole, and William Blake. Romantic poetry emerged as a significant genre, particularly during the Victorian Era with leading exponents including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Burns, Edgar Allan Poe and John Keats. Other Romantic writers included Sir Walter Scott, Lord Byron, Alexander Pushkin, Victor Hugo, and Goethe. Some of the best regarded poets of the era were women. Mary Wollstonecraft had written one of the first works of feminist philosophy, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman which called for equal education for women in 1792 and her daughter, Mary Shelley became an accomplished author best known for her 1818 novel Frankenstein, which examined some of the frightening potential of the rapid advances of science. In early 19th-century Europe, in response to industrialization, the movement of Realism emerged. Realism sought to accurately portray the conditions and hardships of the poor in the hopes of changing society. In contrast with Romanticism, which was essentially optimistic about mankind, Realism offered a stark vision of poverty and despair. Similarly, while Romanticism glorified nature, Realism portrayed life in the depths of an urban wasteland. Like Romanticism, Realism was a literary as well as an artistic movement. The great Realist painters include Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Camille Corot, Honoré Daumier, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas (both considered as Impressionists), Ilya Repin, and Thomas Eakins, among others. Writers also sought to come to terms with the new industrial age. The works of the Englishman Charles Dickens (including his novels Oliver Twist and A Christmas Carol) and the Frenchman Victor Hugo (including Les Misérables) remain among the best known and widely influential. The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol (Dead Souls). Then came Ivan Goncharov, Nikolai Leskov and Ivan Turgenev. Leo Tolstoy (War and Peace, Anna Karenina) and Fyodor Dostoevsky (Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, The Brothers Karamazov) soon became internationally renowned to the point that many scholars such as F. R. Leavis have described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever. In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in writing short stories and became perhaps the leading dramatist internationally of his period. American literature also progressed with the development of a distinct voice: Mark Twain produced his masterpieces Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. In Irish literature, the Anglo-Irish tradition produced Bram Stoker and Oscar Wilde writing in English and a Gaelic Revival had emerged by the end of the 19th century. The poetry of William Butler Yeats prefigured the emergence of the 20th-century Irish literary giants James Joyce, Samuel Beckett and Patrick Kavanagh. In Britain's Australian colonies, bush balladeers such as Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson brought the character of a new continent to the pages of world literature. The response of architecture to industrialisation, in stark contrast to the other arts, was to veer towards historicism. The railway stations built during this period are often called "the cathedrals of the age". Architecture during the Industrial Age witnessed revivals of styles from the distant past, such as the Gothic Revival—in which style the iconic Palace of Westminster in London was re-built to house the mother parliament of the British Empire. Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral in Paris was also restored in the Gothic style, following its desecration during the French Revolution. Out of the naturalist ethic of Realism grew a major artistic movement, Impressionism. The Impressionists pioneered the use of light in painting as they attempted to capture light as seen from the human eye. Edgar Degas, Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, were all involved in the Impressionist movement. As a direct outgrowth of Impressionism came the development of Post-Impressionism. Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat are the best known Post-Impressionists. In Australia the Heidelberg School was expressing the light and colour of Australian landscape with a new insight and vigour. The Industrial Revolution which began in Britain in the 18th century brought increased leisure time, leading to more time for citizens to attend and follow spectator sports, greater participation in athletic activities, and increased accessibility. The bat and ball sport of cricket was first played in England during the 16th century and was exported around the globe via the British Empire. A number of popular modern sports were devised or codified in Britain during the 19th century and obtained global prominence – these include Ping Pong, modern tennis, Association football, netball and rugby. The United States also developed popular international sports during this period. English migrants took antecedents of baseball to America during the colonial period. American football resulted from several major divergences from rugby, most notably the rule changes instituted by Walter Camp. Basketball was invented in 1891 by James Naismith, a Canadian physical education instructor working in Springfield, Massachusetts in the United States. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, a Frenchman, instigated the modern revival of the Olympic Games, with the first modern Olympics being held in Athens in 1896. New Imperialism: 1870–1914 The years between 1870 and 1914 saw the expansion of Western power. By 1914, the Western and some Asian and Eurasian empires like the Empire of Japan, Russian Empire, Ottoman Empire, and Qing China dominated the entire planet. The major Western players in this New Imperialism were the United Kingdom, Russia, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden-Norway, and the United States. Japan was the only non-Western power involved in this new era of imperialism. Although the West had had a presence in Africa for centuries, its colonies were limited mostly to Africa's coast. Europeans, including the Britons Mungo Park and David Livingstone, the German Johannes Rebmann, and the Frenchman René Caillié, explored the interior of the continent, allowing greater European expansion in the later 19th century. The period between 1870 and 1914 is often called the Scramble for Africa, due to the competition between European nations for control of Africa. In 1830, France occupied Algeria in North Africa. Many Frenchman settled on Algeria's Mediterranean coast. In 1882 Britain annexed Egypt. France eventually conquered most of Morocco and Tunisia as well. Libya was conquered by the Italians. Spain gained a small part of Morocco and modern-day Western Sahara. West Africa was dominated by France, although Britain ruled several smaller West African colonies. Germany also established two colonies in West Africa, and Portugal had one as well. Central Africa was dominated by the Belgian Congo. At first the colony was ruled by Belgium's king, Leopold II, however his regime was so brutal the Belgian government took over the colony. The Germans and French also established colonies in Central Africa. The British and Italians were the two dominant powers in East Africa, although France also had a colony there. Southern Africa was dominated by Britain. Tensions between the British Empire and the Boer Republics led to the Boer Wars, fought on and off between the 1880s and 1902, ending in a British victory. In 1910 Britain united its South African colonies with the former Boer republics and established the Union of South Africa, a dominion of the British Empire. The British established several other colonies in Southern Africa. The Portuguese and Germans also established a presence in Southern Africa. The French conquered the island of Madagascar. By 1914, Africa had only two independent nations, Liberia, a nation founded in West Africa by free black Americans earlier in the 19th century, and the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia in East Africa. Many Africans, like the Zulus and Ashanti, resisted European rule, but in the end Europe succeeded in conquering and transforming the continent. Missionaries arrived and established schools, while industrialists helped establish rubber, diamond and gold industries on the continent. Perhaps the most ambitious change by Europeans was the construction of the Suez Canal in Egypt, allowing ships to travel from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean without having to go all the way around Africa. In Asia, China was defeated by Britain in the First Opium War and later Britain and France in the Arrow War, forcing it to open up to trade with the West. Soon every major Western power as well as Russia and Japan had spheres of influence in China, although the country remained independent. Southeast Asia was divided between French Indochina and British Burma. One of the few independent nations in this region at the time was Siam. The Dutch continued to rule their colony of the Dutch East Indies, while Britain and Germany also established colonies in Oceania. India remained an integral part of the British Empire, with Queen Victoria being crowned Empress of India. The British even built a new capital in India, New Delhi. The Middle East remained largely under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and Persia. Britain, however, established a sphere of influence in Persia and a few small colonies in Arabia and coastal Mesopotamia. The Pacific islands were conquered by Germany, the U.S., Britain, France, and Belgium. In 1893, the ruling class of colonists in Hawaii overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy of Queen Liliuokalani and established a republic. Since most of the leaders of the overthrow were Americans or descendants of Americans, they asked to be annexed by the United States, which agreed to the annexation in 1898. Latin America was largely free from foreign rule throughout this period, although the United States and Britain had a great deal of influence over the region. Britain had two colonies on the Latin American mainland, while the United States, following 1898, had several in the Caribbean. The U.S. supported the independence of Cuba and Panama, but gained a small territory in central Panama and intervened in Cuba several times. Other countries also faced American interventions from time to time, mostly in the Caribbean and southern North America. Competition over control of overseas colonies sometimes led to war between Western powers, and between Western powers and non-Westerners. At the turn of the 20th century, Britain fought several wars with Afghanistan to prevent it from falling under the influence of Russia, which ruled all of Central Asia excluding Afghanistan. Britain and France nearly went to war over control of Africa. In 1898, the United States and Spain went to war after an American naval ship was sunk in the Caribbean. Although today it is generally held that the sinking was an accident, at the time the U.S. held Spain responsible and soon American and Spanish forces clashed everywhere from Cuba to the Philippines. The U.S. won the war and gained several Caribbean colonies including Puerto Rico and several Pacific islands, including Guam and the Philippines. Important resistance movements to Western Imperialism included the Boxer Rebellion, fought against the colonial powers in China, and the Philippine–American War, fought against the United States, both of which failed. The Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) left the Ottoman Empire little more than an empty shell, but the failing empire was able to hang on into the 20th century, until its final partition, which left the British and French colonial empires in control of much of the former Ottoman ruled Arab countries of the Middle East (British Mandate of Palestine, British Mandate of Mesopotamia, French Mandate of Syria, French Mandate of Lebanon, in addition to the British occupation of Egypt from 1882). Even though this happened centuries after the West had given up its futile attempts to conquer the "Holy Land" under religious pretexts, this fueled resentment against the "Crusaders" in the Islamic world, which along with the nationalisms hatched under Ottoman rule, contributed to the development of Islamism. The expanding Western powers greatly changed the societies they conquered. Many connected their empires via railroad and telegraph and constructed churches, schools, and factories. Great powers and the First World War: 1870–1918 By the late 19th century, the world was dominated by a few great powers, including Great Britain, the United States, and Germany. France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy were also great powers. Western inventors and industrialists transformed the West in the late 19th century and early 20th century. The American Thomas Edison pioneered electricity and motion picture technology. Other American inventors, the Wright brothers, completed the first successful airplane flight in 1903. The first automobiles were also invented in this period. Petroleum became an important commodity after the discovery it could be used to power machines. Steel was developed in Britain by Henry Bessemer. This very strong metal, combined with the invention of elevators, allowed people to construct very tall buildings, called skyscrapers. In the late 19th century, the Italian Guglielmo Marconi was able to communicate across distances using radio. In 1876, the first telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell, a British expatriate living in America. Many became very wealthy from this Second Industrial Revolution, including the American entrepreneurs Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller. Unions continued to fight for the rights of workers, and by 1914 laws limiting working hours and outlawing child labor had been passed in many Western countries. Culturally, the English-speaking nations were in the midst of the Victorian era, named for Britain's queen. In France, this period is called the Belle Époque, a period of many artistic and cultural achievements. The suffragette movement began in this period, which sought to gain voting rights for women, with New Zealand and Australian parliaments granting women's suffrage in the 1890s. However, by 1914, only a dozen U.S. states had given women this right, although women were treated more and more as equals of men before the law in many countries. Cities grew as never before between 1870 and 1914. This led at first to unsanitary and crowded living conditions, especially for the poor. However, by 1914, municipal governments were providing police and fire departments and garbage removal services to their citizens, leading to a drop in death rates. Unfortunately, pollution from burning coal and wastes left by thousands of horses that crowded the streets worsened the quality of life in many urban areas. Paris, lit up by gas and electric light, and containing the tallest structure in the world at the time, the Eiffel Tower, was often looked to as an ideal modern city, and served as a model for city planners around the world. United States: 1870–1914 Following the American Civil War, great changes occurred in the United States. After the war, the former Confederate States were put under federal occupation and federal lawmakers attempted to gain equality for blacks by outlawing slavery and giving them citizenship. After several years, however, Southern states began rejoining the Union as their populations pledged loyalty to the United States government, and in 1877 Reconstruction as this period was called, came to an end. After being re-admitted to the Union, Southern lawmakers passed segregation laws and laws preventing blacks from voting, resulting in blacks being regarded as second-class citizens for decades to come. Another great change beginning in the 1870s was the settlement of the western territories by Americans. The population growth in the American West led to the creation of many new western states, and by 1912 all the land of the contiguous U.S. was part of a state, bringing the total to 48. As whites settled the West, however, conflicts occurred with the Amerindians. After several Indian Wars, the Amerindians were forcibly relocated to small reservations throughout the West and by 1914 whites were the dominant ethnic group in the American West. As the farming and cattle industries of the American West matured and new technology allowed goods to be refrigerated and brought to other parts of the country and overseas, people's diets greatly improved and contributed to increased population growth throughout the West. America's population greatly increased between 1870 and 1914, due largely to immigration. The U.S. had been receiving immigrants for decades but at the turn of the 20th century, the numbers greatly increased due partly to large population growth in Europe. Immigrants often faced discrimination, because many differed from most Americans in religion and culture. Despite this, most immigrants found work and enjoyed a greater degree of freedom than in their home countries. Major immigrant groups included the Irish, Italians, Russians, Scandinavians, Germans, Poles and Diaspora Jews. The vast majority, at least by the second generation, learned English, and adopted American culture, while at the same time contributing to that culture by, for example, introducing the celebration of ethnic holidays and foreign cuisine to America. These new groups also changed America's religious landscape. Although it remained mostly Protestant, Catholics especially, as well as Jews and Orthodox Christians, increased in number. The U.S. became a major military and industrial power during this time, gaining a colonial empire from Spain and surpassing Britain and Germany to become the world's major industrial power by 1900. Despite this, most Americans were reluctant to get involved in world affairs, and American presidents generally tried to keep the U.S. out of foreign entanglement. Europe: 1870–1914 The years between 1870 and 1914 saw the rise of Germany as the dominant power in Europe. By the late 19th century, Germany had surpassed Britain to become the world's greatest industrial power. It also had the mightiest army in Europe. From 1870 to 1871, Prussia was at war with France. Prussia won the war and gained two border territories, Alsace and Lorraine, from France. After the war, Wilhelm took the title kaiser from the Roman title caesar, proclaimed the German Empire, and all the German states other than Austria united with this new nation, under the leadership of Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. After the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III was dethroned and France was proclaimed a republic. During this time, France was increasingly divided between Catholics and monarchists and anticlerical and republican forces. In 1900, church and state were officially separated in France, although the majority of the population remained Catholic. France also found itself weakened industrially following its war with Prussia due to its loss of iron and coal mines following the war. In addition, France's population was smaller than Germany's and was hardly growing. Despite all this, France's strong sense of nationhood, among other things, kept the country together. Between 1870 and 1914, Britain continued to peacefully switch between Liberal and Conservative governments, and maintained its vast empire, the largest in world history. Two problems faced by Britain in this period were the resentment of British rule in Ireland and Britain's falling behind Germany and the United States in industrial production. British dominions: 1870–1914 The European populations of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa all continued to grow and thrive in this period and evolved democratic Westminster system parliaments. Canada united as a dominion of the British Empire under the Constitution Act, 1867 (British North America Acts). The colony of New Zealand gained its own parliament (called a "general assembly") and home rule in 1852. and in 1907 was proclaimed the Dominion of New Zealand. Britain began to grant its Australian colonies autonomy beginning in the 1850s and during the 1890s, the colonies of Australia voted to unite. In 1901 they were federated as an independent nation under the British Crown, known as the Commonwealth of Australia, with a wholly elected bicameral parliament. The Constitution of Australia had been drafted in Australia and approved by popular consent. Thus Australia is one of the few countries established by a popular vote. The Second Boer War (1899–1902) ended with the conversion of the Boer republics of South Africa into British colonies and these colonies later formed part of the Union of South Africa in 1910 with equal rights for the Boers, who dominated elections. From the 1850s, Canada, Australia and New Zealand had become laboratories of democracy. By the 1870s, they had already granted voting rights to their citizens in advance of most other Western nations. In 1893, New Zealand became the first self-governing nation to extend the right to vote to women and, in 1895, the women of South Australia also became the first to obtain the right to stand for Parliament. During the 1890s Australia also saw such milestones as the invention of the secret ballot, the introduction of a minimum wage and the election of the world's first Labor Party government, prefiguring the emergence of Social Democratic governments in Europe. The old age pension was established in Australia and New Zealand by 1900.From the 1880s, the Heidelberg School of art adapted Western painting techniques to Australian conditions, while writers like Banjo Paterson and Henry Lawson introduced the character of a new continent into English literature and antipodean artists such as the opera singer Dame Nellie Melba began to influence the European arts. Rival alliances The late 19th century saw the creation of two rival alliances in Europe. Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary formed the Triple Alliance. France and Russia also developed strong relations with one another, due to the financing of Russia's Industrial Revolution by French capitalists. Although it did not have a formal alliance, Russia supported the Slavic Orthodox nations of the Balkans and the Caucasus, which had been created in the 19th century after several wars and revolutions against the Ottoman Empire, which by now was in decline and ruled only parts of the southern Balkan Peninsula. This Russian policy, called Pan-Slavism, led to conflicts with the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, which had many Slavic subjects. Franco-German relations were also tense in this period due to France's defeat and loss of land at the hands of Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War. Also in this period, Britain ended its policy of isolation from the European continent and formed an alliance with France, called the Entente Cordiale. Rather than achieve greater security for the nations of Europe, however, these alliances increased the chances of a general European war breaking out. Other factors that would eventually lead to World War I were the competition for overseas colonies, the military buildups of the period, most notably Germany's, and the feeling of intense nationalism throughout the continent. World War I When the war broke out, much of the fighting was between Western powers, and the immediate casus belli was an assassination. The victim was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, and he was assassinated on 28 June 1914 by a Yugoslav nationalist named Gavrilo Princip in the city of Sarajevo, at the time part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Although Serbia agreed to all but one point of the Austrian ultimatum (it did not take responsibility in planning the assassination but was ready to hand over any subject involved on its territory), Austria-Hungary was more than eager to declare war, attacked Serbia and effectively began World War I. Fearing the conquest of a fellow Slavic Orthodox nation, Russia declared war on Austria-Hungary. Germany responded by declaring war on Russia as well as France, which it feared would ally with Russia. To reach France, Germany invaded neutral Belgium in August, leading Britain to declare war on Germany. The war quickly stalemated, with trenches being dug from the North Sea to Switzerland. The war also made use of new and relatively new technology and weapons, including machine guns, airplanes, tanks, battleships, and submarines. Even chemical weapons were used at one point. The war also involved other nations, with Romania and Greece joining the British Empire and France and Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joining Germany. The war spread throughout the globe with colonial armies clashing in Africa and Pacific nations such as Japan and Australia, allied with Britain, attacking German colonies in the Pacific. In the Middle East, the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps landed at Gallipoli in 1915 in a failed bid to support an Anglo-French capture of the Ottoman capital of Istanbul. Unable to secure an early victory in 1915, British Empire forces later attacked from further south after the beginning of the Arab revolt and conquered Mesopotamia and Palestine from the Ottomans with the support of local Arab rebels. The British Empire also supported an Arab revolt against the Ottomans that was centered in the Arabian Peninsula. 1916 saw some of the most ferocious fighting in human history with the Somme Offensive on the Western Front alone resulting in 500,000 German casualties, 420,000 British and Dominion casualties, and 200,000 French casualties.1917 was a crucial year in the war. The United States had followed a policy of neutrality in the war, feeling it was a European conflict. However, during the course of the war many Americans had died on board British ocean liners sunk by the Germans, leading to anti-German feelings in the U.S. There had also been incidents of sabotage on American soil, including the Black Tom explosion. What finally led to American involvement in the war, however, was the discovery of the Zimmermann Telegram, in which Germany offered to help Mexico conquer part of the United States if it formed an alliance with Germany. In April, the U.S. declared war on Germany. The same year the U.S. entered the war, Russia withdrew. After the deaths of many Russian soldiers and hunger in Russia, a revolution occurred against the Czar, Nicholas II. Nicholas abdicated and a Liberal provisional government was set up. In October, Russian communists, led by Vladimir Lenin rose up against the government, resulting in a civil war. Eventually, the communists won and Lenin became premier. Feeling World War I was a capitalist conflict, Lenin signed a peace treaty with Germany in which it gave up a great deal of its Central and Eastern European lands. Although Germany and its allies no longer had to focus on Russia, the large numbers of American troops and weapons reaching Europe turned the tide against Germany, and after more than a year of fighting, Germany surrendered. The treaties which ended the war, including the famous Versailles Treaty dealt harshly with Germany and its former allies. The Austro-Hungarian Empire were completely abolished and Germany was greatly reduced in size. Many nations regained their independence, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The last Austro-Hungarian emperor abdicated, and two new republics, Austria and Hungary, were created. The last Ottoman sultan was overthrown by the Turkish nationalist revolutionary named Atatürk and the Ottoman homeland of Turkey was declared a republic. Germany's kaiser also abdicated and Germany was declared a republic. Germany was also forced to give up the lands it had gained in the Franco-Prussian War to France, accept responsibility for the war, reduce its military and pay reparations to Britain and France. In the Middle East, Britain gained Palestine, Transjordan (modern-day Jordan), and Mesopotamia as colonies. France gained Syria and Lebanon. An independent kingdom consisting of most of the Arabian peninsula, Saudi Arabia, was also established. Germany's colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific were divided between the British and French Empires. The war had cost millions of lives and led many in the West to develop a strong distaste for war. Few were satisfied with, and many despised the agreements made at the end of the war. Japanese and Italians were angry that they had not been given any new colonies after the war, and many Americans felt the war had been a mistake. Germans were outraged at the state of their country following the war. Also, unlike many in the United States had hoped for, democracy did not flourish in the world in the post-war period. The League of Nations, an international organization proposed by American president Woodrow Wilson to prevent another great war from breaking out, proved ineffective, especially because the isolationist United States ended up not joining. Interwar years: 1918–1939 United States in the interwar years After World War I, most Americans regretted getting involved in world affairs and desired a "return to normalcy". The 1920s were a period of economic prosperity in the United States. Many Americans bought cars, radios, and other appliances with the help of installment payments. Also, many Americans invested in the stock market as a source of income. Movie theaters sprang up throughout the country, although at first they did not have sound. Alcoholic beverages were outlawed in the United States and women were granted the right to vote. Although the United States was arguably the most powerful nation in the post-war period, Americans remained isolationist and elected several conservative presidents during this period. In October 1929 the New York stock market crashed, leading to the Great Depression. Many lost their life's savings and the resulting decline in consumer spending led millions to lose their jobs as banks and businesses closed. In the Midwestern United States, a severe drought destroyed many farmers' livelihoods. In 1932, Americans elected Franklin D. Roosevelt president. Roosevelt followed a series of policies which regulated the stock market and banks, and created many public works programs aimed at providing the unemployed with work. Roosevelt's policies helped alleviate the worst effects of the Depression, although by 1941 the Great Depression was still ongoing. Roosevelt also instituted pensions for the elderly and provided money to those who were unemployed. Roosevelt was also one of the most popular presidents in U.S. history, earning re-election in 1936, and also in 1940 and 1944, becoming the only U.S. president to serve more than two terms. Europe in the interwar years Europe was relatively unstable following World War I. Although many prospered in the 1920s, Germany was in a deep financial and economic crisis. Also, France and Britain owed the U.S. a great deal of money. When the United States went into Depression, so did Europe. There were perhaps 30 million people around the world unemployed following the Depression. Many governments helped to alleviate the suffering of their citizens and by 1937 the economy had improved although the lingering effects of the Depression remained. Also, the Depression led to the spread of radical left-wing and right-wing ideologies, like Communism and Fascism. In 1919-1921 Polish–Soviet War took place. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 Russia sought to spread communism to the rest of Europe. This is evidenced by the well-known daily order by marshal Tukhachevsky to his troops: "Over the corpse of Poland leads the road to the world's fire. Towards Wilno, Minsk, Warsaw go!". Poland, whose statehood had just been re-established by the Treaty of Versailles following the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century achieved an unexpected and decisive victory at the Battle of Warsaw. In the wake of the Polish advance eastward, the Soviets sued for peace and the war ended with a ceasefire in October 1920. A formal peace treaty, the Peace of Riga, was signed on 18 March 1921. According to the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, the Polish–Soviet War "largely determined the course of European history for the next twenty years or more. [...] Unavowedly and almost unconsciously, Soviet leaders abandoned the cause of international revolution." It would be twenty years before the Bolsheviks would send their armies abroad to 'make revolution'. According to American sociologist Alexander Gella "the Polish victory had gained twenty years of independence not only for Poland, but at least for an entire central part of Europe. In 1916, militant Irish republicans staged a rising and proclaimed a republic. The rising was suppressed after six days with leaders of the rising being executed. This was followed by the Irish War of Independence in 1919–1921 and the Irish Civil War (1922–1923). After the civil war, the island was divided. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, while the rest of the island became the Irish Free State. In 1927, the United Kingdom renamed itself the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. In the 1920s, the UK granted the right to vote to women. British dominions in the interwar years The relationship between Britain and its Empire evolved significantly over the period. In 1919, the British Empire was represented at the all-important Versailles Peace Conference by delegates from its dominions who had each suffered large casualties during the War. The Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference, stated that Britain and its dominions were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". These aspects to the relationship were eventually formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931 – a British law which, at the request and with the consent of the dominion parliaments clarified the independent powers of the dominion parliaments, and granted the former colonies full legal freedom except areas where they chose to remain subordinate. Previously the British Parliament had had residual ill-defined powers, and overriding authority, over dominion legislation. It applied to the six dominions which existed in 1931: Canada, Australia, the Irish Free State, the Dominion of Newfoundland, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa. Each of the dominions remained within the British Commonwealth and retained close political and cultural ties with Britain and continued to recognize the British monarch as head of their own independent nations. Australia, New Zealand, and Newfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect. Australia and New Zealand did so in 1942 and 1947 respectively. Newfoundland united with Canada in 1949 and the Irish Free State came to an end in 1937, when the citizens voted by referendum to replace its 1922 constitution. It was succeeded by the entirely sovereign modern state of Ireland. Rise of totalitarianism The Inter-war years saw the establishment of the first totalitarian regimes in world history. The first was established in Russia following the revolution of 1917. The Russian Empire was renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or Soviet Union. The government controlled every aspect of its citizens' lives, from maintaining loyalty to the Communist Party to persecuting religion. Lenin helped to establish this state but it was brought to a new level of brutality under his successor, Joseph Stalin. The first totalitarian state in the West was established in Italy. Unlike the Soviet Union however, this would be a Fascist rather than a Communist state. Fascism is a less organized ideology than Communism, but generally it is characterized by a total rejection of humanism and liberal democracy, as well as very intense nationalism, with a government headed by a single all-powerful dictator. The Italian politician Benito Mussolini established the Fascist Party (from which Fascism derives its name) following World War I. Fascists won the support of many disillusioned Italians, who were angry over Italy's treatment following World War I. They also employed violence and intimidation against their political enemies. In 1922, Mussolini seized power by threatening to lead his followers on a march on Rome if he was not named prime minister. Although he had to share some power with the monarchy, Mussolini ruled as a dictator. Under his rule, Italy's military was built up and democracy became a thing of the past. One important diplomatic achievement of his reign, however, was the Lateran Treaty, between Italy and the Pope, in which a small part of Rome where St. Peter's Basilica and other Church property was located was given independence as Vatican City and the Pope was reimbursed for lost Church property. In exchange, the Pope recognized the Italian government. Another Fascist party, the Nazis, would take power in Germany. The Nazis were similar to Mussolini's Fascists but held many views of their own. Nazis were obsessed with racial theory, believing Germans to be part of a master race, destined to dominate the inferior races of the world. The Nazis were especially hateful of Jews. Another unique aspect of Nazism was its connection with a small movement that supported a return to ancient Germanic paganism. Adolf Hitler, a World War I veteran, became leader of the party in 1921. Gaining support from many disillusioned Germans, and by using intimidation against its enemies, the Nazi party had gained a great deal of power by the early 1930s. In 1933, Hitler was named Chancellor, and seized dictatorial power. Hitler built up Germany's military in violation of the Versailles Treaty and stripped Jews of all rights in Germany. Eventually, the regime Hitler created would lead to the Second World War. In Spain, a Republic was proclaimed in 1931 in the wake of the demise of the Bourbon monarchic regime and its dictatorial solution. In 1936, a military coup d'etat against the republic started the Spanish Civil War, which ended in 1939 with the victory of the rebel side (supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany) and with Francisco Franco as dictator. Second World War and its aftermath: 1939–1950 The late 1930s saw a series of violations of the Versailles Treaty by Germany, however, France and Britain refused to act. In 1938, Hitler annexed Austria in an attempt to unite all German-speakers under his rule. Next, he annexed a German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France agreed to recognize his rule over that land and in exchange Hitler agreed not to expand his empire further. In a matter of months, however, Hitler broke the pledge and annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia. Despite this, the British and French chose to do nothing, wanting to avoid war at any cost. Hitler then formed a secret non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, despite the fact that the Soviet Union was Communist and Germany was Nazi. Also in the 1930s, Italy conquered Ethiopia. The Soviets too began annexing neighboring countries. Japan began taking aggressive actions towards China. After Japan opened itself to trade with the West in the mid-19th century, its leaders learned to take advantage of Western technology and industrialized their country by the end of the century. By the 1930s, Japan's government was under the control of militarists who wanted to establish an empire in the Asia-Pacific region. In 1937, Japan invaded China. In 1939, German forces invaded Poland, and soon the country was divided between the Soviet Union and Germany. France and Britain declared war on Germany, World War II had begun. The war featured the use of new technologies and improvements on existing ones. Airplanes called bombers were capable of travelling great distances and dropping bombs on targets. Submarine, tank and battleship technology also improved. Most soldiers were equipped with hand-held machine guns and armies were more mobile than ever before. Also, the British invention of radar would revolutionize tactics. German forces invaded and conquered the Low Countries and by June had even conquered France. In 1940 Germany, Italy and Japan formed an alliance and became known as the Axis Powers. Germany next turned its attention to Britain. Hitler attempted to defeat the British using only air power. In the Battle of Britain, German bombers destroyed much of the British air force and many British cities. Led by their prime minister, the defiant Winston Churchill, the British refused to give up and launched air attacks on Germany. Eventually, Hitler turned his attention from Britain to the Soviet Union. In June 1941, German forces invaded the Soviet Union and soon reached deep into Russia, surrounding Moscow, Leningrad, and Stalingrad. Hitler's invasion came as a total surprise to Stalin; however, Hitler had always believed sooner or later Soviet Communism and what he believed were the "inferior" Slavic peoples had to be wiped out. The United States attempted to remain neutral early in the war. However, a growing number feared the consequences of a Fascist victory. President Roosevelt began sending weapons and support to the British, Chinese, and Soviets. Also, the U.S. placed an embargo against the Japanese, as they continued their war with China and conquered many colonies formerly ruled by the French and Dutch, who were now under German rule. In 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, an American naval base in Hawaii. The U.S. responded by declaring war on Japan. The next day, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. The United States, the British Commonwealth, and the Soviet Union now constituted the Allies, dedicated to destroying the Axis Powers. Other allied nations included Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and China. In the Pacific War, British, Indian and Australian troops made a disorganised last stand at Singapore, before surrendering on 15 February 1942. The defeat was the worst in British military history. Around 15,000 Australian soldiers alone became prisoners of war. Allied prisoners died in their thousands interned at Changi Prison or working as slave labourers on such projects as the infamous Burma Railway and the Sandakan Death Marches. Australian cities and bases – notably Darwin suffered air raids and Sydney suffered naval attack. U.S. General Douglas MacArthur, based in Melbourne, Australia became "Supreme Allied Commander of the South West Pacific" and the foundations of the post war Australia-New Zealand-United States Alliance were laid. In May 1942, the Royal Australian Navy and U.S. Navy engaged the Japanese in the Battle of the Coral Sea and halted the Japanese fleet headed for Australian waters. The Battle of Midway in June effectively defeated the Japanese navy. In August 1942, Australian forces inflicted the first land defeat on advancing Japanese forces at the Battle of Milne Bay in the Australian Territory of New Guinea.By 1942, German and Italian armies ruled Norway, the Low Countries, France, the Balkans, Central Europe, part of Russia, and most of North Africa. Japan by this year ruled much of China, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and many Pacific Islands. Life in these empires was cruel – especially in Germany, where the Holocaust was perpetrated. Eleven million people – six million of them Jews – were systematically murdered by the German Nazis by 1945. From 1943 on, the Allies gained the upper hand. American and British troops first liberated North Africa from the Germans and Italians. Next they invaded Italy, where Mussolini was deposed by the king and later was killed by Italian partisans. Italy surrendered and came under Allied occupation. After the liberation of Italy, American, British, and Canadian troops crossed the English Channel and liberated Normandy, France, from German rule after great loss of life. The Western Allies were then able to liberate the rest of France and move towards Germany. During these campaigns in Africa and Western Europe, the Soviets fought off the Germans, pushing them out of the Soviet Union altogether and driving them out of Eastern and East-Central Europe. In 1945 the Western Allies and Soviets invaded Germany itself. The Soviets captured Berlin and Hitler committed suicide. Germany surrendered unconditionally and came under Allied occupation. The war against Japan continued however. American forces from 1943 on had worked their way across the Pacific, liberating territory from the Japanese. The British also fought the Japanese in such places as Burma. By 1945, the U.S. had surrounded Japan, however the Japanese refused to surrender. Fearing a land invasion would cost one million American lives, the U.S. used a new weapon against Japan, the atomic bomb, developed after years of work by an international team including Germans, in the United States. These atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined with a Soviet invasion of many of Japan's occupied territories in the east, led Japan to surrender. After the war the U.S., Britain and the Soviet Union attempted to cooperate. German and Japanese military leaders responsible for atrocities in their regimes were put on trial and many were executed. The international organization the United Nations was created. Its goal was to prevent wars from breaking out as well as provide the people of the world with security, justice and rights. The period of post-war cooperation ended, however, when the Soviet Union rigged elections in the occupied nations of Central and Eastern Europe to allow for Communist victories. Soon, all of Eastern and much of Central Europe had become a series of Communist dictatorships, all staunchly allied with the Soviet Union. Germany following the war had been occupied by British, American, French, and Soviet forces. Unable to agree on a new government, the country was divided into a democratic west and Communist east. Berlin itself was also divided, with West Berlin becoming part of West Germany and East Berlin becoming part of East Germany. Meanwhile, the former Axis nations soon had their sovereignty restored, with Italy and Japan regaining independence following the war. World War II had cost millions of lives and devastated many others. Entire cities lay in ruins and economies were in shambles. However, in the Allied countries, the people were filled with pride at having stopped Fascism from dominating the globe, and after the war, Fascism was all but extinct as an ideology. The world's balance of power also shifted, with the United