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LongCacti-quac

like 0

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[ "Did something go wrong with communicating with the rover?", "Did something happen to make the rover not communicate?", "How many times did they try to communicate with it?", "Did they give up on the rover?", "What was the last thing the rover communicated?", "Did the rover send any important information?", "Was there any other factors that contributed to the communication failure?", "Why would the mission clock fail?", "Was there a lack of solar arrays at the time?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 86 ], [ 179 ], [ 802 ], [ 1425 ], [ 1074 ], [ 1219 ], [ 357 ], [ 453 ], [ 1573 ] ], "texts": [ [ "As of 2016, there has been no communication with the rover since Sol 2210 (March 22, 2010)." ], [ "It is likely that Spirit experienced a low-power fault and had turned off all sub-systems," ], [ "Each sol, the Deep Space Network mission controllers sent a set of X-band \"Sweep & Beep\" commands." ], [ "But even with this new strategy, there was no response from the rover." ], [ "Due to the possible clock fault, the timing of these 20-minute listening intervals was not known, so multiple \"Sweep & Beep\" commands were sent." ], [ "If the rover heard one of these commands, it would have responded with an X-band beep signal, updating the mission controllers on its status" ], [ "It is also possible that the rover had experienced a mission clock fault." ], [ "the rover would have lost track of time and tried to remain asleep until enough sunlight struck the solar arrays to wake it." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 86, 179, 802, 1425, 1074, 1219, 357, 453, 1573 ], "texts": [ "As of 2016, there has been no communication with the rover since Sol 2210 (March 22, 2010).", "It is likely that Spirit experienced a low-power fault and had turned off all sub-systems,", "Each sol, the Deep Space Network mission controllers sent a set of X-band \"Sweep & Beep\" commands.", "But even with this new strategy, there was no response from the rover.", "Due to the possible clock fault, the timing of these 20-minute listening intervals was not known, so multiple \"Sweep & Beep\" commands were sent.", "If the rover heard one of these commands, it would have responded with an X-band beep signal, updating the mission controllers on its status", "It is also possible that the rover had experienced a mission clock fault.", "the rover would have lost track of time and tried to remain asleep until enough sunlight struck the solar arrays to wake it.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Yes, there has been no communication with the rover since Sol 2210 (March 22, 2010).", "Yes, it is likely that the rover, Spirit, experienced a low-power fault causing it to turn off all sub-systems, including communication, and go into a deep sleep. It is also possible that the rover experienced a mission clock fault, which would cause it to lose track of time.", "The text does not provide a specific number of times the Deep Space Network mission controllers attempted to communicate with the Spirit rover. However, it is implied that they tried to communicate each sol (Martian day) starting on Sol 2333 (July 26, 2010) using a set of X-band \"Sweep & Beep\" commands.", "The text does not specify whether the Deep Space Network mission controllers gave up on the Rover. However, as of 2016, they had not received any response from the Rover since Sol 2210 (March 22, 2010). Despite implementing a new communication strategy, they did not get any responses.", "The text does not provide information on the last thing the rover communicated.", "The context does not provide any specific information about the importance of the data or information sent by the rover.", "The text mentions two possible factors contributing to the communication failure with the rover. One is a low-power fault, which could have caused the rover to turn off all sub-systems, including communication, and go into a deep sleep. The other is a possible mission clock fault, which could have caused the rover to lose track of time. Both factors would have potentially impacted the rover's ability to communicate.", "The text does not provide specific information on why the mission clock would fail.", "The text does not provide information to suggest that there was a lack of solar arrays on the rover. It does mention that the rover might attempt to wake up when enough sunlight struck its solar arrays, implying the presence of solar arrays on the rover." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What happened in 1992?", "What happened after they broke up?", "Did he make any albums?", "Was it successful?", "Did it make bill board charts?", "Was that the only solo album?", "Did they have any music videos?" ]

[ 1, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2647 ], [ 1281 ], [ 1397 ], [ 1522 ], [ 2647 ], [ 2001 ], [ 2647 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Frantz and Weymouth, who married in 1977, had been recording on the side as Tom Tom Club since 1981." ], [ "self-titled debut album sold almost as well as Talking Heads" ], [ "They achieved several pop/rap hits during the dance-club cultural boom era of the early 1980s," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "continue to record and tour intermittently, although commercial releases have become sporadic since 1991." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2647, 1281, 1397, 1522, 2647, 2001, 2647 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "Frantz and Weymouth, who married in 1977, had been recording on the side as Tom Tom Club since 1981.", "self-titled debut album sold almost as well as Talking Heads", "They achieved several pop/rap hits during the dance-club cultural boom era of the early 1980s,", "CANNOTANSWER", "continue to record and tour intermittently, although commercial releases have become sporadic since 1991.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "The following list includes notable dance-rock artists.\n\nArtists\n\n!!!\nABC\nAnd Then There Were None\nThe B-52's\nBelouis Some\nBig Audio Dynamite\nThe Big Pink\nBodyRockers\nA Certain Ratio\nThe Charlatans\nDepeche Mode\nDevo\nDuran Duran\nElectronic\nEMF\nEurythmics\nThe Farm\nFine Young Cannibals\nFrankie Goes to Hollywood\nFranz Ferdinand\nFriendly Fires\nGang of Four\nGarbage\nHall & Oates\nHappy Mondays\nHot Chelle Rae\nHot Chip\nBilly Idol\nINXS\nMick Jagger\nJesus Jones\nThe Killers\nLCD Soundsystem\nLiquid Liquid\nThe New Cities\nNew Order\nNo Doubt\nOingo Boingo\nRobert Palmer\nPet Shop Boys\nPrimal Scream\nThe Prodigy\nPseudo Echo\nPublic Image Ltd\nRogue Traders\nScissor Sisters\nThe Shamen\nSimple Minds\nThe Stone Roses\nTalking Heads\nTom Tom Club\nU2\nWalk the Moon\nWas (Not Was)\nThe White Tie Affair\nRobbie Williams\n\nReferences\n\n \nDance-rock\nDance-rock", "title": "List of dance-rock artists" }, { "text": "The following is a list of post-punk bands. Post-punk is a musical movement that began at the end of the 1970s, following on the heels of the initial punk rock movement. The essential period that is most commonly cited as post-punk falls between 1978 and 1984.\n\nNote: ≠ indicates a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\n\n0–9\n23 Skidoo\n\nA\n\nAdam and the Ants\nThe Alarm\n...And the Native Hipsters\nThe Art Attacks\nArtery\nAssociates\nAu Pairs\nAztec Camera\n\nB\n\nThe B-52's\nThe Batfish Boys\nBauhaus\nBhopal Stiffs\nBig Black\nThe Birthday Party\nThe Blackouts\nBlam Blam Blam\nBlue Orchids\nBlyth Power\nBuerak\nBush Tetras\n\nC\n\nCabaret Voltaire\nCapital Inicial\nCardiacs\nA Certain Ratio\nThe Chameleons\nJames Chance and the Contortions\nThe Chills\nCircus Mort\n≠The Clash \nThe Clean\nClock DVA\nCocteau Twins\nThe Comsat Angels\nThe Cult\n≠The Cure\n\nD\n\nDA!\nDalek I Love You\nDamien Done\nDead Can Dance\nThe Deep Freeze Mice\nThe Del-Byzanteens\nDelta 5\n≠Depeche Mode\nDesperate Bicycles\nDeutsch Amerikanische Freundschaft (D.A.F.)\nDevo\nDinosaur Jr.\nDo-Re-Mi\nThe Dream Syndicate\nThe Durutti Column\n\nE\n\nEcho & the Bunnymen\nESG\nEssential Logic\nEurogliders\nThe Ex\nEyeless in Gaza\n\nF\n\nFactrix\nFaith No More (as Faith No Man)\nThe Fall\nFamily Fodder\nThe Feelies\nFelt\nThe Fire Engines\nFlipper\nThe Flying Lizards\nFor Against\nFra Lippo Lippi (early work)\n\nG\n\nGang of Four\nGene Loves Jezebel\nGirls at Our Best!\nGlaxo Babies\nGreen River\nThe Gun Club\n\nH\n\nHalf Man Half Biscuit\nHeaven 17\nThe Higsons\nThe Human League\nHüsker Dü\n\nI\n\nI'm So Hollow\nIn Camera\n\nJ\n\nThe Jam\nJapan\nThe Jesus Lizard\nThe Jesus and Mary Chain\nJosef K\nJoy Division\n\nK\n\nKilling Joke\nKino\n\nL\n\nLaughing Clowns\nLiLiPUT\nThe Lords of the New Church\nLove and Rockets\nLowlife\nLudus\n\nM\n\nMolchat Doma\nMagazine\nMaximum Joy\nMeat Puppets\nThe Mekons\nMelvins\nThe Membranes\nThe Method Actors\nMidnight Oil (early work)\nMinimal Compact\nMinny Pops\nMission of Burma\nMo-dettes\nModels\nModern English\nModern Eon\nThe Monochrome Set\n\nN\n\nNaked Raygun\nThe Names\nNew Model Army\nNew Order\nNick Cave and the Bad Seeds\nThe Nightingales\n\nO\n\nThe Opposition\nOrange Juice\n\nP\n\nPalais Schaumburg\nThe Passage\nThe Passions\nPel Mel\nPere Ubu\nPhantom Tollbooth\nPigbag\nPink Military\nPloho\nThe Pogues\n≠The Police\nThe Pop Group\nPrimitive Calculators\nThe Proclaimers\nThe Psychedelic Furs\nPublic Image Ltd\nPylon\n\nR\n\nThe Raincoats\nRank and File\nRed Lorry Yellow Lorry\nRema-Rema\n≠R.E.M.\nThe Residents\nRip Rig + Panic\nRomeo Void\n\nS\n\nSad Lovers & Giants\nSavage Republic\nThe Scientists\nScratch Acid\nScritti Politti\nSection 25\nSex Gang Children\nSielun Veljet\nSimple Minds\nSiouxsie and the Banshees\nThe Sisters of Mercy\nThe Sleepers\nThe Slits\nThe Smiths\nThe Soft Boys\nThe Sound\nSouthern Death Cult\nSqueeze\nStreet eaters\nSubway Sect\nSunnyboys\nSwell Maps\n\nT\n\n≠Talking Heads\nThe Teardrop Explodes\nTelevision\nTelevision Personalities\nThe The\nTheatre of Hate\nThis Heat\nThompson Twins (early work)\nThe Three Johns\nThrobbing Gristle\nTin Huey\nTones on Tail\nTransvision Vamp\nTuxedomoon\n\nU\n\n≠U2\nUK Decay\nUltravox\n\nV\n\nThe Veils\nViolent Femmes\nVoigt/465\nVolcano Suns\n\nW\n\nThe Wake\nWall of Voodoo\nThe Wedding Present\nWhirlywirld\nWire\n\nX\n\nXero\nXTC\n\nY\nYoung Marble Giants\n\nZ\nZounds\n\nPost-punk revival bands\n\nSee also\nList of gothic rock artists\nList of new wave artists and bands\nList of punk rock bands, 0–K\nList of punk rock bands, L–Z\nList of post-hardcore bands\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\n \nPost-punk\nPost punk", "title": "List of post-punk bands" } ]

[ "The text does not provide information on what happened in 1992.", "After the band broke up, Tina Weymouth, Chris Frantz, and Jerry Harrison reunited under the name \"The Heads\" for a one-off album called \"No Talking, Just Head\" in 1996, despite David Byrne's disinterest. The album featured several guest vocalists and was accompanied by a tour featuring Johnette Napolitano as the vocalist, but Byrne took legal action to prevent them from using the name \"Talking Heads\". Meanwhile, Harrison became a successful record producer and Frantz and Weymouth continued recording as Tom Tom Club, a side project they had been working on since 1981. This band had several pop/rap hits, specifically in the UK, and has produced several artists. Tom Tom Club still records and tours occasionally. The original band members played \"Life During Wartime\", \"Psycho Killer\", and \"Burning Down the House\" together in 2002 for their induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, but a full reunion is unlikely due to bad blood and musical differences.", "Yes, Jerry Harrison became a record producer and made several albums including the Violent Femmes' The Blind Leading the Naked, the Fine Young Cannibals' The Raw and the Cooked, and others.", "The text does not provide information on the success of the albums produced by Jerry Harrison.", "The text does not provide information on whether the albums produced by Jerry Harrison made the Billboard charts.", "The text does not specify if the album \"No Talking, Just Head\" by The Heads was the only solo album created after the band's split. It also mentions that Tom Tom Club, a project by Tina Weymouth and Chris Frantz, has released several records, but it does not provide details on all their releases. It also does not provide specific information about Jerry Harrison or David Byrne's solo albums.", "The text does not provide information on whether they had any music videos." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What happened in 1981?", "What was the height of commercial success?", "Did they receive any awards?", "When did they break up?", "What caused the breakup?", "How long was the hiatus?", "What else was interesting in this section?" ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2248 ], [ 842 ], [ 2248 ], [ 1671 ], [ 1544 ], [ 1671 ], [ 1773 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Three more albums followed: 1985's Little Creatures (which featured the hit singles \"And She Was\" and \"Road to Nowhere\")," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "It took until December 1991 for an official announcement to be made that Talking Heads had broken up." ], [ "During that time, the group was falling increasingly under David Byrne's control and, after Naked, the band went on \"hiatus\"." ], [ "It took until December 1991 for an official announcement to be made that Talking Heads had broken up." ], [ "Their final release was \"Sax and Violins\", an original song that had appeared earlier that year on the soundtrack to Wim Wenders' Until the End of the World." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2248, 842, 2248, 1671, 1544, 1671, 1773 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "Three more albums followed: 1985's Little Creatures (which featured the hit singles \"And She Was\" and \"Road to Nowhere\"),", "CANNOTANSWER", "It took until December 1991 for an official announcement to be made that Talking Heads had broken up.", "During that time, the group was falling increasingly under David Byrne's control and, after Naked, the band went on \"hiatus\".", "It took until December 1991 for an official announcement to be made that Talking Heads had broken up.", "Their final release was \"Sax and Violins\", an original song that had appeared earlier that year on the soundtrack to Wim Wenders' Until the End of the World." ] }

[ { "text": "The following list includes notable dance-rock artists.\n\nArtists\n\n!!!\nABC\nAnd Then There Were None\nThe B-52's\nBelouis Some\nBig Audio Dynamite\nThe Big Pink\nBodyRockers\nA Certain Ratio\nThe Charlatans\nDepeche Mode\nDevo\nDuran Duran\nElectronic\nEMF\nEurythmics\nThe Farm\nFine Young Cannibals\nFrankie Goes to Hollywood\nFranz Ferdinand\nFriendly Fires\nGang of Four\nGarbage\nHall & Oates\nHappy Mondays\nHot Chelle Rae\nHot Chip\nBilly Idol\nINXS\nMick Jagger\nJesus Jones\nThe Killers\nLCD Soundsystem\nLiquid Liquid\nThe New Cities\nNew Order\nNo Doubt\nOingo Boingo\nRobert Palmer\nPet Shop Boys\nPrimal Scream\nThe Prodigy\nPseudo Echo\nPublic Image Ltd\nRogue Traders\nScissor Sisters\nThe Shamen\nSimple Minds\nThe Stone Roses\nTalking Heads\nTom Tom Club\nU2\nWalk the Moon\nWas (Not Was)\nThe White Tie Affair\nRobbie Williams\n\nReferences\n\n \nDance-rock\nDance-rock", "title": "List of dance-rock artists" }, { "text": "The following is a list of post-punk bands. Post-punk is a musical movement that began at the end of the 1970s, following on the heels of the initial punk rock movement. The essential period that is most commonly cited as post-punk falls between 1978 and 1984.\n\nNote: ≠ indicates a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\n\n0–9\n23 Skidoo\n\nA\n\nAdam and the Ants\nThe Alarm\n...And the Native Hipsters\nThe Art Attacks\nArtery\nAssociates\nAu Pairs\nAztec Camera\n\nB\n\nThe B-52's\nThe Batfish Boys\nBauhaus\nBhopal Stiffs\nBig Black\nThe Birthday Party\nThe Blackouts\nBlam Blam Blam\nBlue Orchids\nBlyth Power\nBuerak\nBush Tetras\n\nC\n\nCabaret Voltaire\nCapital Inicial\nCardiacs\nA Certain Ratio\nThe Chameleons\nJames Chance and the Contortions\nThe Chills\nCircus Mort\n≠The Clash \nThe Clean\nClock DVA\nCocteau Twins\nThe Comsat Angels\nThe Cult\n≠The Cure\n\nD\n\nDA!\nDalek I Love You\nDamien Done\nDead Can Dance\nThe Deep Freeze Mice\nThe Del-Byzanteens\nDelta 5\n≠Depeche Mode\nDesperate Bicycles\nDeutsch Amerikanische Freundschaft (D.A.F.)\nDevo\nDinosaur Jr.\nDo-Re-Mi\nThe Dream Syndicate\nThe Durutti Column\n\nE\n\nEcho & the Bunnymen\nESG\nEssential Logic\nEurogliders\nThe Ex\nEyeless in Gaza\n\nF\n\nFactrix\nFaith No More (as Faith No Man)\nThe Fall\nFamily Fodder\nThe Feelies\nFelt\nThe Fire Engines\nFlipper\nThe Flying Lizards\nFor Against\nFra Lippo Lippi (early work)\n\nG\n\nGang of Four\nGene Loves Jezebel\nGirls at Our Best!\nGlaxo Babies\nGreen River\nThe Gun Club\n\nH\n\nHalf Man Half Biscuit\nHeaven 17\nThe Higsons\nThe Human League\nHüsker Dü\n\nI\n\nI'm So Hollow\nIn Camera\n\nJ\n\nThe Jam\nJapan\nThe Jesus Lizard\nThe Jesus and Mary Chain\nJosef K\nJoy Division\n\nK\n\nKilling Joke\nKino\n\nL\n\nLaughing Clowns\nLiLiPUT\nThe Lords of the New Church\nLove and Rockets\nLowlife\nLudus\n\nM\n\nMolchat Doma\nMagazine\nMaximum Joy\nMeat Puppets\nThe Mekons\nMelvins\nThe Membranes\nThe Method Actors\nMidnight Oil (early work)\nMinimal Compact\nMinny Pops\nMission of Burma\nMo-dettes\nModels\nModern English\nModern Eon\nThe Monochrome Set\n\nN\n\nNaked Raygun\nThe Names\nNew Model Army\nNew Order\nNick Cave and the Bad Seeds\nThe Nightingales\n\nO\n\nThe Opposition\nOrange Juice\n\nP\n\nPalais Schaumburg\nThe Passage\nThe Passions\nPel Mel\nPere Ubu\nPhantom Tollbooth\nPigbag\nPink Military\nPloho\nThe Pogues\n≠The Police\nThe Pop Group\nPrimitive Calculators\nThe Proclaimers\nThe Psychedelic Furs\nPublic Image Ltd\nPylon\n\nR\n\nThe Raincoats\nRank and File\nRed Lorry Yellow Lorry\nRema-Rema\n≠R.E.M.\nThe Residents\nRip Rig + Panic\nRomeo Void\n\nS\n\nSad Lovers & Giants\nSavage Republic\nThe Scientists\nScratch Acid\nScritti Politti\nSection 25\nSex Gang Children\nSielun Veljet\nSimple Minds\nSiouxsie and the Banshees\nThe Sisters of Mercy\nThe Sleepers\nThe Slits\nThe Smiths\nThe Soft Boys\nThe Sound\nSouthern Death Cult\nSqueeze\nStreet eaters\nSubway Sect\nSunnyboys\nSwell Maps\n\nT\n\n≠Talking Heads\nThe Teardrop Explodes\nTelevision\nTelevision Personalities\nThe The\nTheatre of Hate\nThis Heat\nThompson Twins (early work)\nThe Three Johns\nThrobbing Gristle\nTin Huey\nTones on Tail\nTransvision Vamp\nTuxedomoon\n\nU\n\n≠U2\nUK Decay\nUltravox\n\nV\n\nThe Veils\nViolent Femmes\nVoigt/465\nVolcano Suns\n\nW\n\nThe Wake\nWall of Voodoo\nThe Wedding Present\nWhirlywirld\nWire\n\nX\n\nXero\nXTC\n\nY\nYoung Marble Giants\n\nZ\nZounds\n\nPost-punk revival bands\n\nSee also\nList of gothic rock artists\nList of new wave artists and bands\nList of punk rock bands, 0–K\nList of punk rock bands, L–Z\nList of post-hardcore bands\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\n \nPost-punk\nPost punk", "title": "List of post-punk bands" } ]

[ "The text does not provide information on what happened in 1981.", "The height of Talking Heads' commercial success came with the release of the album Speaking in Tongues in 1983, which produced the band's only American Top 10 hit, \"Burning Down the House\".", "The text does not provide information on any awards received by Talking Heads.", "Talking Heads officially announced their break up in December 1991.", "The group was falling increasingly under the control of David Byrne and after the release of their album, Naked, the band went on \"hiatus\". However, the actual cause of the break up is not specified in the context provided.", "The context does not provide specific information on the length of the hiatus Talking Heads took after the release of their album, Naked.", "Other interesting information in this section includes the band's evolution in musical style over the years, the various solo and side projects of the band members during break periods, and the influence of their music on other artists, as evidenced by the track \"Radio Head\" which became the etymon of the band of the same name." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Neutral", "No" ]

[ "C_0f20336bb8b74b4c9fc81bf48d2e34e7_0_q#0", "C_0f20336bb8b74b4c9fc81bf48d2e34e7_0_q#1", "C_0f20336bb8b74b4c9fc81bf48d2e34e7_0_q#2", "C_0f20336bb8b74b4c9fc81bf48d2e34e7_0_q#3" ]

[ "What influence did Wheatley have on poetry?", "Did she win any awards for her work?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did she have works published?" ]

[ 2, 1, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1575 ], [ 1812 ], [ 647 ], [ 1812 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Wheatley's use of classicism distinguishes her work as original and unique and deserves extended treatment." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "used three primary elements: Christianity, classicism, and hierophantic solar worship." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1575, 1812, 647, 1812 ], "texts": [ "Wheatley's use of classicism distinguishes her work as original and unique and deserves extended treatment.", "CANNOTANSWER", "used three primary elements: Christianity, classicism, and hierophantic solar worship.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide specific information on the influence Wheatley had on poetry.", "The text does not provide information on whether Wheatley won any awards for her work.", "The article provides interesting insights into Wheatley's work and her writing approach. She used three primary elements in her poems: Christianity, classicism, and hierophantic solar worship. The last one, hierophantic solar worship, reflects her African background as her parents were sun worshipers. She often referenced to the sun god and goddess of the morn in her quest for poetic inspiration. John C. Shields, who analyzed Wheatley's work, noticed that her use of classicism set her poems apart from those of her contemporaries. He described her writing as \"contemplative and reflective rather than brilliant and shimmering.\"", "The text does not provide information on whether Wheatley had works published." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_0f20336bb8b74b4c9fc81bf48d2e34e7_1_q#0", "C_0f20336bb8b74b4c9fc81bf48d2e34e7_1_q#1", "C_0f20336bb8b74b4c9fc81bf48d2e34e7_1_q#2", "C_0f20336bb8b74b4c9fc81bf48d2e34e7_1_q#3" ]

[ "What did she do later in life?", "Did she ever get it published later?", "What else did she do?", "Can you elaborate on how she was emancipated by family?" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1762 ], [ 2067 ], [ 1341 ], [ 2543 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1779, Wheatley submitted a proposal for a second volume of poems, but was unable to publish it because of her financial circumstances," ], [ "However, some of her poems that were to be published in that volume were later published in pamphlets and newspapers." ], [ "In 1773, sometime between July and October, Wheatley was emancipated by the Wheatley family shortly after her book," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1762, 2067, 1341, 2543 ], "texts": [ "In 1779, Wheatley submitted a proposal for a second volume of poems, but was unable to publish it because of her financial circumstances,", "However, some of her poems that were to be published in that volume were later published in pamphlets and newspapers.", "In 1773, sometime between July and October, Wheatley was emancipated by the Wheatley family shortly after her book,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Later in life, Phillis Wheatley struggled with poor living conditions and the deaths of two infants. She attempted to publish a second volume of poems in 1779, but was unable to due to financial constraints, loss of patrons, and the Revolutionary War. Instead, some of the poems were published in pamphlets and newspapers. Her husband was imprisoned for debt in 1784, and she took up work as a scullery maid at a boarding house. She died in 1784 at the age of 31.", "While Phillis Wheatley was unable to publish her second volume of poems as a book, some of the poems that were intended for this volume were later published in pamphlets and newspapers.", "Other than trying to publish her second volume of poems, Phillis Wheatley also engaged in letter exchanges with notable persons like Reverend Samson Occom and John Thornton, expressing her thoughts and beliefs. Additionally, she wrote a poem entitled \"To His Excellency, George Washington\" and even visited him in Massachusetts in 1776. Following the passing of her former owners, the Wheatleys, she married John Peters, a free black grocer. After her husband was imprisoned for debt, she worked as a scullery maid at a boarding house to support herself and her sickly infant son.", "The text does not provide specific details on how Phillis Wheatley was emancipated by the Wheatley family. It only mentions that her emancipation occurred sometime between July and October 1773, shortly after her book, Poems on Subjects Religious and Moral, was published in London." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "When was he with Hindenburg?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What rank was he during this time?", "What was their location?", "What was their mission?", "Who else was involved in these missions?", "What was his role as chief of staff?", "Was he good at his position assigned to him?", "Were there other countries involved?", "Did he fight in any battles on the front line?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 290 ], [ 1392 ], [ 2525 ], [ 2012 ], [ 1876 ], [ 290 ], [ 391 ], [ 563 ], [ 871 ], [ 2129 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Falkenhayn was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Field Marshal Hindenburg on 29 August 1916. Ludendorff was his chief of staff as first Quartermaster" ], [ "They toured the Western Front meeting --and evaluating-- commanders, learning about their problems and soliciting their opinions." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Hindenburg was given titular command over all of the forces of the Central Powers. Ludendorff's hand was everywhere." ], [ "The German goal was victory, which they defined as a Germany with extended borders that could be more easily defended in the next war." ], [ "Falkenhayn was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Field Marshal Hindenburg on 29 August 1916. Ludendorff was his chief of staff" ], [ "Ludendorff was his chief of staff as first Quartermaster general, with the stipulation that he would have joint responsibility." ], [ "Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg warned the War Cabinet: \"You don't know Ludendorff, who is only great at a time of success." ], [ "Romania was invaded from the south by German, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman troops" ], [ "Every day he was on the telephone with the staffs of their armies and the Army was deluged with \"Ludendorff's paper barrage\" of orders," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 290, 1392, 2525, 2012, 1876, 290, 391, 563, 871, 2129 ], "texts": [ "Falkenhayn was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Field Marshal Hindenburg on 29 August 1916. Ludendorff was his chief of staff as first Quartermaster", "They toured the Western Front meeting --and evaluating-- commanders, learning about their problems and soliciting their opinions.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Hindenburg was given titular command over all of the forces of the Central Powers. Ludendorff's hand was everywhere.", "The German goal was victory, which they defined as a Germany with extended borders that could be more easily defended in the next war.", "Falkenhayn was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Field Marshal Hindenburg on 29 August 1916. Ludendorff was his chief of staff", "Ludendorff was his chief of staff as first Quartermaster general, with the stipulation that he would have joint responsibility.", "Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg warned the War Cabinet: \"You don't know Ludendorff, who is only great at a time of success.", "Romania was invaded from the south by German, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman troops", "Every day he was on the telephone with the staffs of their armies and the Army was deluged with \"Ludendorff's paper barrage\" of orders," ] }

[]

[ "Ludendorff was with Hindenburg starting from 29 August 1916, when Hindenburg became the Chief of the General Staff and Ludendorff became his chief of staff as first Quartermaster general.", "Yes, the article provides an insight into Ludendorff's role and management style during the war. It describes him as a dominant figure who was deeply involved in the war effort, speaking for commanders during meetings, authoring a barrage of orders, instructions, and demands for information, and even regularly interacting with media. It also mentions Ludendorff's reception by the public, who idolized him as the brain of their army. Moreover, the article discusses the strategic approach employed during the war, such as the creation of a new defensive line known as the Hindenburg Line, and the ultimate goal of Germany for broader borders. The Chancellor's warning about Ludendorff's tendency to lose his nerve during challenging times is another interesting aspect of the article.", "During this time, Ludendorff was promoted to General of the Infantry.", "The context does not provide a specific location for Ludendorff and Hindenburg, but it mentions them engaging in battles along the Western Front, managing troops in Hungary, Romania, and later moving west. The Western front typically refers to the region of northern France where much of the fighting of World War I took place.", "Their mission was to achieve victory in the war, which the Germans defined as extending their borders to create a Germany that could be more easily defended in any potential future wars. This involved a number of strategic decisions, like shifting towards defensive tactics on the Somme, stopping attacks at Verdun, and building what came to be known as the Hindenburg Line, a new backup defensive fortification.", "Apart from Ludendorff and Hindenburg, other key individuals mentioned as part of the war effort included Field Marshal August von Mackensen and Erich von Falkenhayn who commanded troops against Romania. Max Bauer, Ludendorff's friend, who lobbied for Ludendorff, is also mentioned. Additionally, there were commanders, staff, and troops of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman forces.", "Ludendorff's role as chief of staff was extensive and involved great responsibility. He had joint responsibility with Hindenburg and was deeply involved in all aspects of the German war effort, being described as having his \"hand everywhere\". He issued orders, instructions, and demands for information in what was described as a \"paper barrage\". Furthermore, Ludendorff largely dominated meetings with commanders, doing most of the talking and learning about their problems. He also issued the two daily communiques and was often in contact with newspaper and newsreel reporters. He was seen by the public as the brain behind their army.", "The context indicates that Ludendorff was deeply involved, proactive, and took charge in his position as chief of staff. He was idolized by the public as the brain of their army. However, there was criticism too. Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg warned that Ludendorff was only great at a time of success, implying that he might struggle with challenging situations. Also, Field Marshal August von Mackensen characterized Ludendorff's management style as consisting of \"floods of telegrams, as superfluous as they were offensive.\" So, while he was effective and recognized, there were also concerns and criticism about his methods and performance under pressure.", "Yes, other countries were involved in the war effort at this time. Apart from Germany, troops from the Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman empires were mentioned as participating in military operations. These nations, alongside Germany, were part of the Central Powers in World War I. Furthermore, Romania and Russia were mentioned as countries against which military operations were directed.", "The context does not specify if Ludendorff directly fought in any battles on the front line. It does indicate he was heavily involved in overseeing and managing military operations, including decisions about defensive tactics on the Somme and ending attacks at Verdun. He was also involved in efforts to check Romanian and Russian incursions into Hungary. However, these responsibilities seem to relate more to commanding, directing, and strategizing, rather than personally fighting on the front line." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "What happened in the middle period?", "was it successful?", "why was it a fauilure?", "did they win any awards?", "did they produce any other music?", "did they tour?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "what did he appear on?", "did they help anyone else?", "what was their record label?", "how much money did they make?", "Did they make any music videos?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1307 ], [ 1425 ], [ 1345 ], [ 1538 ], [ 2842 ], [ 2626 ], [ 2722 ], [ 2752 ], [ 2068 ], [ 2842 ], [ 2842 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The group's third studio release, 1993's Buhloone Mindstate," ], [ "The album was a critical success, but it was the biggest commercial failure for the group at the time of its release." ], [ "Many publications, such as Rolling Stone, have listed this album as one of the best hip hop albums of all time." ], [ "it was the biggest commercial failure for the group" ], [ "In 1994, 500 copies of a promotional EP called Clear Lake Audiotorium were released on clear vinyl and CD." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The album did provide a launching pad for future star rapper and actor Mos Def, who appeared on" ], [ "the track \"Big Brother Beat\"." ], [ "The album also featured collaborations with Common, Truth Enola, and the Jazzyfatnastees." ], [ "produced by Prince Paul," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1307, 1425, 1345, 1538, 2842, 2626, 2722, 2752, 2068, 2842, 2842 ], "texts": [ "The group's third studio release, 1993's Buhloone Mindstate,", "The album was a critical success, but it was the biggest commercial failure for the group at the time of its release.", "Many publications, such as Rolling Stone, have listed this album as one of the best hip hop albums of all time.", "it was the biggest commercial failure for the group", "In 1994, 500 copies of a promotional EP called Clear Lake Audiotorium were released on clear vinyl and CD.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The album did provide a launching pad for future star rapper and actor Mos Def, who appeared on", "the track \"Big Brother Beat\".", "The album also featured collaborations with Common, Truth Enola, and the Jazzyfatnastees.", "produced by Prince Paul,", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