States and Soviet Union being the world's two superpowers. Fall of the Western empires: 1945–1999 Following World War II, the great colonial empires established by the Western powers beginning in early modern times began to collapse. There were several reasons for this. Firstly, World War II had devastated European economies and had forced governments to spend great deals of money, making the price of colonial administration increasingly hard to manage. Secondly, the two new superpowers following the war, the United States and Soviet Union were both opposed to imperialism, so the now weakened European empires could generally not look to the outside for help. Thirdly, Westerners increasingly were not interested in maintaining and even opposed the existence of empires. The fourth reason was the rise of independence movements following the war. The future leaders of these movements had often been educated at colonial schools run by Westerners where they adopted Western ideas like freedom, equality, self-determination and nationalism, and which turned them against their colonial rulers. The first colonies to gain independence were in Asia. In 1946, the U.S. granted independence to the Philippines, its only large overseas colony. In British India, Mahatma Gandhi led his followers in non-violent resistance to British rule. By the late 1940s Britain found itself unable to work with Indians in ruling the colony, this, combined with sympathy around the world for Gandhi's non-violent movement, led Britain to grant independence to India, dividing it into the largely Hindu country of India and the smaller, largely Muslim nation of Pakistan in 1947. In 1948 Burma gained independence from Britain, and in 1945 Indonesian nationalists declared Indonesian independence, which the Netherlands recognised in 1949 after a four-year armed and diplomatic struggle. Independence for French Indochina came only after a great conflict. After the withdrawal of Japanese forces from the colony following World War II, France regained control but found it had to contend with an independence movement that had fought against the Japanese. The movement was led by the Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Vietnamese Communists. Because of this, the U.S. supplied France with arms and support, fearing Communists would dominate South-east Asia. In the end though, France gave in and granted independence, creating Laos, Cambodia, Communist North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. In the Middle East, following World War II, Britain had granted independence to the formerly Ottoman territories of Mesopotamia, which became Iraq, Kuwait, and Transjordan, which became Jordan. France also granted independence to Syria and Lebanon. British Palestine, however, presented a unique challenge. Following World War I, when Britain gained the colony, Jewish and Arab national aspirations conflicted, followed by a proposal of the UN to divided Mandatory Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Arabs objected, Britain withdrew and the Zionists declared the state of Israel on 14 May 1948. The other major center of colonial power, Africa, was freed from colonial rule following World War II as well. Egypt gained independence from Britain and this was soon followed by Ghana and Tunisia. One violent independence movement of the time was fought in Algeria, in which Algerian rebels went so far as to kill innocent Frenchmen. In 1962, however, Algeria gained independence from France. By the 1970s the entire continent had become independent of European rule, although a few southern countries remained under the rule of white colonial minorities. By the close of the 20th century, the European colonial Empires had ceased to exist as significant global entities. Sunset for the British Empire came when Britain's lease on the great trading port of Hong Kong was brought to end, and political control was transferred to the People's Republic of China in 1997. Soon after, in 1999 Transfer of sovereignty over Macau was concluded between Portugal and China, bringing to a close six centuries of Portuguese colonialism. Britain remained culturally linked to its former empire through the voluntary association of the Commonwealth of Nations, and 14 British Overseas Territories remained (formerly known as Crown colonies), consisting mainly of scattered island outposts. Currently, 15 independent Commonwealth realms retain the British monarch as their head of state. Canada, Australia and New Zealand emerged as vibrant and prosperous migrant nations. The once vast French colonial empire had lost its major possessions though a scattered territories remained as Overseas departments and territories of France. The shrunken Dutch Empire retained a few Caribbean islands as constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Spain had lost its overseas possessions, but its legacy was vast – with Latin culture remaining throughout South and Central America. Along with Portugal and France, Spain had made Catholicism a global religion. Of Europe's empires, only the Russian Empire remained a significant geo-political force into the late 20th century, having morphed into the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact, which, drawing on the writings of the German Karl Marx, established a socialist economic model under Communist dictatorship, which ultimately collapsed in the early 1990s. Adaptations of Marxism continued as the stated inspiration for Governments in Central America and Asia into the 21st century – though only a handful survived the end of the Cold War. The end of the Western Empires greatly changed the world. Although many newly independent nations attempted to become democracies, many slipped into military and autocratic rule. Amid power vacuums and newly determined national borders, civil war also became a problem, especially in Africa, where the introduction of firearms to ancient tribal rivalries exacerbated problems. The loss of overseas colonies partly also led many Western nations, particularly in continental Europe, to focus more on European, rather than global, politics as the European Union rose as an important entity. Though gone, the colonial empires left a formidable cultural and political legacy, with English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian and Dutch being spoken by peoples across far flung corners of the globe. European technologies were now global technologies – religions like Catholicism and Anglicanism, founded in the West, were booming in post colonial Africa and Asia. Parliamentary (or presidential) democracies, as well as rival Communist style one party states invented in the West had replaced traditional monarchies and tribal government models across the globe. Modernity, for many, was equated with Westernisation. Cold War: 1945–1991 From the end of World War II almost until the start of the 21st century, Western and world politics were dominated by the state of tensions and conflict between the world's two Superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. In the years following World War II, the Soviets established satellite states throughout Central and Eastern Europe, including historically and culturally Western nations like Poland and Hungary. Following the division of Germany, the East Germans constructed the Berlin Wall, to prevent East Berliners from escaping to the "freedom" of West Berlin. The Berlin Wall would come to represent the Cold War around the world. Rather than revert to isolationism, the United States took an active role in global politics following World War II to halt Communist expansion. After the war, Communist parties in Western Europe increased in prestige and number, especially in Italy and France, leading many to fear the whole of Europe would become Communist. The U.S. responded to this with the Marshall Plan, in which the U.S. financed the rebuilding of Western Europe and poured money into its economy. The Plan was a huge success and soon Europe was prosperous again, with many Europeans enjoying a standard of living close that in the U.S. (following World War II, the U.S. became very prosperous and Americans enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world). National rivalries ended in Europe and most Germans and Italians, for example, were happy to be living under democratic rule, regretting their Fascist pasts. In 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed, creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO. The treaty was signed by the United States, Canada, the Low Countries, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Portugal, Italy, France, and Britain. NATO members agreed that if any one of them were attacked, they would all consider themselves attacked and retaliate. NATO would expand as the years went on, other nations joined, including Greece, Turkey, and West Germany. The Soviets responded with the Warsaw Pact, an alliance which bound Central and Eastern Europe to fight with the United States and its allies in the event of war. One of the first actual conflicts of the Cold War took place in China. Following the withdrawal of Japanese troops after World War II, China was plunged into civil war, pitting Chinese Communists against Nationalists, who opposed Communism. The Soviets supported the Communists while the Americans supported the Nationalists. In 1949, the Communists were victorious, proclaiming the People's Republic of China. However, the Nationalists continued to rule the island of Taiwan off the coast. With American guarantees of protection for Taiwan, China did not make an attempt to take over the island. A major political change in East Asia in this period was Japan's becoming a tolerant, democratic society and an ally of the United States. In 1950, another conflict broke out in Asia, this time in Korea. The peninsula had been divided between a Communist North and non-Communist South in 1948 following the withdrawal of American and Soviet troops. In 1950, the North Koreans invaded South Korea, wanting to united the land under Communism. The UN condemned the action, and, because the Soviets were boycotting the organization at the time and therefore had no influence on it, the UN sent forces to liberate South Korea. Many nations sent troops, but most were from America. UN forces were able to liberate the South and even attempted to conquer the North. However, fearing the loss of North Korea, Communist China sent troops to the North. The U.S. did not retaliate against China, fearing war with the Soviet Union, so the war stalemated. In 1953 the two sides agreed to a return to the pre-war borders and a de-militarization of the border area. The world lived in the constant fear of World War III in the Cold War. Seemingly any conflict involving Communism might lead to a conflict between the Warsaw pact countries and the NATO countries. The prospect of a third world war was made even more frightening by the fact that it would almost certainly be a nuclear war. In 1949 the Soviets developed their first atomic bomb, and soon both the United States and Soviet Union had enough to destroy the world several times over. With the development of missile technology, the stakes were raised as either country could launch weapons from great distances across the globe to their targets. Eventually, Britain, France, and China would also develop nuclear weapons. It is believed that Israel developed nuclear weapons as well. One major event that nearly brought the world to the brink of war was the Cuban Missile Crisis. In the 1950s a revolution in Cuba had brought the only Communist regime in the Western Hemisphere to power. In 1962, the Soviets began constructing missile sites in Cuba and sending nuclear missiles. Because of its close proximity to the U.S., the U.S. demanded the Soviets withdraw missiles from Cuba. The U.S. and Soviet Union came very close to attacking one another, but in the end came to a secret agreement in which the NATO withdrew missiles in exchange for a Soviet withdrawal of missiles from Cuba. The next great Cold War conflict occurred in Southeast Asia. In the 1960s, North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam, hoping to unite all of Vietnam under Communist rule. The U.S. responded by supporting the South Vietnamese. In 1964, American troops were sent to "save" South Vietnam from conquest, which many Americans feared would lead to Communist dominance in the entire region. The Vietnam War lasted many years, but most Americans felt the North Vietnamese would be defeated in time. Despite American technological and military superiority, by 1968, the war showed no signs of ending and most Americans wanted U.S. forces to end their involvement. The U.S. undercut support for the North by getting the Soviets and Chinese to stop supporting North Vietnam, in exchange for recognition of the legitimacy of mainland China's Communist government, and began withdrawing troops from Vietnam. In 1972, the last American troops left Vietnam and in 1975 South Vietnam fell to the North. In the following years Communism took power in neighboring Laos and Cambodia. By the 1970s global politics were becoming more complex. For example, France's president proclaimed France was a great power in and of itself. However, France did not seriously threaten the U.S. for supremacy in the world or even Western Europe. In the Communist world, there was also division, with the Soviets and Chinese differing over how Communist societies should be run. Soviet and Chinese troops even engaged in border skirmishes, although full-scale war never occurred. The last great armed conflict of the Cold War took place in Afghanistan. In 1979, Soviet forces invaded that country, hoping to establish Communism. Muslims from throughout the Islamic World travelled to Afghanistan to defend that Muslim nation from conquest, calling it a Jihad, or Holy War. The U.S. supported the Jihadists and Afghan resisters, despite the fact that the Jihadists were vehemently anti-Western. By 1989 Soviet forces were forced to withdraw and Afghanistan fell into civil war, with an Islamic fundamentalist government, the Taliban taking over much of the country. The late 1970s had seen a lessening of tensions between the U.S. and Soviet Union, called Détente. However, by the 1980s Détente had ended with the invasion of Afghanistan. In 1981, Ronald Reagan became President of the United States and sought to defeat the USSR by leveraging the United States capitalist economic system to outproduce the communist Russians. The United States military was in a state of low moral after its loss in the Vietnam War, and President Reagan began a huge effort to out-produce the Soviets in military production and technology. In 1985, a new Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev took power. Gorbachev, knowing that the Soviet Union could no longer compete economically with the United States, implemented a number of reforms granting his citizens freedom of speech and introducing some capitalist reforms. Gorbachev and America's staunch anti-Communist president Ronald Reagan were even able to negotiate treaties limiting each side's nuclear weapons. Gorbachev also ended the policy of imposing Communism in Central and Eastern Europe. In the past Soviet troops had crushed attempts at reform in places like Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Now, however, Eastern Europe was freed from Soviet domination. In Poland the Round Table Talks between the government and the Solidarity-led opposition led to semi-free elections in 1989 elections in Poland where anti-communist candidates won a striking victory sparked off a succession of peaceful anti-communist revolutions in Central and Eastern Europe known as the Revolutions of 1989. Soon, Communist regimes throughout Europe collapsed. In Germany, after calls from Reagan to Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall, the people of East and West Berlin tore down the wall and East Germany's Communist government was voted out. East and West Germany unified to create the country of Germany, with its capital in the reunified Berlin. The changes in Central and Eastern Europe led to calls for reform in the Soviet Union itself. A failed coup by hard-liners led to greater instability in the Soviet Union, and the Soviet legislature, long subservient to the Communist Party, voted to abolish the Soviet Union in 1991. What had been the Soviet Union was divided into many republics. Although many slipped into authoritarianism, most became democracies. These new republics included Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. By the early 1990s, the West and Europe as a whole was finally free from Communism. Following the end of the Cold War, Communism largely died out as a major political movement. After the fall of USSR, the United States became the world's only superpower. Western countries: 1945–1980 United States: 1945–1980 Following World War II, there was an unprecedented period of prosperity in the United States. The majority of Americans entered the middle class and moved from the cities into surrounding suburbs, buying homes of their own. Most American households owned at least one car, as well as the relatively new invention, the television. Also, the American population greatly increased as part of the so-called "baby boom" following the war. For the first time following the war, large of numbers of non-wealthy Americans were able to attend college. Following the war, black Americans started what has become known as the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. After roughly a century of second-class citizenship following the abolition of slavery, blacks began seeking full equality. This was helped by the 1954 decision by the Supreme Court, outlawing segregation in schools, which was common in the South. Martin Luther King Jr., a black minister from the South led many blacks and whites who supported their cause in non-violent protests against discrimination. Eventually, the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act were passed in 1964, banning measures that had prevented blacks from voting and outlawing segregation and discrimination in the U.S. In politics, the Democratic and Republican parties remained dominant. In 1945, the Democratic party relied on Southerners, whose support went back to the days when Democrats defended a state's right to own slaves, and Northeasterners and industrial Mid-Westerners, who supported the pro-labor and pro-immigrant policies of the Democrats. Republicans tended to rely on middle-class Protestants from elsewhere in the country. As the Democrats began championing civil rights, however, Southern Democrats felt betrayed, began voting Republican. Presidents from this period were Harry Truman, Dwight Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter. The years 1945–1980 saw the expansion of federal power and the establishment of programs to help the elderly and poor pay for medical expenses. By 1980, many Americans had become pessimistic about their country. Despite its status as one of only two superpowers, the Vietnam War as well as the social upheavals of the 1960s and an economic downturn in the 1970s led America to become a much-less confident nation. Europe At the close of the war, much of Europe lay in ruins with millions of homeless refugees. A souring of relations between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union then saw Europe split by an Iron Curtain, dividing the continent between West and East. In Western Europe, democracy had survived the challenge of Fascism and began a period of intense rivalry with Eastern Communism, which was to continue into the 1980s. France and Britain secured themselves permanent positions on the newly formed United Nations Security Council, but Western European empires did not long survive the war, and no one Western European nation would ever again be the paramount power in world affairs.Despite these immense challenges however, Western Europe again rose as an economic and cultural powerhouse. Assisted first by the Marshall Plan of financial aid from the United States, and later through closer economic integration through the European Common Market, Western Europe quickly re-emerged as a global economic power house. The vanquished nations of Italy and West Germany became leading economies and allies of the United States. So marked was their recovery that historians refer to an Italian economic miracle and in the case of West Germany and Austria the Wirtschaftswunder (German for economic miracle). Facing a new power balance between the Soviet East and American West, Western European nations moved closer together. In 1957, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, West Germany, Italy and Luxembourg signed the landmark Treaty of Rome, creating the European Economic Community, free of customs duties and tariffs, and allowing the rise of a new European geo-political force. Eventually, this organization was renamed the European Union or (EU), and many other nations joined, including Britain, Ireland, and Denmark. The EU worked toward economic and political cooperation among European nations. Between 1945 and 1980, Europe became increasingly socialist. Most European countries became welfare states, in which governments provided a large number of services to their people through taxation. By 1980, most of Europe had universal healthcare and pensions for the elderly. The unemployed were also guaranteed income from the government, and European workers were guaranteed long vacation time. Many other entitlements were established, leading many Europeans to enjoy a very high standard of living. By the 1980s, however, the economic problems of the welfare state were beginning to emerge. Europe had many important political leaders during this time. Charles de Gaulle, leader of the French government in exile during World War II, served as France's president for many years. He sought to carve out for France a great power status in the world. Although Europe as a whole was relatively peaceful in this period, both Britain and Spain suffered from acts of terrorism. In Britain, The Troubles saw Irish republicans battle Unionists loyal to Britain. In Spain, ETA, a Basque separatist group, began committing acts of terror against Spaniards, hoping to gain independence for the Basques, an ethnic minority in north-eastern Spain. Both these terrorist campaigns failed, however. For Greece, Spain and Portugal, ideological battles between left and right continued and the emergence of parliamentary democracy was troubled. Greece experienced Civil War, coup and counter-coup into the 1970s. Portugal, since the 1930s under a quasi-Fascist regime and among the poorest nations in Europe, fought a rearguard action against independence movements in its empire, until a 1974 coup. The last authoritarian dictatorship in Western Europe fell in 1975, when Francisco Franco, dictator of Spain, died. Franco had helped to modernize the country and improve the economy. His successor, King Juan Carlos, transformed the country into a constitutional monarchy. By 1980, all Western European nations were democracies. British Empire and Commonwealth 1945–1980 Between 1945 and 1980, the British Empire was transformed from its centuries old position as a global colonial power, to a voluntary association known as the Commonwealth of Nations – only some of which retained any formal political links to Britain or its monarchy. Some former British colonies or protectorates disassociated themselves entirely from Britain. Britain The popular war time leader Winston Churchill was swept from office at the 1945 election and the Labour Government of Clement Attlee introduced a program of nationalisation of industry and introduced wide-ranging social welfare. Britain's finances had been ravaged by the war and John Maynard Keynes was sent to Washington to negotiate the massive Anglo-American loan on which Britain relied to fund its post-war reconstruction.India was granted Independence in 1947 and Britain's global influence rapidly declined as decolonisation proceeded. Though the USSR and United States now stood as the post war super powers, Britain and France launched the ill-fated Suez intervention in the 1950s, and Britain committed to the Korean War. From the 1960s The Troubles afflicted Northern Ireland, as British Unionist and Irish Republican paramilitaries conducted campaigns of violence in support of their political goals. The conflict at times spilled into Ireland and England and continental Europe. Paramilitaries such as the IRA (Irish Republican Army) wanted union with the Republic of Ireland while the UDA (Ulster Defence Association) were supporters of Northern Ireland remaining within the United Kingdom. In 1973, Britain entered the European Common Market, stepping away from imperial and commonwealth trade ties. Inflation and unemployment contributed to a growing sense of economic decline – partly offset by the exploitation of North Sea Oil from 1974. In 1979, the electorate turned to Conservative Party leader Margaret Thatcher, who became Britain's first female prime minister. Thatcher launched a radical program of economic reform and remained in power for over a decade. In 1982, Thatcher dispatched a British fleet to the Falkland Islands which successfully repelled an Argentine invasion of the British Territory, demonstrating that Britain could still project power across the globe. Canada Canada continued to evolve its own national identity in the post-war period. Although it was an independent nation, it remained part of the British Commonwealth and recognized the British monarch as the Canadian monarch as well. Following the war, French and English were recognized as co-equal official languages in Canada, and French became the only official language in the French-speaking province of Quebec. Referendums were held in both 1980 and 1995 in which Quebecers, however, voted not to secede from the union. Other cultural changes Canada faced were similar to those in the United States. Racism and discrimination largely disappeared in the post-war years, and dual-income families became the norm. Also, there was a rejection of traditional Western values by many in Canada. The government also established universal health care for its citizens following the war. Australia and New Zealand: 1945–1980 Following World War II, Australia and New Zealand enjoyed a great deal of prosperity along with the rest of the West. Both countries remained constitutional monarchies within the evolving Commonwealth of Nations and continued to recognise British monarchs as head of their own independent Parliaments. However, following British defeats by the Japanese in World War II, the post-war decline of the British Empire, and entry of Britain into the European Economic Community in 1973, the two nations re-calibrated defence and trade relations with the rest of the world. Following the Fall of Singapore in 1941, Australia turned to the United States for military aid against the Japanese Empire and Australia and New Zealand joined the United States in the ANZUS military alliance in the early 1950s and contributed troops to anti-communist conflicts in South-East Asia in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. The two nations also established multicultural immigration programs with waves of economic and refugee migrants establishing bases for large Southern European, East Asian, Middle Eastern, and South Pacific islander communities. Trade integration with Asia expanded, particularly through good post-war relations with Japan. The Maori and Australian Aborigines had been largely dispossessed and disenfranchised during the 19th and early 20th centuries, but relations between the descendants of European settlers and the Indigenous peoples of Australia and New Zealand began to improve through legislative and social reform over the post-war period corresponding with the civil rights movement in North America. The Fraser government became a vocal critic of white-minority rule in Apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia, concluding the Gleaeagles Agreement in 1977.The arts also diversified and flourished over the period – with Australian cinema, literature and musical artists expanding their nation's profile internationally. The iconic Sydney Opera House opened in 1973 and Australian Aboriginal Art began to find international recognition and influence. Western culture: 1945–1980 The West went through a series of great cultural and social changes between 1945 and 1980. Mass media created a global culture that could ignore national frontiers. Literacy became almost universal, encouraging the growth of books, magazines and newspapers. The influence of cinema and radio remained, while televisions became near essentials in every home. A new pop culture also emerged with rock n roll and pop stars at its heart. Religious observance declined in most of the West. Protestant churches began focusing more on social gospel rather than doctrine, and the ecumenist movement, which supported co-operation among Christian Churches. The Catholic Church changed many of its practices in the Second Vatican Council, including allowing masses to be said in the vernacular rather than Latin. The counterculture of the 1960s (and early 1970s) began in the United States as a reaction against the conservative government, social norms of the 1950s, the political conservatism (and perceived social repression) of the Cold War period, and the US government's extensive military intervention in Vietnam.With the abolition of laws treating most non-whites as second-class citizens, overt institutional racism largely disappeared from the West. Although the United States failed to secure the legal equality of women with men (by the failure of Congress to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment), women continued working outside the home, and by 1980 the double-income family became commonplace in Western society. Beginning in the 1960s, many began rejecting traditional Western values and there was a decline in emphasis on church and the family. Rock and roll music and the spread of technological innovations such as television dramatically altered the cultural landscape of western civilisation. The influential artists of the 20th century often belonged to the new technology artforms. Rock and roll emerged from the United States from the 1950s to become a quintessential 20th-century art form. Artists such as Elvis Presley, Roy Orbison and Johnny Cash and, later, The Beach Boys developed the new genre in the Southern United States. Cash became an icon of the also newly emerging popular genre of country music. British rock and roll emerged later, with bands like The Beatles and The Rolling Stones rising to unparalleled success during the 1960s. From Australia emerged the mega pop band The Bee Gees and hard rock band AC/DC, who carried the genre in new directions through the 1970s. These musical artists were icons of radical social changes which saw many traditional notions of western culture alter dramatically. Hollywood, California became synonymous with film during the 20th century and American Cinema continued a period of immense global influence in the West after World War II. American cinema played a role in adjusting community attitudes through the 1940s to 1980 with seminal works like John Ford's 1956 Western The Searchers, starring John Wayne, providing a sympathetic view of the Native American experience; and 1962's To Kill a Mockingbird, based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning novel by Harper Lee and starring Gregory Peck, challenging racial prejudice. The advent of television challenged the status of cinema and the artform evolved dramatically from the 1940s through the age of glamorous icons like Marilyn Monroe and directors like Alfred Hitchcock to the emergence of such directors as Stanley Kubrick, George Lucas and Steven Spielberg, whose body of work reflected the emerging Space Age and immense technological and social change. Western nations: 1980–present The 1980s were a period of economic growth in the West, though the 1987 Stock Market Crash saw much of the West enter the 1990s in a downturn. The 1990s and turn of the century in turn saw a period of prosperity throughout the West. The World Trade Organization was formed to assist in the organisation of world trade. Following the collapse of Soviet Communism, Central and Eastern Europe began a difficult readjustment towards market economies and parliamentary democracy. In the post Cold War environment, new co-operation emerged between the West and former rivals like Russia and China, but Islamism declared itself a mortal enemy of the West, and wars were launched in Afghanistan and the mid-East in response. The economic cycle turned again with the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, but amidst a new economic paradigm, the effect on the West was uneven, with Europe and United States suffering deep recession, but Pacific economies like Australia and Canada, largely avoiding the downturn – benefitting from a combination of rising trade with Asia, good fiscal management and banking regulation. In the early 21st century, Brasil, Russia, India and China (the BRIC nations) were re-emerging as drivers of economic growth from outside North America and Western Europe. In the early stages after the Cold War, Russian president Boris Yeltsin stared down an attempted restoration of Sovietism in Russia, and pursued closer relations with the West. Amid economic turmoil a class of oligarchs emerged at the summit of the Russian economy. Yeltsin's chosen successor, the former spy, Vladimir Putin, tightened the reins on political opposition, opposed separatist movements within the Russian Federation, and battled pro-Western neighbour states like Georgia, contributing to a challenging climate of relations with Europe and America. Former Soviet satellites joined NATO and the European Union, leaving Russia again isolated in the East. Under Putin's long reign, the Russian economy profited from a resource boom in the global economy, and the political and economic instability of the Yeltsin era was brought to an end.Elsewhere, both within and without the West, democracy and capitalism were in the ascendant – even Communist holdouts like mainland China and (to a lesser extent) Cuba and Vietnam, while retaining one party government, experimented with market liberalisation, a process which accelerated after the fall of European Communism, enabling the re-emergence of China as an alternative centre of economic and political power standing outside the West. Free trade agreements were signed by many countries. The European nations broke down trade barriers with one another in the EU, and the United States, Canada, and Mexico signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Although free trade has helped businesses and consumers, it has had the unintended consequence of leading companies to outsource jobs to areas where labor is cheapest. Today, the West's economy is largely service and information-based, with most of the factories closing and relocating to China and India.European countries have had very good relations with each other since 1980. The European Union has become increasingly powerful, taking on roles traditionally reserved for the nation-state. Although real power still exists in the individual member states, one major achievement of the Union was the introduction of the Euro, a currency adopted by most EU countries. Australia and New Zealand continued their large multi-ethnic immigration programs and became more integrated in the Asia Pacific region. While remaining constitutional monarchies within the Commonwealth, distance has grown between them and Britain, spurred on by Britain's entry into the European Common Market. Australia and New Zealand have integrated their own economies via a free trade agreement. While political and cultural ties with North America and Europe remain strong, economic reform and commodities trade with the booming economies of Asia have set the South Pacific nations on a new economic trajectory with Australia largely avoiding a downturn in the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 which unleashed severe economic loss through North America and Western Europe.Today Canada remains part of the Commonwealth, and relations between French and English Canada have continued to present problems. A referendum was held in Quebec, however, in 1980, in which Quebecers voted to remain part of Canada. In 1990, the white-minority government of the Republic of South Africa, led by F. W. de Klerk, began negotiations to dismantle the system of apartheid. South Africa held its first universal elections in 1994, which the African National Congress (ANC), led by Nelson Mandela, won by an overwhelming majority. The country has since rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations. Since 1991, the United States has been regarded as the world's only superpower. Politically, the United States is dominated by the Republican and Democratic parties. Presidents of the United States between 1980 and 2006 have been Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Since 1980, Americans have become far more optimistic about their country than they were in the 1970s. Since the 1960s, a large number of immigrants have been coming into the U.S., mostly from Asia and Latin America, with the largest single group being Mexicans. Large numbers from those areas have also been coming illegally, and the solution to this problem has produced much debate in the U.S. On 11 September 2001, the United States suffered the worst terrorist attack in its history. Four planes were hijacked by Islamic extremists and crashed into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania. The late-2000s financial crisis, considered by many economists to be the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s, was triggered by a liquidity shortfall in the United States banking system, and has resulted in the collapse of large financial institutions, the bailout of banks by national governments, and downturns in stock markets throughout much of the West. The United States and Britain faced serious downturn, while Portugal, Greece, Ireland and Iceland faced major debt crises. Almost uniquely among Western nations, Australia avoided recession off the back of strong Asian trade and 25 years of economic reform and low levels of government debt. Evidence of the major demographic and social shifts which have taken place within Western society since World War II can be found with the elections of national level leaders: United States (Barack Obama was elected president in 2009, becoming the first African-American to hold that office), France (Nicolas Sarkozy, a president of France of Hungarian descent), Germany (Angela Merkel, the first female leader of that nation), and Australia (Julia Gillard, also the first female leader of that nation). Western nations and the world Following 1991, Western nations provided troops and aid to many war-torn areas of the world. Some of these missions were unsuccessful, like the attempt by the United States to provide relief in Somalia in the early 1990s. A very successful peace-making operation was conducted in the Balkans in the late 1990s, however. After the Cold War, Yugoslavia broke up into several countries along ethnic lines, and soon countries and ethnic groups within countries of the former Yugoslavia began fighting one another. Eventually, NATO troops arrived in 1999 and ended the conflict. Australian led a United Nations mission into East Timor in 1999 (INTERFET) to restore order during that nation's transition to democracy and independence from Indonesia. The greatest war fought by the West in the 1990s, however, was the Persian Gulf War. In 1990, the Middle Eastern nation of Iraq, under its brutal dictator Saddam Hussein, invaded the much smaller neighbouring country of Kuwait. After refusing to withdraw troops, the United Nations condemned Iraq and sent troops to liberate Kuwait. American, British, French, Egyptian and Syrian troops all took part in the liberation. The war ended in 1991, with the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait and Iraq's agreement to allow United Nations inspectors to search for weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. The West had become increasingly unpopular in the Middle East following World War II. The Arab states greatly disliked the West's support for Israel. Many soon had a special hatred towards the United States, Israel's greatest ally. Also, partly to ensure stability on the region and a steady supply of the oil the world economy needed, the United States supported many corrupt dictatorships in the Middle East. In 1979, an Islamic revolution in Iran overthrew the pro-Western Shah and established an anti-Western Shiite Islamic theocracy. Following the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, most of the country came under the rule of a Sunni Islamic theocracy, the Taliban. The Taliban offered shelter to the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda, founded by the extremist Saudi Arabian exile Osama bin Laden. Al-Qaeda launched a series of attacks on United States overseas interests in the 1990s and 2000. Following the September 11 attacks, however, the United States overthrew the Taliban government and captured or killed many Al Qaeda leaders, including Bin Laden. In 2003, the United States led a controversial war in Iraq, because Saddam had never accounted for all his weapons of mass destruction. By May of that year, American, British, Polish and troops from other countries had defeated and occupied Iraq. Weapons of mass destruction however, were never found afterwards. In both Afghanistan and Iraq, the United States and its allies established democratic governments. Following the Iraq war, however, an insurgency made up of a number of domestic and foreign factions has cost many lives and made establishing a government very hard. In March 2011, a multi-state coalition led by NATO began a military intervention in Libya to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which was taken in response to threat made by the government of Muammar Gaddafi against the civilian population of Libya during the 2011 Libyan civil war. Western society and culture (since 1980) In general, Western culture has become increasingly secular in Northern Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand. Nevertheless, in a sign of the continuing status of the ancient Western institution of the Papacy in the early 21st century, the Funeral of Pope John Paul II brought together the single largest gathering in history of heads of state outside the United Nations. It is likely to have been the largest single gathering of Christianity in history, with numbers estimated in excess of four million mourners gathering in Rome. He was followed by another non-Italian Benedict XVI, whose near-unprecedented resignation from the papacy in 2013 ushered in the election of the Argentine Pope Francis – the first pope from the Americas, the new demographic heartland of Catholicism.Personal computers emerged from the West as a new society changing phenomenon during this period. In the 1960s, experiment began on networks linking computers and from these experiments grew the World Wide Web. The internet revolutionised global communications through the late 1990s and into the early 21st century and permitted the rise of new social media with profound consequences, linking the world as never before. In the West, the internet allowed free access to vast amounts of information, while outside the democratic West, as in China and in Middle Eastern nations, a range of censorship and monitoring measures were instigated, providing a new socio-political contrast between east and west. Historiography Chicago historian William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West (1965) to show how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary. He then discusses the dramatic effect of Western civilization on others in the past 500 years of history. McNeill took a broad approach organized around the interactions of peoples across the globe. Such interactions have become both more numerous and more continual and substantial in recent times. Before about 1500, the network of communication between cultures was that of Eurasia. The term for these areas of interaction differ from one world historian to another and include world-system and ecumene. His emphasis on cultural fusions influenced historical theory significantly. See also Outline of the history of Western civilization Role of Christianity in civilization History of Europe EurocentrismMediaCivilisation: A Personal View by Kenneth Clark (TV series), BBC TV, 1969 The Ascent of Man (TV series), BBC TV, 1973 References Further reading Cole, Joshua and Carol Symes. Western Civilizations (Brief Fifth Edition) (2 vol 2020) Kishlansky, Mark A. et al. A brief history of western civilization : the unfinished legacy (2 vol 2007) vol 1 online; also vol 2 online Perry, Marvin Myrna Chase, et al. Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society (2015) Rand McNally. Atlas of western civilization (2006) online Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization (10th ed. 2017_ Bruce Thornton Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization Encounter Books, 2002 Tim Blanning The Pursuit of Glory: Europe 1648–1815 Penguin Books, 2008 Niall Ferguson Civilization. The West and the rest Penguin Press, 2011 Ian Kershaw To Hell and Back: Europe 1914–1949 Penguin Books, 2015 Richard J. Evans The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815-1914 Penguin Books, 2017 Ian Kershaw To Hell and Back: Europe 1914–1949 Penguin Books, 2015 Ian Kershaw The Global Age: Europe 1950–2017 Penguin Books, 2020 Historiography Allardyce, Gilbert. "The rise and fall of the western civilization course." American Historical Review 87.3 (1982): 695–725. online Bavaj, Riccardo: "The West": A Conceptual Exploration , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 28 November 2011. Bentley, Jerry H. "Cross-cultural interaction and periodization in world history." American Historical Review 101.3 (1996): 749–770. Douthit, Nathan. "The Dialectical Commons of Western Civilization and Global/World History." History Teacher 24#3 (1991), pp. 293–305, online. McNeill, William H. (1995). "The Changing Shape of World History". History and Theory. 34 (2): 8–26. doi:10.2307/2505432. JSTOR 2505432. Manning, Patrick. "The problem of interactions in world history." American Historical Review 101.3 (1996): 771–782. online Pincince, John. "Jerry Bentley World History, and the Decline of the 'West'" Journal of World History 25#4 (2014), pp. 631–43, online. External links textbooks--online free to read

Oi Thermal Power Station

Oi Power Station (大井火力発電所, Ōi karyokuhatsudensho) is a large thermal power station in Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan. The power station generates electricity utilizing three units of 350 MW, which run on crude oil, with a total installed capacity of 1,050 MW. The first unit went online in August 1971, followed by Unit 2 in February 1972, and Unit 3 in December 1973. The facility is located on a 190 km2 (73 sq mi) site.

Oi Power Station (大井火力発電所, Ōi karyokuhatsudensho) is a large thermal power station in Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan. The power station generates electricity utilizing three units of 350 MW, which run on crude oil, with a total installed capacity of 1,050 MW. The first unit went online in August 1971, followed by Unit 2 in February 1972, and Unit 3 in December 1973. The facility is located on a 190 km2 (73 sq mi) site. See also Energy in Japan List of power stations in Japan == References ==

National Institute of Kathak Dance

National Institute of Kathak Dance, also known as Kathak Kendra, is the premier dance institution for the Indian classical dance form of Kathak, and a unit of the Sangeet Natak Akademi, India's National Academy of Music, Dance and Drama, situated in New Delhi. Established in 1964, the institution is primarily dedicated to Kathak, though it also offers courses in Hindustani classical music (Vocal) and Pakhawaj and Tabla.

National Institute of Kathak Dance, also known as Kathak Kendra, is the premier dance institution for the Indian classical dance form of Kathak, and a unit of the Sangeet Natak Akademi, India's National Academy of Music, Dance and Drama, situated in New Delhi. Established in 1964, the institution is primarily dedicated to Kathak, though it also offers courses in Hindustani classical music (Vocal) and Pakhawaj and Tabla. History The end of princely states in post-independence after 1947, brought an end of royal patronage to Kathak exponents as well as gurus. Many started teaching privately. Earlier, under the patronage of Awadh state, Lachhu Maharaj moved to Bombay, while his brother, Shambhu Maharaj, and his nephew moved to Delhi in 1955. Kathak Kendra was originally established as the Kathak wing of the Shriram Bharatiya Kala Kendra, in 1955, through the efforts of Nirmala Joshi, the first secretary of the Sangeet Natak Akademi, under the patronage of Sumitra Charat Ram, wife of industrialist, Lala Charat Ram of Shriram Group. Here Pandit Shambhu Maharaj, celebrated Guru of the Lucknow Gharana (school) of Kathak, was head of the department . In 1964 the institution became a part of the Sangeet Natak Akademi and in July 1969, the Akademi took over its functioning as well, and moved it to its new location at the nearby former Bahawalpur House, which also houses the National School of Drama. Shambhu Maharaj was a noted exponent of the bhava anga (emotive part), and, in the coming years, revived several classical thumris and bhajans and added them to Kathak repertoire. He trained several students who subsequently made a name for themselves, including Kumudini Lakhia, Damayanti Joshi, Bharti Gupta, Gopi Krishna, Maya Rao and Sitara.Shambhu Maharaj received the highest award of the Sangeet Natak Akademi, the Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship in 1967. After the death of Shambhu Maharaj in 1970, his nephew Birju Maharaj, who was associated with the institution from its inception, and a noted Kathak dancer and guru in his own right, became the Head of Faculty and also remained the Director of the institution for many years. Birju Maharaj started adapting the dance, which was till now staged for small gatherings in temple courtyards or Mehfils to one catering to large gatherings in the modern proscenium theatre, and created several noted ballets in his period. Gradually what was essentially a solo-dance, moved towards expression in group performances. Over the years the repertory wing, formerly known as 'Ballet Unit' has created notable production of Kathak ballet, with evolved stage and costume design as well as elaborate music, Taj ki Kahani (1966) was choreographed by Krishna Kumar, and had music by Amjad Ali, Shan-e-audh (1968), Kumara Sambhav and Dalia all choreographed by Birju Maharaj and with music by Dagar Brothers. Several of the productions, like Govardhan Leela, Machan Chori, Phag Bhara employed mythological themes and gave them modern presentation. Birju Maharaj performed these ballet productions all over the world, giving the traditional dance form, worldwide recognition. Many former students of the Kendra, also joined the repertory wing as registered staff.The Kendra also became a venue for innovation in the form and presentation style of Kathak, merging formats from both the Lucknow and Jaipur gharana in the coming decades. This was also the period of experimental works, which showed a progression away from the canonical motifs and themes of Kathak, like Radha Krishna, Chhed Chhad, Gat Bhav and Tode Tukde. In 1980, when Keshav Kothari was the Director at the Kendra and also Secretary of Sangeet Natak Akademi, a work title, Parikrama was choreographed by Birju Maharaj, in which Kathak was used to depict the natural rhythm that runs through all animate objects. In 1982, Kathak Kendra started organising two national-level Kathak festivals annually, 'Kalka Bindadin Festival' and 'Sharad Chandrika Festival', focussing of group and solo performances respectively. This also provided a common platform of dancers from both Lucknow and Jaipur gharana to allow mingling of ideas and facilitate innovations. After having received the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award at the age of 28, Birju Maharaj received India's second highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan in 1986. Birju Maharaj retired in 1998, when retirement age was implemented at performing arts institutions as well thereafter he started his own Kathak and Indian fine arts academy, Kalashram in Delhi. A few years later, another noted guru at the Kendra, Munna Shukla also retired, he now teaches at Bhartiya Kala Kendra and teaches in East Delhi.In time, Uttar Pradesh Government, established a state Kathak Kendra in Lucknow in 1973, with Lachhu Maharaj, brother of Shambu Maharaj as its founding director, and Rajasthan Government established, Jaipur Kathak Kendra. Both places are known for their respective gharanas of Kathak. Overview Apart from the main centre at Bahawalpur House, the Kendra also runs two additional centres in the city, one each in North Delhi and South Delhi: Kathak kendra main building, Chankyapuri New Delhi Kathak Centre (North), (kingsway camp )The Kendra also has a Repertory Wing which performs at many places, and works towards evolving techniques of Kathak dance through experimental work. freeship facility for candidates Courses Elementary Courses 5-year Foundation Course - (Age Limit: 10 to 15 years) 3-year Diploma (Pass) Course - (Age Limit: 15 to 20 years) Advanced Courses 3-year Diploma (Hons.) Course (Age limit: 18 to 23 years) 2-year Post Diploma Course (Age limit: 20 to 26 years) Notes References Kothari, Sunil (1989). Kathak, Indian classical dance art. Abhinav Publications. Massey, Reginald (1999). India's kathak dance, past present, future. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-374-4. Serbjeet Singh, Shanta (2000). Indian dance: the ultimate metaphor. Ravi Kumar. ISBN 1-878529-65-X. Massey, Reginald (2004). India's dances: their history, technique, and repertoire. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-434-1. External links Kathak Kendra, Official website

Peacemaker (DC Extended Universe)

Christopher "Chris" Smith, also known as the Peacemaker, is a fictional antihero in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) and DC Universe (DCU) media franchises, based on the Charlton / DC Comics character of the same name. Adapted for film by writer/director James Gunn, he is portrayed by John Cena. Smith operates as a vigilante who aims to achieve peace at any cost, which results in a 30-year prison sentence at Belle Reve Penitentiary. He is approached by the facility's warden and the director of A.R.G.U.S., Amanda Waller, to join a strike team called Task Force X along with other inmates on an infiltration mission to the remote island of Corto Maltese. After being incapacitated during the mission, he is nursed back to health by A.R.G.U.S.

Christopher "Chris" Smith, also known as the Peacemaker, is a fictional antihero in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) and DC Universe (DCU) media franchises, based on the Charlton / DC Comics character of the same name. Adapted for film by writer/director James Gunn, he is portrayed by John Cena. Smith operates as a vigilante who aims to achieve peace at any cost, which results in a 30-year prison sentence at Belle Reve Penitentiary. He is approached by the facility's warden and the director of A.R.G.U.S., Amanda Waller, to join a strike team called Task Force X along with other inmates on an infiltration mission to the remote island of Corto Maltese. After being incapacitated during the mission, he is nursed back to health by A.R.G.U.S. and assigned to accompany a group of their agents for "Project Butterfly". As of 2022, the character is a central figure in DC media, having appeared in two projects thus far: the feature film The Suicide Squad (2021) and the first season of the eponymous HBO Max streaming television series Peacemaker, both set in the DCEU. The character is set to return in the latter show's second season, set in the DCU. This version of Peacemaker is also set to make a guest appearance as a DLC fighter in Mortal Kombat 1, with Cena reprising his role. Character development and execution Background In October 2018, James Gunn was hired by Warner Bros. to write and direct a planned sequel to the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) film Suicide Squad (2016), after he had just been fired from Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures as writer/director of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 (2023), in light of a series of controversial tweets he had made many years prior that he would later apologize for. While he would be almost immediately reinstated by Disney and Marvel Studios following his hiring by Warner Bros. & DC Films, his commitment to his engagement with the latter studios meant that production on Vol. 3 would have to be pushed back significantly to accommodate for his projects with DC, with Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige encouraging Gunn to make "a great movie" during a discussion regarding his prioritization of the latter project, and pushing the production start date for the former film into 2021. Gunn's Suicide Squad film, eventually titled The Suicide Squad, was intended to act as a relaunch of the IP and characters as opposed to a direct sequel to the previous film directed by David Ayer, that would take the franchise in a new direction and feature a largely new cast. Roven and Peter Safran were set as producers, with Zack Snyder and Deborah Snyder as executive producers. Safran had pushed for Gunn to take on the project, feeling that there was no better director than him to "bring together a disparate group of outsiders on a mission". Adapting Peacemaker to film and television Among the new characters that would be part of the film's revised team lineup, James Gunn selected the character Peacemaker, originally created by Joe Gill and Pat Boyette for appearances in Charlton Comics publications prior to the character's absorption into DC Comics alongside other Charlton properties in the 1985 crossover event storyline "Crisis on Infinite Earths", which would integrate Peacemaker into the main DC Universe. Gunn was initially looking to cast Dave Bautista in the role, as the two had previously collaborated on the Guardians of the Galaxy films in the MCU franchise with Bautista's portrayal of Drax the Destroyer. However, Bautista was unavailable for the role due to taking the lead role of Zack Snyder's Army of the Dead (2021).Fellow WWE alumni John Cena entered talks to portray the character in April 2019, as Gunn had wanted to work with Cena upon seeing his performance in the romantic comedy Trainwreck (2015), and had been looking for an appropriate role for him for a while. Cena had previously auditioned unsuccessfully for roles in both Marvel and DC Comics-based films, notably being rejected for both Cable in Deadpool 2 (2018) and the titular character in Shazam! (2019), in addition to various MCU roles. He would however, be openly passionate about working on a project with James Gunn, reflecting in January 2022 that, The only reason he gets a free pass is his reputation as a storyteller. He just does not let up, he claws at every piece, and I know it's gonna be good, because he starts from a blank page and that's it. But I always read it, I always read the story to make sure one, I like it, and two, it falls within my skillset. I do want to challenge myself, but I don't want the first time I do something to be on screen for a paying customer. I want to get practice and perform at a level that's consumer quality. During the promotion of The Suicide Squad, Cena decided to wear the Peacemaker costume for interviews and other promotional events as a way to familiarize the audience with the lesser-known character, which was a tactic that he had previously used when he was a professional wrestler.After finishing work on The Suicide Squad, Gunn began working on a spinoff series about the origins of Peacemaker "just for fun" during his COVID-19 lockdown isolation. He brought the idea to producer Peter Safran, who was later approached by DC Films to create a Suicide Squad spinoff series. The Peacemaker series was eventually picked up by HBO Max in September 2020, with Gunn writing all eight episodes of the first season and directing five of them. Cena agreed to reprise the role for the series in 2020, becoming an executive producer with Gunn and Safran. As a result, Peacemaker, who was originally intended to die in The Suicide Squad, was kept alive for the series, and a post-credits scene was filmed in January 2021 for the film in order to set up Peacemaker, which also began filming around that time. Following the first season's success, a second season of Peacemaker was ordered in 2022. Characterization Cena would describe his character as "a douchey Captain America", with Gunn adding that the character would go to as many lengths as possible to achieve peace. Upon being cast, Gunn would also tell Cena not to read any comics featuring Peacemaker to develop background knowledge with the character, as having a preconceived notion of what the character could be would distract from the story Gunn wanted to tell. Cena would paraphrase Gunn in an interview as saying, "you have what I’m looking for. Just be yourself, and if you’re willing to take direction, I think we can do something special." Cena originally envisioned the character as "a drill sergeant, Full Metal Jacket-esque personality", with the actor being told to change direction and emphasize his "do-gooder side" about 20 minutes into filming his first scene in-costume. Cena during the same interview, would contrast his acting career in regards to this role, to his career as a professional wrestler, stating that "Whenever I play a role in a movie, it really is never myself. Whereas WWE is the odd thing that a lot of times you have to create an extension of yourself because the narrative is just so damn long".Despite being portrayed as self-righteous, duty-driven, and egotistical in The Suicide Squad and continuing to flaunt that facade in Peacemaker, Smith is in actuality a broken, self-loathing man trying to find a purpose in the world, but is too haunted by the horrible actions he committed to adjust in a normal environment. Smith's time with the 11th Street Kids, as portrayed in the series, allows him to slowly come to terms with his past demons and reconsider his world views, showing his vulnerable side more often to others and learning to process his repressed emotions, but also becoming more emotionally unstable and prone to bursts of anger. Viewers noted that Peacemaker received less character development in The Suicide Squad compared to other characters such as Robert DuBois / Bloodsport, Cleo Cazo / Ratcatcher 2, and King Shark, and that the Peacemaker was considered "irredeemable" in the film, but this was intended by Gunn to set the character's development in his eponymous series. Gunn used the series as an opportunity to explore current world issues through the title character, in addition to expanding on his relationship with his father, which was alluded to in the film.The decision to make Smith bisexual, confirmed by the penultimate episode of the first season of Peacemaker, was floated by Cena, according to Gunn. He states that "Peacemaker is an interesting character because he's so fucked-up in so many ways, and then in other ways, he is kind of weirdly forward-thinking. John does improv all the time, and he just turned Christopher Smith into this hyper-sexualized dude that is open to anything sexually. I was surprised by that. But I thought, 'I guess it makes sense that this guy isn't one-dimensional.'" Cena examined the history of the character in the comics and determined that with Christopher Smith's childhood struggles and hardships, he would be "willing to do anything to a certain extent." Fictional character biography Early life Christopher "Chris" Smith was born in 1981 in Evergreen, Charlton County in Washington state to August "Auggie" Smith, a former soldier turned former vigilante operating under the alias of White Dragon who was infamous for his nature as a white supremacist and his neo-Nazi beliefs. Auggie trained Chris to kill at a young age against his will, permanently warping his sense of morality. During this time, Chris accidentally cause the death of his brother Keith, whom Auggie favored greatly over Chris, deeply angering the former and traumatizing the latter. As he grew up, Chris became mentally unstable, swearing an oath to keep the peace at any cost, regardless of the means he would use to achieve it and how many people he would have to kill. In pursuit of this, he created his own uniform and adopted the alias "Peacemaker" as he began his pursuit for justice by any means necessary. Along the way, Chris befriended local crimefighter Adrian Chase / "Vigilante", encountered future Justice League members the Flash and Wonder Woman, and apprehended a criminal called "Kite Man" until Chris is eventually arrested and sentenced to 30 years at Belle Reve Penitentiary. Task Force X and Project Starfish In 2020, an imprisoned Chris is recruited by A.R.G.U.S. director Amanda Waller into a privately sanctioned strike team of imprisoned metahumans and criminals codenamed "Task Force X". The squad is tasked with infiltrating Corto Maltese to eliminate an anti-American regime that has overthrown the island's government and destroy a Nazi-era laboratory called Jötunheim before the regime can weaponize a secret experiment called "Project Starfish". Additionally, Waller secretly orders Chris to scrub the U.S.'s involvement in the project. While a separate squad distract Corto Maltese's military, Chris accompanies the primary squad alongside Robert DuBois / Bloodsport, Cleo Cazo / Ratcatcher 2 and her pet rat Sebastian, Nanaue / King Shark, and Abner Krill / Polka-Dot Man in making landfall and making their approach to Jotunheim. After joining up with survivors from the first squad, Col. Rick Flag and Harley Quinn as well as receiving assistance from a Corto Maltese resistance group called the Freedom Fighters, the squad capture Project Starfish's lead scientist, Gaius Grieves / The Thinker, and force him to help them break into Jotunheim, allowing Chris, Harley, DuBois, Krill, and Nanaue to rig the facility with explosives while Flag, Cleo and Sebastian accompany Thinker to the laboratory. Upon learning the truth behind Project Starfish, Flag retrieves a hard drive containing information on it, intending to publicly leak it, but a remorseful Chris reluctantly kills him. After Cazo steals the drive, Chris nearly kills her, but DuBois incapacitates Chris before leading the remaining squad members in destroying Project Starfish. Concurrently. A.R.G.U.S. medevac Chris and bring him back to Charlton County to recuperate at Evergreen Hospital. A.R.G.U.S. agents John Economos and Emilia Harcourt later check on him as they need him "to save the world" again. Project Butterfly Meeting Clemson Murn and encountering a Butterfly Five months later, Chris is released from intensive care and returns to his trailer home, where he is approached by a group called "Project Butterfly", consisting of Economos, Harcourt, new recruit and Waller's daughter, Leota Adebayo, and an informant of Waller's named Clemson Murn. Murn briefs Chris and the team on parasitic aliens codenamed "Butterflies" and arranges a group meeting later that evening. Chris then visits Auggie, who supplies his son with new helmets. Following the briefing, Chris engages in a one-night stand with Annie Sturphausen, who is possessed by a Butterfly and attacks him. He kills her using his "sonic boom helmet", but the local police, headed by Detective Sophie Song, are alerted to the incident and investigate. Harcourt and Adebayo assist Chris in evading them until Economos accidentally incriminates Auggie in the crime, leading to the latter's unintended arrest and incarceration. Assassinating the Goff Family Shunned by the team for the incident, Chris returns home and meets with Chase, during which they collectively discover that a device belonging to Sturphausen is actually a miniature spaceship. The following day, Murn briefs the team on their first ops mission, directing them to assassinate United States Senator Royland Goff and his family, who are presumed to all be Butterflies. Smith and Harcourt infiltrate the Goff home, but Chris hesitates to execute Goff's family. Chase volunteers to do so, but before he can kill Goff, the team is attacked by Goff's bodyguard Judomaster, who knocks out Harcourt and captures Chris and Chase for questioning. Goff attempts to goad Chris into confessing intel by torturing Chase, but Harcourt, Murn, and Adebayo intervene, allowing Chris to free himself and kill Goff while Economos incapacitates the escaping Judomaster. After a butterfly emerges from Goff's corpse, Chris secretly captures it and claims he killed it. Interrogating Judomaster As the team bring Judomaster back to their hideout to interrogate him, Chris and Chase learn of Auggie's arrest. Despite Murn and Adebayo telling him otherwise, Chris visits Auggie in prison, where the latter threatens to expose Project Butterfly to the authorities. Following this, Chris and Adebayo discover Judomaster in the midst of escaping. Following a lengthy confrontation between Chris and Judomaster, Adebayo abruptly shoots the latter as he is about to reveal the Butterflies' true purpose. Disillusioned, Chris returns to his trailer and grieves over his having to kill Flag and Keith's death. Glan Tai infiltration and Butterfly takeover Auggie pleads his innocence to Song, who deduces Chris killed Sturphausen. Concurrently, Chris is briefed on the Butterflies' parasitic nature and their desire to feed on an amber-like fluid. A discovery Adebayo made the previous night leads Project Butterfly to the Glan Tai bottling facility, where they kill the Butterfly-possessed workers and an escaped zoo gorilla and Chris earns the team's respect. While bonding on the way back, Chris invites Adebayo over to his trailer, where she secretly replaces his personal diary with a replica under Waller's orders. Song arranges for Auggie's release and Chris' arrest, much to the dismay of Deputy Locke, who is secretly collaborating with Murn unbeknownst to the rest of the team. The Goff butterfly attempts to communicate with Chris and Chase just as the Evergreen police come to arrest the former. While escaping to Project Butterfly's hideout with Locke's help, Chase accidentally drops the jar containing "Goff", allowing it to escape and kill and possess Song while Locke receives Chris' diary. As Economos traces the Butterflies' activities to Coverdale Ranch, where the team suspects that they are utilizing a giant alien larva, or "cow", to mass-produce the fluid, Adebayo experiences guilt over hiding confidential information about the operation from Chris and Waller and discovering that Murn is a rogue Butterfly called Ik Nobe Lok who wants to stop his own species, who came to Earth after they killed their own planet. Elsewhere, "Goff" summons an army of Butterflies to possess the Evergreen Police Department and Evergreen Corrections Center while Auggie rallies a group of followers and reassumes his White Dragon alias to kill Chris, who watches a television broadcast wherein the possessed Locke publicly incriminates him using his "diary" and calls for his arrest. Facing his father and the Cow Feeling betrayed by his companions, Chris leaves to find and eliminate the "cow" himself. However, the team is intercepted by Auggie and his followers. Chris's pet eagle Eagly attempts to save Chris, only to be injured by Auggie, who nearly executes Chris. Chase exposes a weak point in Auggie's armor, allowing Chris to overpower and reluctantly kill him. Project Butterfly reunite at a nearby veterinary clinic, where Eagly is treated for his injuries and they learn Murn was killed by the Butterfly-possessed police officers. The team elects Harcourt as their new leader, who briefs them on the Butterflies' objective to teleport the "cow" to another enclave and leave to stop them. Upon reaching Coverdale Ranch, Chris and Chase learn about Adebayo's true parentage and Murn's true identity before the team improvise a plan due to a shortage of time. After Economos fails to remotely kill the Cow, Chris, Harcourt, and Chase launch a frontal assault, eliminating multiple Butterflies, though Harcourt and Chase are grievously injured. Meanwhile, Chris confronts "Goff", who attempts to sway him to the Butterflies' cause by revealing they originally came to Earth seeking refuge before realizing that the planet was at the mercy of humans attempting to profit off of its resources and shifting their goals towards assimilating humanity and guiding them towards peace. Aggravated, Chris launches Adebayo at the Cow using his "human torpedo" helmet so she can destroy it while he kills Butterfly-Locke and Song's body, sparing "Goff". In the aftermath, Harcourt, Economos, and Chase undergo medical treatment while Adebayo and Chris reconcile. Inspired, she publicly leaks Project Butterfly and Waller's role in Task Force X, clearing Chris' name. As he returns home with Eagly and "Goff" however, he becomes haunted by a hallucination of Auggie. Reception Reviews Cena's portrayal of Christopher Smith / Peacemaker across his appearances in the DCEU has received positive reactions. Speaking on his performance in The Suicide Squad, Katie Rife, writing for The A.V. Club, stated that "Cena once again proves himself to be a talented comedic actor" in the role, describing the character as a "living action figure". Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times would further add that Cena's performance as his "ironically named" character wound up adding "to a terrific ensemble and a deft balance of brains, heart and other viscera". Commenting on the chemistry between Cena's Peacemaker and Idris Elba's character Robert DuBois / Bloodsport, CNET's Richard Trenholm observed that a constant positive throughout the film was "The pair clashing hilariously as they try to one-up each other in homicidal creativity", further complimenting Cena as being "so good and so funny as the uptight Peacemaker, he seems like an entirely different actor from the block of wood who fell off the screen with a dull thunk in this year's Fast and Furious 9".Critics similarly welcomed Cena's performance in Peacemaker the following year. IGN writer Samantha Nelson observed the progression in characterization in the series, contemplating that "Peacemaker quickly becomes a significantly more sympathetic character than he was in Gunn’s film, even if he is exasperating to his teammates such as Belle Reve warden John Economos (Steve Agee), who Peacemaker constantly accuses of dying his beard." She further comments that "Cena has a great sense of humor and seemingly no shame as he plays a sad-sack heel whose best friend is his bald eagle sidekick, Eagly". Charles Bramesco of The Guardian highlighted Cena as "the show’s strongest attribute", attributing it to "his veiny musculature lending a much-needed weight to face-offs that falter when ramping up the plastic-looking CGI". He likens Cena's presence and prowess in the series to physical comedy, iterating that "the bass has been cranked into the red every time he hits a wall or floor, letting us feel the heaviness of his elephantine body. He’s well-suited to the role as a budding comic performer too, his alpha-man-boy bluster the ideal fit for Gunn’s sophomoric hijinks". Audience viewership According to Samba TV, 638,000 US households watched the premiere episode of Peacemaker in its first 4 days of streaming on HBO Max. See also Characters of the DC Extended Universe Peacemaker cast and characters References The fictional character biography and portions of the characterization were adapted from Peacemaker, The Suicide Squad, and respective pages for episodes of Peacemaker (TV series) at DC Extended Universe Wiki, which are available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license. External links Christopher Smith (DC Extended Universe) on DC Database, a DC Comics wiki

The Invincible Brothers Maciste

The Invincible Brothers Maciste (Italian: Gli invincibili fratelli Maciste) is a 1964 Italian peplum film written and directed by Roberto Mauri.