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[ "What happened in the early period?", "How was the album received?", "What else did they do at that time?", "Did The Turtles win the law suit?", "What else happened with The Turtles?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Was the album well received?", "Why did they say that?", "What else did they do during the early years?", "What singles were on that album?", "Were there any other singles?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 68 ], [ 364 ], [ 530 ], [ 3118 ], [ 610 ], [ 830 ], [ 695 ], [ 1383 ], [ 1856 ], [ 1993 ] ], "texts": [ [ "De La Soul's debut album, 3 Feet High and Rising, released in 1989, was a critical smash hit in the hip hop genre." ], [ "was a critical smash hit in the hip hop genre." ], [ "However, the sixties pop group The Turtles sued De La Soul for using a sample from their 1969 hit \"You Showed Me\"" ], [ "\", despite the fact that The Turtles did not actually write the original song." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Lyrically, much of 3 Feet High and Rising focused on striving for peace and harmony." ], [ "As a result, audiences were quick to peg the members of De La Soul as hippies." ], [ "3 Feet High and Rising also introduced De La Soul's concept of the \"D.A.I.S.Y. Age\" (an acronym standing for \"da inner sound, y'all\")." ], [ "De La Soul's second album, De La Soul Is Dead (1991) was a much more mature album." ], [ "\"Millie Pulled a Pistol on Santa\"," ], [ "\"Ring Ring Ring (Ha Ha Hey)\"," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 68, 364, 530, 3118, 610, 830, 695, 1383, 1856, 1993 ], "texts": [ "De La Soul's debut album, 3 Feet High and Rising, released in 1989, was a critical smash hit in the hip hop genre.", "was a critical smash hit in the hip hop genre.", "However, the sixties pop group The Turtles sued De La Soul for using a sample from their 1969 hit \"You Showed Me\"", "\", despite the fact that The Turtles did not actually write the original song.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Lyrically, much of 3 Feet High and Rising focused on striving for peace and harmony.", "As a result, audiences were quick to peg the members of De La Soul as hippies.", "3 Feet High and Rising also introduced De La Soul's concept of the \"D.A.I.S.Y. Age\" (an acronym standing for \"da inner sound, y'all\").", "De La Soul's second album, De La Soul Is Dead (1991) was a much more mature album.", "\"Millie Pulled a Pistol on Santa\",", "\"Ring Ring Ring (Ha Ha Hey)\"," ] }

[]

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[ "Is there anything interesting about his Pre-war military career?", "Where was he based after that?", "What was his highest rank?", "Did he go to school for military?", "What did he do after 1904?", "Did he do anything worth mentioning while a commander?", "Did he do anything confrontational during his pre-war military career?", "Who did he work with?", "Was Erich ever commended for anything during the pre-war?", "Did he get permission for additional men when he lobbied in Reichstag?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 100 ], [ 525 ], [ 2930 ], [ 2003 ], [ 2775 ], [ 1715 ], [ 1851 ], [ 2930 ], [ 2062 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1885, Ludendorff was commissioned as a subaltern into the 57th Infantry Regiment, then at Wesel." ], [ "Over the next eight years, he was promoted to lieutenant and saw further service in the 2nd Marine Battalion, based at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven," ], [ "He rose rapidly and was a senior staff officer at the headquarters of V Corps from 1902 to 1904." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 1913 funding was approved for four additional corps but Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers," ], [ "\"he became the perfect regimental commander ... the younger officers came to adore him.\" His adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend." ], [ "Members of the General Staff were instructed to keep out of politics and the public eye, but Ludendorff shrugged off such restrictions." ], [ "With a retired general, August Keim, and the head of the Pan-German League, Heinrich Class, he vigorously lobbied the Reichstag for the additional men." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Dusseldorf." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 100, 525, 2930, 2003, 2775, 1715, 1851, 2930, 2062 ], "texts": [ "In 1885, Ludendorff was commissioned as a subaltern into the 57th Infantry Regiment, then at Wesel.", "Over the next eight years, he was promoted to lieutenant and saw further service in the 2nd Marine Battalion, based at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven,", "He rose rapidly and was a senior staff officer at the headquarters of V Corps from 1902 to 1904.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 1913 funding was approved for four additional corps but Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers,", "\"he became the perfect regimental commander ... the younger officers came to adore him.\" His adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend.", "Members of the General Staff were instructed to keep out of politics and the public eye, but Ludendorff shrugged off such restrictions.", "With a retired general, August Keim, and the head of the Pan-German League, Heinrich Class, he vigorously lobbied the Reichstag for the additional men.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Dusseldorf." ] }

[]

[ "Ludendorff's pre-war military career was quite notable. He served in the 57th Infantry Regiment, the 2nd Marine Battalion, and the 8th Grenadier Guards. He was known to have received frequent commendations during his service. He also joined the Great General Staff in Berlin where he held a senior position, directing the Second or Mobilization Section. This section was responsible for writing the mass of detailed orders needed to implement the Schlieffen Plan. Furthermore, Ludendorff was not afraid to get involved in politics for the benefit of the army. Despite the restrictions imposed on members of the General Staff, he lobbied the Reichstag for additional men that he believed were needed to properly implement the Schlieffen Plan.", "After his lobbying efforts, Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Dusseldorf.", "The context does not provide information on the highest rank achieved by Ludendorff.", "Yes, Ludendorff went to the War Academy in 1893, where he was recommended to the General Staff by General Meckel, the commandant of the academy.", "After 1904, Ludendorff joined the Great General Staff in Berlin, which was commanded by Alfred von Schlieffen. He directed the Second or Mobilization Section from 1904-1913. Along with Max Bauer, he covertly surveyed frontier fortifications in Russia, France, and Belgium, as part of the implementation of the Schlieffen Plan. In 1911, he was promoted to full colonel. He also visited the key Belgian fortress city of Liege. Ludendorff lobbied the Reichstag for additional men and in 1913, despite successfully securing funding for four additional corps, he was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Dusseldorf.", "While Ludendorff was a commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, it's mentioned that he was considered the perfect regimental commander and was adored by his younger officers. His adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend.", "Yes, Ludendorff confronted the Reichstag by lobbying for additional men that he believed were needed to properly implement the Schlieffen Plan. This lobbying flew in the face of instructions given to members of the General Staff to stay out of politics. After securing funding for four additional corps in 1913, Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties, a move he partly attributed to his lobbying efforts.", "Ludendorff closely worked with several individuals during his pre-war military career. At the Great General Staff in Berlin, he was joined by Max Bauer, a brilliant artillery officer who became a close friend. During his lobbying efforts to the Reichstag for additional men, he teamed up with a retired general, August Keim, and the head of the Pan-German League, Heinrich Class. While serving as the commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, his adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend.", "Yes, during Ludendorff's early service in the 57th Infantry Regiment, 2nd Marine Battalion, and the 8th Grenadier Guards, his service reports reveal the highest praise, with frequent commendations.", "When Ludendorff lobbied the Reichstag for additional men to implement the Schlieffen Plan, funding was approved for four additional corps. However, Ludendorff had initially calculated that the plan lacked six corps, indicating that he did not secure all the additional manpower he had hoped for." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

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[ "Who was the inspiration for the Holmes?", "How did Poe inspire Holmes?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What other inspirations have been considered?", "Who was Joseph Bell?", "Is there anything else you can tell me about Bell?", "Did he have any other inspirations?", "How did LittleJohn inspire Holmes?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 175 ], [ 1321 ], [ 638 ], [ 731 ], [ 832 ], [ 1007 ], [ 1235 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the first detective in fiction and served as the prototype" ], [ "Conan Doyle once wrote, \"Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed..." ], [ "Other inspirations have been considered." ], [ "Conan Doyle repeatedly said that Holmes was inspired by the real-life figure of Joseph Bell," ], [ "a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, whom Doyle met in 1877 and had worked for as a clerk." ], [ "Like Holmes, Bell was noted for drawing broad conclusions from minute observations." ], [ "Sir Henry Littlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School," ], [ "provided Doyle with a link between medical investigation and the detection of crime." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 175, 1321, 638, 731, 832, 1007, 1235 ], "texts": [ "Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the first detective in fiction and served as the prototype", "Conan Doyle once wrote, \"Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed...", "Other inspirations have been considered.", "Conan Doyle repeatedly said that Holmes was inspired by the real-life figure of Joseph Bell,", "a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, whom Doyle met in 1877 and had worked for as a clerk.", "Like Holmes, Bell was noted for drawing broad conclusions from minute observations.", "Sir Henry Littlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School,", "provided Doyle with a link between medical investigation and the detection of crime." ] }

[]

[ "The inspiration for Holmes came from several sources. One of them was C. Auguste Dupin, a character created by Edgar Allan Poe, and another was Monsieur Lecoq from Emile Gaboriau's stories. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle also claimed that the character was inspired by the real-life figure of Joseph Bell, a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, whom Doyle met and worked for. Sir Henry Littlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, is also cited as an inspiration for Holmes. There are thoughts that Francis \"Tanky\" Smith and Maximilien Heller could also have contributed to inspiring the Holmes character.", "Poe's character C. Auguste Dupin is acknowledged as the first detective in fiction and thus served as a prototype for many detectives created later, including Holmes.", "The article mentions several potential inspirations for the character of Sherlock Holmes. Apart from Edgar Allan Poe's character Dupin and Emile Gaboriau's Monsieur Lecoq, Arthur Conan Doyle was also inspired by real-life individuals. One of them was Joseph Bell, a surgeon Doyle worked for, who was known for drawing broad conclusions from minute observations. Another was Sir Henry Littlejohn, who provided Doyle with a link between medical investigation and crime detection. Doyle may also have taken inspiration from a policeman named Francis \"Tanky\" Smith, who was known for his disguise skills, and a fictional character named Maximilien Heller, who shared many characteristics with Holmes.", "Other potential inspirations for Sherlock Holmes have been considered to be Francis \"Tanky\" Smith, a policeman known for his masterful disguises who later became Leicester's first private detective, and a character named Maximilien Heller from a novel by French author Henry Cauvain, who was a depressed, anti-social, polymath, cat-loving, and opium-smoking Paris-based detective.", "Joseph Bell was a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, whom Arthur Conan Doyle met in 1877 and had worked for as a clerk. Bell was known for drawing broad conclusions from minute observations and is cited as one of the inspirations for the character of Sherlock Holmes.", "Based on the provided context, the only other information available about Joseph Bell is a quote he wrote to Doyle: \"You are yourself Sherlock Holmes and well you know it\". There is no additional information available in the given passage.", "Aside from Joseph Bell, other inspirations for the character of Sherlock Holmes include the fictional detective characters C. Auguste Dupin from Edgar Allan Poe's stories and Monsieur Lecoq from Emile Gaboriau's stories. Another source of inspiration was Sir Henry Littlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School. Some people think that Francis \"Tanky\" Smith, a master of disguise and Leicester's first private detective, as well as Maximilien Heller, a character in a novel by French author Henry Cauvain, may have also inspired the creation of Sherlock Holmes.", "Sir Henry Littlejohn, who was Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, Police Surgeon, and Medical Officer of Health in Edinburgh, is cited as an inspiration for Holmes as he provided Arthur Conan Doyle with a link between medical investigation and the detection of crime." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "Is this about the writer's family and early life?", "Was Sherlock Holmes married?", "Where were his ancestors from?", "Who was Claude Joseph?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did he have any children?", "Where did he go to school?", "How old was he when he took his first case?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 387 ], [ 548 ], [ 1775 ], [ 239 ], [ 1775 ], [ 1189 ], [ 1775 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Details about Sherlock Holmes's life, except for the adventures in the books, are scarce in Conan Doyle's original stories." ], [ "His parents are not mentioned in the stories, although Holmes mentions that his \"ancestors\" were \"country squires\"." ], [ "he claims that his grandmother was sister to the French artist Vernet, without further clarifying whether this was Claude Joseph," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "An estimate of Holmes's age in \"His Last Bow\" places his year of birth at 1854; the story, set in August 1914, describes him as sixty years of age." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Holmes says that he first developed his methods of deduction as an undergraduate; his earliest cases, which he pursued as an amateur, came from fellow university students." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 387, 548, 1775, 239, 1775, 1189, 1775 ], "texts": [ "Details about Sherlock Holmes's life, except for the adventures in the books, are scarce in Conan Doyle's original stories.", "His parents are not mentioned in the stories, although Holmes mentions that his \"ancestors\" were \"country squires\".", "he claims that his grandmother was sister to the French artist Vernet, without further clarifying whether this was Claude Joseph,", "CANNOTANSWER", "An estimate of Holmes's age in \"His Last Bow\" places his year of birth at 1854; the story, set in August 1914, describes him as sixty years of age.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Holmes says that he first developed his methods of deduction as an undergraduate; his earliest cases, which he pursued as an amateur, came from fellow university students.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "No, this is about the character Sherlock Holmes's family and early life.", "The context does not provide information on whether Sherlock Holmes was married.", "Sherlock Holmes mentions that his \"ancestors\" were \"country squires\", but it is not specified where they were from.", "Claude Joseph is mentioned as one of the possible Vernets that could be Sherlock Holmes's grandmother's brother. The context does not specify who Claude Joseph is.", "According to the text, Sherlock Holmes is estimated to have been born in 1854, he developed his methods of deduction as an undergraduate, and his earliest cases came from fellow university students. He later chose to become a detective after a meeting with a classmate's father. After working as a consultant for six years, financial difficulties led him to take in John H. Watson as a fellow lodger. They lived together at 221B Baker Street in London.", "The context does not provide information on whether Sherlock Holmes had any children.", "The context does not provide specific information on where Sherlock Holmes went to school. However, it does mention that he was an undergraduate, suggesting that he attended university. The particular institution is not named.", "The context does not provide information on how old Sherlock Holmes was when he took his first case." ]

[ "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "what efforts were made?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "did they win any other awards?", "what was the biggest success?", "did they break up at any point?", "where did they play?", "did they play anywhere else?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 44 ], [ 1497 ], [ 1138 ], [ 1402 ], [ 332 ], [ 1497 ] ], "texts": [ [ "1987 saw the release of their second album, Bangin'." ], [ "Bangin'. This album did not achieve the acclaim of Play Deep, but it did spawn a Top 40 single \"Since You've Been Gone" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "\"Closer to Me\", was a near Top 40 hit, and a second release, \"Winning It All\", gained some notice due to extensive play" ], [ "Simon Dawson, who played on Rockeye, would eventually become the band's official third member." ], [ "US summer tour" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 44, 1497, 1138, 1402, 332, 1497 ], "texts": [ "1987 saw the release of their second album, Bangin'.", "Bangin'. This album did not achieve the acclaim of Play Deep, but it did spawn a Top 40 single \"Since You've Been Gone", "CANNOTANSWER", "\"Closer to Me\", was a near Top 40 hit, and a second release, \"Winning It All\", gained some notice due to extensive play", "Simon Dawson, who played on Rockeye, would eventually become the band's official third member.", "US summer tour", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The band released several albums including 'Bangin', 'Voices of Babylon', and 'Diamond Days'. They also had a US summer tour. They changed their producer to David Kahne for the 'Voices of Babylon' album. After Alan Jackman parted ways with the band, Paul Read replaced him for a concert tour. The band also switched labels and began recording 'Diamond Days' for MCA. Their next album 'Rockeye' featured session drummer Simon Dawson, who eventually became the band's official third member.", "Yes, there are several interesting aspects in the article. For instance, the band had a few hits, including \"Since You've Been Gone\", the title track from 'Voices of Babylon', \"For You\" from 'Diamond Days', and \"Closer to Me\" from 'Rockeye'. Their song \"Winning It All\" received extensive play during NBC's coverage of various sports events such as the NBA Finals and the Summer Olympics, as well in the movie 'The Mighty Ducks'. It is also notable that their albums received differing levels of success and acclaim, and that members of the band changed over time.", "The text does not provide information on the band winning any awards.", "The text does not explicitly state what the band's biggest success was. However, it does mention that their song \"Winning It All\" gained some notice due to extensive play during NBC's NBA Finals coverage, the NBA Superstars series, the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics and the film 'The Mighty Ducks'. It also mentions several songs that were hits in the Top 30 and Top 40 charts, and that their album 'Bangin'' was certified Gold in the US.", "The text does not provide information on whether the band broke up at any point.", "The text mentions a US summer tour where the band performed as the opening act for Night Ranger. No other specific locations or venues where they played are provided in the text.", "The text does not provide information on the band playing anywhere else other than their US summer tour." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_ca39bc01bfb047f687650f5d6bc7ec9b_1_q#0", "C_ca39bc01bfb047f687650f5d6bc7ec9b_1_q#1", "C_ca39bc01bfb047f687650f5d6bc7ec9b_1_q#2", "C_ca39bc01bfb047f687650f5d6bc7ec9b_1_q#3", "C_ca39bc01bfb047f687650f5d6bc7ec9b_1_q#4", "C_ca39bc01bfb047f687650f5d6bc7ec9b_1_q#5", "C_ca39bc01bfb047f687650f5d6bc7ec9b_1_q#6" ]

[ "How was it formed?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What style did they match?", "Did they have any hits?", "What were their successes?", "Can you tell me more about how the band formed?", "Did they bring anyone else in to the fold?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 101 ], [ 252 ], [ 860 ], [ 2684 ], [ 2684 ], [ 101 ], [ 2684 ] ], "texts": [ [ "played together in the late 1970s in a straightforward power pop band" ], [ "their style did not match the punk rock" ], [ "American-sounding\"" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "played together in the late 1970s" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 101, 252, 860, 2684, 2684, 101, 2684 ], "texts": [ "played together in the late 1970s in a straightforward power pop band", "their style did not match the punk rock", "American-sounding\"", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "played together in the late 1970s", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The band was formed when bassist/singer Tony Lewis, guitarist/keyboardist John Spinks and drummer Alan Jackman, who had previously played together in a band called Sirius B in the late 1970s, reunited several years after their initial band broke up due to their style not fitting with the punk rock scene. They began performing under the name The Baseball Boys in London's East End and around England until a demo got them signed to Columbia/CBS Records in 1984. Their manager suggested a new name, leading to the choice of 'the Outfield'.", "Yes, there are several interesting aspects in the article. For instance, it's intriguing how the name 'The Baseball Boys' was initially chosen as a joke after a gang in the movie The Warriors, but ended up being received positively by their record company. Their transformation into an \"American-sounding\" group shortly after forming is also noteworthy, as is their rapid rise to success in the US with their debut album reaching triple platinum sales status and featuring a Top 10 single. Additionally, it's interesting to read about Spinks's comparative views of American and British sports and how their public commitment to a clean lifestyle, free of smoking and drugs, set them apart.", "The style of the band, led by Tony Lewis, John Spinks, and Alan Jackman, was not explicitly stated in the context. However, they were defined as a very \"American-sounding\" group. Their initial band, Sirius B, was referred to as a straightforward power pop band. However, they did not match the punk rock style that was popular in England during the late 1970s, leading to their breakup before they reunited to form what would become The Outfield.", "Yes, with their debut album, Play Deep, the band had a Top 10 single entry called \"Your Love\", which peaked at No. 6. The success of this single helped the album reach triple platinum sales status and the Top 10 in the US album charts. Furthermore, \"Your Love\" has been featured in numerous 80s-themed compilation albums and has been covered or remixed by other artists over 1,000 times.", "The Outfield achieved significant success with their debut album, Play Deep, which was issued in 1985. The album reached triple platinum sales status and made it to the Top 10 in the US album charts. They also had a Top 10 single with the song \"Your Love\", which peaked at No. 6. The song was featured in numerous 80s-themed compilation albums and has been covered and remixed physically or online over 1,000 times by other artists. Additionally, the band had the opportunity to tour extensively, opening for popular bands such as Journey and Starship.", "The band was originally formed in the late 1970s as Sirius B, a power pop band featuring Tony Lewis, John Spinks, and Alan Jackman. However, their style didn't match the rising punk rock scene in England, so they disbanded after about six months of rehearsal and a few gigs. Several years later, they regrouped in London's East End, now performing under the name The Baseball Boys and their musical style evolved. After performing around England, a demo of their music led to them being signed by Columbia/CBS Records in 1984. The band got a reputation for sounding very American and subsequently got signed in the US. Following their manager's advice, they changed their band name to 'the Outfield', a name that reflected their interest in American baseball and also had a similar attitude to their previous name, ‘Baseball Boys’.", "The context provided does not mention any additional members being brought into the band beyond the original trio of Tony Lewis, John Spinks, and Alan Jackman." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "Where did Wright grow up?", "What did he do here?", "What happened after this?", "What did Wright do after?", "What about his education?", "Is there anything else significant about his childhood?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1315 ], [ 1728 ], [ 1839 ], [ 1929 ], [ 2134 ], [ 268 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison," ], [ "Anna had been unhappy for some time with William's inability to provide for his family and asked him to leave." ], [ "The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of physical affection." ], [ "William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 1870 the family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts, where William ministered to a small congregation." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1315, 1728, 1839, 1929, 2134, 268 ], "texts": [ "Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison,", "Anna had been unhappy for some time with William's inability to provide for his family and asked him to leave.", "The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of physical affection.", "William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 1870 the family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts, where William ministered to a small congregation." ] }

[]

[ "Wright grew up in Weymouth, Massachusetts, and later in Spring Green, Wisconsin.", "The text does not provide specific details on what Wright did while growing up in Weymouth, Massachusetts, and Spring Green, Wisconsin.", "After his family returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin from Weymouth, they settled in Madison where his father, William, taught music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society. When Wright turned 14, his parents separated and finalized their divorce in 1885, after which Wright claimed he never saw his father again. At this time, he changed his middle name from Lincoln to Lloyd in honor of his mother's family, the Lloyd Joneses.", "The text does not provide specific information on what Wright did after changing his middle name from Lincoln to Lloyd and his parents' separation.", "The text does not provide information about Wright's education.", "Yes, there is a significant element in his childhood related to his mother Anna, who exposed him to the world of design early on. She visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia where she bought an educational toy, the Froebel Gifts. These were a set of blocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Frobel as part of his innovative kindergarten curriculum. The set contained geometrically shaped blocks that could be assembled into three-dimensional compositions. Wright spent much time playing with these blocks, and he later acknowledged in his autobiography that these exercises had a deep influence on his approach to design. Many of Wright's buildings are notable for their geometrical clarity, which can be traced back to his experiences with Froebel's blocks." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "What did important role did Wellesley have early in his career?", "How did his role in the Army help shape his career later in life?", "were there anyone who opposed his views or role?", "did he win any awards or recognition for his role?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "did he have any children or marry?", "Did he ever change careers or levels of interest?", "did his parents support his growing role?", "How was his personality was he a likable character?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 214 ], [ 541 ], [ 861 ], [ 1948 ], [ 2039 ], [ 2796 ], [ 2039 ], [ 84 ], [ 795 ] ], "texts": [ [ ") to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot." ], [ "He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted to lieutenant." ], [ "occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that \"I have often known what it was to be in want of money," ], [ "He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot." ], [ "On 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "On 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he" ], [ "money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (" ], [ "While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 214, 541, 861, 1948, 2039, 2796, 2039, 84, 795 ], "texts": [ ") to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot.", "He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted to lieutenant.", "occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that \"I have often known what it was to be in want of money,", "He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot.", "On 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham,", "CANNOTANSWER", "On 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he", "money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (", "While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but" ] }

[ { "text": "101 may refer to:\n\n 101 (number), the number\n AD 101, a year in the 2nd century AD\n 101 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC\n\nIt may also refer to:\n\nEntertainment \n 101 (album), a live album and documentary by Depeche Mode \n \"101\" (song), a 1988 song and single by Sheena Easton\n \"101\", a song on the Girl on Fire album by Alicia Keys\n The 101 Network, former name of Audience, an American pay television channel\n\nTransportation \n List of highways numbered 101, several roads, including:\n U.S. Route 101, often called \"The 101\"\n 101 series, a commuter multiple unit train introduced in 1958 by Japan National Railways\n TMK 101, a tramcar type which was used in Zagreb, Croatia, from 1951 until December 2008\n McDonnell F-101 Voodoo fighter aircraft\n McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo Canadian variant of the F-101\n Fisher FP-101 kit aircraft\n\nOther uses \n101 (slang), a term used to indicate an introduction to a body of knowledge\n101st Airborne Division\nBell 101 modem a late 1950s communications modem\nBill 101 or Law 101, the Charter of the French Language in Québec\nPolice 101, the single non-emergency number used by all UK territorial police authorities\nTaipei 101, the tallest skyscraper in the world from 2004 to 2010\nMendelevium, chemical element with atomic number 101\n101 Dalmatians (disambiguation)\n\nSee also \n \n \n IOI (disambiguation) \n Room 101 (disambiguation)", "title": "101" }, { "text": "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, (1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852) was a Anglo-Irish statesman, soldier, and Tory politician who was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain, serving twice as prime minister of the United Kingdom. He is among the commanders who won and ended the Napoleonic Wars when the Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.\n\nWellesley was born in Dublin into the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive lords lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons. He was a colonel by 1796 and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, won a decisive victory over the Maratha Confederacy at the Battle of Assaye in 1803.\n\nWellesley rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the allied forces to victory against the French Empire at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the allied army which, together with a Prussian Army under Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he ultimately participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career.\n\nWellington is famous for his adaptive defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, and many of his tactics and battle plans are still studied in military academies around the world. After the end of his active military career, he returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as a member of the Tory party from 1828 to 1830 and for a little less than a month in 1834. He oversaw the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement and remained Commander-in-Chief of the British Army until his death.\n\nEarly life\n\nFamily \nWellesley was born into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy, in Ireland as The Hon. Arthur Wesley. Wellesley was born the son of Anne Wellesley, Countess of Mornington and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His father, Garret Wesley, was the son of Richard Wesley, 1st Baron Mornington and had a short career in politics representing the constituency Trim in the Irish House of Commons before succeeding his father as 2nd Baron Mornington in 1758. Garret Wesley was also an accomplished composer and in recognition of his musical and philanthropic achievements was elevated to the rank of Earl of Mornington in 1760. Wellesley's mother was the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, after whom Wellesley was named.\n\nWellesley was the sixth of nine children born to the Earl and Countess of Mornington. His siblings included Richard, Viscount Wellesley (1760–1842); later 1st Marquess Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, Baron Maryborough.\n\nBirth date and place \nThe exact date and location of Wellesley's birth is not known; however, biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence which states that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised in St Peters Church, Dublin. However, states \"registry of St. Peter's Church, Dublin, shows that he was christened there on 30 April 1769\". His baptismal font was donated to St. Nahi's Church in Dundrum, Dublin, in 1914. As to the place of Wellesley's birth, he was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, now the Merrion Hotel. This contrasts with reports that his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. Other places have been put forward as the location of his birth, including Mornington House (the house next door on Upper Merrion), as his father had asserted and the Dublin packet boat.\n\nChildhood \n\nWellesley spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle, north of Summerhill in County Meath. In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom.\n\nHe went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said \"The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton\", a quotation which is often attributed to him. Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, \"I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur.\"\n\nIn 1786, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful. Upon returning to England later the same year, he astonished his mother with his improvement.\n\nEarly military career\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nDespite his new promise, Wellesley had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot. In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as aide-de-camp, on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham. He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted lieutenant. During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham. While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that \"I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt\".\n\nOn 23 January 1788, he transferred into the 41st Regiment of Foot, then again on 25 June 1789 he transferred to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and, according to military historian Richard Holmes, he also reluctantly entered politics. Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the rotten borough of Trim to speak against the granting of the title \"Freeman\" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish Patriot Party, Henry Grattan. Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of fewer than a hundred boroughs. Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years. He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot.\n\nOn 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of Edward Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford. She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'. In 1793, he proposed, but was turned down by her brother Thomas, Earl of Longford, who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects. An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. He became a major by purchase in the 33rd Regiment in 1793. A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 33rd.\n\nNetherlands\n\nIn 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of an allied force destined for the invasion of France. In June 1794, Wellesley with the 33rd regiment set sail from Cork bound for Ostend as part of an expedition bringing reinforcements for the army in Flanders. They arrived too late to participate, and joined the Duke of York as he was pulling back towards the Netherlands. On 15 September 1794, at the Battle of Boxtel, east of Breda, Wellington, in temporary command of his brigade, had his first experience of battle. During General Abercromby's withdrawal in the face of superior French forces, the 33rd held off enemy cavalry, allowing neighbouring units to retreat safely. During the extremely harsh winter that followed, Wellesley and his regiment formed part of an allied force holding the defence line along the Waal River. The 33rd, along with the rest of the army, suffered heavy losses from attrition and illness. Wellesley's health was also affected by the damp environment. Though the campaign was to end disastrously, with the British army driven out of the United Provinces into the German states, Wellesley became more aware of battle tactics, including the use of lines of infantry against advancing columns, and the merits of supporting sea-power. He understood that the failure of the campaign was due in part to the faults of the leaders and the poor organisation at headquarters. He remarked later of his time in the Netherlands that \"At least I learned what not to do, and that is always a valuable lesson\".\nReturning to England in March 1795, he was reinstated as a member of parliament for Trim for a second time. He hoped to be given the position of secretary of war in the new Irish government but the new lord-lieutenant, Lord Camden, was only able to offer him the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance. Declining the post, he returned to his regiment, now at Southampton preparing to set sail for the West Indies. After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet back to Poole. The 33rd was given time to recuperate and a few months later, Whitehall decided to send the regiment to India. Wellesley was promoted full colonel by seniority on 3 May 1796 and a few weeks later set sail for Calcutta with his regiment.\n\nIndia\nArriving in Calcutta in February 1797 he spent 5 months there, before being sent in August to a brief expedition to the Philippines, where he established a list of new hygiene precautions for his men to deal with the unfamiliar climate. Returning in November to India, he learnt that his elder brother Richard, now known as Lord Mornington, had been appointed as the new Governor-General of India.\n\nIn 1798, he changed the spelling of his surname to \"Wellesley\"; up to this time he was still known as Wesley, which his eldest brother considered the ancient and proper spelling.\n\nFourth Anglo-Mysore War\n\nAs part of the campaign to extend the rule of the British East India Company, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan. Arthur's brother Richard ordered that an armed force be sent to capture Seringapatam and defeat Tipu. During the war, rockets were used on several occasions. Wellesley was almost defeated by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest,\nAt this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5th April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to \"postpone the attack\" until a more favourable opportunity should offer.\n\nThe following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without any killed in action. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers maneuvered to the rear of the British encampment, then 'threw a great number of rockets at the same instant' to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all ordered by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: \"So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...\". He continued:\nThe rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them.\nUnder the command of General Harris, some 24,000 troops were dispatched to Madras (to join an equal force being sent from Bombay in the west). Arthur and the 33rd sailed to join them in August.\n\nAfter extensive and careful logistic preparation (which would become one of Wellesley's main attributes) the 33rd left with the main force in December and travelled across of jungle from Madras to Mysore. On account of his brother, during the journey, Wellesley was given an additional command, that of chief advisor to the Nizam of Hyderabad's army (sent to accompany the British force). This position was to cause friction among many of the senior officers (some of whom were senior to Wellesley). Much of this friction was put to rest after the Battle of Mallavelly, some from Seringapatam, in which Harris' army attacked a large part of the sultan's army. During the battle, Wellesley led his men, in a line of battle of two ranks, against the enemy to a gentle ridge and gave the order to fire. After an extensive repetition of volleys, followed by a bayonet charge, the 33rd, in conjunction with the rest of Harris's force, forced Tipu's infantry to retreat.\n\nSeringapatam\nImmediately after their arrival at Seringapatam on 5 April 1799, the Battle of Seringapatam began and Wellesley was ordered to lead a night attack on the village of Sultanpettah, adjacent to the fortress to clear the way for the artillery. Because of a variety of factors including the Mysorean army's strong defensive preparations and the darkness the attack failed with 25 casualties due to confusion among the British. Wellesley suffered a minor injury to his knee from a spent musket-ball. Although they would re-attack successfully the next day, after time to scout ahead the enemy's positions, the affair affected Wellesley. He resolved \"never to attack an enemy who is preparing and strongly posted, and whose posts have not been reconnoitred by daylight\".\nLewin Bentham Bowring gives this alternative account:\n\nOne of these groves, called the Sultanpet Tope, was intersected by deep ditches, watered from a channel running in an easterly direction about a mile from the fort. General Baird was directed to scour this grove and dislodge the enemy, but on his advancing with this object on the night of the 5th, he found the tope unoccupied. The next day, however, the Mysore troops again took possession of the ground, and as it was absolutely necessary to expel them, two columns were detached at sunset for the purpose. The first of these, under Colonel Shawe, got possession of a ruined village, which it successfully held. The second column, under Colonel Wellesley, on advancing into the tope, was at once attacked in the darkness of night by a tremendous fire of musketry and rockets. The men, floundering about amidst the trees and the water-courses, at last broke, and fell back in disorder, some being killed and a few taken prisoners. In the confusion Colonel Wellesley was himself struck on the knee by a spent ball, and narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the enemy.\n\nA few weeks later, after extensive artillery bombardment, a breach was opened in the main walls of the fortress of Seringapatam. An attack led by Major-General Baird secured the fortress. Wellesley secured the rear of the advance, posting guards at the breach and then stationed his regiment at the main palace. After hearing news of the death of the Tipu Sultan, Wellesley was the first at the scene to confirm his death, checking his pulse. Over the coming day, Wellesley grew increasingly concerned over the lack of discipline among his men, who drank and pillaged the fortress and city. To restore order, several soldiers were flogged and four hanged.\n\nAfter battle and the resulting end of the war, the main force under General Harris left Seringapatam and Wellesley, aged 30, stayed behind to command the area as the new Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore. While in India, Wellesley was ill for a considerable time, first with severe diarrhoea from the water and then with fever, followed by a serious skin infection caused by trichophyton.\n\nWellesley was in charge of raising an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force in Trincomali in early 1801 for the capture of Batavia and Mauritius from the French. However, on the eve of its departure, orders arrived from England that it was to be sent to Egypt to co-operate with Sir Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. Wellesley had been appointed second in command to Baird, but owing to ill health did not accompany the expedition on 9 April 1801. This was fortunate for Wellesley, since the very vessel on which he was to have sailed sank in the Red Sea.\n\nHe was promoted to brigadier-general on 17 July 1801. He took residence within the Sultan's summer palace and reformed the tax and justice systems in his province to maintain order and prevent bribery. He also defeated the rebel warlord Dhoondiah Waugh in the Battle of Conaghull, after the latter had escaped from prison in Seringapatam during the battle there.\n\nDhoondiah Waugh insurgency\nIn 1800, whilst serving as Governor of Mysore, Wellesley was tasked with putting down an insurgency led by Dhoondiah Waugh, formerly a Patan trooper for Tipu Sultan. After the fall of Seringapatam he became a powerful brigand, raiding villages along the Maratha–Mysore border region. Despite initial setbacks, the East India Company having pursued and destroyed his forces once already, forcing him into retreat in August 1799, he raised a sizeable force composed of disbanded Mysore soldiers, captured small outposts and forts in Mysore, and was receiving the support of several Maratha killedars opposed to British occupation. This drew the attention of the British administration, who were beginning to recognise him as more than just a bandit, as his raids, expansion and threats to destabilise British authority suddenly increased in 1800. The death of Tipu Sultan had created a power vacuum and Waugh was seeking to fill it.\n\nGiven independent command of a combined East India Company and British Army force, Wellesley ventured north to confront Waugh in June 1800, with an army of 8,000 infantry and cavalry, having learnt that Waugh's forces numbered over 50,000, although the majority (around 30,000) were irregular light cavalry and unlikely to pose a serious threat to British infantry and artillery.\n\nThroughout June–August 1800, Wellesley advanced through Waugh's territory, his troops escalading forts in turn and capturing each one with \"trifling loss\". The forts generally offered little resistance due to their poor construction and design. Wellesley did not have sufficient troops to garrison each fort and had to clear the surrounding area of insurgents before advancing to the next fort. On 31 July, he had \"taken and destroyed Dhoondiah's baggage and six guns, and driven into the Malpoorba (where they were drowned) about five thousand people\". Dhoondiah continued to retreat, but his forces were rapidly deserting, he had no infantry and due to the monsoon weather flooding river crossings he could no longer outpace the British advance. On 10 September, at the Battle of Conaghul, Wellesley personally led a charge of 1,400 British dragoons and Indian cavalry, in single line with no reserve, against Dhoondiah and his remaining 5,000 cavalry. Dhoondiah was killed during the clash, his body was discovered and taken to the British camp tied to a cannon. With this victory, Wellesley's campaign was concluded, and British authority had been restored.\n\nWellesley, with command of four regiments, had defeated Dhoondiah's larger rebel force, along with Dhoondiah himself, who was killed in the final battle. Wellesley then paid for the future upkeep of Dhoondiah's orphaned son.\n\nSecond Anglo-Maratha War\n\nIn September 1802, Wellesley learnt that he had been promoted to the rank of major-general. He had been gazetted on 29 April 1802, but the news took several months to reach him by sea. He remained at Mysore until November when he was sent to command an army in the Second Anglo-Maratha War.\n\nWhen he determined that a long defensive war would ruin his army, Wellesley decided to act boldly to defeat the numerically larger force of the Maratha Empire. With the logistic assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) he gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on 8 August 1803. The fort surrendered on 12 August after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall. With the fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari.\n\nAssaye, Argaum and Gawilghur\n\nSplitting his army into two forces, to pursue and locate the main Marathas army, (the second force, commanded by Colonel Stevenson was far smaller) Wellesley was preparing to rejoin his forces on 24 September. His intelligence, however, reported the location of the Marathas' main army, between two rivers near Assaye. If he waited for the arrival of his second force, the Marathas would be able to mount a retreat, so Wellesley decided to launch an attack immediately.\n\nOn 23 September, Wellesley led his forces over a ford in the river Kaitna and the Battle of Assaye commenced. After crossing the ford the infantry was reorganised into several lines and advanced against the Maratha infantry. Wellesley ordered his cavalry to exploit the flank of the Maratha army just near the village. During the battle Wellesley himself came under fire; two of his horses were shot from under him and he had to mount a third. At a crucial moment, Wellesley regrouped his forces and ordered Colonel Maxwell (later killed in the attack) to attack the eastern end of the Maratha position while Wellesley himself directed a renewed infantry attack against the centre.\n\nAn officer in the attack wrote of the importance of Wellesley's personal leadership: \"The General was in the thick of the action the whole time ... I never saw a man so cool and collected as he was ... though I can assure you, 'til our troops got the order to advance the fate of the day seemed doubtful ...\" With some 6,000 Marathas killed or wounded, the enemy was routed, though Wellesley's force was in no condition to pursue. British casualties were heavy: the British losses amounted to 428 killed, 1,138 wounded and 18 missing (the British casualty figures were taken from Wellesley's own despatch). Wellesley was troubled by the loss of men and remarked that he hoped \"I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on 23 September, even if attended by such gain\". Years later, however, he remarked that Assaye, and not Waterloo, was the best battle he ever fought.\n\nDespite the damage done to the Maratha army, the battle did not end the war. A few months later in November, Wellesley attacked a larger force near Argaum, leading his army to victory again, with an astonishing 5,000 enemy dead at the cost of only 361 British casualties. A further successful attack at the fortress at Gawilghur, combined with the victory of General Lake at Delhi forced the Maratha to sign a peace settlement at Anjangaon (not concluded until a year later) called the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon.\n\nMilitary historian Richard Holmes remarked that Wellesley's experiences in India had an important influence on his personality and military tactics, teaching him much about military matters that would prove vital to his success in the Peninsular War. These included a strong sense of discipline through drill and order, the use of diplomacy to gain allies, and the vital necessity of a secure supply line. He also established high regard for the acquisition of intelligence through scouts and spies. His personal tastes also developed, including dressing himself in white trousers, a dark tunic, with Hessian boots and black cocked hat (that later became synonymous as his style).\n\nLeaving India\n\nWellesley had grown tired of his time in India, remarking \"I have served as long in India as any man ought who can serve anywhere else\". In June 1804 he applied for permission to return home and as a reward for his service in India he was made a Knight of the Bath in September. While in India, Wellesley had amassed a fortune of £42,000 (considerable at the time), consisting mainly of prize money from his campaign. When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in March 1805, the brothers returned together to England on HMS Howe. Wellesley, coincidentally, stopped on his voyage at the island of Saint Helena and stayed in the same building in which Napoleon I would live during his later exile.\n\nReturn to Britain\n\nMeeting Nelson \nIn September 1805, Major-General Wellesley was newly returned from his campaigns in India and was not yet particularly well known to the public. He reported to the office of the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to request a new assignment. In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a known figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, who was briefly in England after months pursuing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back. Some 30 years later, Wellington recalled a conversation that Nelson began with him which Wellesley found \"almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me\". Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was and, on his return, switched to a very different tone, discussing the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation as between equals. On this second discussion, Wellington recalled, \"I don't know that I ever had a conversation that interested me more\". This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his victory at Trafalgar seven weeks later.\n\nWellesley then served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe.\n\nHe then took a period of extended leave from the army and was elected as a Tory member of the British parliament for Rye in January 1806. A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, and was then appointed to serve as Chief Secretary for Ireland under the Duke of Richmond. At the same time, he was made a privy counsellor. While in Ireland, he gave a verbal promise that the remaining Penal Laws would be enforced with great moderation, perhaps an indication of his later willingness to support Catholic emancipation.\n\nWar against Denmark-Norway \n\nWellesley was in Ireland in May 1807 when he heard of the British expedition to Denmark-Norway. He decided to go, while maintaining his political appointments, and was appointed to command an infantry brigade in the Second Battle of Copenhagen, which took place in August. He fought at Køge, during which the men under his command took 1,500 prisoners, with Wellesley later present during the surrender.\n\nBy 30 September, he had returned to England and was raised to the rank of lieutenant general on 25 April 1808. In June 1808 he accepted the command of an expedition of 9,000 men. Preparing to sail for an attack on the Spanish colonies in South America (to assist the Latin American patriot Francisco de Miranda) his force was instead ordered to sail for Portugal, to take part in the Peninsular Campaign and rendezvous with 5,000 troops from Gibraltar.\n\nPeninsular War\n\n1808–1809 \nReady for battle, Wellesley left Cork on 12 July 1808 to participate in the war against French forces in the Iberian Peninsula, with his skills as a commander tested and developed.According to the historian Robin Neillands:\n\nWellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808 but was superseded in command immediately after the latter battle. General Dalrymple then signed the controversial Convention of Sintra, which stipulated that the Royal Navy transport the French army out of Lisbon with all their loot, and insisted on the association of the only available government minister, Wellesley.\nDalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry. Wellesley had agreed to sign the preliminary armistice, but had not signed the convention, and was cleared.\n\nSimultaneously, Napoleon entered Spain with his veteran troops to put down the revolt; the new commander of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna in January 1809.\n\nAlthough overall the land war with France was not going well from a British perspective, the Peninsula was the one theatre where they, with the Portuguese, had provided strong resistance against France and her allies. This contrasted with the disastrous Walcheren expedition, which was typical of the mismanaged British operations of the time. Wellesley submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defence of Portugal. He stressed its mountainous frontiers and advocated Lisbon as the main base because the Royal Navy could help to defend it. Castlereagh and the cabinet approved the memo and appointed him head of all British forces in Portugal.\n\nWellesley arrived in Lisbon on 22 April 1809 on board HMS Surveillante, after narrowly escaping shipwreck. Reinforced, he took to the offensive. In the Second Battle of Porto he crossed the Douro river in a daylight coup de main, and routed Marshal Soult's French troops in Porto.\n\nWith Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with General Cuesta's forces. The combined allied force prepared for an assault on Marshal Victor's I Corps at Talavera, 23 July. Cuesta, however, was reluctant to agree, and was only persuaded to advance on the following day. The delay allowed the French to withdraw, but Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, and found himself faced by almost the entire French army in New Castile—Victor had been reinforced by the Toledo and Madrid garrisons. The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating the advance of two British divisions to cover their retreat.\n\nThe next day, 27 July, at the Battle of Talavera the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by Wellesley, but at a heavy cost to the British force. In the aftermath Marshal Soult's army was discovered to be advancing south, threatening to cut Wellesley off from Portugal. Wellesley moved east on 3 August to block it, leaving 1,500 wounded in the care of the Spanish, intending to confront Soult before finding out that the French were in fact 30,000 strong. The British commander sent the Light Brigade on a dash to hold the bridge over the Tagus at Almaraz. With communications and supply from Lisbon secured for now, Wellesley considered joining with Cuesta again but found out that his Spanish ally had abandoned the British wounded to the French and was thoroughly uncooperative, promising and then refusing to supply the British forces, aggravating Wellesley and causing considerable friction between the British and their Spanish allies. The lack of supplies, coupled with the threat of French reinforcement (including the possible inclusion of Napoleon himself) in the spring, led to the British deciding to retreat into Portugal.\n\nFollowing his victory at Talavera, Wellesley was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom on 26 August 1809 as Viscount Wellington of Talavera and of Wellington, in the County of Somerset, with the subsidiary title of Baron Douro of Wellesley.\n\n1810–1812 \nIn 1810, a newly enlarged French army under Marshal André Masséna invaded Portugal. British opinion was negative and there were suggestions to evacuate Portugal. Instead, Lord Wellington first slowed the French at Buçaco; he then prevented them from taking the Lisbon Peninsula by the construction of massive earthworks, known as the Lines of Torres Vedras, which had been assembled in complete secrecy with their flanks guarded by the Royal Navy. The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. Wellington's pursuit was hindered by a series of reverses inflicted by Marshal Ney in a much-lauded rear guard campaign.\n\nIn 1811, Masséna returned toward Portugal to relieve Almeida; Wellington narrowly checked the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro. Simultaneously, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought Soult's 'Army of the South' to a bloody stalemate at the Battle of Albuera in May. Wellington was promoted to full general on 31 July for his services. The French abandoned Almeida, avoiding British pursuit, but retained the twin Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 'Keys' guarding the roads through the mountain passes into Portugal.\n\nIn 1812, Wellington finally captured Ciudad Rodrigo via a rapid movement as the French went into winter quarters, storming it before they could react. He then moved south quickly, besieged the fortress of Badajoz for a month and captured it during the night on 6 April 1812. On viewing the aftermath of the Storming of Badajoz, Wellington lost his composure and cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.\n\nHis army now was a veteran British force reinforced by units of the retrained Portuguese army. Campaigning in Spain, he was made Earl of Wellington in the county of Somerset on 22 February 1812. He routed the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of a minor French mispositioning. The victory liberated the Spanish capital of Madrid. He was later made Marquess of Wellington, in the said county on 18 August 1812.\n\nWellington attempted to take the vital fortress of Burgos, which linked Madrid to France. He failed, due in part to a lack of siege guns, forcing him into a headlong retreat with the loss of over 2,000 casualties.\n\nThe French abandoned Andalusia, and combined the troops of Soult and Marmont. Thus combined, the French outnumbered the British, putting the British forces in a precarious position. Wellington withdrew his army and, joined by the smaller corps under the command of Rowland Hill, which had been moved to Madrid, began to retreat to Portugal. Marshal Soult declined to attack.\n\n1813–1814 \nIn 1813, Wellington led a new offensive, this time against the French line of communications. He struck through the hills north of Burgos, the Tras os Montes, and switched his supply line from Portugal to Santander on Spain's north coast; this led to the French abandoning Madrid and Burgos. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington caught up with and routed the army of King Joseph Bonaparte in the Battle of Vitoria, for which he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June. He personally led a column against the French centre, while other columns commanded by Sir Thomas Graham, Rowland Hill and the Earl of Dalhousie looped around the French right and left (this battle became the subject of Beethoven's orchestral piece, the Wellington's Victory (Opus 91). The British troops broke ranks to loot the abandoned French wagons instead of pursuing the beaten foe. When troops failed to return to their units and began harassing the locals, an enraged Wellington to write in a famous despatch to Earl Bathurst, \"We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers\".\n\nAlthough later, when his temper had cooled, he extended his comment to praise the men under his command saying that though many of the men were, \"the scum of the earth; it is really wonderful that we should have made them to the fine fellows they are\".\n\nAfter taking the small fortresses of Pamplona, Wellington invested San Sebastián but was frustrated by the obstinate French garrison, losing 693 dead and 316 captured in a failed assault and suspending the siege at the end of July. Soult's relief attempt was blocked by the Spanish Army of Galicia at San Marcial, allowing the Allies to consolidate their position and tighten the ring around the city, which fell in September after a second spirited defence. Wellington then forced Soult's demoralised and battered army into a fighting retreat into France, punctuated by battles at the Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle. Wellington invaded southern France, winning at the Nive and Orthez. Wellington's final battle against his rival Soult occurred at Toulouse, where the Allied divisions were badly mauled storming the French redoubts, losing some 4,600 men. Despite this momentary victory, news arrived of Napoleon's defeat and abdication and Soult, seeing no reason to continue the fighting, agreed on a ceasefire with Wellington, allowing Soult to evacuate the city.\n\nHailed as the conquering hero by the British, on 3 May 1814 Wellington was made Duke of Wellington, in the county of Somerset, together with the subsidiary title of Marquess Douro, in said County.\n\nHe received some recognition during his lifetime (the title of \"Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo\" and \"Grandee of Spain\") and the Spanish King Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep part of the works of art from the Royal Collection which he had recovered from the French. His equestrian portrait features prominently in the Monument to the Battle of Vitoria, in present-day Vitoria-Gasteiz.\n His popularity in Britain was due to his image and his appearance as well as to his military triumphs. His victory fitted well with the passion and intensity of the Romantic movement, with its emphasis on individuality. His personal style influenced the fashions in Britain at the time: his tall, lean figure and his plumed black hat and grand yet classic uniform and white trousers became very popular.\n\nIn late 1814, the Prime Minister wanted him to take command in Canada with the assignment of winning the War of 1812 against the United States. Wellesley replied that he would go to America, but he believed that he was needed more in Europe. He stated:\n\nHe was appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna.\n\nOn 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order.\n\nHundred Days\n\nFacing Napoleon\n\nOn 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.\n\nNapoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately before the Austrians and Russians arrived. In doing so the vast superiority in numbers of the Coalition would be greatly diminished. He would then seek the possibility of peace with Austria and Russia.\n\nThe French invaded the Netherlands, with Napoleon defeating the Prussians at Ligny, and Marshal Ney engaging indecisively with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussians retreated 18 miles north to Wavre whilst Wellington's Anglo-Allied army withdrew 15 miles north to a site he had noted the previous year as favourable for a battle: the north ridge of a shallow valley on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo. On 17 June there was torrential rain, which severely hampered movement. and had a considerable effect the next day, 18 June, when the Battle of Waterloo was fought. This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon; he commanded an Anglo-Dutch-German army that consisted of approximately 73,000 troops, 26,000 of whom were British. Approximately 30 percent of that 26,000 were Irish.\n\nBattle of Waterloo\n\nThe Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium). It commenced with a diversionary attack on Hougoumont by a division of French soldiers. After a barrage of 80 cannons, the first French infantry attack was launched by Comte D'Erlon's I Corps. D'Erlon's troops advanced through the Allied centre, resulting in Allied troops in front of the ridge retreating in disorder through the main position. D'Erlon's corps stormed the most fortified Allied position, La Haye Sainte, but failed to take it. An Allied division under Thomas Picton met the remainder of D'Erlon's corps head to head, engaging them in an infantry duel in which Picton was killed. During this struggle Lord Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades at the enemy, catching the French infantry off guard, driving them to the bottom of the slope, and capturing two French Imperial Eagles. The charge, however, over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh French horsemen sent at them by Napoleon, were driven back, suffering tremendous losses.\n\nShortly before 16:00, Marshal Ney noted an apparent withdrawal from Wellington's centre. He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it. Ney at this time had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right. Ney, therefore, tried to break Wellington's centre with a cavalry charge alone.\n\nAt about 16:30, the first Prussian corps arrived. Commanded by Freiherr von Bülow, IV Corps arrived as the French cavalry attack was in full spate. Bülow sent the 15th Brigade to link up with Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont–La Haie area while the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support. Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area. Von Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit. Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed by the enemy. Napoleon's Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out. Napoleon then resorted to sending two battalions of the Middle and Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious fighting they recaptured the village.\nThe French cavalry attacked the British infantry squares many times, each at a heavy cost to the French but with few British casualties. Ney himself was displaced from his horse four times. Eventually, it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little. Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight. This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks.\n\nMeanwhile, at approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, Napoleon ordered Ney to capture La Haye Sainte at whatever the cost. Ney accomplished this with what was left of D'Erlon's corps soon after 18:00. Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre and began to attack the infantry squares at short-range with canister. This all but destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square. Wellington's centre was now on the verge of collapse and wide open to an attack from the French. Luckily for Wellington, Pirch I's and Zieten's corps of the Prussian Army were now at hand. Zieten's corps permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on Wellington's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre. Pirch I Corps then proceeded to support Bülow and together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot. The value of this reinforcement is held in high regard.\n\nThe French army now fiercely attacked the Coalition all along the line with the culminating point being reached when Napoleon sent forward the Imperial Guard at 19:30. The attack of the Imperial Guards was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the Grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Marching through a hail of canister and skirmisher fire and severely outnumbered, the 3,000 or so Middle Guardsmen advanced to the west of La Haye Sainte and proceeded to separate into three distinct attack forces. One, consisting of two battalions of Grenadiers, defeated the Coalition's first line and marched on. Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, and Allied artillery fired into the victorious Grenadiers' flank. This still could not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the outnumbered French, who faltered and broke.\n\nFurther to the west, 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. As two battalions of Chasseurs approached, the second prong of the Imperial Guard's attack, Maitland's guardsmen rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys. The Chasseurs deployed to counter-attack but began to waver. A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them. The third prong, a fresh Chasseur battalion, now came up in support. The British guardsmen retreated with these Chasseurs in pursuit, but the latter were halted as the 52nd Light Infantry wheeled in line onto their flank and poured a devastating fire into them and then charged. Under this onslaught, they too broke.\n\nThe last of the Guard retreated headlong. Mass panic ensued through the French lines as the news spread: \"La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut!\" (\"The Guard is retreating. Every man for himself!\"). Wellington then stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups, and waved his hat in the air to signal an advance of the Allied line just as the Prussians were overrunning the French positions to the east. What remained of the French army then abandoned the field in disorder. Wellington and Blücher met at the inn of La Belle Alliance, on the north–south road which bisected the battlefield, and it was agreed that the Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815.\n\nAfter the victory, the Duke supported proposals that a medal be awarded to all British soldiers who participated in the Waterloo campaign, and on 28 June 1815, he wrote to the Duke of York suggesting: ... the expediency of giving to the non-commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the Battle of Waterloo a medal. I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army, and if the battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve it.The Waterloo Medal was duly authorised and distributed to all ranks in 1816.\n\nControversy\nMuch historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield. Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery, mostly Dutch, away at Hal, north-west of Mont-Saint-Jean, in case of a French advance up the Mons-Hal-Brussels road.\n\nThe campaign led to numerous other controversies. Issues concerning Wellington's troop dispositions prior to Napoleon's invasion of the Netherlands, whether Wellington misled or betrayed Blücher by promising, then failing, to come directly to Blücher's aid at Ligny, and credit for the victory between Wellington and the Prussians. These and other such issues concerning Blücher's, Wellington's, and Napoleon's decisions during the campaign were the subject of a strategic-level study by the Prussian political-military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, Feldzug von 1815: Strategische Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1815, (English title: The Campaign of 1815: Strategic Overview of the Campaign.) This study was Clausewitz's last such work and is widely considered to be the best example of Clausewitz's mature theories concerning such analyses. It attracted the attention of Wellington's staff, who prompted the Duke to write a published essay on the campaign (other than his immediate, official after-action report, \"The Waterloo Dispatch\".) This was published as the 1842 \"Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo\". While Wellington disputed Clausewitz on several points, Clausewitz largely absolved Wellington of accusations levelled against him. This exchange with Clausewitz was quite famous in Britain in the 19th century, particularly in Charles Cornwallis Chesney's work the Waterloo Lectures, but was largely ignored in the 20th century due to hostilities between Britain and Germany.\n\nPolitics\n\nPrime Minister\n\nWellington entered politics again when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool on 26 December 1818. He also became Governor of Plymouth on 9 October 1819. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 22 January 1827 and Constable of the Tower of London on 5 February 1827.\n\nAlong with Robert Peel, Wellington became an increasingly influential member of the Tory party, and in 1828 he resigned as Commander-in-Chief and became prime minister.\n\nDuring his first seven months as prime minister, he chose not to live in the official residence at 10 Downing Street, finding it too small. He moved in only because his own home, Apsley House, required extensive renovations. During this time he was largely instrumental in the foundation of King's College London. On 20 January 1829 Wellington was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.\n\nReform\n\nHis term was marked by Roman Catholic Emancipation: the restoration of most civil rights to Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The change was prompted by the landslide by-election win of Daniel O'Connell, a Roman Catholic Irish proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. In the House of Lords, facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic Emancipation, and according to some sources, gave one of the best speeches of his career. Wellington was born in Ireland and so had some understanding of the grievances of the Roman Catholic majority there; as Chief Secretary, he had given an undertaking that the remaining Penal Laws would only be enforced as \"mildly\" as possible. In 1811 Catholic soldiers were given freedom of worship and 18 years later the Catholic Relief Act 1829 was passed with a majority of 105. Many Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the Whigs. Wellington had threatened to resign as prime minister if King George IV did not give Royal Assent.\n\nThe Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of \"an insidious design for the infringement of our liberties and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State\". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When the time came to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down. The Duke fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose, an act known in duelling as a delope. Wellington claimed he did. However, he was noted for his poor aim and reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Winchilsea discharged his pistol into the air, a plan he and his second had almost certainly decided upon before the duel. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology.\n\nThe nickname \"Iron Duke\" originated from this period, when he experienced a high degree of personal and political unpopularity. Its repeated use in Freeman's Journal throughout June 1830 appears to bear reference to his resolute political will, with taints of disapproval from its Irish editors. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.\n\nWellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830.\n\nThe Whigs introduced the first Reform Bill while Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The Whigs could not get the bill past its second reading in the British House of Commons, and the attempt failed. An election followed in direct response and the Whigs were returned with a landslide majority. A second Reform Act was introduced and passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Tory-controlled House of Lords. Another wave of near-insurrection swept the country. Wellington's residence at Apsley House was targeted by a mob of demonstrators on 27 April 1831 and again on 12 October, leaving his windows smashed. Iron shutters were installed in June 1832 to prevent further damage by crowds angry over rejection of the Reform Bill, which he strongly opposed. The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England. This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership. Eventually, the bill passed the House of Lords after the King threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not. Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said \"I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life\".\n\nWellington opposed the Jewish Civil Disabilities Repeal Bill, and he stated in Parliament on 1 August 1833 that England \"is a Christian country and a Christian legislature, and that the effect of this measure would be to remove that peculiar character.\" The Bill was defeated by 104 votes to 54.\n\nGovernment\n\nWellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel, while the party evolved into the Conservatives. When the Tories were returned to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become prime minister because he thought membership in the House of Commons had become essential. The king reluctantly approved Peel, who was in Italy. Hence, Wellington acted as interim leader for three weeks in November and December 1834, taking the responsibilities of prime minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became foreign secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a minister without portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords. Wellington was also re-appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 15 August 1842 following the resignation of Lord Hill.\n\nWellington served as the leader of the Conservative party in the House of Lords from 1828 to 1846. Some historians have belittled him as a befuddled reactionary, but a consensus in the late 20th century depicts him as a shrewd operator who hid his cleverness behind the façade of a poorly informed old soldier. Wellington worked to transform the Lords from unstinting support of the Crown to an active player in political manoeuvering, with a commitment to the landed aristocracy. He used his London residence as a venue for intimate dinners and private consultations, together with extensive correspondence that kept him in close touch with party leaders in the Commons, and the main persona in the Lords. He gave public rhetorical support to Ultra-Tory anti-reform positions, but then deftly changed positions toward the party's centre, especially when Peel needed support from the upper house. Wellington's success was based on the 44 elected peers from Scotland and Ireland, whose elections he controlled.\n\nLater life\n\nFamily \n\nWellesley was married by his brother Gerald, a clergyman, to Kitty Pakenham in St George's Church, Dublin on 10 April 1806. They had two children: Arthur was born in 1807 and Charles was born in 1808. The marriage proved unsatisfactory and the two spent years apart, while Wellesley was campaigning and afterwards. Kitty grew depressed, and Wellesley pursued other sexual and romantic partners. The couple largely lived apart, with Kitty spending most of her time at their country home, Stratfield Saye House and Wellesley at their London home, Apsley House. Kitty's brother Edward Pakenham served under Wellesley throughout the Peninsular War, and Wellesley's regard for him helped to smooth his relations with Kitty, until Pakenham's death at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815.\n\nRetirement\nWellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief, and returned briefly to the public eye in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during the year of European revolution. The Conservative Party had split over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Peel, but most of the MPs led by Lord Derby supporting a protectionist stance. Early in 1852 Wellington, by then very deaf, gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting \"Who? Who?\" as the list of inexperienced Cabinet ministers was read out in the House of Lords. He became Chief Ranger and Keeper of Hyde Park and St James's Park on 31 August 1850. He remained colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot from 1 February 1806 and colonel of the Grenadier Guards from 22 January 1827. Kitty died of cancer in 1831; despite their generally unhappy relations, which had led to an effective separation, Wellington was said to have been greatly saddened by her death, his one comfort being that after \"half a lifetime together, they had come to understand each other at the end\". He had found consolation for his unhappy marriage in his warm friendship with the diarist Harriet Arbuthnot, wife of his colleague Charles Arbuthnot. Harriet's death in the cholera epidemic of 1834 was almost as great a blow to Wellington as it was to her husband. The two widowers spent their last years together at Apsley House.\n\nDeath and funeral\n\nWellington died at Walmer Castle in Kent, his residence as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and reputedly his favourite home, on 14 September 1852. He was found to be unwell on that morning and was helped from his campaign bed, which he had used throughout his military career, and seated in his chair where he died. His death was recorded as being due to the after-effects of a stroke culminating in a series of seizures. He was aged 83.\n\nAlthough in life he hated travelling by rail, having witnessed the death of William Huskisson, one of the first railway accident casualties, his body was taken by train to London, where he was given a state funeral – one of a small number of British subjects to be so honoured (other examples include Lord Nelson and Sir Winston Churchill). The funeral took place on 18 November 1852. Before the funeral, the Duke's body lay in state at the Royal Hospital Chelsea. Members of the royal family, including Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal, visited to pay their respects. When viewing opened to the public, crowds thronged to visit and several people were killed in the crush.\n\nHe was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, and during his funeral, there was little space to stand due to the number of attendees. A bronze memorial was sculpted by Alfred Stevens, and features two intricate supports: \"Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of False-hood\", and \"Valour trampling Cowardice underfoot\". Stevens did not live to see it placed in its home under one of the arches of the cathedral.\n\nWellington's casket was decorated with banners which were made for his funeral procession. Originally, there was one from Prussia, which was removed during World War I and never reinstated. In the procession, the \"Great Banner\" was carried by General Sir James Charles Chatterton of the 4th Dragoon Guards on the orders of Queen Victoria.\n\nMost of the book A Biographical Sketch of the Military and Political Career of the Late Duke of Wellington by Weymouth newspaper proprietor Joseph Drew is a detailed contemporary account of his death, lying in state and funeral.\n\nAfter his death, Irish and English newspapers disputed whether Wellington had been born an Irishman or an Englishman. In 2002, he was number 15 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.\n\nOwing to its links with Wellington, as the former commanding officer and colonel of the regiment, the title \"33rd (The Duke of Wellington's) Regiment\" was granted to the 33rd Regiment of Foot, on 18 June 1853 (the 38th anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo) by Queen Victoria. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career.\n\nPersonality\n\nWellington always rose early; he \"couldn't bear to lie awake in bed\", even if the army was not on the march. Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts. General Miguel de Álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march \"at daybreak\" and dine on \"cold meat\" that he began to dread those two phrases. While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner. During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted on \"cold meat and bread\", to the despair of his staff who dined with him. He was, however, renowned for the quality of the wine that he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner (not a great quantity by the standards of his day).\n\nÁlava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca. Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army through a spyglass. He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised that he could launch a successful attack there. He exclaimed \"By God, that will do!\" and threw the drumstick in the air. After the Battle of Toulouse, Colonel Frederick Ponsonby brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, and Wellington broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers.\n\nMilitary historian Charles Dalton recorded that, after a hard-fought battle in Spain, a young officer made the comment, \"I am going to dine with Wellington tonight\", which was overheard by the Duke as he rode by. \"Give me at least the prefix of Mr. before my name,\" Wellington said. \"My Lord,\" replied the officer, \"we do not speak of Mr. Caesar or Mr. Alexander, so why should I speak of Mr. Wellington?\"\n\nWhile known for his stern countenance and iron-handed discipline, Wellington was by no means unfeeling. While he is said to have disapproved of soldiers cheering as \"too nearly an expression of opinion\". Wellington nevertheless cared for his men: he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, foreseeing an inevitable cost to his army in chasing a diminished enemy through rough terrain. The only time that he ever showed grief in public was after the storming of Badajoz: he cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.In this context, his famous despatch after the Battle of Vitoria, calling them the \"scum of the earth\" can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger. He shed tears after Waterloo on the presentation of the list of British fallen by Dr John Hume. Later with his family, unwilling to be congratulated for his victory, he broke down in tears, his fighting spirit diminished by the high cost of the battle and great personal loss.\n\nWellington's soldier servant, a gruff German called Beckerman, and his long-serving valet, James Kendall, who served him for 25 years and was with him when he died, were both devoted to him. (A story that he never spoke to his servants and preferred instead to write his orders on a notepad on his dressing table in fact probably refers to his son, the 2nd Duke. It was recorded by the 3rd Duke's niece, Viva Seton Montgomerie (1879–1959), as being an anecdote she heard from an old retainer, Charles Holman, who was said greatly to resemble Napoleon.)\n\nFollowing an incident when, as Master-General of the Ordnance he had been close to a large explosion, Wellington began to experience deafness and other ear-related problems. In 1822, he had an operation to improve the hearing of the left ear. The result, however, was that he became permanently deaf on that side. It is claimed that he was \"never quite well afterwards\".\n\nWellington came to enjoy the company of a variety of intellectual and attractive women and had many amorous liaisons, particularly after the Battle of Waterloo and his subsequent ambassadorial position in Paris. In the days following Waterloo he had an affair with the notorious Lady Caroline Lamb, sister of one of his severely wounded officers and favourites, Col Frederick Ponsonby. He corresponded for many years with Lady Georgiana Lennox, later Lady de Ros, 26 years his junior and daughter of the Duchess of Richmond (who held the famous ball on the eve of Waterloo) and, though there are hints, it has not been clearly determined if the relationship was ever sexual. The British press lampooned the amorous side of the national hero. In 1824, one liaison came back to haunt him, when Wellington received a letter from a publisher, John Joseph Stockdale offering to refrain from issuing an edition of the rather racy memoirs of one of his mistresses Harriette Wilson, in exchange for money. It is said that the Duke promptly returned the letter, after scrawling across it, \"Publish and be damned\". However, Hibbert notes in his biography that the letter can be found among the Duke's papers, with nothing written on it. It is certain that Wellington reply, and the tone of a further letter from the publisher, quoted by Longford, suggests that he had refused in the strongest language to submit to blackmail.\n\nHe was also a remarkably practical man who spoke concisely. In 1851, it was discovered that there were a great many sparrows flying about in the Crystal Palace just before the Great Exhibition was to open. His advice to Queen Victoria was \"Sparrowhawks, ma'am\".\n\nWellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). However, for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his army lacked the numbers for a strategically offensive posture.\n\nTitles and tributes\n\nNicknames\n\nThe Iron Duke\n\nThis commonly used nickname originally related to his consistent political resolve rather than to any particular incident. In various cases its editorial use appears to be disparaging.\n\nIt is likely that its use became more widespread after an incident in 1832 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at Apsley House. The term may have been made increasingly popular by Punch cartoons published in 1844–45.\n\nOther nicknames\n In the popular ballads of the day Wellington was called \"Nosey\" or \"Old Nosey\".\n Tsar Alexander I of Russia called Wellington \"Le vainqueur du vainqueur du monde\", the conqueror of the world's conqueror, the phrase \"the world's conqueror\" referring to Napoleon. Lord Tennyson uses a similar reference in his \"Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington\", referring to him as \"the great World-victor's victor\".\n Officers under his command called him \"The Beau\", as he was a fine dresser.\n Spanish troops called him \"The Eagle\", while Portuguese troops called him \"Douro Douro\" after his river crossing at Oporto in 1809.\n \"Beau Douro\"; Wellington found this amusing when hearing it used by a Colonel of the Coldstream Guards.\n \"Sepoy General\"; Napoleon used this term as an insult to Wellington's military service in India, publicly considering him an unworthy opponent. The name was used in the French newspaper Le Moniteur Universel, as a means of propaganda.\n \"The Beef\"; It is a theory that the Beef Wellington dish is a reference to Wellington, although some chefs dispute this.\n \"Europe's Liberator\"\n \"Saviour of the Nations\"\n\nSee also\n\n Military career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\n Army Gold Medal\n Military General Service Medal\n Seringapatam medal\n Cotiote War\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nSources\nBooks\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n\nOnline resources\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nJournals and magazines\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nPrimary sources\n\nFurther reading\n\n \n \n This on-line text contains Clausewitz's 58-chapter study of the Campaign of 1815 and Wellington's lengthy 1842 essay written in response to Clausewitz, as well as supporting documents and essays by the editors.\n \n \n \n Goldsmith, Thomas. \"The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814-1830.\" (PhD Diss. University of East Anglia, 2016). online\n \n \n \n Lambert, A. \"Politics, administration and decision-making: Wellington and the navy, 1828–30\" Wellington Studies IV, ed. C. M. Woolgar, (Southampton, 2008), pp. 185–243.\n Longford, Elizabeth. Wellington: Pillar of State (1972), vol 2 of her biography; online\n\nExternal links\n\n Records and images from the UK Parliament Collections\n The life of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington\n Duke of Wellington's Regiment – West Riding\n Papers of Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington (MS 61) at the University of Southampton\n \n \n \n More about Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington on the Downing Street website\n \n \n \n \"Napoleon and Wellington\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Andrew Roberts, Mike Broer and Belinda Beaton (In Our Time, 25 October 2001)\n\n \nCategory:1769 births\nCategory:1852 deaths\nCategory:19th-century Anglo-Irish people\nCategory:19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom\nWellesley Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to France\nCategory:British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars\nCategory:British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars\nCategory:British Army personnel of the Peninsular War\nCategory:British Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs\nCategory:British Secretaries of State\nCategory:British field marshals\nCategory:British military personnel of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War\nCategory:British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Maratha War\nCategory:Burials at St Paul's Cathedral\nCategory:Chancellors of the University of Oxford\nCategory:Chief Secretaries for Ireland\nCategory:Commissioners of the Treasury for Ireland\nCategory:Constables of the Tower of London\nCategory:Cotiote War\nCategory:Diplomatic peers\nCategory:British duellists\nCategory:Duke of Wellington's Regiment officers\nCategory:Dukes da Vitória\nCategory:Dukes of Ciudad Rodrigo\n101\nWellesley, Arthur 1\nCategory:Fellows of the Royal Society\nCategory:Field marshals of Portugal\nCategory:Field marshals of Russia\nCategory:Grandees of Spain\nCategory:Grenadier Guards officers\nCategory:Irish Anglicans\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Irish expatriates in England\nCategory:Irish expatriates in France\nCategory:Irish expatriates in India\nCategory:Irish expatriates in Portugal\nCategory:Irish expatriates in Spain\nCategory:Irish expatriates in the Netherlands\nCategory:Irish officers in the British Army\nCategory:Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK)\nCategory:Lord High Constables of England\nCategory:Lord-Lieutenants of Hampshire\nCategory:Lord-Lieutenants of the Tower Hamlets\nCategory:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports\nCategory:MPs for rotten boroughs\nCategory:Members of Trinity House\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Members of the Privy Council of Ireland\nCategory:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom\nCategory:Peers of the United Kingdom created by George III\nCategory:People associated with King's College London\nCategory:People educated at Eton College\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom\nCategory:Princes of Waterloo\nCategory:Regency era\nCategory:Royal Horse Guards officers\nCategory:Spanish captain generals\nCategory:Tory prime ministers of the United Kingdom\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:UK MPs who were granted peerages\nArthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\nCategory:Younger sons of earls\n\nCategory:Knights of the Garter\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath\nCategory:Recipients of the Army Gold Cross\nCategory:Recipients of the Waterloo Medal\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Max Joseph\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William\nCategory:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class\nCategory:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree\nCategory:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Royal and Military Order of San Hermenegild\nCategory:Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword\nCategory:Leaders of the House of Lords\nW", "title": "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington" }, { "text": "W, or w, is the twenty-third and fourth-to-last letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. It represents a consonant, but in some languages it represents a vowel. Its name in English is double-u, plural double-ues.\n\nHistory\n\nThe classical Latin alphabet, from which the modern European alphabets derived, did not have the \"W\" character. The \"W\" sounds were represented by the Latin letter \"V\" (at the time, not yet distinct from \"U\").\n\nThe sounds (spelled ) and (spelled ) of Classical Latin developed into the voiced bilabial fricative between vowels in Early Medieval Latin. Therefore, no longer adequately represented the voiced labial-velar approximant sound of Germanic phonology.\n\nThe Germanic phoneme was, therefore, written as or ( and becoming distinct only by the Early Modern period) by the earliest writers of Old English and Old High German, in the 7th or 8th centuries. Gothic (not Latin-based), by contrast, had simply used a letter based on the Greek Υ for the same sound in the 4th century. The digraph / was also used in Medieval Latin to represent Germanic names, including Gothic ones like Wamba.\n\nIt is from this digraph that the modern name \"double U\" derives. The digraph was commonly used in the spelling of Old High German but only in the earliest texts in Old English, where the sound soon came to be represented by borrowing the rune , adapted as the Latin letter wynn: . In early Middle English, following the 11th-century Norman Conquest, regained popularity; by 1300, it had taken wynn's place in common use.\n\nScribal realisation of the digraph could look like a pair of Vs whose branches crossed in the middle: both forms (separate and crossed) appear, for instance, in the \"running text\" (in Latin) of the Bayeux tapestry in proper names such as EDVVARDVS and VVILLELMVS (or the same with crossed Vs). Another realisation (common in roundhand, kurrent and blackletter) takes the form of an whose rightmost branch curved around, as in a cursive (viz. ) It was used up to the nineteenth century in Britain and continues to be familiar in Germany.\n\nThus, the shift from the digraph to the distinct ligature was gradual and was only apparent in abecedaria, explicit listings of all individual letters. It was probably considered a separate letter by the 14th century in both Middle English and Middle German orthography. However, it remained an outsider, not really considered part of the Latin alphabet proper, as expressed by Valentin Ickelshamer in the 16th century, who complained that:\n\nIn Middle High German (and possibly already in late Old High German), the West Germanic phoneme became realized as ; this is why, today, the German represents that sound.\n\nPronunciation and use\n\nEnglish\nEnglish uses to represent . There are also a number of words beginning with a written that is silent in most dialects before a (pronounced) , remaining from usage in Old English in which the was pronounced: wreak, wrap, wreck, wrench, wroth, wrinkle, etc. Certain dialects of Scottish English still distinguish this digraph. represents a vowel sound, , in the word pwn, and in the Welsh loanwords cwm and crwth it retains the Welsh pronunciation, . is also used in digraphs: , , , wherein it is usually an orthographic allograph of in final positions. It is the fifteenth most frequently used letter in the English language, with a frequency of about 2.56% in words.\n\nOther languages\nIn Europe languages with in native words are in a central-western European zone between Cornwall and Poland: English, German, Low German, Dutch, Frisian, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Walloon, Polish, Kashubian, Sorbian, Wymysorys, Resian and Scandinavian dialects. German, Polish, Wymysorys and Kashubian use it for the voiced labiodental fricative (with Polish, related Kashubian and Wymysorys using Ł for , except in conservative and some eastern Polish speech, where Ł still represents the dark L sound.), and Dutch uses it for . Unlike its use in other languages, the letter is used in Welsh and Cornish to represent the vowel as well as the related approximant consonant .\n\nThe following languages historically used for in native words, but later replaced it by : Swedish, Finnish, Czech, Slovak, Latvian, Lithuanian, Estonian, Ukrainian Łatynka and Belarusian Łacinka. It is also used in modern systems of Romanization of Belarusian for the letter , for example in the BGN/PCGN system, in contrast to the letter , which is used in the Instruction on transliteration of Belarusian geographical names with letters of Latin script.\n\nIn Swedish and Finnish, traces of this old usage may still be found in proper names. In Hungarian remains in some aristocratic surnames, e.g. Wesselényi.\n\nModern German dialects generally have only or for West Germanic , but or is still heard allophonically for , especially in the clusters , , and . Some Bavarian dialects preserve a \"light\" initial , such as in wuoz (Standard German weiß '[I] know'). The Classical Latin is heard in the Southern German greeting Servus ('hello' or 'goodbye').\n\nIn Dutch, became a labiodental approximant (with the exception of words with -, which have , or other diphthongs containing -). In many Dutch-speaking areas, such as Flanders and Suriname, the pronunciation (or in some areas a pronunciation, e.g. Belgian-Dutch water \"water\", wit \"white\", eeuw \"century\", etc.) is used at all times.\n\nIn Finnish, is sometimes seen as a variant of and not a separate letter, but it is a part of official alphabet. It is, however, recognized and maintained in the spelling of some old names, reflecting an earlier German spelling standard, and in some modern loan words. In all cases, it is pronounced . The first edition of the Kalevala had its title spelled Kalewala.\n\nIn Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, is named double-v and not double-u. In these languages, the letter only exists in old names, loanwords and foreign words. (Foreign words are distinguished from loanwords by having a significantly lower level of integration in the language.) It is usually pronounced , but in some words of English origin it may be pronounced . The letter was officially introduced in the Danish and Swedish alphabets as late as 1980 and 2006, respectively, despite having been in use for much longer. It had been recognized since the conception of modern Norwegian, with the earliest official orthography rules of 1907. was earlier seen as a variant of , and as a letter (double-v) is still commonly replaced by in speech (e.g. WC being pronounced as VC, www as VVV, WHO as VHO, etc.) The two letters were sorted as equals before was officially recognized, and that practice is still recommended when sorting names in Sweden. In modern slang, some native speakers may pronounce more closely to the origin of the loanword than the official pronunciation.\n\nMultiple dialects of Swedish and Danish use the sound however. In Denmark notably in Jutland, where the northern half use it extensively in traditional dialect, and multiple places in Sweden. It is used in southern Swedish, for example in Halland where the words \"wesp\" (wisp) and \"wann\" (water) are traditionally used. In northern and western Sweden there are also dialects with . Elfdalian is a good example, which is one of many dialects where the Old Norse difference between v () and f ( or ) is preserved. Thus \"warg\" from Old Norse \"vargr\", but \"åvå\" from Old Norse \"hafa\".\n\nIn the alphabets of most modern Romance languages, is used mostly in foreign names and words recently borrowed (Italian il watt, Spanish el kiwi). In Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese, is a non-syllabic variant of , spelled . In Italian, while the letter is not considered part of the standard Italian alphabet, the character is often used in place of Viva (hooray for...), generally in the form in which the branches of the Vs cross in the middle, at least in handwriting (in fact it could be considered a monogram). The same symbol written upside down indicates abbasso (down with...). In French, is also used mostly in foreign names and words recently borrowed such as wagon or week-end, but in the first case it is pronounced (except in Picard and in Walloon) and in the second . In most northern French dialects the former turned finally to , but still exists as a remnant in the place-names of Romance Flanders, Picardie, Artois, Champagne, Romance Lorraine and sometimes elsewhere (Normandy, Île-de-France), and in the surnames from the same regions. Walloon as it sounds conserves the pronounced . The digraph is used to render in rare French words such as ouest \"west\" and to spell Arabic names transliterated -wi in English, but -oui in French (compare Arabic surname Badawi / Badaoui). In all these languages, as in Scandinavian languages mentioned above, the letter is named \"double v\" (French , Spanish ) though in Walloon and Picard the name is also used.\n\nIn Indonesian, the letter \"W\" is called 'wé'. The letter names in Indonesian are always the same with the sounds they produce, especially the consonants.\n\nThe Japanese language uses \"W\", pronounced /daburu/, as an ideogram meaning \"double\". It is also used in internet slang to indicate laughter (like LOL), derived from the word warau (笑う, meaning \"to laugh\").\n\nIn Italian, while the letter is not considered part of the standard Italian alphabet, the character is often used in place of Viva (hooray for...), generally in the form in which the branches of the Vs cross in the middle, at least in handwriting (in fact it could be considered a monogram). The same symbol written upside down indicates abbasso (down with...)\n\nIn the Kokborok language, represents the open-mid back rounded vowel .\n\nIn Turkey the use of the w was banned between 1928 and 2013 which was a problem for the Kurdish population in Turkey as the w was a letter of the Kurdish alphabet. The use of the letter w in the word Newroz, the Kurdish new year was forbidden and names which included the letter were not able to be used. In 2008, a court in Gaziantep reasoned the use of the letter w would incite civil unrest. Nevertheless, the w was used in water closets throughout Turkey.\n\nIn Vietnamese, is called , from the French . It is not included in the standard Vietnamese alphabet, but it is often used as a substitute for qu- in literary dialect and very informal writing. It's also commonly used for abbreviating Ư in formal documents, for example Trung Ương is abbreviated as TW even in official documents and document ID number\n\n\"W\" is the 24th letter in the Modern Filipino Alphabet and has its English name. However, in the old Filipino alphabet, Abakada, it was the 19th letter and had the name \"wah\".\n\nIn Washo, lower-case represents a typical sound, while upper-case represents a voiceless w sound, like the difference between English weather and whether for those who maintain the distinction.\n\nOther systems\nIn the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the voiced labial-velar approximant.\n\nOther uses\n\nW is the symbol for the chemical element tungsten, after its German (and alternative English) name, . It is also the SI symbol for the watt, the standard unit of power. It is also often used as a variable in mathematics, especially to represent a complex number or a vector.\n\nIn recent years, the letters L and W have become an internet meme, respectively standing for loss and win.\n\nName \nDouble-u, whose name reflects stages in the letter's evolution when it was considered two of the same letter, a double U, is the only modern English letter whose name has more than one syllable. It is also the only English letter whose name is not pronounced with any of the sounds that the letter typically makes in words, with the exception of H for some speakers.\n\nSome speakers shorten the name \"double u\" into \"dub-u\" or just \"dub\"; for example, University of Wisconsin, University of Washington, University of Wyoming, University of Waterloo, University of the Western Cape and University of Western Australia are all known colloquially as \"U Dub\", and the automobile company Volkswagen, abbreviated \"VW\", is sometimes pronounced \"V-Dub\". The fact that many website URLs require a \"www.\" prefix has been influential in promoting these shortened pronunciations.\n\nIn other Germanic languages, including German (but not Dutch, in which it is pronounced wé), its name is similar to that of English V. In many languages, its name literally means \"double v\": Portuguese duplo vê, Spanish doble ve (though it can be spelled uve doble), French double vé, Icelandic tvöfalt vaff, Czech dvojité vé, Estonian kaksisvee, Finnish kaksois-vee, etc.\n\nFormer U.S. president George W. Bush was given the nickname \"Dubya\" after the colloquial pronunciation of his middle initial in Texas, where he spent much of his childhood.\n\nRelated characters\n\nAncestors, descendants and siblings\n𐤅: Semitic letter Waw, from which the following symbols originally derive\nU : Latin letter U\nV : Latin letter V\nⱲ ⱳ : W with hook\nꝠ ꝡ : Latin letter VY\nꟂ ꟃ : Anglicana W, used in medieval English and Cornish\nIPA-specific symbols related to W: \nUralic Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to W: and \nʷ : Modifier letter small w is used in Indo-European studies\nꭩ : Modifier letter small turned w is used in linguistic transcriptions of Scots\nW with diacritics: Ẃ ẃ Ẁ ẁ Ŵ ŵ Ẅ ẅ Ẇ ẇ Ẉ ẉ ẘ\nװ (double vav): the Yiddish and Hebrew equivalent of W\nArabic و, has the same origin despite bearing little resemblance to W\n\nLigatures and abbreviations\n₩ : Won sign, capital letter W with double stroke\n\nComputing codes\n\n 1\n\nOther representations\n\nSee also\n Digamma (Ϝ), the archaic Greek letter for /w/\nVoiced labio-velar approximant\nWh (digraph)\n W stands for Work in physics\n W is the symbol for \"watt\" in the International System of Units (SI)\n\nReferences\nInformational notes\n\nCitations\n\nExternal links\n\nCategory:ISO basic Latin letters\nCategory:Latin-script ligatures\nCategory:Vowel letters", "title": "W" } ]