The Invincible Brothers Maciste (Italian: Gli invincibili fratelli Maciste) is a 1964 Italian peplum film written and directed by Roberto Mauri. Plot Two Herculean warrior brothers battle to save their prince from the clutches of an evil queen, in a hidden world lurking behind a giant waterfall. The depraved queen practices mind-control and must force her slave population to continually turn a waterwheel lest their world come to an end. Cast Richard Lloyd as Maciste The Old Claudie Lange as Queen Thaliade Tony Freeman as Maciste The Young Anthony Steffen as Prince Akim Ursula Davis as Jana Gia Sandri as Nice Release The Invincible Brothers Maciste was released theatrically in Italy on 18 December 1964. On its release in the United States, the film had a different running time of 92 minutes. References Bibliography External links The Invincible Brothers Maciste at IMDb The Invincible Brothers Maciste at Variety Distribution

Berit Wallenberg

Anna Berit Wallenberg (19 February 1902 – 4 September 1995) was a Swedish archaeologist, anthropologist, art historian, photographer, and philanthropist. She established a research foundation, the Berit Wallenberg Foundation, that awards funds to these areas. Since its establishment, it has been providing support to cultural heritage institutions, art historians, and archaeologists. In 1936, she became the first Swedish woman to be appointed as a supervisor for the national heritage committee, responsible for the restoration of the Lovö church. Berit Wallenberg became the only woman to receive an honorary doctorate from the Stockholm University.

Anna Berit Wallenberg (19 February 1902 – 4 September 1995) was a Swedish archaeologist, anthropologist, art historian, photographer, and philanthropist. She established a research foundation, the Berit Wallenberg Foundation, that awards funds to these areas. Since its establishment, it has been providing support to cultural heritage institutions, art historians, and archaeologists. In 1936, she became the first Swedish woman to be appointed as a supervisor for the national heritage committee, responsible for the restoration of the Lovö church. Berit Wallenberg became the only woman to receive an honorary doctorate from the Stockholm University. Her career was devoted to various forms of research, local history, and the preservation of monuments. Scientific knowledge, Christian beliefs, and local historical work, especially around Drottningholm Island and Lovå, became the most significant aspects of her life. Throughout her career, she participated in numerous archaeological excavations. The self-portrait of one of the most famous late medieval Swedish painters, Albertus Pictor, was found by Wallenberg in Lids Church during an excavation. She photographed significant places and monuments, which have been used in several historic and archaeological types of research. Her photographs constitute culturally and historically valuable time documentation. Her collection of approximately 25,000 photographs were handed over as a gift to the Swedish National Heritage Board's archives in the early 1980s with the hope that it would be preserved for future research. Early life and family Berit Wallenberg was born on 19 February 1902, in Skeppsholm parish, Stockholm. She was the daughter of Oscar Wallenberg (1872–1939), and his wife Beatrice, née Keiller. She was the granddaughter of André Oscar Wallenberg, who founded the Stockholms Enskilda Bank. She was the cousin of Raoul Wallenberg's father Raoul Oscar Wallenberg. Her father was a naval officer, and a businessman. Her mother, Beatrice Keiller was the daughter of the factory owner, manufacturer, and wholesale merchant Alexander Keiller Jr., from Gothenburg. Berit Wallenberg had a brother, Carol, with whom she was brought up in Villastaden, Stockholm, a region where lived the numerous individuals who were dynamic in business, and the social elites additionally lived. The family also lived in Särö for a brief time, where her mother had grown up. They also lived in Lovön, Drottningholm, in a summer cottage they owned. Education In 1922, at the age of 20, she decided to become an art historian, thus learned Latin to get herself into high school, against her parents' wishes. However, her father supported and admired her academic life and career when she got into university. In 1925, she graduated from the Nya Elementarskolan för flickor, a former private girls' school in Stockholm. Later that year, she attended Stockholm University. Her focuses of study were on archaeology and art history of classical Northern Europe, Cyprus, and China. She also studied ethnology. She specialized in the medieval frescoes of Finland, Denmark, and Sweden, within art history. As a part of her advanced program in archaeological history, she finished her licentiate degree in 1931 on the subject of the Bronze Age period, even though she held up until the following year to get her Bachelor's certificate. That year she went to the Swedish Institute in Rome and while she was in Italy, she got a diploma from the Byzantine Institute in Ravenna. In 1942, Wallenberg became a philosophy licentiate in art history and archeology at Stockholm University, where she studied art history. Career Archaeology During her student years, Wallenberg participated in several excavations. In 1924, she participated in the bronze-age excavation of Laholm. Later on, she participated in the 1926 excavation of the heathen temple of Gamla Uppsala. From 1927 - 1930, she participated in four excavations that took place at the Alvastra convent church, and at the Vendel church. During the Alvastra excavation, she got acquainted with archaeologist Greta Arwidsson. The long-sought graves of the Sverker family were discovered by her during the 1927 excavation. The restoration of the Lovö church began in 1935, and Wallenberg continued to be involved. Her involvement and participation were noticed and authorized by Sigurd Curman, who was the head of the National Heritage Board. She was chosen for that board, becoming the first Swedish woman to do so, and her commitments and contributions seemed to have far surpassed what the position required. In the fall of 1939, Wallenberg directed an archaeological excavation of four tombs under the rune cliffs of Skänninge. This was done following the instructions of the Gotland Museum and the National Heritage Committee. Over the years, Wallenberg was involved in excavations, mainly in the Stockholm area. She created a lot of documents, especially during her travels. Subsequently, she collected a large number of photographic materials, regarding many ancient buildings and residential areas in Europe that were destroyed in World War II. The images and oral descriptions she collected subsequently published will help preserve the knowledge of this cultural heritage for future generations. She donated many of her photographs to the Heritage Board in the 1980s, hoping they would be of use to future researchers. Philanthropy On 19 November 1955, she founded the Berit Wallenberg Foundation with a donation of 406,000 Swedish kronor. The foundation promotes research in archeology and art history, preferably until the end of the 19th century. Grants of funds are given primarily for research relating to Swedish and Nordic material. Photography Wallenberg began taking photos at an early age. Her collection of approximately 25,000 photographs were handed over as a gift to the National Heritage Board's archives in the early 1980s with a wish that it would be preserved for future research. A representative selection of the images from the collection has been digitized by the Swedish National Heritage Board, which has been made possible through a grant from the Berit Wallenberg Foundation.The pictures were taken from the 1920s to the 1980s. Most of the pictures are in black and white. The motifs reflect Wallenberg's professional interests as an archaeologist and art historian. She has photographed ancient monuments, archeological excavations, churches, frescoes, other buildings, urban environments, and landscapes. Many photos were taken during her study trips to Europe, mainly during the 1920s and 1930s. In addition to the Nordic countries, she traveled to France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Russia. Berit traveled to Þingvellir, Iceland in 1930 and took many photos documenting the 1000th anniversary of the national parliament Althing. Other photos show the private sphere with schoolmates, relatives, and friends, scout activities, Christmas celebrations, and holidays. There are pictures from the homes on Villagatan 4, Malmvik on Lindö and Viken on Lovön, and pictures from an international student meeting in Iceland in 1930.Wallenberg's photographs constitute culturally and historically valuable time documentation. Environments and buildings that do not exist today or have changed significantly have been photographed, for example, urban environments in Germany before the Second World War. Personal life Wallenberg was unmarried. Her personal life was influenced by the three pillars of family, kinship, and religious beliefs. She was an active missionary, writer of newspaper columns, and a cantata, and her social environment includes religious and spiritual leaders. Several close friends of Wallenberg played important roles in her professional and private life, including writer Stina Ridderstad, Dean Gustaf Brunkrona, and Gerda Boëthius, the director of the Gerda Boethius Art Museum. Later served as the regional curator of antiquities and archaeology, Greta Arwidsson, and the curator and art historian Agnes Geijer, their friendship with Wallenberg lasted until her death. Death Berit Wallenberg died on 4 September 1995. Like many of her family members, she was buried in Lovö Church by the priest Lars Djerf on 14 September. He later wrote her biography, which was published in 2003. Legacy Wallenberg's career has been devoted to various forms of research, local history, and the preservation of monuments. Scientific knowledge, Christian beliefs, and local historical work, especially around Drottningholm Island and Lovön, became the most significant aspects of her life. Photographs and documents donated by her to various museums and archival organizations have been used in historic researches. Her photographs constitute culturally and historically valuable time documentation. Environments and buildings that do not exist today or have changed significantly have been photographed by her, which are being proved useful for various historic and archaeological researches. Since the beginning of her foundation's establishment, it has been providing support to cultural heritage institutions, art historians, and archaeologists. Awards and honors Illis quorum (1952) Honorary doctorate of philosophy from Stockholm University Hazelius medal in silver by Nordiska museet (1973) Hononary membership of the S:ta Ingrids Gille local history association (1940) Commendation award by Samfundet för hembygdsvård (SfH) Gallery References Bibliography Lövkvist, Linda (2018). Svenskt kvinnobiografiskt lexikon, (In Swedish). University of Gothenburg. ISBN 978-91-639-7594-3. Grosjean, Alexia. Svenskt kvinnobiografiskt lexikon [Biographical Dictionary of Swedish Women], (In English). University of Gothenburg. ISBN 978-91-639-7594-3. Studies in North-European Archaeology (in Swedish). Almqvist & Wiksell. 1984. ISBN 978-91-22-00700-5. Museum, Statens Historiska; Andersson, Aron (1980). Medieval Wooden Sculpture in Sweden. Almqvist & Wiksell. ISBN 978-91-7402-091-5. Marton, Kati (1 October 2011). Wallenberg: The Incredible True Story of the Man Who Saved the Jews of Budapest. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-61145-337-9. Fornvännen (in Swedish). Kungl. Vitterhets historie och antikvitets akademien. 2008. External links Berit Wallenberg at Svenskt kvinnobiografiskt lexikon Media related to Berit Wallenberg at Wikimedia Commons

Saint Nicolas Church, Toulouse

Saint-Nicolas Church is located in Saint Cyprien neighbourhood on the west side of the Garonne River, just outside the old city walls of Toulouse.

Saint-Nicolas Church is located in Saint Cyprien neighbourhood on the west side of the Garonne River, just outside the old city walls of Toulouse. Description Saint Nicolas is the patron saint of sailors and those who are afraid of sinking. He might have been frequently solicited in a neighbourhood that has known yearly flash flood, for instance, the 1875 significant one. Its Tolosan style octagonal bell tower was rebuilt around 1300, copying those of Saint Sernin and Church of the Jacobins. == Gallery ==

The British School in Tokyo

The British School in Tokyo (BST; ブリティシュ・スクール・イン東京 Buritishu Sukūru in Tōkyō) is an international school in central Tokyo with over 1,100 students from over 65 nationalities. BST takes students aged 3–18 that have been rated in all eight areas examined by the Independent Schools Inspectorate (ISI). A third of BST students are neither British nor Japanese and there are no entry requirements other than fluency in English. The curriculum follows the National Curriculum. The school is based on two sites with students aged 3–8 based at the Shibuya campus and students aged 9–18 based at the Showa campus at Showa Women's University.

The British School in Tokyo (BST; ブリティシュ・スクール・イン東京 Buritishu Sukūru in Tōkyō) is an international school in central Tokyo with over 1,100 students from over 65 nationalities. BST takes students aged 3–18 that have been rated in all eight areas examined by the Independent Schools Inspectorate (ISI). A third of BST students are neither British nor Japanese and there are no entry requirements other than fluency in English. The curriculum follows the National Curriculum. The school is based on two sites with students aged 3–8 based at the Shibuya campus and students aged 9–18 based at the Showa campus at Showa Women's University. History Established as a trust in 1988 to meet the needs of parents who wished their children to receive a British style education in Tokyo, BST was officially opened by Margaret Thatcher in September 1989 with just 63 students and rapidly expanded. By 1993 there were 200 students in the entire school. The existing site could no longer accommodate the growing demand for places and a modern building with improved facilities (the current BST Shibuya site) was opened in Shibuya on 14 May 1998 for over 300 children aged three to eleven. In 2000 the School opened a second site at the municipal Shibuya Elementary School (SES) to accommodate a small number of older students up to age thirteen; the Upper School. In 2003 SES was demolished and the Upper School had to be moved to another municipal facility on the far side of Shibuya Station, the Owada Junior High School. The School continued to attract strong interest, though facilities, particularly for the Upper School, were less than ideal. To address the issue of inadequate facilities, part of the school was moved in August 2006 to newly renovated accommodation on the campus of the Showa Women's University, located 10 minutes bus ride away to the west of Shibuya station. The original site, BST Shibuya, now accommodates 350 Nursery to Year 3 pupils in refurbished facilities suited to the needs of this age group. The Showa campus underwent construction during the summer of 2017 to accommodate for the rising number of students joining the school, adding new classrooms, libraries, study areas and more. BST Showa offers educational provision from Year 4 to 13 for over 620 students with extra-curriculars, such as sports fixtures and music clubs. Key Stages 4 and 5 include IGCSE, A-Levels, AQA BAC and the International Duke of Edinburgh Award. Locations BST has two campuses: Nursery through Year 3 attend the Shibuya Campus in the Shibuya area of Shibuya Ward, and students in Year 4 through Year 13 attend the Showa Campus in Building 5 of Showa Women's University in Setagaya Ward.The Showa campus opened on 28 August 2006. Showa campus facilities Not owning its own land on Showa campus, BST has had to rent out gyms, fields and halls from Showa Women's University and Temple University, both of which are located on the same campus and are in close proximity of one another. The main indoor sports facilities of BST showa are the Old gym (owned by Showa), the West gym (owned by Temple university), and the New gym (owned by Showa). The main outdoor sports facilities of BST showa are the Astro (big field outside school building), Leo ground (field mainly used by BST), and South Ground (mainly used by BST). Hall/Performance facilities of BST showa are Hitomi hall (seats 1000+), Green hall (slightly smaller, seats 500+), and other halls either on Showa territory or Temple university territory. As of 2021, BST showa used the pool which is located in the basement of a Temple university building, and is also under the west gym (mentioned above). However, before 2019, the specified pool was under construction, meaning the school had to create a contract with the pool of a nearby gym (approximately 500m away), where students would travel to have their swimming lessons and swim team practices. Curriculum Throughout the whole school, BST offers a large range of subjects, including English (Language and Literature), Numeracy, Sciences, ICT, Wellbeing, History, Geography, Art, Drama, Photography, Economics, Business Studies, Music and Physical Education, all of which are offered at IGCSE and A Level. In addition, two Modern Foreign Languages are offered – Japanese from Nursery and French from Year 3. Spanish is also offered for IGCSE and A Level. Accreditation BST is accredited by the Council of British International Schools (COBIS) and has been inspected by ISI. It is also a member of Kanto Plains Schools Association and the Japan Council of International Schools (JCIS). Sports BST offers a range of competitive and recreational sport, with morning or after-school clubs available throughout the school year. Some of these sports include, but are not limited to: Volleyball Netball Futsal Football Hockey Swimming Athletics Cricket Basketball Badminton Fitness Yoga ECA's (Extra-curricular activities) ECA's form a crucial part of BST student life and are led by teachers from many year groups. The clubs vary for different age groups/key stages. The following are secondary clubs, as of December 2021: Strategy games club Philosophy discussion club Diversity and inclusion club Science ambassador club Geography club DJ and Music production club Debating club Chess and Shogi club Rock 'n' Roll/Live club Science fiction club Tai Chi club STEP maths club NHK learning Japanese Nrich maths for Y7 and Y8 Model United Nations club Art sustainable fashion workshop See also List of high schools in Tokyo Britons in Japan Japan–United Kingdom relations British Embassy, TokyoJapanese international schools in the United Kingdom: Japanese School in London Rikkyo School in England Teikyo School United Kingdom Defunct: Gyosei International School UK References "COBIS". COBIS. Retrieved 19 April 2012. "ISI Report 2011". ISI. Retrieved 19 April 2012. "The Good School Guide". The Good School Guide. Retrieved 19 April 2012. External links Official website

Meir Just

Meir Just (7 July 1908 – 9 April 2010) was the Chief Rabbi of Amsterdam, Netherlands. Just served as a spiritual leader for the Dutch Jewish community for more than 45 years, until his death in 2010.Just was born on 7 July 1908 in Vizhnitz, Bukovina (now Vyzhnytsia, Ukraine) in 1908 to rabbi Nisan Just, chief composer for Vizhnitz dynasty and gabbai of the late Vizhnitser Rebbe. Just died at his home in Amsterdam on 9 April 2010, at the age of 101. His memorial service was held at the Raw Aron Schuster Synagogue in Amsterdam and he was buried in Israel. == References ==

Meir Just (7 July 1908 – 9 April 2010) was the Chief Rabbi of Amsterdam, Netherlands. Just served as a spiritual leader for the Dutch Jewish community for more than 45 years, until his death in 2010.Just was born on 7 July 1908 in Vizhnitz, Bukovina (now Vyzhnytsia, Ukraine) in 1908 to rabbi Nisan Just, chief composer for Vizhnitz dynasty and gabbai of the late Vizhnitser Rebbe. Just died at his home in Amsterdam on 9 April 2010, at the age of 101. His memorial service was held at the Raw Aron Schuster Synagogue in Amsterdam and he was buried in Israel. == References ==

Christopher G. Kennedy

Christopher George Kennedy (born July 4, 1963) is an American businessman, politician, and Chair of Joseph P. Kennedy Enterprises, Inc. He is a son of former U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy, a member of the Kennedy family. Kennedy served as Chair of the Board of Trustees for the University of Illinois from 2009 to 2015. Until April 2012, he was also president of Merchandise Mart Properties, a commercial property management firm based in Chicago.He was a candidate in the Democratic Party primary for Governor of Illinois in the 2018 election.

Christopher George Kennedy (born July 4, 1963) is an American businessman, politician, and Chair of Joseph P. Kennedy Enterprises, Inc. He is a son of former U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy, a member of the Kennedy family. Kennedy served as Chair of the Board of Trustees for the University of Illinois from 2009 to 2015. Until April 2012, he was also president of Merchandise Mart Properties, a commercial property management firm based in Chicago.He was a candidate in the Democratic Party primary for Governor of Illinois in the 2018 election. Early life and education Kennedy was born on July 4, 1963, in St. Elizabeth's Hospital in the Brighton section of Boston, Massachusetts, to Robert Francis Kennedy Sr. and Ethel Kennedy, née Skakel, the eighth of their eleven children. He is one of four grandchildren of George Skakel, Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. and Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy born during the administration of his uncle U.S. President John F. Kennedy. He grew up at his family home, Hickory Hill, in McLean, Virginia, a suburb of Washington, D.C., and attended the Potomac School along with his brother, Max, and his sister, Rory (not the Lady of Victory Catholic School), in McLean through the eighth grade. He transferred to Georgetown Preparatory School in North Bethesda, Maryland, also a suburb of Washington, and graduated in 1982. While in high school, he volunteered at a home for runaway youth. Kennedy graduated from Boston College in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science in 1986.In 1994, he graduated with a master of business administration degree from the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois. Career Kennedy is chairman of the Kennedy family investment firm Joseph P. Kennedy Enterprises, Inc. He is treasurer of the Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation, he was on the Executive Committee for the Chicago Community Trust, and he has been a board member of the Catholic Theological Union, Interface, Inc. and Knoll Inc. He is a member of the mutual fund board of trustees for Ariel Investments.Kennedy moved from Boston to Decatur to work for Archer Daniels Midland in the 1980s, and has spent his life working around issues of hunger, whether as the chairman of the Greater Chicago Food Depository, or now helping to run the non-profit he and his wife founded, Top Box Foods.Kennedy was the president of Merchandise Mart Properties in Chicago, Illinois, from 2000 until 2012. The property was originally owned by the Kennedy family until it was sold to Vornado Realty Trust, a real estate investment trust. The Merchandise Mart, one of the properties of Merchandise Mart Properties, is the largest commercial building in the world, serving as both a luxury wholesale design center and one of the leading international business locations in Chicago. The Mart spans two city blocks and rises twenty-five stories for a total of 4.2 million square feet (390,000 square metres) Three million people come through the Mart each year to visit its retail shops, permanent showrooms, and office space as well as attend the numerous trade, consumer and community events hosted there. Kennedy also served as Chairman of the Board of Trustees at the University of Illinois. In November 2014, he resigned from the Board following his involvement in the controversial un-hiring of Steven Salaita and the election of Republican governor Bruce Rauner. In 2015, Kennedy won the Simon Wiesenthal Center's Spirit of Courage award for his involvement in the controversy.Kennedy has partnered with CIP (the International Potato Center) and 2Blades in the fight against Phytophthora infestans in Africa, the same blight which brought some of his ancestors to the United States. He is chairing the 2Blades African Potato Initiative which is developing and producing the seed potatoes to be sold in Uganda and Kenya. Top Box Foods In May 2012, Kennedy started the Chicago-based non-profit Top Box Foods. The organization was created as a way to get discounted groceries to families who live in areas that either lack grocery stores or have an abundance of fast food. Kennedy initially invested $150,000 to get Top Box started, and subsequently designed the organization to be self-sustaining. Top Box as an organization purchases food, boxes it in various combinations and delivers it monthly to churches and organizations in mostly low-income neighborhoods. The food items in the box change from month to month and include a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, meats, and frozen meals, with box prices ranging from $19 to $39. The boxes can be ordered online or through the organizations where the boxes are delivered. These organizations, otherwise known as Top Box "host sites," range from small neighborhood churches with a few dozen families to some of the Chicago's largest, including Trinity United Church of Christ and Salem Baptist Church. Top Box has locations in Illinois in Chicago, Cook County, and Rockford, in Louisiana in New Orleans and Baton Rouge, and in Atlanta, Georgia. Personal life Kennedy met Sheila Sinclair Berner (born December 4, 1962), an Illinois native and daughter of Sheila Reynolds and attorney Robert Berner, while both were attending Boston College. Sheila's maternal aunt, Anne Reynolds Skakel, had been married to Kennedy's maternal uncle, Rushton Skakel, until her death, making Michael Skakel a first cousin to them both. After graduating from college in 1986, Kennedy moved to Decatur, Illinois, and married Sheila in 1987. The couple has four children, Katherine Berner Kennedy (born 1990), Christopher George Kennedy Jr. (born 1992) m. Erin Daigle, Sarah Louise Kennedy (born 1994) m. Jam Sulahry, and Clare Elizabeth Kennedy (born 1998), whom they raised in the Chicago suburb of Kenilworth. His wife earned a J.D. degree from Northwestern University and practiced at Sidley & Austin in Chicago before taking time off to take care of their children. Political career Kennedy's political activism began at an early age, and in 1979 and 1980 he worked on his uncle U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy's bid for the 1980 Democratic Party's nomination for U.S. President. He was also treasurer of the campaign committee for his brother Joe's reelection to the U.S. House in 1988. Over the years he has organized numerous fundraising events in Chicago for his uncle Ted, his sister Kathleen, his brother Joe and his cousin Mark Kennedy Shriver. The National Journal once quoted Kennedy as saying, "I have a lot to keep up with: a brother who might run for Congress, a sister and a brother considering races for governor, a cousin who might run for Congress, another in Congress, an uncle in the Senate and a cousin-in-law, Arnold [Schwarzenegger], who is thinking of running for governor."Beyond his family, Kennedy has served in a variety of capacities for numerous political campaigns, including hosting a fundraiser for Barack Obama in his bid for U.S. Senate. In the Democratic primary of the 2002 Illinois gubernatorial election, Kennedy served as the general chairman of Paul Vallas' campaign.In August 2009, after considering a run for the U.S. Senate, as did many others, Kennedy decided not to run. Also in August 2009, on the day after his uncle Ted's death on August 25, 2009, Kennedy was appointed to the University of Illinois board of trustees by Democratic Illinois Governor Pat Quinn. On September 10, 2009, Kennedy was elected by the trustees as their chairman.Prior to February 8, 2017, when Kennedy announced his candidacy for the Democratic Nomination for Illinois Governor in 2018, he had never run for any elective office.Kennedy during his campaign for governor advocated for "a property tax system that can't be abused by the wealthy and insiders" in a fundraising email. Kennedy criticized one of his fellow Democratic gubernatorial candidates, J.B. Pritzker, for getting a large property tax reduction on a Gold Coast mansion. "It's an inherently corruptible system and we ought to reject it," Kennedy said to reporters in reference to Pritzker's property taxes. "The Cook County property tax appeals business is notorious for pricing political connections at a premium," wrote the Illinois Policy Institute, a conservative website. Kennedy has further gone on to state that what Mike Madigan is doing, referring to his conflict of interest from serving as the house speaker while working as a property tax attorney, should be illegal. When Kennedy served as the President of Merchandise Mart Properties Inc, the company used Madigan's law firm to win property tax refunds via the appeals process, receiving over $133,000.In June 2017, Kennedy was endorsed by Congressman Bobby Rush.Kennedy called for an open primary in the 2018 gubernatorial race, urging the Cook County Democratic party not to throw their weight behind any other candidate, instead allowing for voters to vet all the candidates in the race. The Cook County Democratic Party endorsed Pritzker in August 2017. Kennedy was forced to backtrack after he defended the campaign of Republican Bruce Rauner running ads attacking Pritzker during the Democratic primary saying "Rauner is trying to do what he thinks is best for the state of Illinois" and "his willingness to speak truth to power... is something that I think he should be applauded for."On March 20, 2018, Kennedy lost the Democratic primary, finishing in third place behind Pritzker and state senator Daniel Biss. He carried only two counties, Ford and Hardin. Business and economic involvement He is on the board of trustees of the mutual funds managed by Ariel Investments, a Chicago-based investment-management firm. From 1997 to 1999, Kennedy served as chairman of the Chicago Convention and Tourism Bureau, a sales-and-marketing organization promoting Chicago to the tourism and convention industries. Under Kennedy's chairmanship, the bureau retained and expanded Chicago's event-and-convention industry.Since 2000, Kennedy has been a member of the City Club of Chicago, a group that brings together civic and cultural leaders to discuss and debate issues affecting the Chicago area. Since 2005, he has been a member of the Commercial Club of Chicago, a group that brings together the city's business, educational, and cultural leaders on projects to improve central industries and create new economic opportunities. Other civic involvement Since 1996, he has been a member of the Chicago Council on Global Affairs, a nonpartisan group that seeks to impact discourse on global issues through leadership, education, and policy. Since 1996, Kennedy has been on the board of directors at The Irish Fellowship Club, a Chicago-based group dedicated to preserving and promoting Irish heritage. From 2006 until the Spring of 2013, he served on the board of directors of Catholic Theological Union, the largest Roman Catholic graduate school of theology and ministry in the U.S. Greater Chicago Food Depository is a nonprofit food distribution and training center providing food for hungry people while striving to end hunger throughout Cook County, Illinois. It also offers education programs providing the knowledge and tools needed to break the poverty cycle. El Valor is a nonprofit group seeking to enrich the local community by empowering the underserved, disenfranchised, and disabled while creating a sense of unity among all community members. Heartland Alliance is a human-rights-advocacy group providing housing, healthcare, economic security, and legal protection for low-income citizens. Governor Pat Quinn appointed Kennedy to the board of trustees of the University of Illinois in September 2009. He served in that role until his gubernatorial appointment expired in January 2015. He served as a Member of the Executive Committee of the Chicago Community Trust until January 2015. He served as the Lund-Gill Chair in the Rosary College of Arts and Sciences at Dominican University (Illinois). Residential development As Chairman of Joseph P. Kennedy Enterprises, Inc., Kennedy is responsible for the development of the Kennedy family real estate holdings in Chicago known as Wolf Point, Chicago. The Wolf Point development site represents a billion-dollar commitment to the downtown core, and the site is zoned for construction of a residential apartment building, a self-park garage, and two additional high-rise buildings. Kennedy also is a partner in Sudbury Station LLC, a development entity proposing a 250-unit luxury rental housing development with a state mandated minimum affordable housing set aside in Sudbury, Massachusetts, designed to meet local housing needs for seniors and the working class community. Proposed on a 39-acre parcel zoned residential near the Historic District of Sudbury, the Village at Sudbury Station would satisfy the Massachusetts affordable housing mandate for Sudbury, would be located close to schools, parks, churches and public safety facilities, and would contribute significant additional tax revenue to the town. The project has received criticism from town officials and residents. Residents voted unanimously to hire a special counsel to stop the development, which they allege violates over thirty local zoning ordinances. See also Kennedy Curse Kennedy family Kennedy family tree References Specific GeneralFacts & Figures: Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago External links Kennedy for Illinois campaign Appearances on C-SPAN 'Good Baby', says Uncle Jack. Life Magazine, Aug. 9, 1963, pp. 87-89 on Google Books

Ichihashi Nagakazu

Ichihashi Nagakazu (市橋長和, June 7, 1821 – January 17, 1882) was the 10th (and final) daimyō of Nisshōji Domain in Bakumatsu period Japan and was the 11th hereditary chieftain of the Ichihashi clan. Before the Meiji Restoration, his courtesy title was Oki-no-kami, and his Court rank was Senior Fourth Rank.