[ "Wellesley served as aide-de-camp to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham, early in his career. He was also gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot and subsequently promoted to lieutenant. Later, he became a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons and voted with the government in the Irish parliament.", "The context does not provide information on how Wellesley's role in the Army helped shape his career later in life.", "The context does not provide information on anyone opposing Wellesley's views or role.", "The context does not provide information on Wellesley winning any awards or recognition for his role.", "The context mentions a few interesting aspects about Wellesley's personal life such as his overextension in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, his interest in amateur music and the burning of his violins in anger following romantic rejection, and his aspirations in a military career. His romantic interest in Kitty Pakenham, who rejected his marriage proposal, is also noted. His transfer to different regiments within the Army and his entry into politics are also key points in the context.", "The context does not provide information on whether Wellesley had any children or got married.", "Yes, Wellesley showed a change in levels of interest. Initially interested in amateur music, a romantic rejection led him to burn his violins in anger and he resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. Additionally, he transitioned into politics, being elected as a Member of Parliament for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. However, the context does not note a complete career change.", "The context does not provide information on his parents' support or lack of support for his growing role.", "The context does not provide information on Wellesley's personality or how likable he was as a character." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_072df7f0df60447fbdbcf45dd6d9fda1_0_q#0", "C_072df7f0df60447fbdbcf45dd6d9fda1_0_q#1", "C_072df7f0df60447fbdbcf45dd6d9fda1_0_q#2", "C_072df7f0df60447fbdbcf45dd6d9fda1_0_q#3", "C_072df7f0df60447fbdbcf45dd6d9fda1_0_q#4", "C_072df7f0df60447fbdbcf45dd6d9fda1_0_q#5" ]

[ "What was his dealings with the Prairie Houses?", "What was special about this style?", "What about the design was different?", "Was there different designs?", "What features were most common?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 0, 0, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 679 ], [ 813 ], [ 1948 ], [ 2536 ], [ 2601 ], [ 2741 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses which have since been identified as the onset of the \"Prairie style\"." ], [ "Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright's early designs and the Prairie creations." ], [ "The Robie House, with its soaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a 110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic." ], [ "Prairie style houses often have a combination of these features:" ], [ "One or two-stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines," ], [ "ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materials--especially stone and wood." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 679, 813, 1948, 2536, 2601, 2741 ], "texts": [ "Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses which have since been identified as the onset of the \"Prairie style\".", "Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright's early designs and the Prairie creations.", "The Robie House, with its soaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a 110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic.", "Prairie style houses often have a combination of these features:", "One or two-stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines,", "ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materials--especially stone and wood." ] }

[]

[ "Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses between 1900 and 1901 that signaled the onset of the \"Prairie style\". Hickox and Bradley Houses were the last transitional step before Wright fully adopted this style, with the Thomas House and Willits House being recognized as the first mature examples. Wright then popularized his ideas for the American house through articles in the Ladies' Home Journal, which subsequently increased requests for similar designs. Notable prairie style houses by Wright include the Darwin D. Martin House, the Frederick Robie House, and the Avery and Queene Coonley House. These homes, known as \"prairie houses\", often feature one or two-stories with one-story projections, open floor plans, low roofs with broad eaves, horizontal lines, ribbons of windows, prominent central chimneys, built-in stylized cabinetry, and natural materials. His work had a profound influence on European architects after World War I and is considered the cornerstone of modernism.", "The \"Prairie style\" designed by Frank Lloyd Wright was special due to its unique features which complemented the land around Chicago. These included one or two-stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines, ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materials like stone and wood. The style was seen as innovative and represented a radical departure from traditional residential architectural design. Its influence extended to European architects after World War I and it even came to be known as the cornerstone of modernism.", "The \"Prairie style\" was different in its innovative use of space and form. Features like one or two-story projections, open floor plans, and the combination of living and dining areas into virtually one uninterrupted space, represented a departure from traditional residential architectural design. The use of low-pitched roofs with wide, overhanging eaves, as well as the extensive use of natural materials like wood and stone, helped the buildings blend with their surrounding landscape. Other unique features included prominent central chimneys, built-in stylized cabinetry and ribbons of windows, which showcased strong horizontal lines, often giving the illusion of the buildings being more expansive.", "Yes, there were different designs within the \"Prairie style\". While they all followed the general features of the style, such as open floor plans, low roofs, and the use of natural materials, individual houses had their distinct characteristics. For example, the Frederick Robie House is noted for its dramatic, cantilevered roof lines supported by a 110-foot-long channel of steel and virtually uninterrupted living and dining spaces. The Darwin D. Martin House, another example, while not detailed in the text, would also have its unique features. Despite these differences, they all stuck to the principles of the Prairie style, forming a coherent body of work in Frank Lloyd Wright's portfolio.", "The most common features of the \"Prairie style\" as designed by Frank Lloyd Wright include one or two-stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad, overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines, ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materials--especially stone and wood. These features were designed to complement the land around Chicago, giving the style its name.", "Apart from the specific content about the \"Prairie style\", an interesting aspect to note is Frank Lloyd Wright's significant influence on modern architecture, with his work being referred to as the \"cornerstone of modernism\". The article also indicates the global reach of his work as his designs became known to European architects and profoundly influenced them after World War I. Moreover, it reveals how Wright publicized his ideas through publications such as the Ladies' Home Journal, showing his engagement with a wider public beyond the architectural community." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Neutral", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_b3715204c684455fa3eef156b1af1a57_0_q#0", "C_b3715204c684455fa3eef156b1af1a57_0_q#1", "C_b3715204c684455fa3eef156b1af1a57_0_q#2", "C_b3715204c684455fa3eef156b1af1a57_0_q#3" ]

[ "Where did he go to school?", "What did he study there?", "Was his major journalism?", "When did he graduate?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 35 ], [ 72 ], [ 81 ], [ 3020 ] ], "texts": [ [ "University of Missouri, in Columbia," ], [ "where he enrolled in journalism classes." ], [ "enrolled in journalism classes." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 35, 72, 81, 3020 ], "texts": [ "University of Missouri, in Columbia,", "where he enrolled in journalism classes.", "enrolled in journalism classes.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "He attended the University of Missouri, Washington University in St. Louis, University of Iowa, and the Dramatic Workshop of The New School in New York City.", "He initially enrolled in journalism classes at the University of Missouri. Later, at the University of Iowa, he completed his undergraduate degree and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in English.", "No, his major was not specified as journalism. He majored in English and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Iowa.", "He graduated from the University of Iowa by 1938." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_b3715204c684455fa3eef156b1af1a57_1_q#0", "C_b3715204c684455fa3eef156b1af1a57_1_q#1", "C_b3715204c684455fa3eef156b1af1a57_1_q#2", "C_b3715204c684455fa3eef156b1af1a57_1_q#3" ]

[ "what happened during his childhood?", "what happened when he got diphtheria?", "once he got better, what did he do?", "where did he go to school?" ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 707 ], [ 748 ], [ 921 ], [ 1792 ] ], "texts": [ [ "suffered from a case of diphtheria" ], [ "nearly ended his life," ], [ "he was less robust as a child than his father wished." ], [ "He attended Soldan High School," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 707, 748, 921, 1792 ], "texts": [ "suffered from a case of diphtheria", "nearly ended his life,", "he was less robust as a child than his father wished.", "He attended Soldan High School," ] }