Ichihashi Nagakazu (市橋長和, June 7, 1821 – January 17, 1882) was the 10th (and final) daimyō of Nisshōji Domain in Bakumatsu period Japan and was the 11th hereditary chieftain of the Ichihashi clan. Before the Meiji Restoration, his courtesy title was Oki-no-kami, and his Court rank was Senior Fourth Rank. Biography Ichihashi Nagakazu was the fourth son of Sakai Tadakata, daimyō of Shōnai Domain in northern Japan. He was adopted as heir to Ichihashi Nagatomi of Nisshōji Domain in 1843 and was received in formal audience by Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi in the following year. Ichihashi Nagatomi retired a few weeks afterwards, and he became daimyō, initially with the courtesy title of Shimōsa-no-kami. Following the Perry Expedition in 1853, the country was plunged into turmoil, and foreseeing the high probability of conflict in the near future, he turned the domain's resources into the production of gunpowder. In 1862, he formally changed the domain's name from Nisshiōji Domain to Nishiōji Domain (西大路藩). In December 1867, he pledged fealty to the new Meiji government and was ordered to seize control of the territories in Ōmi Province belonging to Kawagoe Domain, which had remained loyal to the Tokugawa. He later requested to be excepted from further military service due to the small size of his army, but the request was denied. In 1868, he was assigned to the guard of Emperor Meiji when the emperor transferred his seat from Kyoto to Edo, now newly re-named Tokyo. In 1869 he became imperial governor of Nishiōji until the abolition of the han system in 1871. He relocated to Tokyo, where he resided until his death in 1882. His grave is at the clan bodaiji of Nansen-ji in Nishinipppori in Arakawa, Tokyo. References The content of much of this article was derived from that of the corresponding article on Japanese Wikipedia. Jurita, Shunjiro (1884). Who's who in Japan. (Tokyo:n.p.), p. 391. == Notes ==

Neo-Nazism in Canada

Neo-Nazism (French: le Néonazisme) is the post World War II ideology that promotes white supremacy and specifically antisemitism. In Canada, neo-Nazism has existed as a branch of the far-right and has been a source of considerable controversy for over 50 years.

Neo-Nazism (French: le Néonazisme) is the post World War II ideology that promotes white supremacy and specifically antisemitism. In Canada, neo-Nazism has existed as a branch of the far-right and has been a source of considerable controversy for over 50 years. History The establishment of neo-Nazism in Canada has its roots with the rise of white supremacist organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan which had expanded into Canada (specifically the Prairies) by the 1920s. However, as Adolf Hitler was assuming control of Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, Adrien Arcand’s National Social Christian Party dominated the white supremacist front. After World War II, racism and Nazism lost popularity, and far-right white supremacist movements faded into the background. Contemporary neo-Nazism in Canada began with the formation of the Canadian Nazi Party in 1965. In the 1970s and 1980s, neo-Nazism continued to spread as organizations including the Western Guard Party and Church of the Creator promoted white supremacist ideals. Neo-Nazism in Canada was revitalized in 1989 with the institution of the Heritage Front organization and the rise in popularity of skinhead music. However, controversy and dissention has left many Canadian neo-Nazi organizations dissolved or weakened in the last few years. Influential leaders Adrien Arcand Adrien Arcand (October 3, 1899 – August 1, 1967) was a journalist from Montreal and one of the earliest and most influential Fascist leaders in Canada. He was the editor for several Canadian antisemitic newspapers. In 1934, he created the National Social Christian Party, and in 1938 his party merged with the Prairie provinces' Canadian Nationalist Party and Ontario’s Nationalist Party. Arcand was chosen to be the leader of this new National Unity Party of Canada, however, this right wing fascist party was banned during World War II under the Defence of Canada Regulations. Arcand was arrested and incarcerated throughout the duration of the war. After the fall of Nazi Germany, Arcand lost popularity and influence, but continued promoting anti-communism and antisemitism and still referred to himself as the "Canadian Führer" until he died. John Beattie John Beattie (born 1941) formed the Canadian Nazi Party in 1965. In 1966, George Lincoln Rockwell, the American Nazi Party founder, said that Beattie was “leading a tremendous and successful movement.” In 1967 the party was renamed the Nationalist Socialist Party. Beattie led the party 13 years until it was disbanded. After the Canadian Nazi Party was dissolved, John Beattie tried to start several other neo-Nazi organizations, but never had any real success. He also was a witness for the Ernst Zündel trials in the early twenty-first century, and continued to promote white supremacy, but has faded to the background of the neo-Nazi scene. Don Andrews Don Andrews (born 1942 as Vilim Zlomislic) is a Croat that was born during World War II in what is now Serbia. His father was a member of the Yugoslav Partisans and was killed fighting Nazis in occupied Yugoslavia, and his mother was taken to Germany where after the war she met and married a Canadian and moved to Toronto. She eventually found her son via the Red Cross and in 1952 Zlomislic was brought to Canada and renamed Donald Andrews. Andrews cofounded a far right organization known as the Edmund Burke Society in 1967. Andrews became the main leader of the group and transformed it into the overtly racist Western Guard Party in 1972. However, in 1975 Andrews was ordered by the courts to not participate in the Western Guard after being convicted of conspiring to bomb an Israeli soccer team. As a result, Andrews created the Nationalist Party of Canada. Besides leading the Nationalist Party, Don Andrews has been associated with other neo-Nazis and far-right activities all over Canada. One of the most well-known incidents that involves Andrews was the plot to take over the island of Dominica in 1979. Andrews initially supported Mike Purdue and Wolfgang Droege’s plan to overthrow the government of Dominica in 1979. He later withdrew his active support but still gave contact information of people who could help. As leader of the Nationalist Party, Andrews has run for public office numerous times including the election for the Mayor of Toronto in 2010. Wolfgang Droege Wolfgang Droege (September 25, 1949 – April 13, 2005) was a neo-Nazi leader from Canada. Born in Germany, he was raised by parents and grandparents who had been supporters of the Nazi Party. In the early 1970s, Droege moved to Canada. He quickly became affiliated with far-right politics and joined the Western Guard Party in the early 1970s, but left to join the Nationalist Party of Canada in 1975 and the Ku Klux Klan in 1976. In 1981, Droege was arrested for plotting to overthrow the government of the Caribbean island of Dominica. He and nine others planned to help Patrick John, the previous prime minister, reassume power in trade for permission to use the island as a base for drug trafficking and white supremacy. After spending three years in prison, Droege continued promoting neo-Nazism and trafficking drugs. In 1985, Droege was sentenced to a thirteen-year jail sentence in Alabama for possession of cocaine and weapons, however he only served four years before returning to Canada in April 1989. Tired of the Nationalist Party and their lack of expansion, Droege decided to form his own neo-Nazi organization. Later that year he established an organization known as Heritage Front. However, with the development of the internet and emergence of the information era, Droege's involvement in Heritage Front diminished as he shifted his focus to illicit drug traffic. On April 13, 2005, Droege was found dead in his apartment. Although it was originally presumed that his murder was caused by his involvement in a love triangle, it is now accepted that his murderer was a delusional paranoid drug user that turned on him. George Burdi George Burdi was born in 1970 in Toronto. He was raised by Christian parents, then began to develop racist tendencies at age 18, to gain approval from his girlfriend's father. Although his parents disapproved, Burdi continued to study neo-Nazi literature and in his first year at college met Ernst Zündel, the man who introduced him to the World Church of the Creator. In 1989, Burdi started the band RaHoWa and performed in occasional shows that usually ended in riots. In 1993, George Burdi established Resistance Records, the number one distributor of skinhead music. For a time, Burdi led the Toronto Branch of the Church of the Creator and continued performing and selling skinhead music. In 1995, Burdi was convicted of assault and sentenced to a year in prison. After a month, he was released only for his conviction to be upheld again in 1997. During his jail time, Burdi decided that he didn't want to have anything to do with white supremacy and after he was released from his year-long prison sentence, Burdi's involvement in the neo-Nazi movement ended and he separated himself from his old life and renounced racism. In an interview with Intelligence Report, Burdi stated that, “Racism is wrong because ... I should probably say hatred is wrong, anger is wrong. Hatred and anger are wrong because they consume what is good in you. They smother your ability to appreciate love and peace.” Burdi subsequently performed in a multicultural band, while his former music continues as an expression of the neo-Nazi movement in Canada. In the late 2010s, Burdi returned to performing with RaHoWa; Appalachian State University political science professor Nancy S. Love, author of Trendy Fascism, remarked, during a 2018 interview with The Financial Times, that, after having been "silent for almost 20 years but in 2017 resurfaced, emboldened by the Trump presidency and also the turn to the right in Europe”. Ernst Zündel Ernst Zündel (April 24, 1939 – August 5, 2017) was born in Germany in 1939. At age 19, he moved to Canada where he worked as a photographer and artist. He quickly became Canada's leading “Holocaust-denial propagandist.” In the late 1970s he started using Samisdat Publishers to produce and distribute Nazi and neo-Nazi propaganda. Court cases followed and Zündel was sentenced to serve 15 months of jail time for publishing lies about the Holocaust. The publicity made Zündel an even more influential figure among neo-Nazi organizations and he used his newfound influence to help further white supremacist movements. Zündel applied for Canadian citizenship twice. During his second attempt in 1994, a long series of hearings and court cases followed, but he was never issued Canadian citizenship. In 2001 Zündel moved to the United States, but was deported back to Canada for Visa violations in 2003. He was shortly thereafter deported to Germany in 2005 where he was taken into custody and arrested for inciting racial hatred. Released from prison on March 1, 2010, Ernst Zündel was reminded that he was not welcome in Canada and is believed to be living with relatives in Bad Wildbad, Germany. He died in Germany in 2017. Tom Metzger Tom Metzger was born in Warsaw, Indiana, in 1938. In his small town, he lived nearly unexposed to other races. After graduating from high school, Metzger was drafted into the U.S. army and quickly became a corporal. After he served his tour of duty, Metzger moved to California, where he joined several different white supremacist organizations. Metzger's ambition and drive to lead left him disenchanted with these different organizations and he eventually established his own neo-Nazi organization known as White Aryan Resistance. Besides promoting neo-Nazism, Tom Metzger ran for United States Senator several times as both a Republican and a Democrat in the 1980s. The media attention boosted Metzger's popularity and helped him become one of the more influential neo-Nazi leaders in the world. A strong supporter of Heritage Front, Metzger has travelled to Canada to speak at rallies and promote neo-Nazism along with Wolfgang Droege and others. Organizations New Constitution Party of Canada The New Constitution Party is a white supremacist associated, anti-Semitic, and self-described "anti-Marxist" group based in Toronto, led by James Sears. It is not registered by Elections Canada as a political party in Canada, and focuses its activities on spreading what some consider hate speech through its 'National Socialist' themed website Your Ward News and YouTube videos posted by Sears. The New Constitution Party has close ties to members or former members of the defunct white supremacist group the Heritage Front such as Gary Schipper. Nationalist Party of Canada The Nationalist Party of Canada is an unregistered political party established in 1977 by Don Andrews. The party describes itself as white nationalist and "race realist", and is known for its antisemitic and racist publications. Many influential neo-Nazi Leaders such as Wolfgang Droege affiliated with the party, but after the formation of the Heritage Front in 1989, the majority of its radicals left to join the new and promising Heritage Front. Heritage Front Heritage Front was a neo-Nazi organization created by Wolfgang Droege in 1989 in Toronto. Leaders of the white supremacist movement were “disgruntled about the state of the radical right” and wanted to unite and intensify the unorganized groups of white supremacists into an influential and efficient group with common objectives. Plans for the organization began in September 1989 and Heritage Front was formally announced a couple of months later in November. At first Heritage Front leaders planned to increase its influence and attract following by “soft peddling its racism to garner more support,” but a video released showed a militaristic and radical organization that isolated moderates. Heritage Front also attempted to infiltrate and take control of the Reform Party of Canada. The plot was discovered and made known to the public by the press in 1992 and Heritage Front members were expelled from the party.Based on the white supremacist idea of “awakening people to the reality of race”, Heritage Front members believe themselves to be revolutionaries with the duty of creating a new and racially pure society. Heritage Front is primarily an activist organization that organizes white supremacist activities. The following quote from the journal Patterns of Prejudice describes how Heritage Front functions: “[Heritage Front] broadcasts oppressive messages on its hate lines. It physically fights with anti-racists on the streets. It harasses people of colour. It celebrates Aryan fests along with other racists. And, in addition, it has a presence at international conferences, creates and disseminates racist posters and flyers, mounts White Power concerts, recruits in the schoolyards, brings in speakers like Tom Metzger, meets with white-supremacist and nationalist leaders throughout the world, networks with other groups on the radical right, publishes a magazine, and posts articles and messages on its website.” One of the key goals of Heritage Front is to unite far right organizations and people. As such, it keeps close ties with other white supremacist groups such as Aryan Nations, the Church of the Creator, and the Ku Klux Klan.During the early 1990s, Heritage Front grew in power, but with the scandal with the reform party and a diminished period of activities and publications, the Front went through a period of regrouping and reorganization. In the fall of 2000 under new leadership of Marc Lemire, Heritage Front once again came to the face of white supremacy in Canada with a vigorous advertising campaign. However, the new radical approach isolated many people and by 2005, Heritage Front was defunct and disbanded. Church of the Creator The Church of the Creator or Creativity is a religion established by Ben Klassen in 1973. The church teaches that the Aryan race is the chosen race and calls for Rahowa, or Racial Holy War to be raged against Jews and other races. Although Creativity is a religion, it acts as a political organization and promotes and organizes neo-Nazi and skinhead functions. Nonetheless, Creativity endorses legal and nonviolent demonstrations. In Canada, the Creativity movement was made popular by George Burdi. See also Fascism in Canada Neo-Nazism White Supremacy List of Nazi monuments in Canada == References ==

Baojun 630

The Baojun 630 is a small family car/compact four-door notchback saloon and was the first car produced by SAIC-GM-Wuling through the Baojun brand. The 630 is manufactured in Liuzhou, Guangxi, China. It was launched at the 2011 Shanghai Auto Show, and went on sale in August 2011. A five-door hatchback derivative called the 610 was added to the range in April 2014.

The Baojun 630 is a small family car/compact four-door notchback saloon and was the first car produced by SAIC-GM-Wuling through the Baojun brand. The 630 is manufactured in Liuzhou, Guangxi, China. It was launched at the 2011 Shanghai Auto Show, and went on sale in August 2011. A five-door hatchback derivative called the 610 was added to the range in April 2014. Overview The car was developed at the SAIC-GM Pan Asia Technical Automotive Center (PATAC) in Shanghai. While not visually similar to other GM cars, it has been suggested that the 630 and 610 is based on the Buick Excelle/Daewoo Lacetti platform.In 2014, the car debuted in Egypt and Algeria as the Chevrolet Optra. The 2023 model was the final Optra to be listed on the Chevrolet Arabia website. 610 The hatchback variant of the 630 is known as the 610. A facelifted version was revealed for the first time in December 2015, featuring a slightly revised front end, a more important redesigned rear end, with larger tail lamps, and a heavily reworked dashboard. Specification The 630 is powered by a 1.5-litre 4-cylinder 109 bhp (81 kW; 111 PS) 1.5-litre (1,485 cc) engine producing 146 N⋅m (108 lb⋅ft) and mated to a five-speed transmission. A 1.8-litre (1,796 cc) version, producing 141 bhp (105 kW; 143 PS) and 177 N⋅m (131 lb⋅ft) was added to the range in November 2012.It can be equipped with front airbags, ABS with EBD, leather seats, power windows, remote central locking, air conditioning, trip computer, a CD player and rear parking sensors. The Baojun 630 is currently using pull-out door handles, similar to the facelifted Daewoo Lacetti. References External links Chevrolet Optra (Egypt) at the Wayback Machine (archived 2023-07-18)

Illusion of control

The illusion of control is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control events. It was named by U.S. psychologist Ellen Langer and is thought to influence gambling behavior and belief in the paranormal. Along with illusory superiority and optimism bias, the illusion of control is one of the positive illusions.

The illusion of control is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control events. It was named by U.S. psychologist Ellen Langer and is thought to influence gambling behavior and belief in the paranormal. Along with illusory superiority and optimism bias, the illusion of control is one of the positive illusions. Definition The illusion of control is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control events, for example, when someone feels a sense of control over outcomes that they demonstrably do not influence.The illusion might arise because a person lacks direct introspective insight into whether they are in control of events. This has been called the introspection illusion. Instead, they may judge their degree of control by a process which is often unreliable. As a result, they see themselves as responsible for events to which there is little or no causal link. For example, in one study, college students were in a virtual reality setting to treat a fear of heights using an elevator. Those who were told that they had control, yet had none, felt as though they had as much control as those who actually did have control over the elevator. Those who were led to believe they did not have control said they felt as though they had little control. History Psychological theorists have consistently emphasized the importance of perceptions of control over life events. One of the earliest instances was when Alfred Adler argued that people strive for proficiency in their lives. Heider later proposed that humans have a strong motive to control their environment and Wyatt Mann hypothesized a basic competence motive that people satisfy by exerting control. Wiener, an attribution theorist, modified his original theory of achievement motivation to include a controllability dimension. Kelley then argued that people's failure to detect noncontingencies may result in their attributing uncontrollable outcomes to personal causes. Nearer to the present, Taylor and Brown argued that positive illusions, including the illusion of control, foster mental health.The effect was named by U.S. psychologist Ellen Langer and has been replicated in many different contexts. Occurrence The illusion is more common in familiar situations, and in situations where the person knows the desired outcome. Feedback that emphasizes success rather than failure can increase the effect, while feedback that emphasizes failure can decrease or reverse the effect. The illusion is weaker for depressed individuals and is stronger when individuals have an emotional need to control the outcome. The illusion is strengthened by stressful and competitive situations, including financial trading. Although people are likely to overestimate their control when the situations are heavily chance-determined, they also tend to underestimate their control when they actually have it, which runs contrary to some theories of the illusion and its adaptiveness. People also showed a higher illusion of control when they were allowed to become familiar with a task through practice trials, make their choice before the event happens like with throwing dice, and when they can make their choice rather than have it made for them with the same odds. People are more likely to show control when they have more answers right at the beginning than at the end, even when the people had the same number of correct answers.Being in a position of power enhances the illusion of control, which may lead to overreach in risk taking. By proxy At times, people attempt to gain control by transferring responsibility to more capable or “luckier” others to act for them. By forfeiting direct control, it is perceived to be a valid way of maximizing outcomes. This illusion of control by proxy is a significant theoretical extension of the traditional illusion of control model. People will of course give up control if another person is thought to have more knowledge or skill in areas such as medicine where actual skill and knowledge are involved. In cases like these it is entirely rational to give up responsibility to people such as doctors. However, when it comes to events of pure chance, allowing another to make decisions (or gamble) on one's behalf, because they are seen as luckier is not rational and would go against people's well-documented desire for control in uncontrollable situations. However, it does seem plausible since people generally believe that they can possess luck and employ it to advantage in games of chance, and it is not a far leap that others may also be seen as lucky and able to control uncontrollable events. In a study conducted in Singapore, the perception of control, luck, and skill when gambling led to an increase in gambling behavior.In one instance, a lottery pool at a company decides who picks the numbers and buys the tickets based on the wins and losses of each member. The member with the best record becomes the representative until they accumulate a certain number of losses and then a new representative is picked based on wins and losses. Even though no member is truly better than the other and it is all by chance, they still would rather have someone with seemingly more luck to have control over them.In another real-world example, in the 2002 Olympics men's and women's hockey finals, Team Canada beat Team USA. Prior to the match, a Canadian coin was secretly placed under the ice before the game, an action which the players and officials believed would bring them luck. The members of Team Canada were the only people who knew the coin had been placed there. The coin was later put in the Hockey Hall of Fame where there was an opening so people could touch it. People believed they could transfer luck from the coin to themselves by touching it, and thereby change their own luck.. Demonstration The illusion of control is demonstrated by three converging lines of evidence: 1) laboratory experiments, 2) observed behavior in familiar games of chance such as lotteries, and 3) self-reports of real-world behavior. Laboratory experiments One kind of laboratory demonstration involves two lights marked "Score" and "No Score". Subjects have to try to control which one lights up. In one version of this experiment, subjects could press either of two buttons. Another version had one button, which subjects decided on each trial to press or not. Subjects had a variable degree of control over the lights, or none at all, depending on how the buttons were connected. The experimenters made clear that there might be no relation between the subjects' actions and the lights. Subjects estimated how much control they had over the lights. These estimates bore no relation to how much control they actually had, but was related to how often the "Score" light lit up. Even when their choices made no difference at all, subjects confidently reported exerting some control over the lights. Observed behavior in games Ellen Langer's research demonstrated that people were more likely to behave as if they could exercise control in a chance situation where "skill cues" were present. By skill cues, Langer meant properties of the situation more normally associated with the exercise of skill, in particular the exercise of choice, competition, familiarity with the stimulus and involvement in decisions. One simple form of this effect is found in casinos: when rolling dice in a craps game people tend to throw harder when they need high numbers and softer for low numbers.In another experiment, subjects had to predict the outcome of thirty coin tosses. The feedback was rigged so that each subject was right exactly half the time, but the groups differed in where their "hits" occurred. Some were told that their early guesses were accurate. Others were told that their successes were distributed evenly through the thirty trials. Afterwards, they were surveyed about their performance. Subjects with early "hits" overestimated their total successes and had higher expectations of how they would perform on future guessing games. This result resembles the irrational primacy effect in which people give greater weight to information that occurs earlier in a series. Forty percent of the subjects believed their performance on this chance task would improve with practice, and twenty-five percent said that distraction would impair their performance.Another of Langer's experiments replicated by other researchers involves a lottery. Subjects are either given tickets at random or allowed to choose their own. They can then trade their tickets for others with a higher chance of paying out. Subjects who had chosen their own ticket were more reluctant to part with it. Tickets bearing familiar symbols were less likely to be exchanged than others with unfamiliar symbols. Although these lotteries were random, subjects behaved as though their choice of ticket affected the outcome. Participants who chose their own numbers were less likely to trade their ticket even for one in a game with better odds. Self reported behavior Yet another way to investigate perceptions of control is to ask people about hypothetical situations, for example their likelihood of being involved in a motor vehicle accident. On average, drivers regard accidents as much less likely in "high-control" situations, such as when they are driving, than in "low-control" situations, such as when they are in the passenger seat. They also rate a high-control accident, such as driving into the car in front, as much less likely than a low-control accident such as being hit from behind by another driver. Explanations Ellen Langer, who first demonstrated the illusion of control, explained her findings in terms of a confusion between skill and chance situations. She proposed that people base their judgments of control on "skill cues". These are features of a situation that are usually associated with games of skill, such as competitiveness, familiarity and individual choice. When more of these skill cues are present, the illusion is stronger.In 1998, Suzanne Thompson and colleagues argued that Langer's explanation was inadequate to explain all the variations in the effect. As an alternative, they proposed that judgments about control are based on a procedure that they called the "control heuristic". This theory proposes that judgments of control depend on two conditions; an intention to create the outcome, and a relationship between the action and outcome. In games of chance, these two conditions frequently go together. As well as an intention to win, there is an action, such as throwing a die or pulling a lever on a slot machine, which is immediately followed by an outcome. Even though the outcome is selected randomly, the control heuristic would result in the player feeling a degree of control over the outcome.Self-regulation theory offers another explanation. To the extent that people are driven by internal goals concerned with the exercise of control over their environment, they will seek to reassert control in conditions of chaos, uncertainty or stress. One way of coping with a lack of real control is to falsely attribute oneself control of the situation.The core self-evaluations (CSE) trait is a stable personality trait composed of locus of control, neuroticism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. While those with high core self-evaluations are likely to believe that they control their own environment (i.e., internal locus of control), very high levels of CSE may lead to the illusion of control. Benefits and costs to the individual In 1988 Taylor and Brown have argued that positive illusions, including the illusion of control, are adaptive as they motivate people to persist at tasks when they might otherwise give up. This position is supported by Albert Bandura's claim in 1989 that "optimistic self-appraisals of capability, that are not unduly disparate from what is possible, can be advantageous, whereas veridical judgements can be self-limiting". His argument is essentially concerned with the adaptive effect of optimistic beliefs about control and performance in circumstances where control is possible, rather than perceived control in circumstances where outcomes do not depend on an individual's behavior. In 1997 Bandura also suggested that: "In activities where the margins of error are narrow and missteps can produce costly or injurious consequences, personal well-being is best served by highly accurate efficacy appraisal." Taylor and Brown argue that positive illusions are adaptive, since there is evidence that they are more common in normally mentally healthy individuals than in depressed individuals. However, in 1998 Pacini, Muir and Epstein showed that this may be because depressed people overcompensate for a tendency toward maladaptive intuitive processing by exercising excessive rational control in trivial situations, and note that the difference with non-depressed people disappears in more consequential circumstances.There is also empirical evidence that high self-efficacy can be maladaptive in some circumstances. In a scenario-based study, Whyte et al. showed in 1997 that participants in whom they had induced high self-efficacy were significantly more likely to escalate commitment to a failing course of action. In 1998 Knee and Zuckerman challenged the definition of mental health used by Taylor and Brown and argue that lack of illusions is associated with a non-defensive personality oriented towards growth and learning and with low ego involvement in outcomes. They present evidence that self-determined individuals are less prone to these illusions. In the late 1970s, Abramson and Alloy demonstrated that depressed individuals held a more accurate view than their non-depressed counterparts in a test which measured illusion of control. This finding held true even when the depression was manipulated experimentally. However, when replicating the findings Msetfi et al. (2005, 2007) found that the overestimation of control in nondepressed people only showed up when the interval was long enough, implying that this is because they take more aspects of a situation into account than their depressed counterparts. Also, Dykman et al. (1989) showed that depressed people believe they have no control in situations where they actually do, so their perception is not more accurate overall. Allan et al. (2007) has proposed that the pessimistic bias of depressives resulted in "depressive realism" when asked about estimation of control, because depressed individuals are more likely to say no even if they have control.A number of studies have found a link between a sense of control and health, especially in older people. This link for older people having improved health because of a sense of control was discussed in a study conducted in a nursing home. As the residents at the nursing home were encouraged to make more choices for themselves, there was more sense of control over their daily lives. This increase in control increased their overall happiness and health compared to those not making as many decisions for themselves. It was even speculated that with results so promising could slow down or reverse cognitive decline that may occur with aging. Fenton-O'Creevy et al. argue, as do Gollwittzer and Kinney in 1998, that while illusory beliefs about control may promote goal striving, they are not conducive to sound decision-making. Illusions of control may cause insensitivity to feedback, impede learning and predispose toward greater objective risk taking (since subjective risk will be reduced by illusion of control). Applications Psychologist Daniel Wegner argues that an illusion of control over external events underlies belief in psychokinesis, a supposed paranormal ability to move objects directly using the mind. As evidence, Wegner cites a series of experiments on magical thinking in which subjects were induced to think they had influenced external events. In one experiment, subjects watched a basketball player taking a series of free throws. When they were instructed to visualise him making his shots, they felt that they had contributed to his success.A study published in 2003 examined traders working in the City of London's investment banks. They each watched a graph being plotted on a computer screen, similar to a real-time graph of a stock price or index. Using three computer keys, they had to raise the value as high as possible. They were warned that the value showed random variations, but that the keys might have some effect. In fact, the fluctuations were not affected by the keys. The traders' ratings of their success measured their susceptibility to the illusion of control. This score was then compared with each trader's performance. Those who were more prone to the illusion scored significantly lower on analysis, risk management and contribution to profits. They also earned significantly less. See also Free will Notes References == Further reading ==

Medha Yodh

Medha Yodh (July 31, 1927 in Ahmedabad – July 11, 2007 in San Diego) was an Indian and Indian American Bharatanatyam dancer and teacher of classical Indian dance at UCLA. She was a disciple of Tanjore Balasaraswati and created a documentary on Garba.

Medha Yodh (July 31, 1927 in Ahmedabad – July 11, 2007 in San Diego) was an Indian and Indian American Bharatanatyam dancer and teacher of classical Indian dance at UCLA. She was a disciple of Tanjore Balasaraswati and created a documentary on Garba. Early life Medha Yodh was born on July 31, 1927, in the city of Ahmedabad, which is located in the present day state of Gujarat. Yodha began dancing before she turned five years old. Yodh became fascinated with Bharatanatyam, one of India's best known forms of classical dance, early in life.Despite her interest in dance, Medha Yodh education's was heavily focused on science. Yodha received as Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Bombay. She continued her education and received her master's from Stanford University in California. Medha Yoda later explained her unusual educational background for a dance teacher in a 1984 interview with the Los Angeles Times, "I have a proper Brahman background. I grew up in British India, and I was expected to learn the arts, to go into the sciences and to travel abroad.Medha Yodh traveled extensively outside of India during her younger years. Her travels exposed her to different forms of modern and world styles of dance. Ultimately, Yodh became a student of Tanjore Balasaraswati, one of the most important Indian dancers of her time, while visiting Connecticut. She became a lifelong student and disciple of Balasaraswati. She also met and married a Swedish medical student, Carl von Essen, during her travels. The couple later divorced. Career Yodh became a faculty member at UCLA in 1976, and focused on teaching Balasaraswati's values and dance styles. She remained at UCLA until her retirement from the school in 1994. She continued to serve as an adviser for a number of UCLA organizations after her retirement, including Dance Kaleidoscope series.Medha Yodh created an academically well received documentary film in 1987. The film, entitled Garba-Ras: A Glimpse Into Gujarati Culture focused on the Garba, a traditional Gujarati dance.Yodh continued to dance throughout California following her retirement. A 2000 L.A. Times review on her performance at the "Spirit Dances" series at Highways Performance Space in Santa Monica referred to her as "looking seriously possessed with hearty foot slapping and filigreed fingers."Medha Yodh continued to teach privately until 2002, when she moved from Oakland to San Diego, California.Medha Yodh died of failing health on July 11, 2007, at her daughter's, Kamal Muilenburg, home in San Diego. She was 79 years old. She was survived by two daughters, Kamal and Neila von Essen, and two granddaughters. Her son, Eric von Essen, a jazz bassist, died in 1997. External links LA Times: Medha Yodh, 79; classical Indian dancer and arts advocate taught at UCLA Medha Yodh, an icon of classical dance, is dead DAWN - July 19, 2007 Pacific Review of Ethnomusicology Volume 1 (1984) - UCLA == References ==

Fictional portrayals of psychopaths

Fictional portrayals of psychopaths, or sociopaths, are some of the most notorious in film and literature but may only vaguely or partly relate to the concept of psychopathy, which is itself used with varying definitions by mental health professionals, criminologists and others. The character may be identified as a diagnosed/assessed psychopath or sociopath within the fictional work itself, or by its creator when discussing their intentions with the work, which might be distinguished from opinions of audiences or critics based only on a character appearing to show traits or behaviors associated with an undefined popular stereotype of psychopathy. Such characters are often portrayed in an exaggerated fashion and typically in the role of a villain or antihero, where the general characteristics of a psychopath are useful to facilitate conflict and danger. Because the definitions and criteria in the history of psychopathy have varied over the years and continue to change even now, many characters in notable films may have been designed to fall under the category of a psychopath at the time of the film's production or release, but not necessarily in subsequent years. There are several stereotypical images of psychopathy in both lay and professional accounts which only partly overlap and can involve contradictory traits: the charming con artist, the deranged serial killer, the successful corporate psychopath, or the chronic low-level offender with juvenile delinquency.

Fictional portrayals of psychopaths, or sociopaths, are some of the most notorious in film and literature but may only vaguely or partly relate to the concept of psychopathy, which is itself used with varying definitions by mental health professionals, criminologists and others. The character may be identified as a diagnosed/assessed psychopath or sociopath within the fictional work itself, or by its creator when discussing their intentions with the work, which might be distinguished from opinions of audiences or critics based only on a character appearing to show traits or behaviors associated with an undefined popular stereotype of psychopathy. Such characters are often portrayed in an exaggerated fashion and typically in the role of a villain or antihero, where the general characteristics of a psychopath are useful to facilitate conflict and danger. Because the definitions and criteria in the history of psychopathy have varied over the years and continue to change even now, many characters in notable films may have been designed to fall under the category of a psychopath at the time of the film's production or release, but not necessarily in subsequent years. There are several stereotypical images of psychopathy in both lay and professional accounts which only partly overlap and can involve contradictory traits: the charming con artist, the deranged serial killer, the successful corporate psychopath, or the chronic low-level offender with juvenile delinquency. The public concept reflects some combination of fear of the mythical bogeyman, fascination with human evil, and sometimes perhaps envy of people who might appear to go through life unencumbered by the same levels of guilt, anguish or insecurity. 19th century In the 19th century the diagnostic categories of monomania or moral insanity (the word 'moral' then meant either emotional or ethical) made their way into works of literature, covering numerous eccentricities, obsessions or breakdowns—and sometimes acts of apparently senseless criminality, occasionally violent. This period also saw the rise of crime fiction such as sensation novels, where often someone in a local community who appeared normal would turn out to be criminally insane, and detective novels, playing on increasing anxieties about the characters of people in the newly expanding and diversifying industrial cities. The term 'psychopath' came into use in the late 19th century (as did the term it would often be confused with, psychotic), and also spanned a very wide range of conditions (etymologically and originally equivalent to 'mentally ill'). Nevertheless, an early rise to prominence followed its use in a Russian trial between 1883 and 1885 concerning a child murder, contributing to the release of a probable false confessor while the original suspect was found guilty. 'Psychopaths' began to appear in vaudevilles, ditties (songs) and press articles. The psychopathy defense was reported internationally as having enabled a remorseless female child killer to go free, a usage still quoted in dictionaries today.'Degenerates' were also depicted in popular fiction of the 19th through to mid 20th century, sometimes in similar ways to the modern usages of the concept of psychopaths, sometimes being cited as a cause of psychopathy. The concept fell into disrepute due partly to its use by the Nazis to justify eradicating their opposition. 20th century Early 20th century The meaning gradually narrowed, initially as 'psychopathic inferiors' covering all of what today might be called personality disorders and various other conditions, then intertwining with the terminology of the 'sociopath' (and eventually antisocial personality disorder), though psychopathy remained variously defined in both broad and narrow ways. Early representations of psychopaths in film were often caricatured as sadistic, unpredictable, sexually depraved, and emotionally unstable (manic) characters with a compulsion to engage in random violence and destruction, usually with a series of bizarre mannerisms such as giggling, laughing, or facial tics. Up until the late 1950s, cinematic conventions usually relegated the psychopath to roles of genre villains such as gangsters, mad scientists, supervillains, and many types of generic criminals. Examples of this type are Pinkie Brown (Richard Attenborough) in Brighton Rock, Tommy Udo (Richard Widmark) in Kiss of Death, Cody Jarrett (James Cagney) in White Heat, and Antonio 'Tony' Camonte (Paul Muni) in the 1932 version of Scarface. Homosexuals were also referred to as psychopaths under the broad definition then in use; the American Psychiatric Association in the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in 1952 would list it under 'sociopathic personality disturbance'. One exceptional depiction in this period was the character of child murderer Hans Beckert (Peter Lorre) in the 1931 Fritz Lang film M. Lorre portrays Beckert as an outwardly unremarkable man tormented by a compulsion to ritualistically murder children. A German film (allegedly based on the real life serial killer Peter Kürten), it was released in America in 1933 and has been seen as indicative of a turning point in American media depictions of psychopaths. Until the 1930s psychiatrists typically applied the diagnosis to unemployed males or 'hypersexual' women, but several psychiatric, cultural and economic trends, together with sex crime panics, converged to transform the popular psychopath into a violent, male, sexual deviant or criminal—a threat to innocence, gender roles and the social order.The Ostap Bender character from novels The Twelve Chairs and The Little Golden Calf by Soviet authors Ilf and Petrov is also considered a portrait of a charming psychopath. Mid 20th century One of the earliest real life cases which had a pervasive influence on American movies was that of Ed Gein, arrested in 1957. A farmer who had resided with his mother until her death, he had then killed two women and dug up female bodies from the local cemetery, making various items out of their skin. Rumours spread that he was also a necrophiliac, cannibal or transvestite, though these appear to have been unsupported other than by brief affirmations from Gein to leading questions by interrogators. Gein was found mentally ill and legally insane before trial, deemed to have had schizophrenia (psychosis including delusions and hallucinations) for at least 12 years, though at least one media psychiatrist dubbed him instead a 'sexual psychopath'. Robert Bloch, a prolific pulp horror author, says his 1959 novel Psycho was based on the Gein murders and the idea of an apparently sane person in a local community committing heinous crimes, but not necessarily on Gein himself, despite numerous similarities. The villain, Norman Bates, is portrayed as an outwardly unremarkable man who murders a woman while under the control of an alternate personality that takes the form of his domineering mother, who he himself murdered. Both the novel and Alfred Hitchcock's 1960 film adaptation were influences on the popular media portrayal of psychopaths. Neither the book nor film elaborates on the term 'psycho', though it is commonly taken to refer to either psychotic or psychopath. At the end of the film, a psychiatrist describes Bates as having a split personality. Multiple personality disorder was at that time very popular (cf 1957 movie The Three Faces of Eve) and is to this day commonly confused with schizophrenia. Bloch later wrote a script for the 1966 film The Psychopath, the original working title for which was "Schizo".A different thread within fictional portrayals of psychopathy continued to focus on rebelliously antisocial characters. The title of the 1955 film Rebel Without a Cause, starring James Dean, came from a 1944 book of the same name detailing the hypno-analysis of a diagnosed psychopath. In the book, psychiatrist Robert M. Lindner also discussed psychopaths in general as pointlessly selfish individuals who appear unable to accept society's rules. In Ken Kesey's 1962 novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, Randle McMurphy, after being admitted to a mental institution, is repeatedly referred to by the authorities, other patients and himself as a possible or definite psychopath. He reads from his record: "repeated outbreaks of passion that suggest the possible diagnosis of psychopath", and adds that a doctor told him it means "I fight and fuh-pardon me, ladies-means I am he put it overzealous in my sexual relations." The current doctor then reads out the note: "Don't overlook the possibility that this man might be feigning psychosis". In the script for the popular film adaptation in 1975, only the latter is retained and the term psychopath is never used. Ironically, the main authority figure in the hospital—the cold, sadistic Nurse Ratched—was later described as a psychopath under later understandings of the term.American mystery author Patricia Highsmith often featured psychopathic characters in her books, most notably her Ripliad series about Tom Ripley, a "suave, agreeable and utterly amoral" con artist and serial killer. In the first book, 1955's The Talented Mr. Ripley, Ripley murders a rich man and steals his identity; in four subsequent novels, he commits several murders and engages in a long-running art forgery scam, all without getting caught. Ripley has been described by several critics as a psychopath, while author and diagnosed narcissist Sam Vaknin has said that Ripley fits the criteria for both psychopathy and narcissism. Late 20th century The 1973 film Badlands involved two lead characters based loosely on Charles Starkweather and Caril Ann Fugate. While the male protagonist, spree killer Kit Carruthers (Martin Sheen), is sometimes described as a psychopath or sociopath, psychologist Robert D. Hare, a leading proponent of the assessment of psychopathy, has identified his girlfriend and accomplice Holly (Sissy Spacek) as exemplifying his concept of a psychopath due to her poor emotional sense of the meaning of events and her attempted mask of normality. However, writer and director Terrence Malick has said he considered Kit's shallow, bitter insensitivity to be a result of suffering and neglect growing up in the Midwest, and 15-year-old Holly, though immature and mis-estimating her audience, to be a quite typical Southern girl wanting to help narrate and come off well but still give the hard facts, and not dwell on herself or on personal tragedies.The increasing media focus of serial killers in the late 20th century, fueled by cases such as John Wayne Gacy (1978), Ted Bundy (1978) and Jeffrey Dahmer (1991), lent an additional momentum to the way psychopathy was both perceived and portrayed in film and literature, sometimes incorporating a hybrid of traditional psychopaths from early film and late-19th century literature with the high-functioning behaviors detected in some serial killers.The psychiatrist and cannibalistic serial killer Hannibal Lecter, most notably portrayed by Anthony Hopkins in the Academy Award-winning 1991 film The Silence of the Lambs, is perhaps the most infamous fictional psychopath of the 20th century. Lecter is intelligent and sophisticated and his disarming charisma and wit disguise his true nature as a serial killer. He spends most of the film in a cell, taunting FBI trainee Clarice Starling with clues to the identity of another serial killer, Buffalo Bill, in exchange for intimate details of Starling's troubled childhood. Lecter first appeared in Thomas Harris' 1981 novel Red Dragon, in which he is characterized as not fitting any known psychological profile. In the film adaptation of The Silence of the Lambs, he is referred to as a "pure psychopath". In the later novels Hannibal and Hannibal Rising, Lecter's psychopathy is portrayed as the result of seeing his sister Mischa murdered and cannibalized during World War II. In 2013 Harris revealed that he originally based the Lecter character on Alfredo Ballí Trevino, a Mexican physician who had killed and dismembered his homosexual lover, in what was called a crime of passion over a financial dispute.The novel American Psycho tells the story of Patrick Bateman, a yuppie serial killer working on Wall Street in the 1980s. It was made into a film in 2000. Author Bret Easton Ellis has told interviewers that the book is a satire on shallow consumerist lifestyles, but also that the writing of the violent scenes was based on fictional horror and FBI material on serial killers, along with how he imagined "a psychotic who worked on Wall Street" would describe such incidents. Some commentary, including in scientific journals, has suggested the Bateman character appears to be a psychopath. However, Bateman also exhibits signs of psychosis such as hallucinations, and as such appears to be an unreliable narrator; it is left ambiguous whether Bateman is actually a serial killer, or is merely hallucinating about committing murder. In Ellis' 1998 novel Glamorama which features models-turned-terrorists a character also remarks "basically, everyone was a sociopath...and all the girls' hair was chignoned." In the 1993 book Girl, Interrupted and its 1999 film adaptation, the character of Lisa (played by Angelina Jolie in the film) is a rebellious, antisocial young woman who is diagnosed as a sociopath. However, it is left ambiguous whether that diagnosis is accurate. The 1996 film Primal Fear depicts a suspected murderer who appears to have multiple personality disorder, who at the end reveals that he has been faking the disorder. In the original novel by William Diehl, the psychiatrist Molly Arrington and others repeatedly explain psychopathy and psychosis as if they are the same, inherently antisocial, condition. Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling has described Lord Voldemort, the series' main villain, as "a raging psychopath, devoid of the normal human responses to other people's suffering, and there ARE people like that in the world". 21st century Numerous characters in television shows are informally described as psychopaths. Examples include Natalie Buxton in Bad Girls, Sean Slater and Michael Moon in EastEnders, Dexter Morgan in Dexter, Tuco Salamanca in Breaking Bad and Better Call Saul, and Frank Underwood in House of Cards.Tana French's 2007 novel In the Woods depicts two detectives who work to hunt down child murderess Rosalind Devlin. Upon discovery, it is remarked that Devlin is a psychopath who is incapable of emotional attachment and feigns vulnerability to better manipulate people. Anton Chigurh, the primary antagonist of the novel No Country for Old Men, is described as a "psychopathic killer." He is a relentless hitman who pursues protagonist Lewelyn Moss in order to recover two million in missing drug money. Chigurh kills almost everyone he meets and displays no empathy or conventional morals. He adheres to a warped series of principals and occasionally decides his victims fates with the flip of a coin. The film version of the character, portrayed by Javier Bardem, was rated by psychologists as the most accurate depiction of a psychopath. Dr. Gregory House, the title character in the FOX medical-thriller House is referred to as a sociopath multiple times by several characters throughout the course of the show. Sherlock Holmes, the lead character in the BBC series Sherlock, is referred to as a psychopath multiple times throughout the course of the show; in response to these claims, Holmes describes himself as a "high-functioning sociopath". He has also been described as having Asperger syndrome.The Dan Wells novel I Am Not a Serial Killer and its sequels, Mr. Monster and I Don't Want to Kill You, are narrated by John Wayne Cleaver, a teenaged diagnosed sociopath who lives by a rigid code of behavior in order to avoid becoming a serial killer.One Chicago academic has argued in a review of TV trends that the contemporary fantasy of sociopathy/psychopathy is of someone whose emotional disconnection from others in society, rather than being the hindrance that it can represent in real clinical cases, enables them to be an amazingly successful manipulator due to a breakdown in the social contract.Vriska Serket, antihero of web fiction epic Homestuck, displays numerous traits of psychopathy, especially Machiavellianism, lack of remorse, and fearless-dominant confidence. Her friend Karkat Vantas calls her a "vile backstabbing sociopath."Contemporary advice on writing psychopathic/sociopathic characters suggests that lack of a conscience and lack of empathy are always the chief characteristics, along with an ability to fool others, while the type of selfish antisocial behavior, and any secondary characteristics, can vary.In 2013, the video console game Grand Theft Auto V was released with numerous references to psychopaths and sociopaths, including reports from a fictional psychiatrist. One of the lead characters, Trevor, is described both psychopathic and psychotic; the voice actor who played the part says he based his performance on Tom Hardy's portrayal of Charles Bronson in the film Bronson.Jacob M. Appel's The Mask of Sanity depicts a high-functioning sociopath, Jeremy Balint, who gains fame as a cardiologist while killing strangers.The character Villanelle in Killing Eve refers to herself as a psychopath. Her character portrays many of the traits of both sociopaths and psychopaths, including a lack of empathy in her methods of murdering her victims and not showing any guilt or remorse after the event.Some characters in the fantasy television series Game of Thrones (2011-2019) has been suggested to be psychopathic, including Ramsay Bolton, Joffrey Baratheon and Cersei Lannister.Emma Grossman in The Bad Seed (2018 film) and The Bad Seed Returns is a psychopathic murderer with self-diagnosed antisocial personality disorder. The 2019 Israeli film Incitement is a fictionalized portrayal of Israeli ultranationalist and killer Yigal Amir in the leadup to the 1995 assassiation of Yitzhak Rabin, the Prime Minister of Israel. Carla Hay of CultureMixOnline.com described lead actor Yehuda Nahari's portrayal of Amir as a compelling depiction of a sociopath, with much left to audience interpretations. See also History of psychopathy References Further reading Narcissists, Psychopaths, and Other Bad Guys: What do personality labels contribute to popular discourse? Steven Reidbord, M.D., January 2013, Psychology Today. Portrayal of psychopathy in the movies Hesse, M. (2009). International Review of Psychiatry, 21(3), 207-212 (Login needed for full text). Is James Bond in fact a psycho? Stephen Dalton, The National, UAE, Oct 29, 2012 (cited study, was actually about the 'dark triad') Rating of personality disorder features in popular movie characters BMC Psychiatry 2005, 5:45 La femme fatale: the female psychopath in fiction and clinical practice ('women in fiction who appear to demonstrate psychopathic traits') Caroline Logan, Mental Health Review Journal, Vol.16 No.3, 2011 Mass media, 'monsters' and mental health clients: the need for increased lobbying. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs. 2001 Aug;8(4):315-21. Looking for the Hannibal behind the Cannibal: Current status of case research (2012) Hege J. Tunstad interviewing Aina Sundt Gullhaugen Hollywood's Misrepresentation of Psychopathy Fielding on Film, Apr 5, 2012

Zlatopramen

Zlatopramen (meaning "golden well") is a brand of beer that was produced by Drinks Union, later by Heineken in the Krásné Březno brewery. The Zlatopramen brand was first registered in 1967, when it was chosen after a naming competition. In 2011, the Krásné Březno brewery was closed and Zlatopramen continued to be brewed by other breweries of the Heineken N.V. Group.

Zlatopramen (meaning "golden well") is a brand of beer that was produced by Drinks Union, later by Heineken in the Krásné Březno brewery. The Zlatopramen brand was first registered in 1967, when it was chosen after a naming competition. In 2011, the Krásné Březno brewery was closed and Zlatopramen continued to be brewed by other breweries of the Heineken N.V. Group. See also Beer in the Czech Republic Staropramen Brewery == References ==

Peter Kalmus (climate scientist)

Peter Kalmus (born May 9, 1974) is an American scientist and writer based in Altadena, California. He is a data scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory as an associate project scientist at UCLA's Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science & Engineering. In addition to his scientific work, he is the author of the book, Being the Change: Live Well and Spark a Climate Revolution. A documentary by the same title complements the book. In addition to authoring articles about climate change, he is the founder of the website noflyclimatesci.org and co-founder of the app, Earth Hero: Climate Change.

Peter Kalmus (born May 9, 1974) is an American scientist and writer based in Altadena, California. He is a data scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory as an associate project scientist at UCLA's Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science & Engineering. In addition to his scientific work, he is the author of the book, Being the Change: Live Well and Spark a Climate Revolution. A documentary by the same title complements the book. In addition to authoring articles about climate change, he is the founder of the website noflyclimatesci.org and co-founder of the app, Earth Hero: Climate Change. Education and early career Kalmus attended Harvard University, where he received his Bachelor of Science in physics in 1997. At Harvard, he used Fourier-transform microwave spectroscopy to discover and categorize the quantum-mechanical rotational spectra of several cyanopolyynes which were subsequently found in interstellar clouds. He then taught high school physics in Massachusetts and wrote software in New York City. In 2004 he enrolled in graduate school at Columbia University and received his PhD in physics in 2008. His PhD work involved searching for gravitational waves as a member of the LIGO Scientific Collaboration (thesis: "Gravitational Waves Associated with Soft Gamma Repeater Flares"). He continued his work with LIGO as a postdoctoral scholar at the California Institute of Technology, leading major full-collaboration searches for gravitational waves from magnetars, gamma ray bursts and supernovae and contributing to the precise calibration of the world's gravitational wave observatories. Research After focusing on LIGO related work for several years, Kalmus's focus transitioned into earth and climate science. Kalmus's recent research centers on cloud physics, specifically improving basic understanding of marine stratocumulus clouds and severe convective weather such as tornadoes with the goal of improving projections of how these phenomena will change as the planet heats, using remote sensing data, in situ data, and models. Marine stratocumulus clouds reflect incoming sunlight, cooling the planet, and are difficult to model accurately in climate models; this makes them a major source of uncertainty in climate projections.A common thread in his research is improving the utility of satellite observations of the Earth. His work on severe weather unlocks the potential of polar orbiting satellites to observe rapidly changing convective environments by using air parcel trajectory modeling to span the temporal gap between satellite overpass and convective initiation. He has used in situ data from a ship-based campaign to bias-correct the CloudSat warm rain retrieval. He also uses in situ data to validate retrievals from the AIRS instrument on the Aqua (satellite).Recently, Kalmus has begun to work in the nascent field of ecological forecasting. He is the principal investigator on a NASA grant to study the projected future of the world's coral reefs with greater accuracy and higher resolution. Coral reefs are rapidly succumbing to ocean heat waves and ocean acidification.He has co-authored over 100 peer-reviewed scientific articles in physics and Earth science, with a majority having come from his previous participation in the LIGO Collaboration. Activism and public engagement Kalmus is a science communicator whose efforts center on shifting culture away from fossil fuel acceptability. He tweets as @ClimateHuman and as of April 2022 is the most-followed climate scientist on Twitter. He focuses in particular on encouraging the Earth science and other academic communities to speak out with greater urgency on the need for climate action.He has been featured in many media outlets, including Mother Jones, PRI's The World, CBC Radio, Deutsche Welle, BuzzFeed, The Intercept, and Quartz, and most often speaks to the need for an immediate and massive climate mobilization and how individuals can "vote" for this mobilization through their actions, via both activism and emissions reduction. He frequently speaks to the need for a carbon fee and dividend policy as part of the mobilization, in which fossil fuel becomes increasingly costly as the carbon fee rises every year and 100% of the net revenue is returned equitably to the people, making the policy fiscally progressive. Kalmus lives on approximately one-tenth the fossil fuel of the average American. He says this has made his life more satisfying and meaningful. In 2010, Kalmus realized the flying in planes accounted for roughly 3⁄4 of his greenhouse gas emissions, and he has not flown on a plane since 2012. Kalmus believes that anyone can contribute to cultural shift by conspicuously modeling the change that needs to happen. He has stated that by "walking the talk" his advocacy has become more effective.Kalmus is a columnist and regular contributor at YES! magazine. His writing has also appeared in The Guardian, Eos, The Washington Post, and Grist. On September 14, 2019, Kalmus tweeted "Never give up" and referenced his latest article, "How to live with the climate crisis without becoming a nihilist".Kalmus has been associated with the Movement for a People's Party, a progressive organization positioned as an alternative to the Democratic or Republican Party. After the first presidential debate of the 2020 election, Kalmus participated in a four-person response to the debate.In late‑2021, Kalmus likened his own experiences pushing for greater recognition of the climate problem with those of the two fictional astronomers portrayed in the comedy film Don't Look Up. He also compares absurd events in that film with a series of equally absurd and elusory events in our own world.Kalmus, along with other climate activists, chained himself to the main doors of the Charlotte Douglas International Airport private jet terminal on November 10, 2022. He was charged with trespassing.In December 2022, Kalmus and climate scientist Rose Abramoff briefly showed a banner at the eve of a plenary session of the American Geophysical Union's annual Fall Meeting with a call for scientists to engage in protest against climate change: " Out of the lab and into the streets » . AGU removed their research presentations from the meeting, banned them from participation, launched a misconduct inquiry, and complained to Abramoff's employer, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Kalmus and Abramoff further claimed that AGU threatened to have them arrested if they returned to the meeting. Abramoff was subsequently fired by Oak Ridge. In January 2023, 1500 scientists signed an appeal to object to what happened to their colleagues. JP Morgan Chase building arrest On April 6, 2022, Kalmus was arrested, along with a physicist, an engineer and a science teacher, for chaining himself to the door of the JP Morgan Chase building in Los Angeles, protesting the bank's investments in new fossil fuel projects. Writing in The Guardian in April 2022, Kalmus advocated civil disobedience following the release of the final IPCC Working Group III report. In the article, Kalmus says "It's now the eleventh hour and I feel terrified for my kids, and terrified for humanity. [...] But I'll keep fighting as hard as I can for this Earth, no matter how bad it gets, because it can always get worse". Flying Less movement Kalmus is the founder of the website noflyclimatesci.org and a leading voice in the #FlyingLess movement. He is pushing for the American Geophysical Union to support earth scientists who choose to fly less out of climate concerns, with remote participation options at conferences. School strike for climate Kalmus was a lead organizer on two letters written in support of school striking youth, one from US Earth scientists and one from international scholars. His two sons have been regularly school striking on Fridays since 2018 as part of the Fridays for Future movement. Earth Hero To help users track carbon emissions, Kalmus co-founded the smart phone app Earth Hero. It aims to help users reduce their emissions, shift culture with their reductions, and engage in other forms of climate activism such as protest and civil disobedience. Awards and recognition Kalmus has won numerous awards both for his science and activism. He received the NASA Early Career Achievement Medal and three Jet Propulsion Laboratory Voyager Awards for his work in Earth science. He is also a recipient of the inaugural Transition US Walking the Talk award. He is a 2018 "Grist 50" fellow, one of the ten 2018 fellows classified as "Visionaries".His book, Being the Change: Live Well and Spark a Climate Revolution won an IPPY Outstanding Book of the Year Award, the Nautilus Book Award, and the Foreword Indies Book Award. == References ==

Stachydeoma

Stachydeoma, common name mock pennyroyal, is a genus of flowering plant in the family Lamiaceae, first described as a genus in 1903. It contains only one known species, Stachydeoma graveolens, endemic to the State of Florida in the United States. It has been found only in the northwestern part of the state, referred to colloquially as the "Panhandle."