[]

[ "During Williams' early childhood, he lived in the parish of Clarksdale, Mississippi where his grandfather was an Episcopal priest. He became extremely sick with diphtheria as a young child, which weakened him and confined him to his house for a year for recovery. Williams' father was often away from home due to his job as a traveling salesman and had a violent temper. Williams' mother was unhappy in her marriage and focused much of her attention on him. When he was eight years old, his family moved to St. Louis, Missouri for his father's new job. The family moved frequently due to his mother's search for a suitable address and his father's disruptive behavior. He went to Soldan High School and later University City High School. At 16, he won a prize for an essay and published a short story at 17 in Weird Tales magazine.", "When Williams contracted diphtheria as a small child, he nearly died. The illness left him weak and he was virtually confined to his house for a year during his period of recuperation. The illness also contributed to him being less robust as a child than his father wished.", "The text does not provide specific details on what Williams did immediately after recovering from diphtheria. However, it does mention that during his childhood, his family moved to St. Louis, Missouri when he was eight years old. Following that, he attended Soldan High School and University City High School. At 16, he won a prize for an essay and at 17, he had a short story published.", "Williams went to Soldan High School and later attended University City High School. Both of these schools are located in St. Louis, Missouri." ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 462 ], [ 2435 ], [ 1464 ], [ 1739 ], [ 1234 ], [ 2435 ], [ 1956 ], [ 2056 ], [ 2435 ] ], "texts": [ [ "His birthplace is uncertain. He was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784." ], [ "Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined" ], [ "In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness," ], [ "concerned at his idleness, stating, \"I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur.\"" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 462, 2435, 1464, 1739, 1234, 2435, 1956, 2056, 2435 ], "texts": [ "His birthplace is uncertain. He was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street,", "CANNOTANSWER", "He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784.", "Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined", "In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness,", "concerned at his idleness, stating, \"I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur.\"", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "101 may refer to:\n\n 101 (number), the number\n AD 101, a year in the 2nd century AD\n 101 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC\n\nIt may also refer to:\n\nEntertainment \n 101 (album), a live album and documentary by Depeche Mode \n \"101\" (song), a 1988 song and single by Sheena Easton\n \"101\", a song on the Girl on Fire album by Alicia Keys\n The 101 Network, former name of Audience, an American pay television channel\n\nTransportation \n List of highways numbered 101, several roads, including:\n U.S. Route 101, often called \"The 101\"\n 101 series, a commuter multiple unit train introduced in 1958 by Japan National Railways\n TMK 101, a tramcar type which was used in Zagreb, Croatia, from 1951 until December 2008\n McDonnell F-101 Voodoo fighter aircraft\n McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo Canadian variant of the F-101\n Fisher FP-101 kit aircraft\n\nOther uses \n101 (slang), a term used to indicate an introduction to a body of knowledge\n101st Airborne Division\nBell 101 modem a late 1950s communications modem\nBill 101 or Law 101, the Charter of the French Language in Québec\nPolice 101, the single non-emergency number used by all UK territorial police authorities\nTaipei 101, the tallest skyscraper in the world from 2004 to 2010\nMendelevium, chemical element with atomic number 101\n101 Dalmatians (disambiguation)\n\nSee also \n \n \n IOI (disambiguation) \n Room 101 (disambiguation)", "title": "101" }, { "text": "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, (1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852) was a Anglo-Irish statesman, soldier, and Tory politician who was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain, serving twice as prime minister of the United Kingdom. He is among the commanders who won and ended the Napoleonic Wars when the Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.\n\nWellesley was born in Dublin into the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive lords lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons. He was a colonel by 1796 and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, won a decisive victory over the Maratha Confederacy at the Battle of Assaye in 1803.\n\nWellesley rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the allied forces to victory against the French Empire at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the allied army which, together with a Prussian Army under Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he ultimately participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career.\n\nWellington is famous for his adaptive defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, and many of his tactics and battle plans are still studied in military academies around the world. After the end of his active military career, he returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as a member of the Tory party from 1828 to 1830 and for a little less than a month in 1834. He oversaw the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement and remained Commander-in-Chief of the British Army until his death.\n\nEarly life\n\nFamily \nWellesley was born into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy, in Ireland as The Hon. Arthur Wesley. Wellesley was born the son of Anne Wellesley, Countess of Mornington and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His father, Garret Wesley, was the son of Richard Wesley, 1st Baron Mornington and had a short career in politics representing the constituency Trim in the Irish House of Commons before succeeding his father as 2nd Baron Mornington in 1758. Garret Wesley was also an accomplished composer and in recognition of his musical and philanthropic achievements was elevated to the rank of Earl of Mornington in 1760. Wellesley's mother was the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, after whom Wellesley was named.\n\nWellesley was the sixth of nine children born to the Earl and Countess of Mornington. His siblings included Richard, Viscount Wellesley (1760–1842); later 1st Marquess Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, Baron Maryborough.\n\nBirth date and place \nThe exact date and location of Wellesley's birth is not known; however, biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence which states that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised in St Peters Church, Dublin. However, states \"registry of St. Peter's Church, Dublin, shows that he was christened there on 30 April 1769\". His baptismal font was donated to St. Nahi's Church in Dundrum, Dublin, in 1914. As to the place of Wellesley's birth, he was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, now the Merrion Hotel. This contrasts with reports that his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. Other places have been put forward as the location of his birth, including Mornington House (the house next door on Upper Merrion), as his father had asserted and the Dublin packet boat.\n\nChildhood \n\nWellesley spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle, north of Summerhill in County Meath. In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom.\n\nHe went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said \"The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton\", a quotation which is often attributed to him. Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, \"I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur.\"\n\nIn 1786, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful. Upon returning to England later the same year, he astonished his mother with his improvement.\n\nEarly military career\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nDespite his new promise, Wellesley had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot. In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as aide-de-camp, on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham. He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted lieutenant. During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham. While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that \"I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt\".\n\nOn 23 January 1788, he transferred into the 41st Regiment of Foot, then again on 25 June 1789 he transferred to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and, according to military historian Richard Holmes, he also reluctantly entered politics. Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the rotten borough of Trim to speak against the granting of the title \"Freeman\" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish Patriot Party, Henry Grattan. Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of fewer than a hundred boroughs. Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years. He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot.\n\nOn 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of Edward Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford. She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'. In 1793, he proposed, but was turned down by her brother Thomas, Earl of Longford, who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects. An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. He became a major by purchase in the 33rd Regiment in 1793. A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 33rd.\n\nNetherlands\n\nIn 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of an allied force destined for the invasion of France. In June 1794, Wellesley with the 33rd regiment set sail from Cork bound for Ostend as part of an expedition bringing reinforcements for the army in Flanders. They arrived too late to participate, and joined the Duke of York as he was pulling back towards the Netherlands. On 15 September 1794, at the Battle of Boxtel, east of Breda, Wellington, in temporary command of his brigade, had his first experience of battle. During General Abercromby's withdrawal in the face of superior French forces, the 33rd held off enemy cavalry, allowing neighbouring units to retreat safely. During the extremely harsh winter that followed, Wellesley and his regiment formed part of an allied force holding the defence line along the Waal River. The 33rd, along with the rest of the army, suffered heavy losses from attrition and illness. Wellesley's health was also affected by the damp environment. Though the campaign was to end disastrously, with the British army driven out of the United Provinces into the German states, Wellesley became more aware of battle tactics, including the use of lines of infantry against advancing columns, and the merits of supporting sea-power. He understood that the failure of the campaign was due in part to the faults of the leaders and the poor organisation at headquarters. He remarked later of his time in the Netherlands that \"At least I learned what not to do, and that is always a valuable lesson\".\nReturning to England in March 1795, he was reinstated as a member of parliament for Trim for a second time. He hoped to be given the position of secretary of war in the new Irish government but the new lord-lieutenant, Lord Camden, was only able to offer him the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance. Declining the post, he returned to his regiment, now at Southampton preparing to set sail for the West Indies. After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet back to Poole. The 33rd was given time to recuperate and a few months later, Whitehall decided to send the regiment to India. Wellesley was promoted full colonel by seniority on 3 May 1796 and a few weeks later set sail for Calcutta with his regiment.\n\nIndia\nArriving in Calcutta in February 1797 he spent 5 months there, before being sent in August to a brief expedition to the Philippines, where he established a list of new hygiene precautions for his men to deal with the unfamiliar climate. Returning in November to India, he learnt that his elder brother Richard, now known as Lord Mornington, had been appointed as the new Governor-General of India.\n\nIn 1798, he changed the spelling of his surname to \"Wellesley\"; up to this time he was still known as Wesley, which his eldest brother considered the ancient and proper spelling.\n\nFourth Anglo-Mysore War\n\nAs part of the campaign to extend the rule of the British East India Company, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan. Arthur's brother Richard ordered that an armed force be sent to capture Seringapatam and defeat Tipu. During the war, rockets were used on several occasions. Wellesley was almost defeated by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest,\nAt this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5th April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to \"postpone the attack\" until a more favourable opportunity should offer.\n\nThe following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without any killed in action. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers maneuvered to the rear of the British encampment, then 'threw a great number of rockets at the same instant' to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all ordered by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: \"So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...\". He continued:\nThe rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them.\nUnder the command of General Harris, some 24,000 troops were dispatched to Madras (to join an equal force being sent from Bombay in the west). Arthur and the 33rd sailed to join them in August.\n\nAfter extensive and careful logistic preparation (which would become one of Wellesley's main attributes) the 33rd left with the main force in December and travelled across of jungle from Madras to Mysore. On account of his brother, during the journey, Wellesley was given an additional command, that of chief advisor to the Nizam of Hyderabad's army (sent to accompany the British force). This position was to cause friction among many of the senior officers (some of whom were senior to Wellesley). Much of this friction was put to rest after the Battle of Mallavelly, some from Seringapatam, in which Harris' army attacked a large part of the sultan's army. During the battle, Wellesley led his men, in a line of battle of two ranks, against the enemy to a gentle ridge and gave the order to fire. After an extensive repetition of volleys, followed by a bayonet charge, the 33rd, in conjunction with the rest of Harris's force, forced Tipu's infantry to retreat.\n\nSeringapatam\nImmediately after their arrival at Seringapatam on 5 April 1799, the Battle of Seringapatam began and Wellesley was ordered to lead a night attack on the village of Sultanpettah, adjacent to the fortress to clear the way for the artillery. Because of a variety of factors including the Mysorean army's strong defensive preparations and the darkness the attack failed with 25 casualties due to confusion among the British. Wellesley suffered a minor injury to his knee from a spent musket-ball. Although they would re-attack successfully the next day, after time to scout ahead the enemy's positions, the affair affected Wellesley. He resolved \"never to attack an enemy who is preparing and strongly posted, and whose posts have not been reconnoitred by daylight\".\nLewin Bentham Bowring gives this alternative account:\n\nOne of these groves, called the Sultanpet Tope, was intersected by deep ditches, watered from a channel running in an easterly direction about a mile from the fort. General Baird was directed to scour this grove and dislodge the enemy, but on his advancing with this object on the night of the 5th, he found the tope unoccupied. The next day, however, the Mysore troops again took possession of the ground, and as it was absolutely necessary to expel them, two columns were detached at sunset for the purpose. The first of these, under Colonel Shawe, got possession of a ruined village, which it successfully held. The second column, under Colonel Wellesley, on advancing into the tope, was at once attacked in the darkness of night by a tremendous fire of musketry and rockets. The men, floundering about amidst the trees and the water-courses, at last broke, and fell back in disorder, some being killed and a few taken prisoners. In the confusion Colonel Wellesley was himself struck on the knee by a spent ball, and narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the enemy.\n\nA few weeks later, after extensive artillery bombardment, a breach was opened in the main walls of the fortress of Seringapatam. An attack led by Major-General Baird secured the fortress. Wellesley secured the rear of the advance, posting guards at the breach and then stationed his regiment at the main palace. After hearing news of the death of the Tipu Sultan, Wellesley was the first at the scene to confirm his death, checking his pulse. Over the coming day, Wellesley grew increasingly concerned over the lack of discipline among his men, who drank and pillaged the fortress and city. To restore order, several soldiers were flogged and four hanged.\n\nAfter battle and the resulting end of the war, the main force under General Harris left Seringapatam and Wellesley, aged 30, stayed behind to command the area as the new Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore. While in India, Wellesley was ill for a considerable time, first with severe diarrhoea from the water and then with fever, followed by a serious skin infection caused by trichophyton.\n\nWellesley was in charge of raising an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force in Trincomali in early 1801 for the capture of Batavia and Mauritius from the French. However, on the eve of its departure, orders arrived from England that it was to be sent to Egypt to co-operate with Sir Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. Wellesley had been appointed second in command to Baird, but owing to ill health did not accompany the expedition on 9 April 1801. This was fortunate for Wellesley, since the very vessel on which he was to have sailed sank in the Red Sea.\n\nHe was promoted to brigadier-general on 17 July 1801. He took residence within the Sultan's summer palace and reformed the tax and justice systems in his province to maintain order and prevent bribery. He also defeated the rebel warlord Dhoondiah Waugh in the Battle of Conaghull, after the latter had escaped from prison in Seringapatam during the battle there.\n\nDhoondiah Waugh insurgency\nIn 1800, whilst serving as Governor of Mysore, Wellesley was tasked with putting down an insurgency led by Dhoondiah Waugh, formerly a Patan trooper for Tipu Sultan. After the fall of Seringapatam he became a powerful brigand, raiding villages along the Maratha–Mysore border region. Despite initial setbacks, the East India Company having pursued and destroyed his forces once already, forcing him into retreat in August 1799, he raised a sizeable force composed of disbanded Mysore soldiers, captured small outposts and forts in Mysore, and was receiving the support of several Maratha killedars opposed to British occupation. This drew the attention of the British administration, who were beginning to recognise him as more than just a bandit, as his raids, expansion and threats to destabilise British authority suddenly increased in 1800. The death of Tipu Sultan had created a power vacuum and Waugh was seeking to fill it.\n\nGiven independent command of a combined East India Company and British Army force, Wellesley ventured north to confront Waugh in June 1800, with an army of 8,000 infantry and cavalry, having learnt that Waugh's forces numbered over 50,000, although the majority (around 30,000) were irregular light cavalry and unlikely to pose a serious threat to British infantry and artillery.\n\nThroughout June–August 1800, Wellesley advanced through Waugh's territory, his troops escalading forts in turn and capturing each one with \"trifling loss\". The forts generally offered little resistance due to their poor construction and design. Wellesley did not have sufficient troops to garrison each fort and had to clear the surrounding area of insurgents before advancing to the next fort. On 31 July, he had \"taken and destroyed Dhoondiah's baggage and six guns, and driven into the Malpoorba (where they were drowned) about five thousand people\". Dhoondiah continued to retreat, but his forces were rapidly deserting, he had no infantry and due to the monsoon weather flooding river crossings he could no longer outpace the British advance. On 10 September, at the Battle of Conaghul, Wellesley personally led a charge of 1,400 British dragoons and Indian cavalry, in single line with no reserve, against Dhoondiah and his remaining 5,000 cavalry. Dhoondiah was killed during the clash, his body was discovered and taken to the British camp tied to a cannon. With this victory, Wellesley's campaign was concluded, and British authority had been restored.\n\nWellesley, with command of four regiments, had defeated Dhoondiah's larger rebel force, along with Dhoondiah himself, who was killed in the final battle. Wellesley then paid for the future upkeep of Dhoondiah's orphaned son.\n\nSecond Anglo-Maratha War\n\nIn September 1802, Wellesley learnt that he had been promoted to the rank of major-general. He had been gazetted on 29 April 1802, but the news took several months to reach him by sea. He remained at Mysore until November when he was sent to command an army in the Second Anglo-Maratha War.\n\nWhen he determined that a long defensive war would ruin his army, Wellesley decided to act boldly to defeat the numerically larger force of the Maratha Empire. With the logistic assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) he gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on 8 August 1803. The fort surrendered on 12 August after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall. With the fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari.\n\nAssaye, Argaum and Gawilghur\n\nSplitting his army into two forces, to pursue and locate the main Marathas army, (the second force, commanded by Colonel Stevenson was far smaller) Wellesley was preparing to rejoin his forces on 24 September. His intelligence, however, reported the location of the Marathas' main army, between two rivers near Assaye. If he waited for the arrival of his second force, the Marathas would be able to mount a retreat, so Wellesley decided to launch an attack immediately.\n\nOn 23 September, Wellesley led his forces over a ford in the river Kaitna and the Battle of Assaye commenced. After crossing the ford the infantry was reorganised into several lines and advanced against the Maratha infantry. Wellesley ordered his cavalry to exploit the flank of the Maratha army just near the village. During the battle Wellesley himself came under fire; two of his horses were shot from under him and he had to mount a third. At a crucial moment, Wellesley regrouped his forces and ordered Colonel Maxwell (later killed in the attack) to attack the eastern end of the Maratha position while Wellesley himself directed a renewed infantry attack against the centre.\n\nAn officer in the attack wrote of the importance of Wellesley's personal leadership: \"The General was in the thick of the action the whole time ... I never saw a man so cool and collected as he was ... though I can assure you, 'til our troops got the order to advance the fate of the day seemed doubtful ...\" With some 6,000 Marathas killed or wounded, the enemy was routed, though Wellesley's force was in no condition to pursue. British casualties were heavy: the British losses amounted to 428 killed, 1,138 wounded and 18 missing (the British casualty figures were taken from Wellesley's own despatch). Wellesley was troubled by the loss of men and remarked that he hoped \"I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on 23 September, even if attended by such gain\". Years later, however, he remarked that Assaye, and not Waterloo, was the best battle he ever fought.\n\nDespite the damage done to the Maratha army, the battle did not end the war. A few months later in November, Wellesley attacked a larger force near Argaum, leading his army to victory again, with an astonishing 5,000 enemy dead at the cost of only 361 British casualties. A further successful attack at the fortress at Gawilghur, combined with the victory of General Lake at Delhi forced the Maratha to sign a peace settlement at Anjangaon (not concluded until a year later) called the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon.\n\nMilitary historian Richard Holmes remarked that Wellesley's experiences in India had an important influence on his personality and military tactics, teaching him much about military matters that would prove vital to his success in the Peninsular War. These included a strong sense of discipline through drill and order, the use of diplomacy to gain allies, and the vital necessity of a secure supply line. He also established high regard for the acquisition of intelligence through scouts and spies. His personal tastes also developed, including dressing himself in white trousers, a dark tunic, with Hessian boots and black cocked hat (that later became synonymous as his style).\n\nLeaving India\n\nWellesley had grown tired of his time in India, remarking \"I have served as long in India as any man ought who can serve anywhere else\". In June 1804 he applied for permission to return home and as a reward for his service in India he was made a Knight of the Bath in September. While in India, Wellesley had amassed a fortune of £42,000 (considerable at the time), consisting mainly of prize money from his campaign. When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in March 1805, the brothers returned together to England on HMS Howe. Wellesley, coincidentally, stopped on his voyage at the island of Saint Helena and stayed in the same building in which Napoleon I would live during his later exile.\n\nReturn to Britain\n\nMeeting Nelson \nIn September 1805, Major-General Wellesley was newly returned from his campaigns in India and was not yet particularly well known to the public. He reported to the office of the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to request a new assignment. In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a known figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, who was briefly in England after months pursuing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back. Some 30 years later, Wellington recalled a conversation that Nelson began with him which Wellesley found \"almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me\". Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was and, on his return, switched to a very different tone, discussing the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation as between equals. On this second discussion, Wellington recalled, \"I don't know that I ever had a conversation that interested me more\". This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his victory at Trafalgar seven weeks later.\n\nWellesley then served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe.\n\nHe then took a period of extended leave from the army and was elected as a Tory member of the British parliament for Rye in January 1806. A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, and was then appointed to serve as Chief Secretary for Ireland under the Duke of Richmond. At the same time, he was made a privy counsellor. While in Ireland, he gave a verbal promise that the remaining Penal Laws would be enforced with great moderation, perhaps an indication of his later willingness to support Catholic emancipation.\n\nWar against Denmark-Norway \n\nWellesley was in Ireland in May 1807 when he heard of the British expedition to Denmark-Norway. He decided to go, while maintaining his political appointments, and was appointed to command an infantry brigade in the Second Battle of Copenhagen, which took place in August. He fought at Køge, during which the men under his command took 1,500 prisoners, with Wellesley later present during the surrender.\n\nBy 30 September, he had returned to England and was raised to the rank of lieutenant general on 25 April 1808. In June 1808 he accepted the command of an expedition of 9,000 men. Preparing to sail for an attack on the Spanish colonies in South America (to assist the Latin American patriot Francisco de Miranda) his force was instead ordered to sail for Portugal, to take part in the Peninsular Campaign and rendezvous with 5,000 troops from Gibraltar.\n\nPeninsular War\n\n1808–1809 \nReady for battle, Wellesley left Cork on 12 July 1808 to participate in the war against French forces in the Iberian Peninsula, with his skills as a commander tested and developed.According to the historian Robin Neillands:\n\nWellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808 but was superseded in command immediately after the latter battle. General Dalrymple then signed the controversial Convention of Sintra, which stipulated that the Royal Navy transport the French army out of Lisbon with all their loot, and insisted on the association of the only available government minister, Wellesley.\nDalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry. Wellesley had agreed to sign the preliminary armistice, but had not signed the convention, and was cleared.\n\nSimultaneously, Napoleon entered Spain with his veteran troops to put down the revolt; the new commander of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna in January 1809.\n\nAlthough overall the land war with France was not going well from a British perspective, the Peninsula was the one theatre where they, with the Portuguese, had provided strong resistance against France and her allies. This contrasted with the disastrous Walcheren expedition, which was typical of the mismanaged British operations of the time. Wellesley submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defence of Portugal. He stressed its mountainous frontiers and advocated Lisbon as the main base because the Royal Navy could help to defend it. Castlereagh and the cabinet approved the memo and appointed him head of all British forces in Portugal.\n\nWellesley arrived in Lisbon on 22 April 1809 on board HMS Surveillante, after narrowly escaping shipwreck. Reinforced, he took to the offensive. In the Second Battle of Porto he crossed the Douro river in a daylight coup de main, and routed Marshal Soult's French troops in Porto.\n\nWith Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with General Cuesta's forces. The combined allied force prepared for an assault on Marshal Victor's I Corps at Talavera, 23 July. Cuesta, however, was reluctant to agree, and was only persuaded to advance on the following day. The delay allowed the French to withdraw, but Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, and found himself faced by almost the entire French army in New Castile—Victor had been reinforced by the Toledo and Madrid garrisons. The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating the advance of two British divisions to cover their retreat.\n\nThe next day, 27 July, at the Battle of Talavera the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by Wellesley, but at a heavy cost to the British force. In the aftermath Marshal Soult's army was discovered to be advancing south, threatening to cut Wellesley off from Portugal. Wellesley moved east on 3 August to block it, leaving 1,500 wounded in the care of the Spanish, intending to confront Soult before finding out that the French were in fact 30,000 strong. The British commander sent the Light Brigade on a dash to hold the bridge over the Tagus at Almaraz. With communications and supply from Lisbon secured for now, Wellesley considered joining with Cuesta again but found out that his Spanish ally had abandoned the British wounded to the French and was thoroughly uncooperative, promising and then refusing to supply the British forces, aggravating Wellesley and causing considerable friction between the British and their Spanish allies. The lack of supplies, coupled with the threat of French reinforcement (including the possible inclusion of Napoleon himself) in the spring, led to the British deciding to retreat into Portugal.\n\nFollowing his victory at Talavera, Wellesley was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom on 26 August 1809 as Viscount Wellington of Talavera and of Wellington, in the County of Somerset, with the subsidiary title of Baron Douro of Wellesley.\n\n1810–1812 \nIn 1810, a newly enlarged French army under Marshal André Masséna invaded Portugal. British opinion was negative and there were suggestions to evacuate Portugal. Instead, Lord Wellington first slowed the French at Buçaco; he then prevented them from taking the Lisbon Peninsula by the construction of massive earthworks, known as the Lines of Torres Vedras, which had been assembled in complete secrecy with their flanks guarded by the Royal Navy. The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. Wellington's pursuit was hindered by a series of reverses inflicted by Marshal Ney in a much-lauded rear guard campaign.\n\nIn 1811, Masséna returned toward Portugal to relieve Almeida; Wellington narrowly checked the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro. Simultaneously, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought Soult's 'Army of the South' to a bloody stalemate at the Battle of Albuera in May. Wellington was promoted to full general on 31 July for his services. The French abandoned Almeida, avoiding British pursuit, but retained the twin Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 'Keys' guarding the roads through the mountain passes into Portugal.\n\nIn 1812, Wellington finally captured Ciudad Rodrigo via a rapid movement as the French went into winter quarters, storming it before they could react. He then moved south quickly, besieged the fortress of Badajoz for a month and captured it during the night on 6 April 1812. On viewing the aftermath of the Storming of Badajoz, Wellington lost his composure and cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.\n\nHis army now was a veteran British force reinforced by units of the retrained Portuguese army. Campaigning in Spain, he was made Earl of Wellington in the county of Somerset on 22 February 1812. He routed the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of a minor French mispositioning. The victory liberated the Spanish capital of Madrid. He was later made Marquess of Wellington, in the said county on 18 August 1812.\n\nWellington attempted to take the vital fortress of Burgos, which linked Madrid to France. He failed, due in part to a lack of siege guns, forcing him into a headlong retreat with the loss of over 2,000 casualties.\n\nThe French abandoned Andalusia, and combined the troops of Soult and Marmont. Thus combined, the French outnumbered the British, putting the British forces in a precarious position. Wellington withdrew his army and, joined by the smaller corps under the command of Rowland Hill, which had been moved to Madrid, began to retreat to Portugal. Marshal Soult declined to attack.\n\n1813–1814 \nIn 1813, Wellington led a new offensive, this time against the French line of communications. He struck through the hills north of Burgos, the Tras os Montes, and switched his supply line from Portugal to Santander on Spain's north coast; this led to the French abandoning Madrid and Burgos. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington caught up with and routed the army of King Joseph Bonaparte in the Battle of Vitoria, for which he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June. He personally led a column against the French centre, while other columns commanded by Sir Thomas Graham, Rowland Hill and the Earl of Dalhousie looped around the French right and left (this battle became the subject of Beethoven's orchestral piece, the Wellington's Victory (Opus 91). The British troops broke ranks to loot the abandoned French wagons instead of pursuing the beaten foe. When troops failed to return to their units and began harassing the locals, an enraged Wellington to write in a famous despatch to Earl Bathurst, \"We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers\".\n\nAlthough later, when his temper had cooled, he extended his comment to praise the men under his command saying that though many of the men were, \"the scum of the earth; it is really wonderful that we should have made them to the fine fellows they are\".\n\nAfter taking the small fortresses of Pamplona, Wellington invested San Sebastián but was frustrated by the obstinate French garrison, losing 693 dead and 316 captured in a failed assault and suspending the siege at the end of July. Soult's relief attempt was blocked by the Spanish Army of Galicia at San Marcial, allowing the Allies to consolidate their position and tighten the ring around the city, which fell in September after a second spirited defence. Wellington then forced Soult's demoralised and battered army into a fighting retreat into France, punctuated by battles at the Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle. Wellington invaded southern France, winning at the Nive and Orthez. Wellington's final battle against his rival Soult occurred at Toulouse, where the Allied divisions were badly mauled storming the French redoubts, losing some 4,600 men. Despite this momentary victory, news arrived of Napoleon's defeat and abdication and Soult, seeing no reason to continue the fighting, agreed on a ceasefire with Wellington, allowing Soult to evacuate the city.\n\nHailed as the conquering hero by the British, on 3 May 1814 Wellington was made Duke of Wellington, in the county of Somerset, together with the subsidiary title of Marquess Douro, in said County.\n\nHe received some recognition during his lifetime (the title of \"Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo\" and \"Grandee of Spain\") and the Spanish King Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep part of the works of art from the Royal Collection which he had recovered from the French. His equestrian portrait features prominently in the Monument to the Battle of Vitoria, in present-day Vitoria-Gasteiz.\n His popularity in Britain was due to his image and his appearance as well as to his military triumphs. His victory fitted well with the passion and intensity of the Romantic movement, with its emphasis on individuality. His personal style influenced the fashions in Britain at the time: his tall, lean figure and his plumed black hat and grand yet classic uniform and white trousers became very popular.\n\nIn late 1814, the Prime Minister wanted him to take command in Canada with the assignment of winning the War of 1812 against the United States. Wellesley replied that he would go to America, but he believed that he was needed more in Europe. He stated:\n\nHe was appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna.\n\nOn 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order.\n\nHundred Days\n\nFacing Napoleon\n\nOn 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.\n\nNapoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately before the Austrians and Russians arrived. In doing so the vast superiority in numbers of the Coalition would be greatly diminished. He would then seek the possibility of peace with Austria and Russia.\n\nThe French invaded the Netherlands, with Napoleon defeating the Prussians at Ligny, and Marshal Ney engaging indecisively with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussians retreated 18 miles north to Wavre whilst Wellington's Anglo-Allied army withdrew 15 miles north to a site he had noted the previous year as favourable for a battle: the north ridge of a shallow valley on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo. On 17 June there was torrential rain, which severely hampered movement. and had a considerable effect the next day, 18 June, when the Battle of Waterloo was fought. This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon; he commanded an Anglo-Dutch-German army that consisted of approximately 73,000 troops, 26,000 of whom were British. Approximately 30 percent of that 26,000 were Irish.\n\nBattle of Waterloo\n\nThe Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium). It commenced with a diversionary attack on Hougoumont by a division of French soldiers. After a barrage of 80 cannons, the first French infantry attack was launched by Comte D'Erlon's I Corps. D'Erlon's troops advanced through the Allied centre, resulting in Allied troops in front of the ridge retreating in disorder through the main position. D'Erlon's corps stormed the most fortified Allied position, La Haye Sainte, but failed to take it. An Allied division under Thomas Picton met the remainder of D'Erlon's corps head to head, engaging them in an infantry duel in which Picton was killed. During this struggle Lord Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades at the enemy, catching the French infantry off guard, driving them to the bottom of the slope, and capturing two French Imperial Eagles. The charge, however, over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh French horsemen sent at them by Napoleon, were driven back, suffering tremendous losses.\n\nShortly before 16:00, Marshal Ney noted an apparent withdrawal from Wellington's centre. He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it. Ney at this time had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right. Ney, therefore, tried to break Wellington's centre with a cavalry charge alone.\n\nAt about 16:30, the first Prussian corps arrived. Commanded by Freiherr von Bülow, IV Corps arrived as the French cavalry attack was in full spate. Bülow sent the 15th Brigade to link up with Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont–La Haie area while the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support. Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area. Von Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit. Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed by the enemy. Napoleon's Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out. Napoleon then resorted to sending two battalions of the Middle and Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious fighting they recaptured the village.\nThe French cavalry attacked the British infantry squares many times, each at a heavy cost to the French but with few British casualties. Ney himself was displaced from his horse four times. Eventually, it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little. Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight. This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks.\n\nMeanwhile, at approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, Napoleon ordered Ney to capture La Haye Sainte at whatever the cost. Ney accomplished this with what was left of D'Erlon's corps soon after 18:00. Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre and began to attack the infantry squares at short-range with canister. This all but destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square. Wellington's centre was now on the verge of collapse and wide open to an attack from the French. Luckily for Wellington, Pirch I's and Zieten's corps of the Prussian Army were now at hand. Zieten's corps permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on Wellington's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre. Pirch I Corps then proceeded to support Bülow and together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot. The value of this reinforcement is held in high regard.\n\nThe French army now fiercely attacked the Coalition all along the line with the culminating point being reached when Napoleon sent forward the Imperial Guard at 19:30. The attack of the Imperial Guards was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the Grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Marching through a hail of canister and skirmisher fire and severely outnumbered, the 3,000 or so Middle Guardsmen advanced to the west of La Haye Sainte and proceeded to separate into three distinct attack forces. One, consisting of two battalions of Grenadiers, defeated the Coalition's first line and marched on. Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, and Allied artillery fired into the victorious Grenadiers' flank. This still could not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the outnumbered French, who faltered and broke.\n\nFurther to the west, 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. As two battalions of Chasseurs approached, the second prong of the Imperial Guard's attack, Maitland's guardsmen rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys. The Chasseurs deployed to counter-attack but began to waver. A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them. The third prong, a fresh Chasseur battalion, now came up in support. The British guardsmen retreated with these Chasseurs in pursuit, but the latter were halted as the 52nd Light Infantry wheeled in line onto their flank and poured a devastating fire into them and then charged. Under this onslaught, they too broke.\n\nThe last of the Guard retreated headlong. Mass panic ensued through the French lines as the news spread: \"La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut!\" (\"The Guard is retreating. Every man for himself!\"). Wellington then stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups, and waved his hat in the air to signal an advance of the Allied line just as the Prussians were overrunning the French positions to the east. What remained of the French army then abandoned the field in disorder. Wellington and Blücher met at the inn of La Belle Alliance, on the north–south road which bisected the battlefield, and it was agreed that the Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815.\n\nAfter the victory, the Duke supported proposals that a medal be awarded to all British soldiers who participated in the Waterloo campaign, and on 28 June 1815, he wrote to the Duke of York suggesting: ... the expediency of giving to the non-commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the Battle of Waterloo a medal. I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army, and if the battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve it.The Waterloo Medal was duly authorised and distributed to all ranks in 1816.\n\nControversy\nMuch historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield. Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery, mostly Dutch, away at Hal, north-west of Mont-Saint-Jean, in case of a French advance up the Mons-Hal-Brussels road.\n\nThe campaign led to numerous other controversies. Issues concerning Wellington's troop dispositions prior to Napoleon's invasion of the Netherlands, whether Wellington misled or betrayed Blücher by promising, then failing, to come directly to Blücher's aid at Ligny, and credit for the victory between Wellington and the Prussians. These and other such issues concerning Blücher's, Wellington's, and Napoleon's decisions during the campaign were the subject of a strategic-level study by the Prussian political-military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, Feldzug von 1815: Strategische Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1815, (English title: The Campaign of 1815: Strategic Overview of the Campaign.) This study was Clausewitz's last such work and is widely considered to be the best example of Clausewitz's mature theories concerning such analyses. It attracted the attention of Wellington's staff, who prompted the Duke to write a published essay on the campaign (other than his immediate, official after-action report, \"The Waterloo Dispatch\".) This was published as the 1842 \"Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo\". While Wellington disputed Clausewitz on several points, Clausewitz largely absolved Wellington of accusations levelled against him. This exchange with Clausewitz was quite famous in Britain in the 19th century, particularly in Charles Cornwallis Chesney's work the Waterloo Lectures, but was largely ignored in the 20th century due to hostilities between Britain and Germany.\n\nPolitics\n\nPrime Minister\n\nWellington entered politics again when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool on 26 December 1818. He also became Governor of Plymouth on 9 October 1819. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 22 January 1827 and Constable of the Tower of London on 5 February 1827.\n\nAlong with Robert Peel, Wellington became an increasingly influential member of the Tory party, and in 1828 he resigned as Commander-in-Chief and became prime minister.\n\nDuring his first seven months as prime minister, he chose not to live in the official residence at 10 Downing Street, finding it too small. He moved in only because his own home, Apsley House, required extensive renovations. During this time he was largely instrumental in the foundation of King's College London. On 20 January 1829 Wellington was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.\n\nReform\n\nHis term was marked by Roman Catholic Emancipation: the restoration of most civil rights to Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The change was prompted by the landslide by-election win of Daniel O'Connell, a Roman Catholic Irish proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. In the House of Lords, facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic Emancipation, and according to some sources, gave one of the best speeches of his career. Wellington was born in Ireland and so had some understanding of the grievances of the Roman Catholic majority there; as Chief Secretary, he had given an undertaking that the remaining Penal Laws would only be enforced as \"mildly\" as possible. In 1811 Catholic soldiers were given freedom of worship and 18 years later the Catholic Relief Act 1829 was passed with a majority of 105. Many Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the Whigs. Wellington had threatened to resign as prime minister if King George IV did not give Royal Assent.\n\nThe Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of \"an insidious design for the infringement of our liberties and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State\". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When the time came to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down. The Duke fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose, an act known in duelling as a delope. Wellington claimed he did. However, he was noted for his poor aim and reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Winchilsea discharged his pistol into the air, a plan he and his second had almost certainly decided upon before the duel. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology.\n\nThe nickname \"Iron Duke\" originated from this period, when he experienced a high degree of personal and political unpopularity. Its repeated use in Freeman's Journal throughout June 1830 appears to bear reference to his resolute political will, with taints of disapproval from its Irish editors. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.\n\nWellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830.\n\nThe Whigs introduced the first Reform Bill while Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The Whigs could not get the bill past its second reading in the British House of Commons, and the attempt failed. An election followed in direct response and the Whigs were returned with a landslide majority. A second Reform Act was introduced and passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Tory-controlled House of Lords. Another wave of near-insurrection swept the country. Wellington's residence at Apsley House was targeted by a mob of demonstrators on 27 April 1831 and again on 12 October, leaving his windows smashed. Iron shutters were installed in June 1832 to prevent further damage by crowds angry over rejection of the Reform Bill, which he strongly opposed. The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England. This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership. Eventually, the bill passed the House of Lords after the King threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not. Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said \"I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life\".\n\nWellington opposed the Jewish Civil Disabilities Repeal Bill, and he stated in Parliament on 1 August 1833 that England \"is a Christian country and a Christian legislature, and that the effect of this measure would be to remove that peculiar character.\" The Bill was defeated by 104 votes to 54.\n\nGovernment\n\nWellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel, while the party evolved into the Conservatives. When the Tories were returned to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become prime minister because he thought membership in the House of Commons had become essential. The king reluctantly approved Peel, who was in Italy. Hence, Wellington acted as interim leader for three weeks in November and December 1834, taking the responsibilities of prime minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became foreign secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a minister without portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords. Wellington was also re-appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 15 August 1842 following the resignation of Lord Hill.\n\nWellington served as the leader of the Conservative party in the House of Lords from 1828 to 1846. Some historians have belittled him as a befuddled reactionary, but a consensus in the late 20th century depicts him as a shrewd operator who hid his cleverness behind the façade of a poorly informed old soldier. Wellington worked to transform the Lords from unstinting support of the Crown to an active player in political manoeuvering, with a commitment to the landed aristocracy. He used his London residence as a venue for intimate dinners and private consultations, together with extensive correspondence that kept him in close touch with party leaders in the Commons, and the main persona in the Lords. He gave public rhetorical support to Ultra-Tory anti-reform positions, but then deftly changed positions toward the party's centre, especially when Peel needed support from the upper house. Wellington's success was based on the 44 elected peers from Scotland and Ireland, whose elections he controlled.\n\nLater life\n\nFamily \n\nWellesley was married by his brother Gerald, a clergyman, to Kitty Pakenham in St George's Church, Dublin on 10 April 1806. They had two children: Arthur was born in 1807 and Charles was born in 1808. The marriage proved unsatisfactory and the two spent years apart, while Wellesley was campaigning and afterwards. Kitty grew depressed, and Wellesley pursued other sexual and romantic partners. The couple largely lived apart, with Kitty spending most of her time at their country home, Stratfield Saye House and Wellesley at their London home, Apsley House. Kitty's brother Edward Pakenham served under Wellesley throughout the Peninsular War, and Wellesley's regard for him helped to smooth his relations with Kitty, until Pakenham's death at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815.\n\nRetirement\nWellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief, and returned briefly to the public eye in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during the year of European revolution. The Conservative Party had split over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Peel, but most of the MPs led by Lord Derby supporting a protectionist stance. Early in 1852 Wellington, by then very deaf, gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting \"Who? Who?\" as the list of inexperienced Cabinet ministers was read out in the House of Lords. He became Chief Ranger and Keeper of Hyde Park and St James's Park on 31 August 1850. He remained colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot from 1 February 1806 and colonel of the Grenadier Guards from 22 January 1827. Kitty died of cancer in 1831; despite their generally unhappy relations, which had led to an effective separation, Wellington was said to have been greatly saddened by her death, his one comfort being that after \"half a lifetime together, they had come to understand each other at the end\". He had found consolation for his unhappy marriage in his warm friendship with the diarist Harriet Arbuthnot, wife of his colleague Charles Arbuthnot. Harriet's death in the cholera epidemic of 1834 was almost as great a blow to Wellington as it was to her husband. The two widowers spent their last years together at Apsley House.\n\nDeath and funeral\n\nWellington died at Walmer Castle in Kent, his residence as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and reputedly his favourite home, on 14 September 1852. He was found to be unwell on that morning and was helped from his campaign bed, which he had used throughout his military career, and seated in his chair where he died. His death was recorded as being due to the after-effects of a stroke culminating in a series of seizures. He was aged 83.\n\nAlthough in life he hated travelling by rail, having witnessed the death of William Huskisson, one of the first railway accident casualties, his body was taken by train to London, where he was given a state funeral – one of a small number of British subjects to be so honoured (other examples include Lord Nelson and Sir Winston Churchill). The funeral took place on 18 November 1852. Before the funeral, the Duke's body lay in state at the Royal Hospital Chelsea. Members of the royal family, including Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal, visited to pay their respects. When viewing opened to the public, crowds thronged to visit and several people were killed in the crush.\n\nHe was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, and during his funeral, there was little space to stand due to the number of attendees. A bronze memorial was sculpted by Alfred Stevens, and features two intricate supports: \"Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of False-hood\", and \"Valour trampling Cowardice underfoot\". Stevens did not live to see it placed in its home under one of the arches of the cathedral.\n\nWellington's casket was decorated with banners which were made for his funeral procession. Originally, there was one from Prussia, which was removed during World War I and never reinstated. In the procession, the \"Great Banner\" was carried by General Sir James Charles Chatterton of the 4th Dragoon Guards on the orders of Queen Victoria.\n\nMost of the book A Biographical Sketch of the Military and Political Career of the Late Duke of Wellington by Weymouth newspaper proprietor Joseph Drew is a detailed contemporary account of his death, lying in state and funeral.\n\nAfter his death, Irish and English newspapers disputed whether Wellington had been born an Irishman or an Englishman. In 2002, he was number 15 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.\n\nOwing to its links with Wellington, as the former commanding officer and colonel of the regiment, the title \"33rd (The Duke of Wellington's) Regiment\" was granted to the 33rd Regiment of Foot, on 18 June 1853 (the 38th anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo) by Queen Victoria. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career.\n\nPersonality\n\nWellington always rose early; he \"couldn't bear to lie awake in bed\", even if the army was not on the march. Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts. General Miguel de Álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march \"at daybreak\" and dine on \"cold meat\" that he began to dread those two phrases. While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner. During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted on \"cold meat and bread\", to the despair of his staff who dined with him. He was, however, renowned for the quality of the wine that he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner (not a great quantity by the standards of his day).\n\nÁlava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca. Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army through a spyglass. He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised that he could launch a successful attack there. He exclaimed \"By God, that will do!\" and threw the drumstick in the air. After the Battle of Toulouse, Colonel Frederick Ponsonby brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, and Wellington broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers.\n\nMilitary historian Charles Dalton recorded that, after a hard-fought battle in Spain, a young officer made the comment, \"I am going to dine with Wellington tonight\", which was overheard by the Duke as he rode by. \"Give me at least the prefix of Mr. before my name,\" Wellington said. \"My Lord,\" replied the officer, \"we do not speak of Mr. Caesar or Mr. Alexander, so why should I speak of Mr. Wellington?\"\n\nWhile known for his stern countenance and iron-handed discipline, Wellington was by no means unfeeling. While he is said to have disapproved of soldiers cheering as \"too nearly an expression of opinion\". Wellington nevertheless cared for his men: he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, foreseeing an inevitable cost to his army in chasing a diminished enemy through rough terrain. The only time that he ever showed grief in public was after the storming of Badajoz: he cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.In this context, his famous despatch after the Battle of Vitoria, calling them the \"scum of the earth\" can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger. He shed tears after Waterloo on the presentation of the list of British fallen by Dr John Hume. Later with his family, unwilling to be congratulated for his victory, he broke down in tears, his fighting spirit diminished by the high cost of the battle and great personal loss.\n\nWellington's soldier servant, a gruff German called Beckerman, and his long-serving valet, James Kendall, who served him for 25 years and was with him when he died, were both devoted to him. (A story that he never spoke to his servants and preferred instead to write his orders on a notepad on his dressing table in fact probably refers to his son, the 2nd Duke. It was recorded by the 3rd Duke's niece, Viva Seton Montgomerie (1879–1959), as being an anecdote she heard from an old retainer, Charles Holman, who was said greatly to resemble Napoleon.)\n\nFollowing an incident when, as Master-General of the Ordnance he had been close to a large explosion, Wellington began to experience deafness and other ear-related problems. In 1822, he had an operation to improve the hearing of the left ear. The result, however, was that he became permanently deaf on that side. It is claimed that he was \"never quite well afterwards\".\n\nWellington came to enjoy the company of a variety of intellectual and attractive women and had many amorous liaisons, particularly after the Battle of Waterloo and his subsequent ambassadorial position in Paris. In the days following Waterloo he had an affair with the notorious Lady Caroline Lamb, sister of one of his severely wounded officers and favourites, Col Frederick Ponsonby. He corresponded for many years with Lady Georgiana Lennox, later Lady de Ros, 26 years his junior and daughter of the Duchess of Richmond (who held the famous ball on the eve of Waterloo) and, though there are hints, it has not been clearly determined if the relationship was ever sexual. The British press lampooned the amorous side of the national hero. In 1824, one liaison came back to haunt him, when Wellington received a letter from a publisher, John Joseph Stockdale offering to refrain from issuing an edition of the rather racy memoirs of one of his mistresses Harriette Wilson, in exchange for money. It is said that the Duke promptly returned the letter, after scrawling across it, \"Publish and be damned\". However, Hibbert notes in his biography that the letter can be found among the Duke's papers, with nothing written on it. It is certain that Wellington reply, and the tone of a further letter from the publisher, quoted by Longford, suggests that he had refused in the strongest language to submit to blackmail.\n\nHe was also a remarkably practical man who spoke concisely. In 1851, it was discovered that there were a great many sparrows flying about in the Crystal Palace just before the Great Exhibition was to open. His advice to Queen Victoria was \"Sparrowhawks, ma'am\".\n\nWellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). However, for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his army lacked the numbers for a strategically offensive posture.\n\nTitles and tributes\n\nNicknames\n\nThe Iron Duke\n\nThis commonly used nickname originally related to his consistent political resolve rather than to any particular incident. In various cases its editorial use appears to be disparaging.\n\nIt is likely that its use became more widespread after an incident in 1832 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at Apsley House. The term may have been made increasingly popular by Punch cartoons published in 1844–45.\n\nOther nicknames\n In the popular ballads of the day Wellington was called \"Nosey\" or \"Old Nosey\".\n Tsar Alexander I of Russia called Wellington \"Le vainqueur du vainqueur du monde\", the conqueror of the world's conqueror, the phrase \"the world's conqueror\" referring to Napoleon. Lord Tennyson uses a similar reference in his \"Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington\", referring to him as \"the great World-victor's victor\".\n Officers under his command called him \"The Beau\", as he was a fine dresser.\n Spanish troops called him \"The Eagle\", while Portuguese troops called him \"Douro Douro\" after his river crossing at Oporto in 1809.\n \"Beau Douro\"; Wellington found this amusing when hearing it used by a Colonel of the Coldstream Guards.\n \"Sepoy General\"; Napoleon used this term as an insult to Wellington's military service in India, publicly considering him an unworthy opponent. The name was used in the French newspaper Le Moniteur Universel, as a means of propaganda.\n \"The Beef\"; It is a theory that the Beef Wellington dish is a reference to Wellington, although some chefs dispute this.\n \"Europe's Liberator\"\n \"Saviour of the Nations\"\n\nSee also\n\n Military career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\n Army Gold Medal\n Military General Service Medal\n Seringapatam medal\n Cotiote War\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nSources\nBooks\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n\nOnline resources\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nJournals and magazines\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nPrimary sources\n\nFurther reading\n\n \n \n This on-line text contains Clausewitz's 58-chapter study of the Campaign of 1815 and Wellington's lengthy 1842 essay written in response to Clausewitz, as well as supporting documents and essays by the editors.\n \n \n \n Goldsmith, Thomas. \"The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814-1830.\" (PhD Diss. University of East Anglia, 2016). online\n \n \n \n Lambert, A. \"Politics, administration and decision-making: Wellington and the navy, 1828–30\" Wellington Studies IV, ed. C. M. Woolgar, (Southampton, 2008), pp. 185–243.\n Longford, Elizabeth. Wellington: Pillar of State (1972), vol 2 of her biography; online\n\nExternal links\n\n Records and images from the UK Parliament Collections\n The life of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington\n Duke of Wellington's Regiment – West Riding\n Papers of Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington (MS 61) at the University of Southampton\n \n \n \n More about Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington on the Downing Street website\n \n \n \n \"Napoleon and Wellington\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Andrew Roberts, Mike Broer and Belinda Beaton (In Our Time, 25 October 2001)\n\n \nCategory:1769 births\nCategory:1852 deaths\nCategory:19th-century Anglo-Irish people\nCategory:19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom\nWellesley Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to France\nCategory:British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars\nCategory:British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars\nCategory:British Army personnel of the Peninsular War\nCategory:British Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs\nCategory:British Secretaries of State\nCategory:British field marshals\nCategory:British military personnel of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War\nCategory:British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Maratha War\nCategory:Burials at St Paul's Cathedral\nCategory:Chancellors of the University of Oxford\nCategory:Chief Secretaries for Ireland\nCategory:Commissioners of the Treasury for Ireland\nCategory:Constables of the Tower of London\nCategory:Cotiote War\nCategory:Diplomatic peers\nCategory:British duellists\nCategory:Duke of Wellington's Regiment officers\nCategory:Dukes da Vitória\nCategory:Dukes of Ciudad Rodrigo\n101\nWellesley, Arthur 1\nCategory:Fellows of the Royal Society\nCategory:Field marshals of Portugal\nCategory:Field marshals of Russia\nCategory:Grandees of Spain\nCategory:Grenadier Guards officers\nCategory:Irish Anglicans\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Irish expatriates in England\nCategory:Irish expatriates in France\nCategory:Irish expatriates in India\nCategory:Irish expatriates in Portugal\nCategory:Irish expatriates in Spain\nCategory:Irish expatriates in the Netherlands\nCategory:Irish officers in the British Army\nCategory:Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK)\nCategory:Lord High Constables of England\nCategory:Lord-Lieutenants of Hampshire\nCategory:Lord-Lieutenants of the Tower Hamlets\nCategory:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports\nCategory:MPs for rotten boroughs\nCategory:Members of Trinity House\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Members of the Privy Council of Ireland\nCategory:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom\nCategory:Peers of the United Kingdom created by George III\nCategory:People associated with King's College London\nCategory:People educated at Eton College\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom\nCategory:Princes of Waterloo\nCategory:Regency era\nCategory:Royal Horse Guards officers\nCategory:Spanish captain generals\nCategory:Tory prime ministers of the United Kingdom\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:UK MPs who were granted peerages\nArthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\nCategory:Younger sons of earls\n\nCategory:Knights of the Garter\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath\nCategory:Recipients of the Army Gold Cross\nCategory:Recipients of the Waterloo Medal\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Max Joseph\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William\nCategory:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class\nCategory:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree\nCategory:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Royal and Military Order of San Hermenegild\nCategory:Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword\nCategory:Leaders of the House of Lords\nW", "title": "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington" }, { "text": "W, or w, is the twenty-third and fourth-to-last letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. It represents a consonant, but in some languages it represents a vowel. Its name in English is double-u, plural double-ues.\n\nHistory\n\nThe classical Latin alphabet, from which the modern European alphabets derived, did not have the \"W\" character. The \"W\" sounds were represented by the Latin letter \"V\" (at the time, not yet distinct from \"U\").\n\nThe sounds (spelled ) and (spelled ) of Classical Latin developed into the voiced bilabial fricative between vowels in Early Medieval Latin. Therefore, no longer adequately represented the voiced labial-velar approximant sound of Germanic phonology.\n\nThe Germanic phoneme was, therefore, written as or ( and becoming distinct only by the Early Modern period) by the earliest writers of Old English and Old High German, in the 7th or 8th centuries. Gothic (not Latin-based), by contrast, had simply used a letter based on the Greek Υ for the same sound in the 4th century. The digraph / was also used in Medieval Latin to represent Germanic names, including Gothic ones like Wamba.\n\nIt is from this digraph that the modern name \"double U\" derives. The digraph was commonly used in the spelling of Old High German but only in the earliest texts in Old English, where the sound soon came to be represented by borrowing the rune , adapted as the Latin letter wynn: . In early Middle English, following the 11th-century Norman Conquest, regained popularity; by 1300, it had taken wynn's place in common use.\n\nScribal realisation of the digraph could look like a pair of Vs whose branches crossed in the middle: both forms (separate and crossed) appear, for instance, in the \"running text\" (in Latin) of the Bayeux tapestry in proper names such as EDVVARDVS and VVILLELMVS (or the same with crossed Vs). Another realisation (common in roundhand, kurrent and blackletter) takes the form of an whose rightmost branch curved around, as in a cursive (viz. ) It was used up to the nineteenth century in Britain and continues to be familiar in Germany.\n\nThus, the shift from the digraph to the distinct ligature was gradual and was only apparent in abecedaria, explicit listings of all individual letters. It was probably considered a separate letter by the 14th century in both Middle English and Middle German orthography. However, it remained an outsider, not really considered part of the Latin alphabet proper, as expressed by Valentin Ickelshamer in the 16th century, who complained that:\n\nIn Middle High German (and possibly already in late Old High German), the West Germanic phoneme became realized as ; this is why, today, the German represents that sound.\n\nPronunciation and use\n\nEnglish\nEnglish uses to represent . There are also a number of words beginning with a written that is silent in most dialects before a (pronounced) , remaining from usage in Old English in which the was pronounced: wreak, wrap, wreck, wrench, wroth, wrinkle, etc. Certain dialects of Scottish English still distinguish this digraph. represents a vowel sound, , in the word pwn, and in the Welsh loanwords cwm and crwth it retains the Welsh pronunciation, . is also used in digraphs: , , , wherein it is usually an orthographic allograph of in final positions. It is the fifteenth most frequently used letter in the English language, with a frequency of about 2.56% in words.\n\nOther languages\nIn Europe languages with in native words are in a central-western European zone between Cornwall and Poland: English, German, Low German, Dutch, Frisian, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Walloon, Polish, Kashubian, Sorbian, Wymysorys, Resian and Scandinavian dialects. German, Polish, Wymysorys and Kashubian use it for the voiced labiodental fricative (with Polish, related Kashubian and Wymysorys using Ł for , except in conservative and some eastern Polish speech, where Ł still represents the dark L sound.), and Dutch uses it for . Unlike its use in other languages, the letter is used in Welsh and Cornish to represent the vowel as well as the related approximant consonant .\n\nThe following languages historically used for in native words, but later replaced it by : Swedish, Finnish, Czech, Slovak, Latvian, Lithuanian, Estonian, Ukrainian Łatynka and Belarusian Łacinka. It is also used in modern systems of Romanization of Belarusian for the letter , for example in the BGN/PCGN system, in contrast to the letter , which is used in the Instruction on transliteration of Belarusian geographical names with letters of Latin script.\n\nIn Swedish and Finnish, traces of this old usage may still be found in proper names. In Hungarian remains in some aristocratic surnames, e.g. Wesselényi.\n\nModern German dialects generally have only or for West Germanic , but or is still heard allophonically for , especially in the clusters , , and . Some Bavarian dialects preserve a \"light\" initial , such as in wuoz (Standard German weiß '[I] know'). The Classical Latin is heard in the Southern German greeting Servus ('hello' or 'goodbye').\n\nIn Dutch, became a labiodental approximant (with the exception of words with -, which have , or other diphthongs containing -). In many Dutch-speaking areas, such as Flanders and Suriname, the pronunciation (or in some areas a pronunciation, e.g. Belgian-Dutch water \"water\", wit \"white\", eeuw \"century\", etc.) is used at all times.\n\nIn Finnish, is sometimes seen as a variant of and not a separate letter, but it is a part of official alphabet. It is, however, recognized and maintained in the spelling of some old names, reflecting an earlier German spelling standard, and in some modern loan words. In all cases, it is pronounced . The first edition of the Kalevala had its title spelled Kalewala.\n\nIn Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, is named double-v and not double-u. In these languages, the letter only exists in old names, loanwords and foreign words. (Foreign words are distinguished from loanwords by having a significantly lower level of integration in the language.) It is usually pronounced , but in some words of English origin it may be pronounced . The letter was officially introduced in the Danish and Swedish alphabets as late as 1980 and 2006, respectively, despite having been in use for much longer. It had been recognized since the conception of modern Norwegian, with the earliest official orthography rules of 1907. was earlier seen as a variant of , and as a letter (double-v) is still commonly replaced by in speech (e.g. WC being pronounced as VC, www as VVV, WHO as VHO, etc.) The two letters were sorted as equals before was officially recognized, and that practice is still recommended when sorting names in Sweden. In modern slang, some native speakers may pronounce more closely to the origin of the loanword than the official pronunciation.\n\nMultiple dialects of Swedish and Danish use the sound however. In Denmark notably in Jutland, where the northern half use it extensively in traditional dialect, and multiple places in Sweden. It is used in southern Swedish, for example in Halland where the words \"wesp\" (wisp) and \"wann\" (water) are traditionally used. In northern and western Sweden there are also dialects with . Elfdalian is a good example, which is one of many dialects where the Old Norse difference between v () and f ( or ) is preserved. Thus \"warg\" from Old Norse \"vargr\", but \"åvå\" from Old Norse \"hafa\".\n\nIn the alphabets of most modern Romance languages, is used mostly in foreign names and words recently borrowed (Italian il watt, Spanish el kiwi). In Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese, is a non-syllabic variant of , spelled . In Italian, while the letter is not considered part of the standard Italian alphabet, the character is often used in place of Viva (hooray for...), generally in the form in which the branches of the Vs cross in the middle, at least in handwriting (in fact it could be considered a monogram). The same symbol written upside down indicates abbasso (down with...). In French, is also used mostly in foreign names and words recently borrowed such as wagon or week-end, but in the first case it is pronounced (except in Picard and in Walloon) and in the second . In most northern French dialects the former turned finally to , but still exists as a remnant in the place-names of Romance Flanders, Picardie, Artois, Champagne, Romance Lorraine and sometimes elsewhere (Normandy, Île-de-France), and in the surnames from the same regions. Walloon as it sounds conserves the pronounced . The digraph is used to render in rare French words such as ouest \"west\" and to spell Arabic names transliterated -wi in English, but -oui in French (compare Arabic surname Badawi / Badaoui). In all these languages, as in Scandinavian languages mentioned above, the letter is named \"double v\" (French , Spanish ) though in Walloon and Picard the name is also used.\n\nIn Indonesian, the letter \"W\" is called 'wé'. The letter names in Indonesian are always the same with the sounds they produce, especially the consonants.\n\nThe Japanese language uses \"W\", pronounced /daburu/, as an ideogram meaning \"double\". It is also used in internet slang to indicate laughter (like LOL), derived from the word warau (笑う, meaning \"to laugh\").\n\nIn Italian, while the letter is not considered part of the standard Italian alphabet, the character is often used in place of Viva (hooray for...), generally in the form in which the branches of the Vs cross in the middle, at least in handwriting (in fact it could be considered a monogram). The same symbol written upside down indicates abbasso (down with...)\n\nIn the Kokborok language, represents the open-mid back rounded vowel .\n\nIn Turkey the use of the w was banned between 1928 and 2013 which was a problem for the Kurdish population in Turkey as the w was a letter of the Kurdish alphabet. The use of the letter w in the word Newroz, the Kurdish new year was forbidden and names which included the letter were not able to be used. In 2008, a court in Gaziantep reasoned the use of the letter w would incite civil unrest. Nevertheless, the w was used in water closets throughout Turkey.\n\nIn Vietnamese, is called , from the French . It is not included in the standard Vietnamese alphabet, but it is often used as a substitute for qu- in literary dialect and very informal writing. It's also commonly used for abbreviating Ư in formal documents, for example Trung Ương is abbreviated as TW even in official documents and document ID number\n\n\"W\" is the 24th letter in the Modern Filipino Alphabet and has its English name. However, in the old Filipino alphabet, Abakada, it was the 19th letter and had the name \"wah\".\n\nIn Washo, lower-case represents a typical sound, while upper-case represents a voiceless w sound, like the difference between English weather and whether for those who maintain the distinction.\n\nOther systems\nIn the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the voiced labial-velar approximant.\n\nOther uses\n\nW is the symbol for the chemical element tungsten, after its German (and alternative English) name, . It is also the SI symbol for the watt, the standard unit of power. It is also often used as a variable in mathematics, especially to represent a complex number or a vector.\n\nIn recent years, the letters L and W have become an internet meme, respectively standing for loss and win.\n\nName \nDouble-u, whose name reflects stages in the letter's evolution when it was considered two of the same letter, a double U, is the only modern English letter whose name has more than one syllable. It is also the only English letter whose name is not pronounced with any of the sounds that the letter typically makes in words, with the exception of H for some speakers.\n\nSome speakers shorten the name \"double u\" into \"dub-u\" or just \"dub\"; for example, University of Wisconsin, University of Washington, University of Wyoming, University of Waterloo, University of the Western Cape and University of Western Australia are all known colloquially as \"U Dub\", and the automobile company Volkswagen, abbreviated \"VW\", is sometimes pronounced \"V-Dub\". The fact that many website URLs require a \"www.\" prefix has been influential in promoting these shortened pronunciations.\n\nIn other Germanic languages, including German (but not Dutch, in which it is pronounced wé), its name is similar to that of English V. In many languages, its name literally means \"double v\": Portuguese duplo vê, Spanish doble ve (though it can be spelled uve doble), French double vé, Icelandic tvöfalt vaff, Czech dvojité vé, Estonian kaksisvee, Finnish kaksois-vee, etc.\n\nFormer U.S. president George W. Bush was given the nickname \"Dubya\" after the colloquial pronunciation of his middle initial in Texas, where he spent much of his childhood.\n\nRelated characters\n\nAncestors, descendants and siblings\n𐤅: Semitic letter Waw, from which the following symbols originally derive\nU : Latin letter U\nV : Latin letter V\nⱲ ⱳ : W with hook\nꝠ ꝡ : Latin letter VY\nꟂ ꟃ : Anglicana W, used in medieval English and Cornish\nIPA-specific symbols related to W: \nUralic Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to W: and \nʷ : Modifier letter small w is used in Indo-European studies\nꭩ : Modifier letter small turned w is used in linguistic transcriptions of Scots\nW with diacritics: Ẃ ẃ Ẁ ẁ Ŵ ŵ Ẅ ẅ Ẇ ẇ Ẉ ẉ ẘ\nװ (double vav): the Yiddish and Hebrew equivalent of W\nArabic و, has the same origin despite bearing little resemblance to W\n\nLigatures and abbreviations\n₩ : Won sign, capital letter W with double stroke\n\nComputing codes\n\n 1\n\nOther representations\n\nSee also\n Digamma (Ϝ), the archaic Greek letter for /w/\nVoiced labio-velar approximant\nWh (digraph)\n W stands for Work in physics\n W is the symbol for \"watt\" in the International System of Units (SI)\n\nReferences\nInformational notes\n\nCitations\n\nExternal links\n\nCategory:ISO basic Latin letters\nCategory:Latin-script ligatures\nCategory:Vowel letters", "title": "W" } ]