Stachydeoma, common name mock pennyroyal, is a genus of flowering plant in the family Lamiaceae, first described as a genus in 1903. It contains only one known species, Stachydeoma graveolens, endemic to the State of Florida in the United States. It has been found only in the northwestern part of the state, referred to colloquially as the "Panhandle." References External links Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, University of Texas

Antaviliai

Antaviliai is a neighborhood of Vilnius, capital of Lithuania. It is located northwest of the city center, on the northern edge of Antakalnis eldership. It was a separate village until in 1969 it was incorporated into the Vilnius city limits. The United States Central Intelligence Agency built a black site there in 2004.

Antaviliai is a neighborhood of Vilnius, capital of Lithuania. It is located northwest of the city center, on the northern edge of Antakalnis eldership. It was a separate village until in 1969 it was incorporated into the Vilnius city limits. The United States Central Intelligence Agency built a black site there in 2004. Black site In November 2009, ABC News journalists Matthew Cole and Brian Ross published a story about a CIA prison in Antaviliai. The property was originally acquired by two Lithuanian families in 1999. They established an equestrian center and a cafe, but the business was not doing well and in March 2004 the property was sold to Elite LLC, subsidiary of Star Group Finance & Holdings, Inc. registered in Delaware. The new owners carried out extensive reconstruction, including a new electrical wiring based on 110 V electrical grid used in the United States. According to ABC News, the prison operated from September 2004 to November 2005 and up to 8 prisoners were held there. It is believed that Antaviliai facility is referred to as Detention Site Violet in the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture. The report indicates that Violet was closed in 2006 due to lack of medical care to its detainees. In 2007, the site became property of the State Security Department of Lithuania and is used as a training facility.Upon the news reports, Seimas (Lithuanian parliament) launched an inquiry and the Prosecutor's Office opened a pre-trial investigation. In January 2011, the investigation was closed as it concluded that the site was not used as a prison but its real purpose could not be disclosed due to state secrets. However, in July 2011 Abu Zubaydah sued Lithuania in the European Court of Human Rights over his detention in Lithuania between February 2005 and March 2006. In January 2014, Lithuanian court ordered the Prosecutor's Office to investigate claims by Mustafa al-Hawsawi that he was detained in Antaviliai sometime between September 2004 and September 2006. == References ==

Yerkish

Yerkish is an artificial language developed for use by non-human primates. It employs a keyboard whose keys contain lexigrams, symbols corresponding to objects or ideas.Lexigrams were notably used by the Georgia State University Language Research Center to communicate with bonobos and chimpanzees. Researchers and primates were able to communicate using lexigram boards made in up to three panels with a total of 384 keys.

Yerkish is an artificial language developed for use by non-human primates. It employs a keyboard whose keys contain lexigrams, symbols corresponding to objects or ideas.Lexigrams were notably used by the Georgia State University Language Research Center to communicate with bonobos and chimpanzees. Researchers and primates were able to communicate using lexigram boards made in up to three panels with a total of 384 keys. Context The Yerkish language was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld and used by Duane Rumbaugh and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh of Georgia State University while working with primates at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. Primates were taught to communicate by means of a lexigram board, a computerized array of keys labeled with lexigrams. Von Glasersfeld coined the term "lexigram" in 1971, created the first 120 of them, and designed the grammar that regulated their combination. This artificial language was called Yerkish in honor of Robert M. Yerkes, the founder of the laboratory within which the lexigrams were first used. The first ape trained to communicate in Yerkish was the chimpanzee Lana, beginning in 1973 within the context of the LANA project. Researchers were hoping Lana would not only interpret the Yerkish language, but would also participate in communication with others through this newfound language. Design considerations Lexigram concept Research leading to 1973 suggested chimpanzees could acquire and retain symbolic use of visual items. In an attempt to structure the use of symbols as language, Yerkish formalized the use of the lexigram, a graphic design which represents a word but is not necessarily indicative of the object to which it refers.Each lexigram is designed to be semantically and syntactically unequivocal, a conscious effort to reduce the ambiguity of English. For example, the use of color conveys semantic code, with red lexigrams identifying ingestible items like food and drink, blue lexigrams designating activities, and violet lexigrams representing animate beings like humans. Existing technical limitations guided lexigrams to be constructed by 9 single elements which could be combined by being superimposed. The lexigram for water, which is red in color, is a combination of elements 5, a circle, and 9, a wavy line. Von Glaserfeld created approximately 150 of the first lexigrams in the Yerkish language. Interface Keyboard A lexigram keyboard was created for Lana with each key representing various nouns or verbs such as food, eat, apple, drink, etc. Von Glaserfeld used 25 of them in his initial experiment with Lana. Each of these keys was 11⁄2 x 1 inch and lit up when pressed.After pressing a certain key, the corresponding item would emerge from a food dispenser placed next to the keyboard, and through a series of experiments, researchers hoped that Lana would learn to interpret what each key would correlate to and learn to meaningfully communicate her requests. See also Primate cognition Kanzi Panbanisha Nyota (bonobo) Lana (chimpanzee) Great Ape Trust Great ape language Notes == References ==

Tracy Almeda-Singian

Jennifer Tracy Almeda-Singian (born October 6, 1979) is a former professional tennis player from the United States.

Jennifer Tracy Almeda-Singian (born October 6, 1979) is a former professional tennis player from the United States. Biography Almeda-Singian was born in New York City and is of Filipino descent. At the age of four she moved to New Jersey where she first started to play tennis. Later training in Orlando, she made her WTA Tour debut in the main doubles draw of Indian Wells in 1996, partnering Alexandra Stevenson.She competed in the qualifying draw of all four grand slam tournaments during her career, once successfully, at the 1999 US Open. Her only other grand slam main draw appearance came as a wildcard at the 2000 US Open and she was beaten in the first round by sixth seed Monica Seles.On the WTA Tour her best performances were in 2000, when she made the second round of tournaments in Amelia Island and Antwerp. ITF finals Singles (1–2) Doubles (0–3) References External links Tracy Almeda-Singian at the Women's Tennis Association Tracy Almeda-Singian at the International Tennis Federation

Saras S.p.A.

Saras S.p.A. is an Italian energy multinational corporation with operations in petroleum refining, marketing, transportation and power generation headquartered in Milan and plants and registered office in Sarroch. Its main production plants are located in Sarroch, on the island of Sardinia, Italy.

Saras S.p.A. is an Italian energy multinational corporation with operations in petroleum refining, marketing, transportation and power generation headquartered in Milan and plants and registered office in Sarroch. Its main production plants are located in Sarroch, on the island of Sardinia, Italy. History The company was founded in 1962 by Angelo Moratti. In 1965 giant Sarroch refinery begun operations. In the mid 1990s Saras begun to operate in the oil wholesale market with its subsidiaries in Spain (Saras Energia) and Italy (Arcola Petrolifera). In the early 2000s the company entered the power generation business, producing electricity from natural gas and, later, from wind farms. Operations The Sarroch refinery has the highest production capacity of any Mediterranean refinery and a refining capacity of about 15 million tons per year, the equivalent of 15% of the total capacity of Italian refineries. The group sells and distributes oil products directly, and through its subsidiaries, such as diesel, gasoline, diesel fuel for heating, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), virgin naphtha and aviation fuel, mainly on the Italian and Spanish markets. In 2018 approximately 2.12 million tonnes of petroleum products were sold in Italy on the wholesale market, and a further 1.56 million tonnes were sold on the Spanish market through its subsidiary Saras Energia SAU.From the early 2000s, the Saras Group operates an IGCC plant (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle), which has an installed power of 575 MW (managed by the subsidiary Sarlux Srl). The feedstock used by the IGCC plant is the heavy products of the refinery, and the plant generates over 4 billion kWh of electricity per year, which corresponds to more than 45% of Sardinia's electricity requirement.In addition, since 2005 Saras operates a large wind farm in Ulassai, Sardinia (managed by the subsidiary Sardeolica Srl), with an installed capacity of 96 MW.The company is listed on the Borsa Italiana (Code ISIN: IT0000433307, Code: SRS, Segment: MTA). Controversies and investigations In January 2007 Milan prosecutors launched an investigation on the listing of Saras for inflated prices. On 12 May 2011 the case was officially dismissed.In January 2009 Oil, a documentary-film on the Sarroch refinery by Massimiliano Mazzotta, was released; the film investigates on the death of a worker on the job and the alleged widespread pollution caused by the refinery. The Moratti family tried, without success, to block the distribution of the film by presenting a lawsuit.In May 2009 three workers died on the job at Sarroch refinery. On 7 March 2014 the Court of Appeals of Cagliari condemned Dario Scaffardi, manager of Saras, and Guido Grosso, ex manager, with a suspended sentence of 20 months (versus the previous sentence of 24 months), in addition to granting an award of damages to the plaintiffs. However, the company was judged non-liable. Major shareholders As of 4 July 2019Massimo Moratti S.a.p.A. (20.011%) Angel Capital Management S.p.A. (10.005%) Stella Holding S.p.A. (10.005%) Saras S.p.A. (0.970%) Others (59.009%) Subsidiaries As of 31 December 2015 See also Oil, documentary film directed by Massimiliano Mazzotta. It explores the impact of oil development (implemented by the factory of Saras SpA) on the earth and the life of the local population. References External links Official website

Japan–Manchukuo Protocol

The Japan–Manchukuo Protocol (Chinese: 日滿議定書; Japanese: 日満議定書) was signed on 15 September 1932, between Japan and the state of Manchukuo. The Treaty confirmed the recognition by Japan of the Manchukuo state, following the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, and the establishment of a Manchurian state on 1 March 1932. The treaty also defined a mutual defence agreement, allowing Japanese troops to station in Manchukuo, and thereby effectively occupy the country.On the Japanese side, the protocol was signed by Ambassador Nobuyoshi Mutō, and on the Manchu side by Prime Minister Zheng Xiaoxu.

The Japan–Manchukuo Protocol (Chinese: 日滿議定書; Japanese: 日満議定書) was signed on 15 September 1932, between Japan and the state of Manchukuo. The Treaty confirmed the recognition by Japan of the Manchukuo state, following the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, and the establishment of a Manchurian state on 1 March 1932. The treaty also defined a mutual defence agreement, allowing Japanese troops to station in Manchukuo, and thereby effectively occupy the country.On the Japanese side, the protocol was signed by Ambassador Nobuyoshi Mutō, and on the Manchu side by Prime Minister Zheng Xiaoxu. Text Original Japanese: 日本國ハ滿洲國ガ其ノ住民ノ意思ニ基キテ自由ニ成立シ獨立ノ一國家ヲ成スニ至リタル事實ヲ確認シタルニ因リ 滿洲國ハ中華民國ノ有スル國際約定ハ滿洲國ニ適用シ得ベキ限リ之ヲ尊重スベキコトヲ宣言セルニ因リ 日本國政府及滿洲國政府ハ日滿兩國間ノ善隣ノ關係ヲ永遠ニ鞏固ニシ互ニ其ノ領土權ヲ尊重シ東洋ノ平和ヲ確保センガ爲左ノ如ク協定セリ 一　滿洲國ハ將來日滿兩國間ニ別段ノ約定ヲ締結セザル限リ滿洲國領域内ニ於テ日本國又ハ日本國臣民ガ從來ノ日支間ノ條約協定其ノ他ノ取極及公私ノ契約ニ依リ有スル一切ノ權利利益ヲ確認尊重スベシ 二　日本國及滿洲國ハ締約國ノ一方ノ領土及治安ニ對スル一切ノ脅威ハ同時ニ締約國ノ他方ノ安寧及存立ニ對スル脅威タルノ事實ヲ確認シ兩國共同シテ國家ノ防衞ニ當ルベキコトヲ約ス之ガ爲所要ノ日本國軍ハ滿洲國内ニ駐屯スルモノトス 本議定書ハ署名ノ日ヨリ效力ヲ生ズベシ 本議定書ハ日本文及漢文ヲ以テ各二通ヲ作成ス日本文本文ト漢文本文トノ間ニ解釋ヲ異ニスルトキハ日本文本文ニ據ルモノトス 右證據トシテ下名ハ各本國政府ヨリ正當ノ委任ヲ受ケ本議定書ニ署名調印セリ 昭和七年九月十五日卽チ大同元年九月十五日新京ニ於テ之ヲ作成ス 日本帝國特命全權大使　武藤信義 滿洲國國務總理　　　　鄭孝胥 English translation: Japan recognizes the establishment of a free and independent Manchoukuo in accordance with the free will of its inhabitants. Manchukuo has declared its intention of abiding by all international agreements pledged by the Republic of China. The government of Japan and the government of Manchukuo have established a perpetual friendly and neighborly relationship, mutually guaranteeing each other's sovereignty. For the peace of East Asia: Manchukuo, insofar as no future Japan-Manchukuo treaties to the contrary, respects the rights of Japanese government, government officials, and private citizens within the borders of Manchukuo. Japan and Manchukuo pledge to cooperate in the maintenance of mutual peaceful existence by banding against common outside threats. The Japanese military forces are to be stationed in Manchukuo to this end.This protocol is to be effective immediately upon signing. This protocol is written in Japanese and Chinese; should there be any differences between the two documents due to translation issues, the document written in the Japanese language shall be considered the original. Evidenced by fully authorized representatives of each government with signature and seal. Signed on 15 September of the 7th Year of Showa, also 15 September of the 1st Year of Datong, at Xinjing. Special Authorized Ambassador of the Japanese Empire: Nobuyoshi Mutō Prime Minister of Manchukuo: Zheng Xiaoxu == Notes ==

Yusuf al-Maghribi

Yūsuf al-Maġribi (Arabic: يوسف المغربي) was a 17th-century traveler and lexicographer active in Cairo. He is the first author to treat Egyptian Arabic as a dialect distinct from Classical Arabic, compiling an Egyptian Arabic word list, the Raf` al-'iṣr `an kalām 'ahl miṣr (i.e. "apology of the Egyptian vernacular", literally "the lifting of the burden from the speech of the population of Egypt"), which survives in a unique manuscript kept at St. Petersburg State University. Al-Maghribi's dictionary reflects a wider trend in early 17th century Ottoman Egypt towards colloquial writing.

Yūsuf al-Maġribi (Arabic: يوسف المغربي) was a 17th-century traveler and lexicographer active in Cairo. He is the first author to treat Egyptian Arabic as a dialect distinct from Classical Arabic, compiling an Egyptian Arabic word list, the Raf` al-'iṣr `an kalām 'ahl miṣr (i.e. "apology of the Egyptian vernacular", literally "the lifting of the burden from the speech of the population of Egypt"), which survives in a unique manuscript kept at St. Petersburg State University. Al-Maghribi's dictionary reflects a wider trend in early 17th century Ottoman Egypt towards colloquial writing. Edition Abdul-Salam Ahmad Awwad, Raf` al-Isar `an kalam ahl misr, Moscow (1968). References Elisabeth Zack. Yusuf al-Maghribi's Egyptian-Arabic Word List. A Unique Manuscript in the St. Petersburg State University Library, Manuscripta orientalia (ISSN 1238-5018 ) 2001, vol. 7, no3, pp. 46–49. Society and Economy in Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean, 1600–1900, American Univ in Cairo Press (2005), p. 34. Paula Sanders, Creating Medieval Cairo, American Univ in Cairo Press (2007), p. 99 Nelly Hanna, In Praise of Books: A Cultural History of Cairo's Middle Class, Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, Syracuse University Press (2003), ISBN 978-0-8156-3012-8, chapter 5. See also De vulgari eloquentia

Porphyrion

In Greek mythology, Porphyrion (Greek: Πορφυρίων) was one of the Gigantes (Giants), who according to Hesiod, were the offspring of Gaia, born from the blood that fell when Uranus (Sky) was castrated by their son Cronus. In some other versions of the myth, the Gigantes were born of Gaia and Tartarus.

In Greek mythology, Porphyrion (Greek: Πορφυρίων) was one of the Gigantes (Giants), who according to Hesiod, were the offspring of Gaia, born from the blood that fell when Uranus (Sky) was castrated by their son Cronus. In some other versions of the myth, the Gigantes were born of Gaia and Tartarus. Sources According to the mythographer Apollodorus, Porphyrion was (along with Alcyoneus), the greatest of the Giants, and during the Gigantomachy, the battle between the Giants and the Olympian gods, Porphyrion attacked Heracles and Hera, but Zeus caused Porphyrion to become enamoured of Hera, whom Porphyrion then tried to rape, but Zeus struck Porphyrion with his thunderbolt and Heracles killed him with an arrow. According to Pindar, who calls him "king of the Giants", he was slain by an arrow from the bow of Apollo. Aristophanes' comedy The Birds, contains two brief mentions of Porphyrion. Porphyrion is also mentioned, in the company of other Giants, by the Latin poet Horace.The late fourth-century AD Latin poet Claudian in his Gigantomachia has Gaia, imagining the Giants victorious, propose that "Porphyrion, wreathe thou thy head with Delphi's laurel and take Cirrah for thy sanctuary", and has Porphyrion attempt "to uproot trembling Delos, wishing to hurl it at the sky". The late fourth or early fifth-century AD Greek poet Nonnus, in his Dionysiaca, has Gaia set the Giants against Dionysus, promising Porphyrion Hebe as his wife should the Giants succeed in subduing the god. In art Porphyrion is named on a sixth-century BC black-figure pyxis (Getty 82.AE.26), where he and the Giant Enceladus oppose Zeus, Heracles and Athena. He is also named on a late fifth-century BC red-figure cup from Vulci (Berlin F2531), and a fifth-century BC red-figure krater (Paris, Petit Palais 868), in both engaged in single combat with Zeus, and a late sixth-century/early fifth-century fragmentary BC red-figure cup (British Museum E 47), where his opponent is lost.Porphyrion was probably named on the Gigantomachy depicted on the north frieze of the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi (c. 525 BC), and he was one of the many Giants depicted on the second-century BC Pergamon Altar Gigantomachy frieze, where he is shown fighting Zeus. Notes References Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Claudian, Claudian with an English translation by Maurice Platnauer, Volume II, Loeb Classical Library No. 136. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd.. 1922. ISBN 978-0674991514. Internet Archive. Arafat, K. W., Classical Zeus: A Study in Art and Literature, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1990. ISBN 0-19-814912-3. Cook, Arthur Bernard, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, Volume III: Zeus God of the Dark Sky (Earthquakes, Clouds, Wind, Dew, Rain, Meteorites), Part I: Text and Notes, Cambridge University Press 1940. Internet Archive Horace, The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace. John Conington. trans. London. George Bell and Sons. 1882. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, The Myths of Hyginus. Edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Lyne, R. O. A. M., Horace: Behind the Public Poetry, Yale University Press, 1995. ISBN 9780300063226. Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, III Books XXXVI–XLVIII. Loeb Classical Library No. 346, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. Internet Archive Pindar, Odes, Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo, Hellenistic Sculpture II: The Styles of ca. 200-100 B.C., University of Wisconsin Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0299167103. Sparks, Brian A., "Aspects of Onesimos" in Greek Art: Archaic Into Classical : a Symposium Held at the University of Cincinnati April 2–3, 1982, BRILL, 1985. ISBN 9789004070790.* Stewart, Andrew F., Greek Sculpture: An Exploration, Yale University Press, 1990.

The Two Tigers (film)

The Two Tigers (Italian: Le due tigri) is a 1941 Italian historical adventure film directed by Giorgio Simonelli and starring Massimo Girotti, Luigi Pavese and Sandro Ruffini. It is based on the 1904 novel The Two Tigers by Emilio Salgari, featuring the character of Sandokan. It was made back-to-back with another Sandokan adventure Pirates of Malaya. It was shot at the Cinecittà Studios in Rome. The film's sets were designed by the art director Alfredo Montori.

The Two Tigers (Italian: Le due tigri) is a 1941 Italian historical adventure film directed by Giorgio Simonelli and starring Massimo Girotti, Luigi Pavese and Sandro Ruffini. It is based on the 1904 novel The Two Tigers by Emilio Salgari, featuring the character of Sandokan. It was made back-to-back with another Sandokan adventure Pirates of Malaya. It was shot at the Cinecittà Studios in Rome. The film's sets were designed by the art director Alfredo Montori. Cast Massimo Girotti as Tremal-Naik Luigi Pavese as Sandokan Sandro Ruffini as Yanez de Gomera Alanova as Surama Cesare Fantoni as Sujodana Enzo Gerio as Aghur Giovanni Onorato as Sambigliong Arturo Bragaglia as Il taverniere Amedeo Trilli as Sirdar Bruno Smith as Il caporale della ronda Agnese Dubbini as La moglie di Sambigliong Delia Lancelotti as La piccola Darma Virgilio Tomassini as Il manti Totò Majorana as Un sergente Inglese References Bibliography Goble, Alan. The Complete Index to Literary Sources in Film. Walter de Gruyter, 1999. External links The Two Tigers at IMDb

Ilya Zhitomirskiy

Ilya Zhitomirskiy (12 October 1989 – 12 November 2011) was an American software developer and entrepreneur. Zhitomirskiy was a co-founder and developer of the Diaspora social network and the Diaspora free software that powers it.

Ilya Zhitomirskiy (12 October 1989 – 12 November 2011) was an American software developer and entrepreneur. Zhitomirskiy was a co-founder and developer of the Diaspora social network and the Diaspora free software that powers it. Biography Early life Zhitomirskiy was born on 12 October 1989, in Moscow, Soviet Union, to Alexei Medovikov and Inna Zhitomirskaya. Both his father and maternal grandfather are mathematicians. In 2000, his family emigrated to the United States, eventually settling outside Philadelphia, where he graduated from Lower Merion High School in 2007. Zhitomirskiy first attended Acton-Boxborough Regional High School in Acton, Massachusetts. He then studied mathematics, economics and computer science at Tulane University, University of Maryland, and New York University. In his free time, Zhitomirskiy unicycled and was a competitive ballroom dancer. Diaspora At NYU, he studied computer science at The Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, where he met the three friends with whom he founded diaspora*, a social networking service, in 2010. The project was conceived after the founders had attended a lecture by Columbia Law School professor and free software activist Eben Moglen in February 2010 about the threat to privacy posed by commercial Internet services. According to Moglen, Zhitomirskiy was "immensely talented" and "the most idealistic of the group... He had a choice between graduate school and this project, and he chose to do the project because he wanted to do something with his time that would make freedom". Death On the evening of 12 November 2011, Zhitomirskiy was found dead in his San Francisco home by police responding to calls about a suspected suicide. An autopsy report from the Medical Examiner's office formally ruled the death as a suicide in April 2012. He died from an intentional inert gas asphyxiation using helium. While press reports questioned whether the pressure of working on Diaspora had led to his suicide, Diaspora co-founder Maxwell Salzberg disagreed. Salzberg stated, "Yes, I agree that being a startup founder is stressful. But it wasn’t the stress of work that killed Ilya. He had his own issues. He was sick." Zhitomirskiy’s mother, Inna Zhitomirskiy, did not comment on reports of his history of mental illness, but she did say on his participation in Diaspora, "I strongly believe that if Ilya did not start this project and stayed in school, he would be well and alive today."The Village Voice said that Zhitomirskiy was "often described as the most idealistic and privacy-conscious member of the group" and declared his death "a devastating setback" for Diaspora. References External links "Co-founder of social network site Diaspora, Ilya Zhitomirskiy, dies at 22". The Washington Post. Associated Press. 14 November 2011.. "Privacy and social networks: interview with Ilya Zhitomirskiy founder of Diaspora" (video) – via YouTube. Kumparak, Greg (13 November 2011). "Diaspora Co-Founder Ilya Zhitomirskiy Passes Away At 22". TechCrunch. Personal Website on GitHub

Abandoned coronation of Edward VIII

The coronation of King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom was due to take place at Westminster Abbey on 12 May 1937. Preparations had already begun and souvenirs were on sale when Edward VIII abdicated on 11 December 1936. He did this because of opposition from many quarters to his intention to marry Wallis Simpson, who had already divorced twice. His coronation was cancelled as a result of his abdication. The coronation date itself was not abandoned; Edward VIII's brother George VI and sister-in-law Elizabeth were crowned on that date instead.

The coronation of King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom was due to take place at Westminster Abbey on 12 May 1937. Preparations had already begun and souvenirs were on sale when Edward VIII abdicated on 11 December 1936. He did this because of opposition from many quarters to his intention to marry Wallis Simpson, who had already divorced twice. His coronation was cancelled as a result of his abdication. The coronation date itself was not abandoned; Edward VIII's brother George VI and sister-in-law Elizabeth were crowned on that date instead. Accession In January 1936, King George V died and his eldest son, Edward VIII, succeeded him as king. Edward was unmarried, but the American socialite Wallis Simpson had accompanied him on numerous social occasions in years leading up to 1936. She was married to the shipping executive Ernest Aldrich Simpson and had previously been divorced. Her relationship with the new king had not yet been reported in the British press. Preparation Planning The Coronation Committee had been delayed when it met for the first time on 24 June 1936; Ramsay MacDonald, the Lord President of the Council, met the Duke of Norfolk, to discuss the proceedings. MacDonald chaired the Coronation Committee as a whole, and the Duke, who was the hereditary Earl Marshal with responsibility for coronations, chaired the executive committee. While Edward VIII was away, cruising on the Nahlin with Wallis Simpson, his brother Albert, Duke of York (the future George VI) sat in his place on the committees. Edward had initially been reluctant to have a coronation at all (asking the Archbishop of Canterbury whether it could be dispensed with), but conceded that a shorter service would be acceptable. His desire for a lower-key event led to abandonment of plans for a royal procession through London the following day, the thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral and the dinner with London dignitaries. Archbishop of Canterbury Although the executive committee was chaired by the Earl Marshal, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Lang, was also a driving force behind the preparations for the coronation and many of the decisions in respect to the order of service were made by or with him. Owing to his office, he was a member of both the Coronation Committee and the executive committee which dealt with the details, and he attended all of the rehearsals. He took a leading role in the planning process, becoming a key mediator when queries arose, and he dealt with questions over how the service should be broadcast by the media. Abdication The king's desire to marry a woman thought by many to be unsuitable was the public reason for the constitutional crisis that led to his abdication from the throne on 11 December 1936. While plans for the coronation went ahead for a different monarch, thousands of businesses were stuck with hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of pounds' worth of souvenirs and memorabilia with Edward's face or monogram on them. Disposing of memorabilia Coins Due to the brevity of his reign, both proof and circulation strikes of Edward VIII's coinage are extremely rare, and highly desired by numismatists. While silver coinage was not supposed to be issued until just before the coronation was to take place, the new brass three-penny bit was already being made for introduction early in January 1937, and the entire stock was melted down. The same was done for other coins in Commonwealth realms, although rumours of a Canadian dollar surviving persist.Fewer than a dozen Edward VIII proof sets are believed to have survived. A few gold sovereigns were released, and the Royal Mint has a collection of pattern designs for Edward's coinage.Four British possessions, British West Africa, British East Africa, Fiji, and New Guinea minted a total of seven low-denomination coins with his name, but no image. Three Indian states, Jodhpur, Jaipur, and Kutch, each produced a coin with his name in the local scripts.Prior to the introduction of coinage for the reign, twelve coins were sent to vending machine manufacturers to enable calibration of their machines. They were never returned to the Royal Mint; six are held in private hands and are worth thousands of pounds. The other six are still missing. An example was put up for at auction in 2013, at an asking price of £30,000. Postage stamps United Kingdom As early as the beginning of the reign in January 1936, the British Post Office were preparing two issues after the series of four definitive stamps that was considered to be an "Accession issue". Therefore, work at the Post Office and Harrison & Sons was done for a "Coronation issue" intended for 12 May 1937 and a final "Definitive issue". Essays for the former were made with the king wearing different military uniforms, such as the Bertram Park's pictures of Edward VIII wearing the uniforms of the Welsh Guards and Seaforth Highlanders. In March 1936, the king accepted the idea of larger stamps picturing his effigy and castles. However, the abdication ended all design work despite essays having been made. Australia The two-penny red stamp project of Australia used a photograph of the king in uniform. The sole ornaments were the denomination in an oval in the bottom right corner and the red "POSTAGE" bar at the bottom. Printing of this stamp began in September 1936 at the Commonwealth Bank of Australia's printing branch. All operations were stopped after the abdication.Despite the destruction of the stock and all material needed for the printing, a signed corner block of six of the two-penny stamps is in the hand of a British collector. On 29 September 1936, William Vanneck, 5th Baron Huntingfield, Governor of Victoria, visited the plant and was invited to sign and date one of the finished sheets. In the name of the Commonwealth Bank, printer John Ash offered the sheet to the Governor in October, but had to claim it back on 16 December. The sheet was given back the next day, but the six-stamp corner block bearing the signature was missing. The Governor had already sent it to someone in England and could not retrieve it. The stamps still exist and sold for US$123,000 at auction in 2015. Canada In Canada, the official destruction of Edward VIII stamp dies and proofs took place on 25 and 27 January 1937; some essays were kept in the archives and the two plaster casts were saved by coin engraver Emmanuel Hahn and a postal officer. Other memorabilia There are stories of schools retrieving commemorative mugs and plates from pupils and replacing them with ones designed for the new king and queen, while many vendors put the redundant items up for sale anyway. See also Coronation of the British monarch == References ==

Broadway United Church of Christ

Broadway United Church of Christ is a Congregationalist Church located on West 71st Street, between Amsterdam Avenue and Columbus Avenue on the Upper West Side of Manhattan.

Broadway United Church of Christ is a Congregationalist Church located on West 71st Street, between Amsterdam Avenue and Columbus Avenue on the Upper West Side of Manhattan. Finney's Broadway Tabernacle The original Broadway Tabernacle, now known as Broadway United Church of Christ, was founded as the Second Free Presbyterian Church, organized in 1832 by Lewis Tappan for Charles Grandison Finney, a famous evangelist / revivalist from western New York. It was founded on Chatham Street (Manhattan) in lower Manhattan, New York City, in the former Chatham Garden Theatre (built 1824), which became known as the Chatham Street Chapel. This first chapel was abandoned and shortly thereafter demolished in 1836 for the purpose-built Broadway Tabernacle, which was erected in 1836. The Broadway Tabernacle was located at 340-344 Broadway, between Worth and Catherine Lane, and was considered one of the most influential churches constructed in America. Finney influenced the design; it held 2,400 people. Then a Presbyterian church, it was founded as a center of anti-slavery spirit in New York City. Finney left the church to join the Oberlin College's Theology Department in April 1837 and the Tabernacle building was demolished in 1856.The minister who followed Finney shared neither his anti-slavery attitude nor his ability to gather the large throngs that Finney had. A dispute about this led to the church leaving the Presbyterian fold, through the purchase of the building by a prominent member, editor of The Journal of Commerce, David Hale. He reorganized the church as a Congregational church, and established policies that allowed for freedom of expression. The building was used for a wide variety of purposes, including the first demonstration of nitrous oxide (laughing gas) as an anesthetic. In the following decades, the church became a gathering place for opponents of slavery, advocates of women's suffrage, and prohibitionists, hosting speakers like John Neal, America's first women's rights lecturer, whose speech attracted 3,000 attendees in 1843.Leaders of the Church took a prominent role in raising a defense fund for the Africans who were captured aboard the ship Amistad; Cinque, the leader of the captives, spoke at the Church as the freed slaves prepared to return to Africa. Members of the Amistad Committee eventually formed The American Missionary Association, an organization that opposed slavery, and established schools, colleges, and churches for freed slaves after the Civil War. William Lloyd Garrison, a prominent abolitionist, and Frederick Douglass, a black newspaper editor and former slave, both spoke at the Church. In 1839, Andrew Harris, the first African-American to graduate from the University of Vermont, and the sixth in the nation, delivered a speech to 5,000 members of the American Anti-Slavery Society, including this passage: If the groans and sighs of the victims of slavery could be collected, and thrown out here in one volley, these walls would tremble, these pillars would be removed from their foundations, and we should find ourselves buried in the ruins of the edifice. If the blood of the innocent, which has been shed by slavery, could be poured out here, this audience might swim in it – or if they could not swim they would be drowned. In 1853, a women's suffrage meeting at the Church was disrupted by a hostile mob, and Sojourner Truth, a conductress of the Underground Railroad, tried to answer the hecklers from the platform before the meeting broke up. The church founded a newspaper, The Independent, an anti-slavery paper that had a circulation of 15,000, which helped to spread the renown of Emily Dickinson by publishing her poems. 34th Street location On April 26, 1857, the original Broadway Tabernacle was opened the last time for "Divine Service." The church had accepted an offer by the Erie Railroad to purchase its original building, and moved uptown to 34th Street and 6th Avenue. The new building was designed by Leopold Eidlitz. The pastor, Joseph Parrish Thompson, deemed the event significant enough to document the final services and sermons from the day in a pamphlet, "The Last Sabbath in the Broadway Tabernacle: A Historical Discourse." The final day of services began with "Pitt's Young Men's Bible Class" (a fixture at the church since the 1840s) starting at 9AM, followed by the morning service, a reunion at 3PM of those who had attended Sabbath Schools and evening service. The day included sermons by Joseph Parrish Thompson, Edwards Amasa Park, and Richard Salter Storrs, as well as an anthem composed for the occasion by William Batchelder Bradbury, a reading of Psalm 122 and Psalm 132 by George W. Wood (Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions), Prayer by Rev. Milton Badger (Secretary of the American Home Missionary Society), and a historical discourse by Joshua Leavitt. To close the event, the organ played Old 100th and the crowd of over 4000 worshipers sang Psalm 117.As American Civil War began, the Church's pastor, Rev. Joseph Parrish Thompson, was so identified with the Union cause that a Confederate sympathizer attempted to shoot him during a worship service. These years reflect a time when Protestant ministers were among the leaders of American society, and when their sermons would be reported in the newspapers. Churches were also significant cultural centers. For example, the Tabernacle choir performed the first North American concert of Mendelssohn's oratorio, Elijah. Women were given the vote in the church in 1871. During the latter half of the 19th century, the Church supported mission activities around the world. It also carried out educational and religious activities in the poorer neighborhoods of the City, including Hell's Kitchen, where it established a branch, the Bethany Mission, in 1868. In 1892, the address was listed at 582 6th Avenue; it was informally called "Rev. Dr. Taylor's Broadway Tabernacle" at that time. 1897–1950 Charles Jefferson became pastor in 1897, and continued in the role until 1930. He was a skilled preacher and organizer under whose leadership the Church grew. The City had spread beyond its former boundaries, and again a generous offer for the Church's property stimulated a move to 56th and Broadway, a corner where the streets were still unpaved. The Gothic building that was erected featured a parish house that was ten stories tall and had its own elevator. The "skyscraper church" functioned, as the Church had before, as a gathering place for many meetings, more than 1200 in the year 1910. During the World War I, it provided weekly canteens for men of the armed forces. During the Depression, it contained a theater, beginning a ministry to actors that lasted for many years. Mission work continued to be a focus, leading among other things to the establishment of the Jefferson Academy in Tungshien, China. Pastor Jefferson also led the establishment of the New York Congregational Home for the Aged in Brooklyn in 1906. In the same year, Jefferson also proclaimed his interest in peace issues, as one of the founders of the New York Peace Society. Andrew Carnegie gave Jefferson and his colleagues a grant to develop strong relationships between clergy throughout the world. After the First World War, Jefferson became an advocate for the League of Nations and the World Court. In 1928, Broadway continued to break new ground by taking the rare action of ordaining a woman minister. Two years later, Jefferson left, and Allan Knight Chalmers was offered the job of replacing him. Women now demanded, and were given, the ability to serve as officers of the Church. Chalmers was a strong advocate of the Social Gospel; as the Great Depression deepened, he and the Church had many challenges to meet. One of the great public controversies of the time was the Scottsboro case, when a group of nine black men were charged with sexually molesting some white women in Tennessee. All except one were sentenced to death. Pastor Chalmers became the head of the national Scottsboro Defense Committee. The men were freed from prison; Chalmers was elected treasurer of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in recognition of his work on the case. Pastor Chalmers was also a leader in the pacifist movement. The Church's Young Men's Club issued the Broadway Declaration in 1932, declaring that service in the armed forces was inconsistent with Christianity. Other young men across the nation also signed it. When World War II came, eight Broadway members became conscientious objectors, serving out the War in mental hospitals and other forms of community service. Without an apparent sense of contradiction, the Church during this period continued to offer regular hospitality to members of the armed forces through its weekly canteens. Modern Era On into the 1960s, the Church continued to fight for human rights. It was the rallying point from which the United Church of Christ delegation went to the March on Washington. One of Broadway's staff members, Aston Glaves, became a leader in developing affordable housing in the church's neighborhood, formerly called Hell's Kitchen. A number of middle- and low-income apartment buildings in the area were developed through community efforts led by Glaves. Lawrence Durgin served the Church for two years before being named pastor in 1963. During this time, the church embraced the ecumenical movement that was symbolized by the Second Vatican Council. As it confronted a large investment to repair its building, a proposal was made to sell the property and to use the money for mission. The proposal won by a very small margin. In 1969, Broadway left its own building to take up residence at a Catholic church, the nearby Church of St. Paul the Apostle. After twelve years at St. Paul's, Broadway moved to Rutgers Presbyterian Church, and then to St. Michael's Episcopal Church, each time moving further up the West Side. The Rev. Dr. Bonnie Rosborough was called during this time, and kept the church together during its various moves. Life as a "church without walls" began to pall after thirty years, so a relationship was formed with Advent Lutheran Church at 93rd and Broadway. Broadway would invest in the renovation and repair of Advent's building, and would be able to settle there as partners in ministry. When that relationship ended, Broadway UCC took temporary residence at the Church of St. Paul and St. Andrew (New York City), a welcoming congregation at 86th Street with a similar mission and focus. In 1991, Broadway became an Open and Affirming Congregation of the United Church of Christ, officially welcoming all people regardless of their sexual orientation. Ministries to churches in South Africa as it threw off apartheid, to prisoners, to people with HIV and AIDS, and to women on welfare, among others, have marked the 1990s. Broadway members provided their labor and financial support to Habitat for Humanity as the millennium turned. In 2006, the congregation voted to call the Rev. Dr. James P. Campbell as its 10th Pastor.In 2019, the congregation voted to call the Rev. Dr. Michael S. Piazza as its 11th Pastor. References Notes Sources Thompson, Joseph Parrish (1857). The Last Sabbath in the Broadway Tabernacle: A Historical Discourse. New York City: Calkins & Stiles. Retrieved 11 April 2016.This brief history was adapted from Wade Arnold's A Brief Narrative History of the Broadway United Church of Christ. Also used, as supplemental material, is an unpublished manuscript by Alex Sareyan. External links The Broadway Tabernacle Church and Society Papers at the New York Historical Society

Warm inflation

In physical cosmology, warm inflation is one of two dynamical realizations of cosmological inflation. The other is the standard scenario, sometimes called cold inflation.In warm inflation radiation production occurs concurrently with inflationary expansion. This is consistent with the conditions necessary for inflation as given by the Friedmann equations of general relativity, which simply require that the vacuum energy density dominates the energy content of the universe at time of inflation, and so does not prohibit some radiation to be present. As such the most general picture of inflation would include a radiation energy density component. The presence of radiation during inflation implies the inflationary phase could smoothly end into a radiation-dominated era without a distinctively separate reheating phase, thus providing a solution to the graceful exit problem of inflation.

In physical cosmology, warm inflation is one of two dynamical realizations of cosmological inflation. The other is the standard scenario, sometimes called cold inflation.In warm inflation radiation production occurs concurrently with inflationary expansion. This is consistent with the conditions necessary for inflation as given by the Friedmann equations of general relativity, which simply require that the vacuum energy density dominates the energy content of the universe at time of inflation, and so does not prohibit some radiation to be present. As such the most general picture of inflation would include a radiation energy density component. The presence of radiation during inflation implies the inflationary phase could smoothly end into a radiation-dominated era without a distinctively separate reheating phase, thus providing a solution to the graceful exit problem of inflation. == References ==

Mount Zion Cemetery (New York City)

Mount Zion Cemetery is a large Jewish cemetery located in Maspeth, Queens, New York City. The first burial was in 1893, and as of 2015, more than 210,000 individuals had been buried there. It is noted for its memorial to those who died in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire. Its grounds cover approximately 78 acres, and are divided into hundreds of plots, or gates, by landsmanshaften, synagogues, or families.

Mount Zion Cemetery is a large Jewish cemetery located in Maspeth, Queens, New York City. The first burial was in 1893, and as of 2015, more than 210,000 individuals had been buried there. It is noted for its memorial to those who died in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire. Its grounds cover approximately 78 acres, and are divided into hundreds of plots, or gates, by landsmanshaften, synagogues, or families. Notable burials Herman M. Albert (1901–1947), lawyer, New York State Assemblyman Birdie Amsterdam (1901–1996), lawyer, judge, and New York State Supreme Court justice William Cohen (? –1916), U.S. Army sergeant killed by troops of Pancho Villa on U.S. soil in the Glenn Springs raid Bernard Drachman (1861–1945), rabbi Morris Michael Edelstein (1888–1941), US Congressman Isidore Einstein (1880–1938), federal agent in the Bureau of Prohibition Berta Gersten (1894–1972), actress Marvin Hamlisch (1944–2012), composer and conductor Abraham Harawitz (1879–1935), lawyer, New York S tate Assemblyman, Municipal Court Justice Lorenz Hart (1895–1943), lyricist Naftali Herz Imber (1856–1909), poet, lyricist, and composer of Hatikva, the Israeli national anthem. Disinterred and reburied in Israel in 1953. Mathilde Krim (1926–2018), medical researcher Irving L. Levey (1898–1970), New York State Supreme Court justice Edna Luby (1884–1928), actress and comedian Theresa Moers (1893–1924), killed by the boxer Kid McCoy Herman Weiss (about 1869–1934), New York assemblyman Nathanael West (1903–1940), author and screenwriter Eva Zeisel (1906–2011), industrial designer References External links Official website U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Mount Zion Cemetery (New York City)

Charles Russell Lowell

Charles Russell Lowell III (January 2, 1835 – October 20, 1864) was a railroad executive, foundryman, and General in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He was mortally wounded at the Battle of Cedar Creek and was mourned by a number of leading generals.

Charles Russell Lowell III (January 2, 1835 – October 20, 1864) was a railroad executive, foundryman, and General in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He was mortally wounded at the Battle of Cedar Creek and was mourned by a number of leading generals. Early life Charles Russell Lowell III was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 2, 1835. His mother, Anna Cabot Jackson, a daughter of Patrick Tracy Jackson, married Charles Russell Lowell, Jr., brother of Robert Traill Spence Lowell and James Russell Lowell. Charles Jr., Robert, and James were sons of Unitarian Minister Charles Lowell. Anna wrote verse and books on education. Lowell III graduated as the valedictorian from Harvard College in 1854, and worked in an iron mill in Trenton, New Jersey, for a few months in 1855. He spent two years abroad, and from 1858 to 1860 was local treasurer of the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad. In 1860, he took charge of the Mount Savage Iron Works in Cumberland, Maryland. Civil War Lowell entered the Union Army in June 1861, and was commissioned as a captain in the 3rd U.S. Cavalry, transferring to the 6th U.S. Cavalry in August. He served as an aide-de-camp to General George B. McClellan during the formation of the Army of the Potomac in the summer and fall of 1861 and continued at McClellan's side during the 1862 Peninsula Campaign and the Battle of Antietam.In 1863 Lowell recruited and organized the 2nd Massachusetts Cavalry, and on May 10 was appointed its colonel. During the winter of 1863–1864, he was in charge of the outer defenses of Washington, D.C., and was engaged in repelling the raid by Confederate Lt. Gen. Jubal Early that reached the outskirts of the capital. In February, 1864, near Vienna, Virginia Lowell ordered the drumhead execution of William E. "Pony" Ormsby, a deserter and traitor who fled to join Colonel John S. Mosby's (CSA) campaign.During the Valley Campaigns of 1864, Lowell commanded a brigade of cavalry in Brig. Gen. Wesley Merritt's division of the Cavalry Corps of Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan's army. He distinguished himself at Third Winchester and took a leading role in the Confederate rout at Tom's Brook. He was mortally wounded during the Union counterattack at the Battle of Cedar Creek on October 19, 1864. General Sheridan interceded to ensure that he was promoted to brigadier general on that day. He died on the next day at Middletown, Virginia, at the age of 29. He is buried in the Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Lowell was nominated as a brigadier general two days after his death. Since he was unable to sign his new commission after his death, Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton authorized an exception allowing the posthumous promotion to become official. Upon hearing of his death, General George Armstrong Custer wept and Sheridan remarked "I do not think there was a quality which I could have added to Lowell. He was the perfection of a man and a soldier." In October 1863, Lowell married businesswoman Josephine Shaw (1843—1905), a sister of his close friend and fellow Union Army casualty Colonel Robert Gould Shaw (1837—1863). Her home when she was married was on Staten Island, and she became deeply interested in the social problems of New York City. She was a member of the State Charities Aid Society, and from 1876 to 1889 was a member of the New York State Board of Charities, being the first woman appointed to that board. She founded the Charity Organization Society of New York City in 1882, and wrote Public Relief and Private Charity (1884) and Industrial Arbitration and Conciliation (1893). They had one daughter, Carlotta Russell Lowell (November 30, 1864 — September 19, 1924). Lowell's first biography was written in 1907 by Edward Waldo Emerson, son of Ralph Waldo Emerson. See also List of American Civil War generals (Union) List of Massachusetts generals in the American Civil War Massachusetts in the American Civil War References Further reading Bartol, C.A. The Purchase by Blood: A Tribute to Brig.-Gen. Charles Russell Lowell, Jr. Spoken in the West Church, Oct. 30, 1864. Boston: John Wilson and Son, 1864. Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3. Emerson, Edward Waldo. (ed.), Life and Letters of Charles Russell Lowell (Boston, 1907). Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders, Louisiana State University Press, 1964, ISBN 0-8071-0822-7. External links Works by or about Charles Russell Lowell at Internet Archive

Open Fiber

Open Fiber S.p.A. (formerly Enel Open Fiber S.p.A.) is an Italian wholesale only telecommunications company, owned 60% by CDP Equity S.p.A. (part of the Cassa Depositi e Prestiti S.p.A. group) and 40% by Macquarie Asset Management (part of the Macquarie Group Limited).

Open Fiber S.p.A. (formerly Enel Open Fiber S.p.A.) is an Italian wholesale only telecommunications company, owned 60% by CDP Equity S.p.A. (part of the Cassa Depositi e Prestiti S.p.A. group) and 40% by Macquarie Asset Management (part of the Macquarie Group Limited). History Enel Open Fiber was established in December 2015, as a wholly owned subsidiary of Italian energy company Enel, in order to build an independent fibre-based access network.In July 2016, the company acquired Metroweb from F2i SGR and Cassa Depositi e Prestiti, a private equity fund and a sovereign wealth fund respectively. However, CDP also acquired 50% stake in Open Fiber.The company operates in the so-called "market success" clusters A and B as resolved by the Council of Ministers of the Italian Republic on 4 March 2015, ie 282 municipalities in large urban areas by 2022. The areas chosen for the project are a subset of the 642 municipalities categorized as clusters A and B by the Government. Open Fiber, estimating a cost corresponding to less than half of that proposed by the competition, won all fourteen lots envisaged in the three calls for the "ultra-broadband plan" launched by Infratel Italia for the construction of the network in clusters C and D ie "white areas" with low population density. The plan provides for the implementation of FTTH optical fiber with speeds up to 1 Gbit/s for urban areas and agglomerations of housing units, while preparing FWA radio links for rural or impervious areas and scattered houses.In March 2020 Open Fiber had accrued penalties for late deliveries of the works amounting to 286,871,750 euros. Their value abundantly exceeded 10% of the amount of the works, a critical threshold which, according to the concession, gave the grantor the right to terminate the contract.As of February 2023, optical fiber was carried out to 128,518 customers for a declared total cost for the Italian State of 1,471,810,248 euro (11,452 euro for each person). The service is available solely in 2,463,374 immobiliar units in respect of the 6,411,150 that had been planned for June 2023. Broadband diffusion can be verified in real time through a geographical search engine and an interactive map.In 2022 Enel sells its 50% share, which is acquired for 40% by Macquarie Asset Management and for 10% by CDP Equity, which reaches a 60% stake in the company.At the end of 2022, the debt reached a record value of 4.6 billion euros. References Citations Sources See also Cassa Depositi e Prestiti CDP Equity Enel Macquarie Group Metroweb External links Official website

Central Pollution Control Board

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India is a statutory organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (Mo.E.F.C.C.). It was established in 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act, 1974. The CPCB is also entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It coordinates the activities of the State Pollution Control Boards by providing technical assistance and guidance and also resolves disputes among them.

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India is a statutory organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (Mo.E.F.C.C.). It was established in 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act, 1974. The CPCB is also entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It coordinates the activities of the State Pollution Control Boards by providing technical assistance and guidance and also resolves disputes among them. It is the apex organization in country in the field of pollution control, as a technical wing of MoEFCC. The board is led by its chairperson appointed by the Appointments Committee of the Cabinet of the Government of India. The current acting chairman is Shri Tanmay Kumar IAS (August 2021) and the Member Secretary is Prashant Gargava.CPCB has its head office in New Delhi, with seven zonal offices and 5 laboratories. The board conducts environmental assessments and research. It is responsible for maintaining national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with zonal offices, tribal, and local governments. It has responsibilities to conduct monitoring of water and air quality, and maintains monitoring data. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a wide variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs and energy conservation efforts. It advises the central government to prevent and control water and air pollution. It also advises the Governments of Union Territories on industrial and other sources of water and air pollution. CPCB along with its counterparts the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) are responsible for implementation of legislation relating to prevention and control of environmental pollution.The board has approximately 500 full-time employees including engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists. History CPCB is constituted on 22 cleanliness of streams, wells.The Environment Protection Act (EPA) was passed in 1986 to close the gaps in the Water and Air Act, by adding some more functions to the CPCB. CPCB plays role in abatement and control of pollution in the country by generating relevant data, providing scientific information, rendering technical inputs for formation of national policies and programs, training and development of manpower and organizing activities for promoting awareness at different levels of the Government and public. Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC) was established in 1991 by Central Government works with (CPCB) and (NGT) to control the pollution in Capital. Functions of CPCB Functions of CPCB comes under both national level and as State Boards for the Union Territories. CPCB, under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, aims to promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by prevention, control and abatement of water pollution, and to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country. Air quality/ pollution : CPCB runs nationwide programs of ambient air quality monitoring known as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP). The network consists of 621 operating stations covering 262 cities/towns in 29 states and 5 Union Territories of the country. Under N.A.M.P., four air pollutants viz., Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen as NO2, Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM/ PM10) have been identified for regular monitoring at all the locations. The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and wind direction, relative humidity (RH) and temperature were also integrated with the monitoring of air quality. This information on Air Quality at ITO is updated every week. Water quality/ pollution : Fresh water is a finite resource essential for use in agriculture, industry, propagation of wildlife & fisheries and for human existence. India is a riverine country. It has 14 major rivers, 44 medium rivers and 55 minor rivers besides numerous lakes, ponds and wells which are used as primary source of drinking water even without treatment. Most of the rivers being fed by monsoon rains, which is limited to only three months of the year, run dry throughout the rest of the year often carrying wastewater discharges from industries or cities or towns endangering the quality of our scarce water resources. CPCB in collaboration with concerned SPCBs/PCCs established a nationwide network of water quality monitoring, which has running 1019 stations in 27 States and 6 Union Territories. The monitoring process is done on quarterly basis in surface waters and on half yearly basis in case of ground water. It covers 200 Rivers, 60 Lakes, 5 Tanks, 3 Ponds, 3 Creeks, 13 Canals, 17 Drains and 321 Wells. Among the 1019 stations, 592 are on rivers, 65 on lakes, 17 on drains, 13 on canals, 5 on tanks, 3 on creeks, 3 on ponds and 321 are groundwater stations. The inland water quality monitoring network is operating under a three-tier program i.e. Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), Monitoring of Indian National Aquatic Resources System (MINARS) and Yamuna Action Plan (YAP). Urban area programs (EcoCity Program) : CPCB programs for urban areas, also known as EcoCity Program comes under X Plan to improve environment through implementation of identified environmental improvement projects in the selected towns and cities. Pilot studies conducted for urban areas by the Centre for Spatial Environmental Planning created at the CPCB under the World Bank funded Environmental Management Capacity Building Project and supported by the GTZ-CPCB Project under the Indo-German Bilateral Program. According to these studies CPCB develop a comprehensive urban improvement system employing practical, innovative and non-conventional solutions. Under the X Plan, a budget provision of Rs. 15 crore has been made for the period 2002–03 to 2006-07 for the Ecocity projects. Municipal Solid Waste rules : Every municipal authority comes under the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 (MSW rules, 2000) and responsible for collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing and disposal of municipal solid. CPCB collects necessary information form municipal authorities and provide them technical assistance. Noise Pollution/ Rules : According to S.O. 123(E) by MoEFC, various sources like industrial activity, construction activity, generator sets, loud speakers, public address systems, music systems, vehicular horns and other mechanical devices have deleterious effects on human health. CPCB has the responsibility to regulate and control noise producing and generating sources with the objective of maintaining the ambient air quality standards. Environmental Data Statistics : CPCB manages environmental data statistic in which air quality data and water quality data comes through. In the case of air quality data, it measures the level of SO2, NO2, RSPM and SPM. CPCB measure and maintains water quality data as well. Quality level of river and ponds are the major fields which comes under the water quality data criteria. Organizational structure CPCB is led by its Chairman following by the Member Secretary. The CPCB performs its various functions through the following nine major project\ budget heads. Pollution assessment (survey and monitoring). R&D and laboratory management. Development of standards and guidelines for industry specific emissions and effluents standards Training Information database management and library Pollution control technology Pollution control enforcement Mass awareness and publications Hazard waste management Divisions of CPCB Head Office CPCB head office is currently divided into 22 divisions. Each division have its own in charge and individual sets of goals. Pollution Control Planning Division (PCP). Pollution, Assessment, Monitoring & Survey (PAMS). Pollution Control Implementation Division -I (PCI-I). Pollution Control Implementation Division-II (PCI-II). Pollution Control Implementation Division - III (PCI-III). Urban Pollution Control Division (UPCD). Hazardous Waste Management Division (HWMD). Information Technology. Environmental Training Unit (ETU). LEGAL CELL. PR SECTION. AS SECTION. BUILDING SECTION. LIBRARY. HINDI SECTION. ADMINISTRATION (RECRUITMENT). PCI (SSI). ADMINISTRATION (PERSONNEL). MATERIAL. Accounts. Zonal offices CPCB has established 9 zonal offices catering to various States. Zonal offices are field offices of CPCB and all the schemes are prepared at Head office are executed by them. Zonal offices undertake field investigation and send reports on Water Quality Monitoring, Air Quality Monitoring, Industrial Inspection and other such related activities to the Head office for further action. Each zonal office caters to a fixed number of states. The Zonal offices are located at Bengaluru, Kolkata, Shillong, Bhopal, Lucknow, Vadodara, Chandigarh, Pune and a Project Office at Agra. See also Environmental issues in India Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education Van Vigyan Kendra (VVK) Forest Science Centres References External links Central Pollution Control Board 2014 Changes In CPCB2 Generator Law in India

Pterostylis × aenigma

Pterostylis × aenigma, commonly known as enigmatic greenhood, is a species of orchid endemic to Victoria in Australia. It has a rosette of leaves and a single green and white flower which leans forward and has a brownish point on the end. It is a rare orchid, occurring at only one site with fewer than 100 individual plants and is thought to be a natural hybrid between two species that grow nearby.

Pterostylis × aenigma, commonly known as enigmatic greenhood, is a species of orchid endemic to Victoria in Australia. It has a rosette of leaves and a single green and white flower which leans forward and has a brownish point on the end. It is a rare orchid, occurring at only one site with fewer than 100 individual plants and is thought to be a natural hybrid between two species that grow nearby. Description Pterostylis × aenigma has a rosette of between three and eight dark green, fleshy, flat leaves, each leaf 40–60 mm (1.6–2.4 in) long and 15–18 mm (0.6–0.7 in) wide. A single green and white flower is borne on a flowering spike 150–300 mm (6–10 in) high. The flowers are 40–45 mm (1.6–1.8 in) long, 14–18 mm (0.6–0.7 in) wide and lean forward or "nod". The dorsal sepal and petals are joined and curve forward forming a hood over the column. The dorsal sepal is longer than the petals and has a pointed tip. The tip of the hood is brownish. There is a notch in the sinus between the lateral sepals and a large gap between the lateral sepals and petals. The lateral sepals are olive brown and have thread-like tips 25–35 mm (0.98–1.4 in) long. The labellum protrudes through the sinus and is 18–21 mm (0.7–0.8 in) long, about 4 mm (0.2 in) wide, curved, dark brown and blunt. Flowering occurs between November and December. Taxonomy and naming Pterostylis × aenigma was first described in 1993 by David Jones and Mark Clements from a specimen collected near Omeo. The description was published in Muelleria. The authors noted that this species is possibly a hybrid between Pterostylis cucullata and P. furcata (later corrected to P. falcata), both of which grow nearby. The specific epithet (aenigma) means "riddle" or "mystery", referring to the "puzzling origin and distribution of this species". Distribution and habitat Enigmatic greenhood grows in moist places near streams in open forest at an altitude of 950 m (3,000 ft) near Omeo. Conservation About 50 plants of Pterostylis × aenigma were known in 2003 but only five were located in 2005. The population occurs in the Alpine National Park but is nevertheless threatened by grazing, weed invasion and site disturbance. The species is classified as "Endangered" by the Victorian Government and as "Endangered" (EN) under the Australian Government Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) and a recovery plan has been prepared. == References ==

Magnus (consul 460)

Magnus (died 475 AD) was a Roman senator of Narbonne (then Narbo). He was appointed Roman consul in 460 by the Western emperor Majorian, at the same time Apollonius served in the East. Magnus also served as praetorian prefect of Gaul around the same time.

Magnus (died 475 AD) was a Roman senator of Narbonne (then Narbo). He was appointed Roman consul in 460 by the Western emperor Majorian, at the same time Apollonius served in the East. Magnus also served as praetorian prefect of Gaul around the same time. Family Magnus was the grandson of Agricola, consul in 421 and father of Emperor Avitus. According to one reconstruction, his father might have been the son of Ennodius, proconsul of Africa. He might have been Felix, consul in 428, who married Padusia and was allegedly an ancestor of Felix, consul in 511. He was the father of: Magnus Felix, praetorian prefect of Gaul in 469, married to Attica; Araneola, married to Polemius between 460 and 469. Probus, a Roman senator Sources and references A. H. M. Jones; J. R. Martindale; J. Morris (1980). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Vol. II. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20159-9. Christian Settipani (2000). Continuité gentilice et continuité familiale dans les familles sénatoriales romaines à l'époque impériale. p. 597, Addenda I-III, p. 11. ISBN 9781900934022. Sidonius Apollinaris, The Letters of Sidonius (Oxford: Clarendon, 1915), pp. clx-clxxxiii