[ "His birthplace is uncertain. He was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, but his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. Other places have also been put forward as the location of his birth, including Mornington House, the Dublin packet boat, and the mansion in the family estate of Athy.", "Yes, Arthur Wesley was the third of five surviving sons born to Anne and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington.", "Yes, he enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784.\n", "The text does not provide specific details on what he studied at Eton College.", "The text contains several interesting aspects. It discusses the uncertainty regarding Arthur Wesley's birthplace, mentioning various possibilities. It also details his education, including his time at Eton College, his dislike for it, and the improbability of him saying \"The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton\", a quote often attributed to him. Additionally, it touches upon the financial difficulties he and his mother faced after the death of his father. This led them to move to Brussels and him enrolling in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he significantly improved his horse riding skills and learned French. This later proved to be very useful to him.", "The text does not provide information on how Arthur Wesley died.", "One noteworthy aspect of Arthur Wesley's life mentioned in the text is that, until his early twenties, he showed little sign of achievement and was referred to as \"awkward\" by his own mother due to his idleness. However, his enrollment in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers turned out to be a significant tipping point in his life. Here, he learned horseman skills and the French language, which later became quite useful. Notably, upon his return to England in late 1786, he surprised his mother with his significant improvement.", "Arthur Wesley's mother expressed concern about his idleness and lack of distinction in his early twenties, stating, \"I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur.\"", "The text does not provide information on what Arthur Wesley said to his mother in response to her comment." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_d5abf3ac2b1548d9bdb494724bc98d5a_1_q#0", "C_d5abf3ac2b1548d9bdb494724bc98d5a_1_q#1", "C_d5abf3ac2b1548d9bdb494724bc98d5a_1_q#2", "C_d5abf3ac2b1548d9bdb494724bc98d5a_1_q#3" ]

[ "Was John Witherspoon Part of politics during the revolutionary war?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did he ever join congress or anything political during the war?", "What else was his role in the Revolutionary War?" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1531 ], [ 2698 ], [ 1380 ], [ 1692 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He served on over 100 committees, most notably the powerful standing committees, the board of war and the committee on secret correspondence or foreign affairs." ], [ "At the age of 68, he married a 24-year-old bride, with whom he had two more children." ], [ "Witherspoon served in Congress from June 1776 until November 1782" ], [ "He spoke often in debate; helped draft the Articles of Confederation; helped organize the executive departments;" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1531, 2698, 1380, 1692 ], "texts": [ "He served on over 100 committees, most notably the powerful standing committees, the board of war and the committee on secret correspondence or foreign affairs.", "At the age of 68, he married a 24-year-old bride, with whom he had two more children.", "Witherspoon served in Congress from June 1776 until November 1782", "He spoke often in debate; helped draft the Articles of Confederation; helped organize the executive departments;" ] }

[]

[ "Yes, John Witherspoon was part of politics during the Revolutionary War. He supported the Revolution, joined the Committee of Correspondence and Safety in early 1774, was elected to the Continental Congress as part of the New Jersey delegation, and helped draft the Articles of Confederation among other political activities.", "Yes, interesting aspects from this context include John Witherspoon's concerns about the growing power of the British Crown and its interference in colonial and local affairs. His role in the American Revolutionary War is not just political but also religious considering his reaction to the crown's attempts to give Episcopacy more control over Church affairs. He was a key figure in Congress and served on several important committees. He also suffered personal loss during the war when his son was killed. Furthermore, Witherspoon showed his perseverance by rebuilding the College of New Jersey after it was damaged during the war and continued to serve in politics after the war, supporting the adoption of the US Constitution. His personal life is also of interest, particularly his marriage to a significantly younger woman at the age of 68 and having two more children with her.", "Yes, John Witherspoon joined the Continental Congress as part of the New Jersey delegation during the Revolutionary War. He served in Congress from June 1776 until November 1782 during which he played a major role, serving on over 100 committees and helping draft the Articles of Confederation. He also served twice in the New Jersey Legislature.", "Apart from serving in the Continental Congress during the Revolutionary War, John Witherspoon's roles included serving on numerous committees, such as the board of war and the committee on secret correspondence or foreign affairs. He played a major role in shaping foreign policy, organizing executive departments, and drawing up instructions for peace commissioners. He was a vocal participant in debates and fought against issuing bonds without provisions for their amortization. Tragically, he also lost a son during the Battle of Germantown in 1777." ]

[ "Yes", "Neutral", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_d5abf3ac2b1548d9bdb494724bc98d5a_0_q#0", "C_d5abf3ac2b1548d9bdb494724bc98d5a_0_q#1", "C_d5abf3ac2b1548d9bdb494724bc98d5a_0_q#2", "C_d5abf3ac2b1548d9bdb494724bc98d5a_0_q#3" ]

[ "What philosophy did John follow?", "was he religious?", "Did he teach any of his beliefs?", "why did he argue for the revolutionary?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 752 ], [ 659 ], [ 1627 ], [ 1711 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Witherspoon thus believed moral judgment should be pursued as a science." ], [ "Thomas Reid than the Christian idealism of Jonathan Edwards." ], [ "his lectures on moral philosophy at Princeton, required of all juniors and seniors, Witherspoon argued for the revolutionary" ], [ "Witherspoon argued for the revolutionary right of resistance and recommended checks and balances within government." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 752, 659, 1627, 1711 ], "texts": [ "Witherspoon thus believed moral judgment should be pursued as a science.", "Thomas Reid than the Christian idealism of Jonathan Edwards.", "his lectures on moral philosophy at Princeton, required of all juniors and seniors, Witherspoon argued for the revolutionary", "Witherspoon argued for the revolutionary right of resistance and recommended checks and balances within government." ] }

[]

[ "John Witherspoon followed the philosophy of Scottish Common-Sense Realism.", "Yes, John Witherspoon was religious. He believed in Christian values and taught that Christianity was the only route to personal salvation.", "Yes, John Witherspoon taught his beliefs. As a part of his lectures on moral philosophy at Princeton, he taught the principles of Scottish Common-Sense Realism, the importance of moral judgment, virtue, and the role of religion in maintaining public morals. He also taught that virtue could be found in natural law and that all human beings, Christian or otherwise, could be virtuous.", "John Witherspoon argued for the revolutionary right of resistance and recommended checks and balances within government, as part of his emphasis on the importance of public morality and the role of government in preserving it. He was influenced by the Enlightenment ethics and it reflects in his teachings about the responsibility and leadership of civil magistrates." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_0_q#0", "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_0_q#1", "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_0_q#2", "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_0_q#3", "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_0_q#4", "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_0_q#5" ]

[ "What was the storyline for The Viriconium series of books?", "How many books were in the series?", "What year did In Viriconium come out?", "What is the name of the second book?", "What is the plot of the first book?", "What is Viriconium?" ]

[ 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 348 ], [ 1017 ], [ 348 ], [ 620 ], [ 397 ], [ 175 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The first book, The Pastel City (1971), presents a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with the advanced technology" ], [ "The third novel, In Viriconium" ], [ "The first book, The Pastel City (1971)," ], [ "second novel is A Storm of Wings (1982)." ], [ "a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash" ], [ "Viriconium is known as the Pastel City." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 348, 1017, 348, 620, 397, 175 ], "texts": [ "The first book, The Pastel City (1971), presents a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with the advanced technology", "The third novel, In Viriconium", "The first book, The Pastel City (1971),", "second novel is A Storm of Wings (1982).", "a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash", "Viriconium is known as the Pastel City." ] }

[]

[ "The Viriconium series of books revolves around the fictional city of Viriconium, also known as the Pastel City. The series presents a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with advanced superscience technology. The first book, \"The Pastel City\", depicts this declining city with ancient technology that the citizens know how to use but have forgotten to engineer. The second novel, \"A Storm of Wings\", set eighty years later, involves a race of intelligent insects invading Earth as human survival interest wanes, and follows the heroic efforts of individuals seeking to prevent the collapse of civilization. The third novel, \"In Viriconium\", portrays artistic subcultures in the city beset by a mysterious plague and remarkably shifts towards despair rather than maintaining the sword and sorcery theme of the previous books. The short story \"A Young Man's Journey to Viriconium\" is set in the real world and reveals that Viriconium can be visited via a mirror in a bathroom of an English cafe.", "The Viriconium series consists of three novels and various short stories and novellas.", "The novel \"In Viriconium\" was released in the year 1982.", "The name of the second book in the series is \"A Storm of Wings\".", "The first book, \"The Pastel City\", presents a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with advanced technology and superscience energy weapons. Although the citizens of the city know how to use these weapons, they have forgotten how to engineer them.", "Viriconium is a fictitious city in Harrison's fantasy sequence. It is known as the Pastel City and possesses a shifting topography and history. It is sometimes known by other names such as 'Uroconium'. The city is depicted as a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with advanced technology." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_1_q#0", "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_1_q#1", "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_1_q#2", "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_1_q#3", "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_1_q#4", "C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_1_q#5" ]

[ "What was John Harrison's first novel?", "Did he write in any other genre before writing Science fiction?", "How popular were his first stories?", "Who influenced him as a writer?", "Who published his first novel?", "What other magazines published his short stories?" ]

[ 2, 1, 2, 0, 1, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 616 ], [ 1699 ], [ 616 ], [ 1271 ], [ 1699 ], [ 831 ] ], "texts": [ [ "His first short story was published during 1966 by Kyril Bonfiglioli at Science Fantasy magazine," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "His first short story was published during 1966 by Kyril Bonfiglioli at Science Fantasy magazine, on the strength of which he relocated to London." ], [ "Harrison says \"I liked anything bizarre, from being about four years old. I started on Dan Dare and worked up to the Absurdists." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "He began writing reviews and short fiction for New Worlds," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 616, 1699, 616, 1271, 1699, 831 ], "texts": [ "His first short story was published during 1966 by Kyril Bonfiglioli at Science Fantasy magazine,", "CANNOTANSWER", "His first short story was published during 1966 by Kyril Bonfiglioli at Science Fantasy magazine, on the strength of which he relocated to London.", "Harrison says \"I liked anything bizarre, from being about four years old. I started on Dan Dare and worked up to the Absurdists.", "CANNOTANSWER", "He began writing reviews and short fiction for New Worlds," ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on what John Harrison's first novel was.", "The text does not provide specific information about John Harrison writing in any other genre before writing Science fiction.", "The text does not provide information on the popularity of John Harrison's first stories.", "An English teacher introduced John Harrison to George Bernard Shaw, which sparked his interest in polemic. This suggests that George Bernard Shaw influenced Harrison as a writer. He also mentioned authors such as Alfred Bester, Samuel Beckett, Charles Williams, J. G. Ballard, Jack Kerouac, John Keats, Allen Ginsberg, and Thorne Smith, indicating that they may have also influenced him.", "The text does not provide information on who published John Harrison's first novel.", "Aside from Science Fantasy magazine, John Harrison also wrote for New Worlds magazine. There is no mention of any other magazines publishing his short stories." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_0_q#0", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_0_q#1", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_0_q#2", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_0_q#3", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_0_q#4", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_0_q#5" ]

[ "Why does he decide to refuse to endorse the republican nominee?", "Where the name of the nominees mentioned?", "Who antagonized him?", "Who does he want to be nominated?", "What other thing did he do in the house?", "What was people reaction to his refusal to endorse the nominee?" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0 ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 593 ], [ 537 ], [ 1123 ], [ 1361 ], [ 1490 ], [ 1123 ] ], "texts": [ [ "because there were no real differences between them, and because neither of them, if elected, would seek to make the fundamental changes in governance" ], [ "McCain - Republican Party, or Obama - Democratic Party" ], [ "Bob Barr (the Libertarian nominee)" ], [ "Paul released a statement saying that he had decided to endorse Chuck Baldwin, the Constitution Party candidate, for president." ], [ "Paul withdrew from active campaigning in the last weeks of the primary election period." ], [ "Bob Barr (the Libertarian nominee) had pulled out of attending the press conference at the last minute and had admonished Paul for remaining neutral" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 593, 537, 1123, 1361, 1490, 1123 ], "texts": [ "because there were no real differences between them, and because neither of them, if elected, would seek to make the fundamental changes in governance", "McCain - Republican Party, or Obama - Democratic Party", "Bob Barr (the Libertarian nominee)", "Paul released a statement saying that he had decided to endorse Chuck Baldwin, the Constitution Party candidate, for president.", "Paul withdrew from active campaigning in the last weeks of the primary election period.", "Bob Barr (the Libertarian nominee) had pulled out of attending the press conference at the last minute and had admonished Paul for remaining neutral" ] }

[ { "text": "A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of adversaries) during battle, from the Latin congressus.\n\nPolitical congresses\n\nInternational relations\nThe following congresses were formal meetings of representatives of different nations:\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), which ended the War of Devolution\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which ended the War of the Austrian Succession\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)\nThe Congress of Berlin (1878), which settled the Eastern Question after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)\nThe Congress of Gniezno (1000)\nThe Congress of Laibach (1821)\nThe Congress of Panama, an 1826 meeting organized by Simón Bolívar\nThe Congress of Paris (1856), which ended the Crimean War\nThe Congress of Troppau (1820)\nThe Congress of Tucumán (1816)\nThe Congress of Utrecht (1712–1713)\nThe Congress of Verona (1822)\nThe Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which settled the shape of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars\nThe Congress of the Council of Europe.\n\nLegislatures\n\nPresidential and semi-presidential systems\nIn the mid-1770s, to emphasize each one's status as a state in its own right, the term was chosen by the British colonies that became the United States of America. The term has since been adopted by many nations to refer to their legislatures.\nThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislative branch of the United States federal government.\nThe Continental Congress (1774–1781) was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the Congress of the Confederation (1781–1789), legislature of the United States under the Articles of Confederation.\nThe Confederate States Congress of 1861–1865, during the American Civil War.\nThe Congress of Guatemala (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the unicameral legislature of Guatemala.\nThe National Congress of Honduras (Spanish: Congreso nacional) is the legislative branch of the government of Honduras.\nThe Congress of Mexico () is the legislative branch of Mexican government.\nThe Congress of Paraguay is the bicameral legislature of Paraguay.\nThe Congress of the Argentine Nation (Spanish: Congreso de la Nación Argentina) is the legislative branch of the government of Argentina.\nThe Congress of the Dominican Republic is the bicameral legislature of the Dominican Republic.\nThe Palau National Congress (Palauan: Olbiil era Kelulau) is the bicameral legislative branch of the Republic of Palau.\nThe Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia is the unicameral legislature of the Federated States of Micronesia.\nThe Congress of the Philippines (Filipino: Kongreso ng Pilipinas) is the legislative branch of the Philippine government.\nThe Congress of the Republic of Peru (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the unicameral legislature of Peru.\nThe Congress of Colombia (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the bicameral legislature of Colombia.\nThe National Congress of Bolivia was the national legislature of Bolivia before being replaced by the Plurinational Legislative Assembly.\nThe National Congress of Brazil () is the bicameral legislature of Brazil.\nThe National Congress of Chile (Spanish: Congreso Nacional) is the legislative branch of the government of Chile.\nThe National Congress of Ecuador was the unicameral legislature of Ecuador before being replaced by the National Assembly.\nFrance:\nThe Congress of the French Parliament refers specifically when both houses of France's legislature sit together as a single body, usually at the Palace of Versailles, to vote on revisions to the Constitution, to listen to an address by the President of the French Republic, and, in the past, to elect the President of the Republic\nThe Congress of New Caledonia is the national legislature under the semi-presidential system of the autonomous collectivity.\n\nNon-presidential systems\nSpanish Congress of Deputies (Spanish: Congreso de los Diputados) is the lower house of the Cortes Generales, Spain's legislative branch.\nThe National Congress of Belgium was a temporary legislative assembly in 1830, which created a constitution for the new state.\nThe legislature of the People's Republic of China is known in English as the National People's Congress.\nThe Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union was the legislature and nominal supreme institution of state power in the Soviet Union. \nCongress of People's Deputies of Russia was modeled after the Soviet Union's and existed in 1990–1993.\nThe Congress of Cuba was the bicameral legislature of Cuba from 1902–1959.\n\nParties\nMany political parties have a party congress every few years to make decisions for the party and elect governing bodies, while others call it a party convention. Congress is included in the name of several political parties, especially those in former British colonies:\nCanary Islands\nNational Congress of the Canaries\nEswatini\nNgwane National Liberatory Congress\nFiji\nNational Congress of Fiji\nGuyana\nPeople's National Congress\nIndia\nIndian National Congress\nAll India Trinamool Congress\nKerala Congress\nNationalist Congress Party\nTamil Maanila Congress\nYSR Congress\nBSR Congress\nAll India N.R. Congress\nLesotho\nBasotho Congress Party\nLesotho Congress for Democracy\nLesotho People's Congress\nMalawi\nMalawi Congress Party\nMalaysia\nMalaysian Indian Congress\nNamibia\nCongress of Democrats\nNepal\nNepali Congress\nPakistan\nPeoples Revolutionary Congress Pakistan\nSierra Leone\nAll People's Congress\nSouth Africa\nAfrican National Congress\nCongress of the People\nPan-Africanist Congress\nSri Lanka\nAll Ceylon Tamil Congress\nSri Lanka Muslim Congress\nSudan\nNational Congress (Sudan)\nTrinidad and Tobago\nUnited National Congress\nUganda\nUgandan People's Congress\nIraqi National Congress\n\nPolitical organizations\nNational Congress of American Indians\nCongress of Racial Equality\nContinental Congress 2.0\n\nLabour congresses\nCongress of Industrial Organizations\nTrade Union Congress of the Philippines\nTrades Union Congress\nCanadian Labour Congress\n\nReligious Congresses \nCatholic Congresses\nEucharistic Congresses\n1947 Marian Congress\n\nNon-political congresses\nCongress is an alternative name for a large national or international academic conference. For instance, the World Congress on Men's Health is an annual meeting on men's medical issues.\n\nOrganizations in some athletic sports, such as bowling, have historically been named \"congresses\". The predecessors to the United States Bowling Congress (formed in 1995) were the American Bowling Congress (founded in 1895) and the Women's International Bowling Congress (founded in 1927).\nA chess congress is a chess tournament, in one city, where a large number of contestants gather to play competitive chess over a limited period of time; typically one day to one week.\n\nICCA Congress & Exhibition\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nEuropean affairs events\nInternational congress calendar\nMedical Congresses Around the World\nCongress Youth Leader\n \n\nCategory:Legislatures\nCategory:Elections\nCategory:Meetings", "title": "Congress" }, { "text": "Ron is a shortening of the name Ronald.\n\nRon or RON may also refer to:\n\nArts and media\n\nBig Ron (EastEnders), a TV character\nRon (King of Fighters), a video game character\nRon Douglas, the protagonist in Lucky Stiff played by Joe Alasky\nRon Kamonohashi: Deranged Detective, a manga series\nRon Weasley, a character in Harry Potter.\n\nLanguage\n Ron language, spoken in Plat State, Nigeria\n Romanian language (ISO 639-3 code ron)\n\nPeople\n\nMononym\nRon (singer), Rosalino Cellamare (born 1953), Italian singer\n\nGiven name\nRon (given name)\n\nSurname\nDana Ron (born 1964), Israeli computer scientist and professor\nElaine Ron (1943-2010), American epidemiologist\nEmri Ron (1936–2013), Israeli politician \nIvo Ron (born 1967), Ecuadorian football player\nJason De Ron (born 1973), Australian musician\nJosé Ron (born 1981), Mexican actor\nLiat Ron, actress, dancer and dance instructor \n\nLior Ron (born 1982), Israeli-American film and trailer composer and musician\nMichael Ron (born 1932), Israeli fencer\nMichael Røn (born 1984), Danish-born Norwegian footballer\nMoshe Ron (1925-2001), Israeli materials scientist\nPan Ron, Cambodian singer and songwriter\nRon Ron or Ronald White, American rapper and director\nYuval Ron, Israeli musician\n\nPlaces \nRon, Karnataka, a city in India\nRøn, a village in Vestre Slidre, Norway\nRon (river, Vietnam)\n\nScience and technology\n Gyrodyne RON Rotorcycle, mid-1950s US helicopter\n Remote online notarization, electronic notarization online\n Research Octane Number, a standard measure of the performance of a fuel\n Resilient Overlay Network, an Internet application architecture\n\nOther uses\n Cyclone Ron, a 1998 cyclone in the South Pacific\n Rhongomiant, or Ron, King Arthur's lance\n Romanian leu (ISO 4217 code: RON), the currency of Romania\n\"Ron's Piece\", a track from the 1986 Jean-Michel Jarre album Rendez-Vous\n Rum, ron in Spanish\n Re-open Nominations, a \"none of the above\" ballot option\n Rota Osobogo Naznacheniya (), a 1940s unit of Russian commando frogmen\n\nSee also\n\nBig Ron (disambiguation)\nRonn (disambiguation)", "title": "Ron" } ]

[ "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_1_q#0", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_1_q#1", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_1_q#2", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_1_q#3", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_1_q#4", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_1_q#5", "C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_1_q#6" ]

[ "what part did Ron Paul play in legislation?", "Did Ron Paul sponsor any bills?", "Please give me interesting information from the article.", "what party did he serve under?", "what special election did he win?", "what else did he propose while serving?", "Did he have support for his proposal?" ]

[ 1, 0, 0, 1, 2, 0, 2 ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2448 ], [ 1494 ], [ 0 ], [ 2448 ], [ 1494 ], [ 1494 ], [ 2448 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times, while himself serving four terms in the House of Representatives." ], [ "Paul served in Congress three different periods: first from 1976 to 1977, after he won a special election, then from 1979 to 1985, and finally from 1997 to 2013." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times, while himself serving four terms in the House of Representatives." ], [ "Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2448, 1494, 0, 2448, 1494, 1494, 2448 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times, while himself serving four terms in the House of Representatives.", "Paul served in Congress three different periods: first from 1976 to 1977, after he won a special election, then from 1979 to 1985, and finally from 1997 to 2013.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times, while himself serving four terms in the House of Representatives.", "Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of adversaries) during battle, from the Latin congressus.\n\nPolitical congresses\n\nInternational relations\nThe following congresses were formal meetings of representatives of different nations:\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), which ended the War of Devolution\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which ended the War of the Austrian Succession\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)\nThe Congress of Berlin (1878), which settled the Eastern Question after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)\nThe Congress of Gniezno (1000)\nThe Congress of Laibach (1821)\nThe Congress of Panama, an 1826 meeting organized by Simón Bolívar\nThe Congress of Paris (1856), which ended the Crimean War\nThe Congress of Troppau (1820)\nThe Congress of Tucumán (1816)\nThe Congress of Utrecht (1712–1713)\nThe Congress of Verona (1822)\nThe Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which settled the shape of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars\nThe Congress of the Council of Europe.\n\nLegislatures\n\nPresidential and semi-presidential systems\nIn the mid-1770s, to emphasize each one's status as a state in its own right, the term was chosen by the British colonies that became the United States of America. The term has since been adopted by many nations to refer to their legislatures.\nThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislative branch of the United States federal government.\nThe Continental Congress (1774–1781) was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the Congress of the Confederation (1781–1789), legislature of the United States under the Articles of Confederation.\nThe Confederate States Congress of 1861–1865, during the American Civil War.\nThe Congress of Guatemala (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the unicameral legislature of Guatemala.\nThe National Congress of Honduras (Spanish: Congreso nacional) is the legislative branch of the government of Honduras.\nThe Congress of Mexico () is the legislative branch of Mexican government.\nThe Congress of Paraguay is the bicameral legislature of Paraguay.\nThe Congress of the Argentine Nation (Spanish: Congreso de la Nación Argentina) is the legislative branch of the government of Argentina.\nThe Congress of the Dominican Republic is the bicameral legislature of the Dominican Republic.\nThe Palau National Congress (Palauan: Olbiil era Kelulau) is the bicameral legislative branch of the Republic of Palau.\nThe Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia is the unicameral legislature of the Federated States of Micronesia.\nThe Congress of the Philippines (Filipino: Kongreso ng Pilipinas) is the legislative branch of the Philippine government.\nThe Congress of the Republic of Peru (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the unicameral legislature of Peru.\nThe Congress of Colombia (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the bicameral legislature of Colombia.\nThe National Congress of Bolivia was the national legislature of Bolivia before being replaced by the Plurinational Legislative Assembly.\nThe National Congress of Brazil () is the bicameral legislature of Brazil.\nThe National Congress of Chile (Spanish: Congreso Nacional) is the legislative branch of the government of Chile.\nThe National Congress of Ecuador was the unicameral legislature of Ecuador before being replaced by the National Assembly.\nFrance:\nThe Congress of the French Parliament refers specifically when both houses of France's legislature sit together as a single body, usually at the Palace of Versailles, to vote on revisions to the Constitution, to listen to an address by the President of the French Republic, and, in the past, to elect the President of the Republic\nThe Congress of New Caledonia is the national legislature under the semi-presidential system of the autonomous collectivity.\n\nNon-presidential systems\nSpanish Congress of Deputies (Spanish: Congreso de los Diputados) is the lower house of the Cortes Generales, Spain's legislative branch.\nThe National Congress of Belgium was a temporary legislative assembly in 1830, which created a constitution for the new state.\nThe legislature of the People's Republic of China is known in English as the National People's Congress.\nThe Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union was the legislature and nominal supreme institution of state power in the Soviet Union. \nCongress of People's Deputies of Russia was modeled after the Soviet Union's and existed in 1990–1993.\nThe Congress of Cuba was the bicameral legislature of Cuba from 1902–1959.\n\nParties\nMany political parties have a party congress every few years to make decisions for the party and elect governing bodies, while others call it a party convention. Congress is included in the name of several political parties, especially those in former British colonies:\nCanary Islands\nNational Congress of the Canaries\nEswatini\nNgwane National Liberatory Congress\nFiji\nNational Congress of Fiji\nGuyana\nPeople's National Congress\nIndia\nIndian National Congress\nAll India Trinamool Congress\nKerala Congress\nNationalist Congress Party\nTamil Maanila Congress\nYSR Congress\nBSR Congress\nAll India N.R. Congress\nLesotho\nBasotho Congress Party\nLesotho Congress for Democracy\nLesotho People's Congress\nMalawi\nMalawi Congress Party\nMalaysia\nMalaysian Indian Congress\nNamibia\nCongress of Democrats\nNepal\nNepali Congress\nPakistan\nPeoples Revolutionary Congress Pakistan\nSierra Leone\nAll People's Congress\nSouth Africa\nAfrican National Congress\nCongress of the People\nPan-Africanist Congress\nSri Lanka\nAll Ceylon Tamil Congress\nSri Lanka Muslim Congress\nSudan\nNational Congress (Sudan)\nTrinidad and Tobago\nUnited National Congress\nUganda\nUgandan People's Congress\nIraqi National Congress\n\nPolitical organizations\nNational Congress of American Indians\nCongress of Racial Equality\nContinental Congress 2.0\n\nLabour congresses\nCongress of Industrial Organizations\nTrade Union Congress of the Philippines\nTrades Union Congress\nCanadian Labour Congress\n\nReligious Congresses \nCatholic Congresses\nEucharistic Congresses\n1947 Marian Congress\n\nNon-political congresses\nCongress is an alternative name for a large national or international academic conference. For instance, the World Congress on Men's Health is an annual meeting on men's medical issues.\n\nOrganizations in some athletic sports, such as bowling, have historically been named \"congresses\". The predecessors to the United States Bowling Congress (formed in 1995) were the American Bowling Congress (founded in 1895) and the Women's International Bowling Congress (founded in 1927).\nA chess congress is a chess tournament, in one city, where a large number of contestants gather to play competitive chess over a limited period of time; typically one day to one week.\n\nICCA Congress & Exhibition\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nEuropean affairs events\nInternational congress calendar\nMedical Congresses Around the World\nCongress Youth Leader\n \n\nCategory:Legislatures\nCategory:Elections\nCategory:Meetings", "title": "Congress" }, { "text": "Ron is a shortening of the name Ronald.\n\nRon or RON may also refer to:\n\nArts and media\n\nBig Ron (EastEnders), a TV character\nRon (King of Fighters), a video game character\nRon Douglas, the protagonist in Lucky Stiff played by Joe Alasky\nRon Kamonohashi: Deranged Detective, a manga series\nRon Weasley, a character in Harry Potter.\n\nLanguage\n Ron language, spoken in Plat State, Nigeria\n Romanian language (ISO 639-3 code ron)\n\nPeople\n\nMononym\nRon (singer), Rosalino Cellamare (born 1953), Italian singer\n\nGiven name\nRon (given name)\n\nSurname\nDana Ron (born 1964), Israeli computer scientist and professor\nElaine Ron (1943-2010), American epidemiologist\nEmri Ron (1936–2013), Israeli politician \nIvo Ron (born 1967), Ecuadorian football player\nJason De Ron (born 1973), Australian musician\nJosé Ron (born 1981), Mexican actor\nLiat Ron, actress, dancer and dance instructor \n\nLior Ron (born 1982), Israeli-American film and trailer composer and musician\nMichael Ron (born 1932), Israeli fencer\nMichael Røn (born 1984), Danish-born Norwegian footballer\nMoshe Ron (1925-2001), Israeli materials scientist\nPan Ron, Cambodian singer and songwriter\nRon Ron or Ronald White, American rapper and director\nYuval Ron, Israeli musician\n\nPlaces \nRon, Karnataka, a city in India\nRøn, a village in Vestre Slidre, Norway\nRon (river, Vietnam)\n\nScience and technology\n Gyrodyne RON Rotorcycle, mid-1950s US helicopter\n Remote online notarization, electronic notarization online\n Research Octane Number, a standard measure of the performance of a fuel\n Resilient Overlay Network, an Internet application architecture\n\nOther uses\n Cyclone Ron, a 1998 cyclone in the South Pacific\n Rhongomiant, or Ron, King Arthur's lance\n Romanian leu (ISO 4217 code: RON), the currency of Romania\n\"Ron's Piece\", a track from the 1986 Jean-Michel Jarre album Rendez-Vous\n Rum, ron in Spanish\n Re-open Nominations, a \"none of the above\" ballot option\n Rota Osobogo Naznacheniya (), a 1940s unit of Russian commando frogmen\n\nSee also\n\nBig Ron (disambiguation)\nRonn (disambiguation)", "title": "Ron" } ]

[ "Ron Paul served in Congress across three different periods and throughout his terms, he pushed for various changes in legislation. He blamed the Federal Reserve for inflation and spoke against banking mismanagement. He argued for a return to the gold standard and managed to convince Congress to study the issue. He also opposed the reinstatement of registration for the military draft in 1980. Furthermore, Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times during his service in the House of Representatives.", "The text does not provide information on whether Ron Paul sponsored any bills.", "Ron Paul served in Congress during three separate periods which spanned over decades. In his early years, he was on the House Banking Committee, fiercely criticizing the Federal Reserve for inflation. He was an advocate for the gold standard and also opposed the reinstatement of the military draft in 1980. Outside congress, he founded a non-profit think tank, the Foundation for Rational Economics and Education (FREE) and became the first chairman of the Citizens for a Sound Economy. The latter organization eventually split into two new ones that played key roles in the Tea Party movement. Despite his active involvement in Congress, Paul often showed disdain for government power and expressed it in his farewell address in 1984. He also advocated for term limits, repeatedly proposing legislation for it while maintaining his own congressional seat for four terms.", "The text does not provide information on which party Ron Paul served under.", "The text does not provide specific information on what special election Ron Paul won.", "While serving in Congress, Ron Paul proposed returning to the gold standard maintained by the US from 1873-1933. He also proposed multiple term-limit legislations for individuals serving in the House of Representatives.", "The text mentions that Ron Paul, along with Senator Jesse Helms, was able to convince Congress to study the issue of returning to the gold standard. It does not provide information on the level of support he had for his term-limit proposals." ]

[ "Yes", "no", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "When was his third return to WWE?", "Did he rescue him successfully?", "When was he inducted into the Hall of Fame?", "What is a wrestling match he did after that?", "What was his offer?", "What did they do together after that?", "Was that the only time he appeared on Raw?", "Who won?", "Did they ever face each other again?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 117 ], [ 244 ], [ 0 ], [ 804 ], [ 718 ], [ 967 ], [ 1544 ], [ 1733 ], [ 1889 ] ], "texts": [ [ "At WrestleMania 21 on April 3, Hogan came out to rescue Eugene, who was being attacked by Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari." ], [ "The build-up to Hogan's Hall of Fame induction and preparation for his WrestleMania angle was shown on the first season of Hogan Knows Best." ], [ "On April 2, 2005, Hogan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2005 by actor and friend Sylvester Stallone." ], [ "Hassan again led an attack on Michaels until Hogan appeared, saving Michaels and accepting his offer." ], [ "Michaels then made a plea for Hogan to team with him." ], [ "Hogan then appeared on July 4 episode of Raw, as the special guest of Carlito on his talk-show segment Carlito's Cabana." ], [ "The following week on Raw, Michaels appeared on Piper's Pit and challenged Hogan to face him one-on-one for the first time." ], [ "The match took place at SummerSlam, which Hogan won." ], [ "and Hogan and Michaels shook hands as Michaels left the ring to allow Hogan to celebrate with the crowd." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 117, 244, 0, 804, 718, 967, 1544, 1733, 1889 ], "texts": [ "At WrestleMania 21 on April 3, Hogan came out to rescue Eugene, who was being attacked by Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari.", "The build-up to Hogan's Hall of Fame induction and preparation for his WrestleMania angle was shown on the first season of Hogan Knows Best.", "On April 2, 2005, Hogan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2005 by actor and friend Sylvester Stallone.", "Hassan again led an attack on Michaels until Hogan appeared, saving Michaels and accepting his offer.", "Michaels then made a plea for Hogan to team with him.", "Hogan then appeared on July 4 episode of Raw, as the special guest of Carlito on his talk-show segment Carlito's Cabana.", "The following week on Raw, Michaels appeared on Piper's Pit and challenged Hogan to face him one-on-one for the first time.", "The match took place at SummerSlam, which Hogan won.", "and Hogan and Michaels shook hands as Michaels left the ring to allow Hogan to celebrate with the crowd." ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide information on when Hogan's third return to WWE was.", "Yes, Hogan successfully rescued Eugene from being attacked by Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari at WrestleMania 21 on April 3.", "Hogan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame on April 2, 2005.", "After his induction into the WWE Hall of Fame, Hogan participated in a tag team match with Shawn Michaels against Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari at Backlash, which Hogan and Michaels won.", "Shawn Michaels' offer was for Hogan to team up with him for a tag team match against Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari.", "After Hogan accepted Shawn Michaels' offer to team up, they fought Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari in a tag team match at Backlash. Later on, Hogan and Shawn Michaels also defeated Carlito and Kurt Angle in another tag team match. Then Shawn Michaels challenged Hogan to face him one-on-one for the first time, and in the matching that followed at SummerSlam, Hogan won.", "No, Hogan made multiple appearances on Raw, as described in the context, with one instance being on the April 18 episode to save Shawn Michaels from an attack by Muhammad Hassan. He also appeared on a July 4 episode as a guest on Carlito's Cabana, and he accepted Michaels' one-on-one challenge on a later episode of Raw.", "In the one-on-one match between Hulk Hogan and Shawn Michaels at SummerSlam, Hogan won.", "The context does not provide information on whether Hulk Hogan and Shawn Michaels faced each other again after their match at SummerSlam." ]

[ "no", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "no" ]

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[ "what happened in 1988?", "who else did he wrestle against?", "who are the mega powers?", "what did they do together?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "were they more than friends?", "how did he react?", "did the fued ever resolve?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1572 ], [ 2112 ], [ 1198 ], [ 1368 ], [ 1957 ], [ 2413 ], [ 2673 ], [ 2744 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In mid-1988, Hogan wrestled at house shows in singles competition with his \"War Bonnet\", a red and yellow gladiator helmet with a fist-shaped crest." ], [ "At the Royal Rumble in 1989, Hogan eliminated Savage from the Royal Rumble match while eliminating Bad News Brown," ], [ "Together, Hogan, Savage, and manager Miss Elizabeth formed a partnership known as The Mega Powers." ], [ "they feuded with The Mega Bucks (Andre the Giant and Ted DiBiase) and defeated them at the main event of the first SummerSlam." ], [ "The Mega Powers began to implode due to Savage's burgeoning jealousy of Hogan and his paranoid suspicions that Hogan and Elizabeth were more than friends." ], [ "Savage accidentally collided with Miss Elizabeth during the match, and Hogan took her backstage to receive medical attention, temporarily abandoning Savage," ], [ "Savage attacked Hogan backstage, which started a feud between the two." ], [ "Their feud culminated in Hogan beating Savage for his second WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania V." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1572, 2112, 1198, 1368, 1957, 2413, 2673, 2744 ], "texts": [ "In mid-1988, Hogan wrestled at house shows in singles competition with his \"War Bonnet\", a red and yellow gladiator helmet with a fist-shaped crest.", "At the Royal Rumble in 1989, Hogan eliminated Savage from the Royal Rumble match while eliminating Bad News Brown,", "Together, Hogan, Savage, and manager Miss Elizabeth formed a partnership known as The Mega Powers.", "they feuded with The Mega Bucks (Andre the Giant and Ted DiBiase) and defeated them at the main event of the first SummerSlam.", "The Mega Powers began to implode due to Savage's burgeoning jealousy of Hogan and his paranoid suspicions that Hogan and Elizabeth were more than friends.", "Savage accidentally collided with Miss Elizabeth during the match, and Hogan took her backstage to receive medical attention, temporarily abandoning Savage,", "Savage attacked Hogan backstage, which started a feud between the two.", "Their feud culminated in Hogan beating Savage for his second WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania V." ] }

[]

[ "In 1988, Hogan, Randy Savage, and manager Miss Elizabeth formed a partnership known as The Mega Powers. After Savage became WWF World Heavyweight Champion at WrestleMania IV, they feuded with The Mega Bucks (Andre the Giant and Ted DiBiase) and defeated them at the main event of the first SummerSlam. They then feuded with Slick's Twin Towers: Akeem and Big Boss Man. Also in mid-1988, Hogan wrestled at house shows in singles competition with his \"War Bonnet\", a red and yellow gladiator helmet with a fist-shaped crest, which was used to give Bad News Brown his first WWF loss at a Madison Square Garden house show before it was discarded altogether. The War Bonnet gimmick was later revisited in the WWE's online comedy series Are You Serious? in 2012.", "In addition to wrestling against Andre the Giant and Ted DiBiase (The Mega Bucks), Hogan also faced Akeem and Big Boss Man (Slick's Twin Towers) as part of his partnership with Randy Savage (The Mega Powers). He also wrestled against Bad News Brown at a Madison Square Garden house show.", "The Mega Powers were a partnership formed by Hulk Hogan, \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage, and their manager Miss Elizabeth.", "Together, The Mega Powers, which consisted of Hulk Hogan, \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage, and their manager Miss Elizabeth, feuded with The Mega Bucks (Andre the Giant and Ted DiBiase) and defeated them at the main event of the first SummerSlam. They then went on to feud with Slick's Twin Towers: Akeem and Big Boss Man. However, the partnership began to implode due to Savage's burgeoning jealousy of Hogan and his paranoid suspicions that Hogan and Elizabeth were more than friends. This culminated in a feud between Hogan and Savage, which Hogan won at WrestleMania V for his second WWF World Heavyweight Championship.", "The article also mentioned a unique aspect of Hogan's career where he adopted a gimmick known as the \"War Bonnet\" in mid-1988. This was a red and yellow gladiator helmet with a fist-shaped crest that he wore during house shows in singles competition. He notably used this to give Bad News Brown his first WWF loss at a Madison Square Garden house show before discarding the gimmick. The \"War Bonnet\" gimmick was later revisited in 2012 in WWE's online comedy series, Are You Serious?", "The text does not provide any confirmation that Hogan and Elizabeth were more than friends. The jealousy and suspicions were on the part of \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage, but it does not definitively state whether his suspicions were correct.", "\"Macho Man\" Randy Savage reacted to his suspicions and jealousy by becoming increasingly tense and confrontational with Hogan. The situation escalated at the Royal Rumble in 1989 when Hogan accidentally eliminated Savage. Later, during a match against The Twin Towers, Hogan took Miss Elizabeth backstage for medical attention after she was accidentally collided with. This left Savage alone in the ring, feeling abandoned. He confronted Hogan after the match, slapping him and walking out. This tension culminated in Savage attacking Hogan backstage, which sparked a feud between the two that ended with Hogan defeating Savage at WrestleMania V.", "The context does not provide information on whether the feud between Hulk Hogan and \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage ever resolved." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "no" ]

[ "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_0_q#0", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_0_q#1", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_0_q#2", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_0_q#3", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_0_q#4", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_0_q#5", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_0_q#6" ]

[ "What controversy surrounds Jack White?", "Did he plead guilty to the charge?", "Who was he accused of assaulting?", "What caused the altercation?", "How did this controversy affect music sales?", "Where did he go after leaving Detroit?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 152 ], [ 207 ], [ 22 ], [ 3051 ], [ 603 ], [ 3051 ], [ 2791 ] ], "texts": [ [ "White was charged with misdemeanor aggravated assault." ], [ "He pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of assault and battery, was fined $750 (including court costs), and was sentenced to take anger management classes." ], [ "White was involved in an altercation with Jason Stollsteimer," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "eventually left Detroit because, \"he could not take the negativity anymore." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In October 2016--upon learning that Donald Trump had used the White Stripes' song \"Seven Nation Army\" in video campaign materials--White denounced the presidential candidate," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 152, 207, 22, 3051, 603, 3051, 2791 ], "texts": [ "White was charged with misdemeanor aggravated assault.", "He pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of assault and battery, was fined $750 (including court costs), and was sentenced to take anger management classes.", "White was involved in an altercation with Jason Stollsteimer,", "CANNOTANSWER", "eventually left Detroit because, \"he could not take the negativity anymore.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In October 2016--upon learning that Donald Trump had used the White Stripes' song \"Seven Nation Army\" in video campaign materials--White denounced the presidential candidate," ] }

[ { "text": "Third Man Records is an eclectic, vinyl-focused independent record label founded and owned by Jack White, Ben Blackwell and Ben Swank. The company operates out of three locations—Nashville, Tennessee, Detroit, Michigan, and Soho, London—with multiple entities expanding upon the offerings of a traditional record label, including multiple live music venues, vinyl pressing plant, film studio and dark room, guitar pedal and gear company, mastering studio, vinyl subscription service, and publishing arm.\n\nHistory\nIn 2001, while Jack White was gaining regional notice in the White Stripes in Detroit, he registered the label Third Man Records, proceeding to trademark the name in 2004. It wasn’t until 2008 when the White Stripes stopped touring and recording, and after White had reclaimed the rights to the band's earlier music, that White turned his focus to the label.\n\nWhite recruited his nephew, White Stripes archivist and Dirtbombs drummer Ben Blackwell and his lifelong friend, Ben Swank, then the drummer for the Soledad Brothers and a promoter in London, to create a working business on March 11, 2009. White conceived the expansion idea in October 2008, phoning Swank and Blackwell to say the venture should first concentrate on releasing White Stripes' back catalog on vinyl. Blackwell moved from Detroit and Swank from London to establish the business. The Nashville location now serves as a record store, label and publishing offices, The Blue Room live venue and bar, photo studio/darkroom, master recordings vault, and fulfillment center. To commemorate the opening of Third Man Records in Nashville, White debuted his new project, the Dead Weather, performing a short set for the 150 invited guests and coining the label's motto, \"Your Turntable's Not Dead.\"\n\nThe label's name incorporates several elements of personal significance to White. His fondness for the number three is well documented. It refers to Carol Reed's The Third Man starring Joseph Cotten and Orson Welles. White's pre-White Stripes upholstering company, which he continues to maintain as a hobby and artistic outlet in the present day, is named Third Man Upholstery and is similarly identified by the colors yellow and black and the motto “Your Upholstery’s Not Dead.”\n\nThird Man has since reissued all six White Stripes studio releases on vinyl, and the label’s catalog has now grown to over 800 releases, including albums by White’s other acts, contributions from Billie Eilish, Neil Young, Sleep, Metallica, Margo Price, Coldplay, and Jay-Z, and many developing artists.\n\nNashville location\nThe label's headquarters is located in a less prosperous neighborhood, which is home to the city's largest homeless shelter, a transitional housing and recuperation center, and an affordable healthcare clinic. White's presence has raised the area's prominence, motivating the city and business owners to rezone the area with more commercial ventures, including multiple mixed-use developments, a Ritz Carlton Hotel, and a members' club. White opposes the idea, calling the environment \"a solid neighborhood [where] everyone looks out for each other.\" The location is organized around five dedicated sections: the record store, a \"novelties lounge\", the label's offices and distribution center, a live venue and bar (The Blue Room), and a darkroom/photo studio.\n\nThe Novelties Lounge, located within the record store, debuted on November 23, 2012. The space contains a collection of vintage novelty machines. \"Among the attractions in the new wing is a Scopitone machine—a video jukebox using 16mm film that had its greatest prominence in the 1960s. Third Man has loaded their Scopitone with 36 videos from the label catalog, and bill it as 'the world's ONLY Scopitone machine fully loaded with modern music.' Other highlights include a \"Wax-O-Matic machine\", which makes bright red wax molds of White's Airline guitar, and a full-color photo booth.\" On April 20, 2013, in celebration of Jack White's role as Record Store Day Ambassador, The Third Man Recording Booth, \"a refurbished 1947 Voice-o-Graph machine that can record up to two minutes audio and press it onto 6-inch phonograph discs\" was introduced as an addition to the Novelties Lounge. This voice-o-graph was used in the creating of Apple's 2014 holiday ad as shown in the behind the scene video. In August 2017, Third Man celebrated the total solar eclipse happening event \"Occulting the Sunn\", in Nashville.\n\nDetroit location\nIn 2015, White partnered with Shinola—a lifestyle brand most known as a watch manufacturer—to open a retail location in Detroit. Third Man opened its first branch location at the former Willy's Overland Motorland Company in Detroit's Cass Corridor by Record Store Day's Black Friday event on November 27, 2015.\n\nThird Man Pressing\nIn February 2017, the Third Man Pressing plant launched in Third Man Records' Detroit location, the first to open there since 1965. The plant began with eight Newbilt presses imported from Germany. In 2019 they expanded to add Third Man Mastering, which provides audio mastering services as well as vinyl lacquer cutting.\n\nLondon location\nIn September 2021, Third Man Records opened a third retail location, live venue, and label office in London's Soho neighborhood. To celebrate the grand opening, White performed in the basement venue as well as from the balcony belonging to visual artist Damien Hirst, whose building sits at the end of the street.\n\nRolling Record Store\nOn March 9, 2011, Third Man Records announced its newest creation, the Third Man Rolling Record Store, a yellow step van outfitted with a sound system and Third Man Records inventory. It was built by C Cook Enterprises in Erlanger, Kentucky. It made its first appearance in Austin, Texas, at SXSW 2011. Third Man has since brought the mobile store to concerts, festivals, and other events with anywhere from weeks to only a few hours’ notice.\n\nThird Man Records Vault\nThe Third Man Records Vault is a \"rarity-excavating\" quarterly subscription service that began in September 2009 as a way to release special and otherwise unreleased content. Platinum members of the Vault receive a package containing limited-edition vinyl records and merchandise every three months. Generally each cycle's offerings have included a 12-inch record, a 7-inch record and a \"bonus item\" (this many include, a poster, book, pins, etc. ... ), although this format has been deviated from multiple times.\n\nDiscography\nThird Man releases some music on compact disc and via electronic release on iTunes, but vinyl records are its primary format.\n\nIn addition to pressing titles on regular black vinyl, most releases have an exclusive and/or limited sister pressing on colored or multicolored vinyl. Beginning with TMR-003, a limited edition handmade batch of 100 tri-colored 7-inch vinyl, in equal parts black, yellow, and white, were produced for exclusive distribution at Third Man's Nashville location. Beginning with TMR-009, an additional 50 tri-colored vinyl have been pressed for random distribution in Third Man mail orders. Certain single releases have been sold on tri-colored vinyl available at record stores in the artist's hometown instead of at the Nashville store. An additional 50 are still randomly distributed in mail orders.\n\nRecordings from live shows in the Blue Room (recorded either directly to analog reel-to-reel tape or direct-to-acetate) are made available in black and blue vinyl in varying quantities. These split-color records are available only to show attendees, and each LP is sealed with a concert-specific label on which the purchaser's name is written.\n\nThird Man is known for pushing the boundaries with vinyl record production, and with the help of United Record Pressing (their main partner in manufacturing records prior to the opening of Third Man Pressing), their innovations include the following unique record pressings: Glow In The Dark Record, Triple-Decker Record (a 7-inch within a 12-inch), Texas-Sized Record (8\" and 13\" records), Metallized Record, Liquid-Filled Record, Scented Record, Rose Petal-Filled Record, Playable Etching Record, 3 RPM Record, Lightning Bolt Record, Bolt-A-Trope Record, and the Flex-Ray Record (a flexi disc made from an x-ray).\n\nTwo albums released by Third Man Records have received sales certification awards from the Recording Industry Association of America: White Blood Cells by the White Stripes was certified Platinum for sales of at least 1 million units and Blunderbuss by Jack White was certified Gold for sales of at least 500,000 units. Additionally, the DVD release of the White Stripes documentary film Under Great White Northern Lights was certified Gold for longform video sales of at least 50,000 units.\n\nSee also\n List of record labels\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nBibliography\n\"Catalog.\" Third Man Records.\n\nExternal links\n \n\n \nCategory:Record labels established in 2001\nCategory:American record labels\nCategory:Vanity record labels\nCategory:Jack White\nCategory:Alternative rock record labels\nCategory:Folk record labels\nCategory:Country music record labels\nCategory:Hip hop record labels\nCategory:Culture of Detroit\nCategory:Economy of Detroit\nCategory:Culture of Nashville, Tennessee\nCategory:Economy of Nashville, Tennessee\nCategory:2001 establishments in Michigan", "title": "Third Man Records" } ]

[ "Jack White has been involved in several controversies. In 2003, he was involved in an altercation with Jason Stollsteimer, the lead singer of the Von Bondies, and was charged with misdemeanor aggravated assault. He later pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of assault and battery. He had conflict with fellow artists in Detroit's music scene after The White Stripes gained success and made derogatory remarks about The Black Keys, which he later apologized for. In 2015, Patrick Carney of The Black Keys posted a series of tweets alleging that White tried to fight him in a bar, which White denied. Another controversy arose when White's tour rider, which included specific backstage instructions and a guacamole recipe, was published by the University of Oklahoma's newspaper. Lastly, in 2016, White publicly denounced then presidential candidate Donald Trump for using the White Stripes' song \"Seven Nation Army\" in video campaign materials.", "Yes, Jack White pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of assault and battery following the altercation with Jason Stollsteimer.", "Jack White was accused of assaulting Jason Stollsteimer, the lead singer of the Von Bondies.", "The context does not provide specific information on what caused the altercation between Jack White and Jason Stollsteimer.", "The context does not provide information on how the controversy affected music sales.", "The context does not provide information on where Jack White went after leaving Detroit.", "The article does mention a few more interesting aspects about Jack White. Apart from his conflicts, it talks about his sentiments towards his hometown Detroit, indicated through a poem he wrote called \"Courageous Dream's Concern.\" It also details a controversy regarding the release of his tour rider by the University of Oklahoma newspaper, revealing his ban of bananas backstage and a guacamole recipe. Moreover, it talks about his political stance in 2016 when he denounced Donald Trump's use of the White Stripes' song \"Seven Nation Army\" in campaign materials." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_1_q#0", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_1_q#1", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_1_q#2", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_1_q#3", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_1_q#4", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_1_q#5", "C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_1_q#6" ]

[ "what was eccentricity?", "why was he called eccentric?", "what was mythological about it?", "what other connections does he have with mythology?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "did he have any other intersts?", "what were some of his business ventures?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 35 ], [ 92 ], [ 222 ], [ 1908 ], [ 1326 ], [ 2081 ] ], "texts": [ [ "White has been called \"eccentric.\"" ], [ "He is known for creating mythology around his endeavors;" ], [ "examples include his claim that the Stripes began on Bastille Day, that he and Meg are the two youngest of ten siblings," ], [ "Third Man Records used to be a candy factory. These assertions came into question or were disproven," ], [ "). As a taxidermy enthusiast--that correlates to his work as an upholsterer--he decorates his studio in preserved animals," ], [ "His business ventures frequently feature \"three\" in the title" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 35, 92, 222, 1908, 1326, 2081 ], "texts": [ "White has been called \"eccentric.\"", "He is known for creating mythology around his endeavors;", "examples include his claim that the Stripes began on Bastille Day, that he and Meg are the two youngest of ten siblings,", "Third Man Records used to be a candy factory. These assertions came into question or were disproven,", "). As a taxidermy enthusiast--that correlates to his work as an upholsterer--he decorates his studio in preserved animals,", "His business ventures frequently feature \"three\" in the title", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Third Man Records is an eclectic, vinyl-focused independent record label founded and owned by Jack White, Ben Blackwell and Ben Swank. The company operates out of three locations—Nashville, Tennessee, Detroit, Michigan, and Soho, London—with multiple entities expanding upon the offerings of a traditional record label, including multiple live music venues, vinyl pressing plant, film studio and dark room, guitar pedal and gear company, mastering studio, vinyl subscription service, and publishing arm.\n\nHistory\nIn 2001, while Jack White was gaining regional notice in the White Stripes in Detroit, he registered the label Third Man Records, proceeding to trademark the name in 2004. It wasn’t until 2008 when the White Stripes stopped touring and recording, and after White had reclaimed the rights to the band's earlier music, that White turned his focus to the label.\n\nWhite recruited his nephew, White Stripes archivist and Dirtbombs drummer Ben Blackwell and his lifelong friend, Ben Swank, then the drummer for the Soledad Brothers and a promoter in London, to create a working business on March 11, 2009. White conceived the expansion idea in October 2008, phoning Swank and Blackwell to say the venture should first concentrate on releasing White Stripes' back catalog on vinyl. Blackwell moved from Detroit and Swank from London to establish the business. The Nashville location now serves as a record store, label and publishing offices, The Blue Room live venue and bar, photo studio/darkroom, master recordings vault, and fulfillment center. To commemorate the opening of Third Man Records in Nashville, White debuted his new project, the Dead Weather, performing a short set for the 150 invited guests and coining the label's motto, \"Your Turntable's Not Dead.\"\n\nThe label's name incorporates several elements of personal significance to White. His fondness for the number three is well documented. It refers to Carol Reed's The Third Man starring Joseph Cotten and Orson Welles. White's pre-White Stripes upholstering company, which he continues to maintain as a hobby and artistic outlet in the present day, is named Third Man Upholstery and is similarly identified by the colors yellow and black and the motto “Your Upholstery’s Not Dead.”\n\nThird Man has since reissued all six White Stripes studio releases on vinyl, and the label’s catalog has now grown to over 800 releases, including albums by White’s other acts, contributions from Billie Eilish, Neil Young, Sleep, Metallica, Margo Price, Coldplay, and Jay-Z, and many developing artists.\n\nNashville location\nThe label's headquarters is located in a less prosperous neighborhood, which is home to the city's largest homeless shelter, a transitional housing and recuperation center, and an affordable healthcare clinic. White's presence has raised the area's prominence, motivating the city and business owners to rezone the area with more commercial ventures, including multiple mixed-use developments, a Ritz Carlton Hotel, and a members' club. White opposes the idea, calling the environment \"a solid neighborhood [where] everyone looks out for each other.\" The location is organized around five dedicated sections: the record store, a \"novelties lounge\", the label's offices and distribution center, a live venue and bar (The Blue Room), and a darkroom/photo studio.\n\nThe Novelties Lounge, located within the record store, debuted on November 23, 2012. The space contains a collection of vintage novelty machines. \"Among the attractions in the new wing is a Scopitone machine—a video jukebox using 16mm film that had its greatest prominence in the 1960s. Third Man has loaded their Scopitone with 36 videos from the label catalog, and bill it as 'the world's ONLY Scopitone machine fully loaded with modern music.' Other highlights include a \"Wax-O-Matic machine\", which makes bright red wax molds of White's Airline guitar, and a full-color photo booth.\" On April 20, 2013, in celebration of Jack White's role as Record Store Day Ambassador, The Third Man Recording Booth, \"a refurbished 1947 Voice-o-Graph machine that can record up to two minutes audio and press it onto 6-inch phonograph discs\" was introduced as an addition to the Novelties Lounge. This voice-o-graph was used in the creating of Apple's 2014 holiday ad as shown in the behind the scene video. In August 2017, Third Man celebrated the total solar eclipse happening event \"Occulting the Sunn\", in Nashville.\n\nDetroit location\nIn 2015, White partnered with Shinola—a lifestyle brand most known as a watch manufacturer—to open a retail location in Detroit. Third Man opened its first branch location at the former Willy's Overland Motorland Company in Detroit's Cass Corridor by Record Store Day's Black Friday event on November 27, 2015.\n\nThird Man Pressing\nIn February 2017, the Third Man Pressing plant launched in Third Man Records' Detroit location, the first to open there since 1965. The plant began with eight Newbilt presses imported from Germany. In 2019 they expanded to add Third Man Mastering, which provides audio mastering services as well as vinyl lacquer cutting.\n\nLondon location\nIn September 2021, Third Man Records opened a third retail location, live venue, and label office in London's Soho neighborhood. To celebrate the grand opening, White performed in the basement venue as well as from the balcony belonging to visual artist Damien Hirst, whose building sits at the end of the street.\n\nRolling Record Store\nOn March 9, 2011, Third Man Records announced its newest creation, the Third Man Rolling Record Store, a yellow step van outfitted with a sound system and Third Man Records inventory. It was built by C Cook Enterprises in Erlanger, Kentucky. It made its first appearance in Austin, Texas, at SXSW 2011. Third Man has since brought the mobile store to concerts, festivals, and other events with anywhere from weeks to only a few hours’ notice.\n\nThird Man Records Vault\nThe Third Man Records Vault is a \"rarity-excavating\" quarterly subscription service that began in September 2009 as a way to release special and otherwise unreleased content. Platinum members of the Vault receive a package containing limited-edition vinyl records and merchandise every three months. Generally each cycle's offerings have included a 12-inch record, a 7-inch record and a \"bonus item\" (this many include, a poster, book, pins, etc. ... ), although this format has been deviated from multiple times.\n\nDiscography\nThird Man releases some music on compact disc and via electronic release on iTunes, but vinyl records are its primary format.\n\nIn addition to pressing titles on regular black vinyl, most releases have an exclusive and/or limited sister pressing on colored or multicolored vinyl. Beginning with TMR-003, a limited edition handmade batch of 100 tri-colored 7-inch vinyl, in equal parts black, yellow, and white, were produced for exclusive distribution at Third Man's Nashville location. Beginning with TMR-009, an additional 50 tri-colored vinyl have been pressed for random distribution in Third Man mail orders. Certain single releases have been sold on tri-colored vinyl available at record stores in the artist's hometown instead of at the Nashville store. An additional 50 are still randomly distributed in mail orders.\n\nRecordings from live shows in the Blue Room (recorded either directly to analog reel-to-reel tape or direct-to-acetate) are made available in black and blue vinyl in varying quantities. These split-color records are available only to show attendees, and each LP is sealed with a concert-specific label on which the purchaser's name is written.\n\nThird Man is known for pushing the boundaries with vinyl record production, and with the help of United Record Pressing (their main partner in manufacturing records prior to the opening of Third Man Pressing), their innovations include the following unique record pressings: Glow In The Dark Record, Triple-Decker Record (a 7-inch within a 12-inch), Texas-Sized Record (8\" and 13\" records), Metallized Record, Liquid-Filled Record, Scented Record, Rose Petal-Filled Record, Playable Etching Record, 3 RPM Record, Lightning Bolt Record, Bolt-A-Trope Record, and the Flex-Ray Record (a flexi disc made from an x-ray).\n\nTwo albums released by Third Man Records have received sales certification awards from the Recording Industry Association of America: White Blood Cells by the White Stripes was certified Platinum for sales of at least 1 million units and Blunderbuss by Jack White was certified Gold for sales of at least 500,000 units. Additionally, the DVD release of the White Stripes documentary film Under Great White Northern Lights was certified Gold for longform video sales of at least 50,000 units.\n\nSee also\n List of record labels\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nBibliography\n\"Catalog.\" Third Man Records.\n\nExternal links\n \n\n \nCategory:Record labels established in 2001\nCategory:American record labels\nCategory:Vanity record labels\nCategory:Jack White\nCategory:Alternative rock record labels\nCategory:Folk record labels\nCategory:Country music record labels\nCategory:Hip hop record labels\nCategory:Culture of Detroit\nCategory:Economy of Detroit\nCategory:Culture of Nashville, Tennessee\nCategory:Economy of Nashville, Tennessee\nCategory:2001 establishments in Michigan", "title": "Third Man Records" } ]

[ "Eccentricity, in this context, refers to Jack White's unusual or unconventional behavior and unique way of conducting his endeavors. This includes creating mythology around his ventures, such as claiming that he and Meg White were siblings and Third Man Records used to be a candy factory, having a strong attachment to the number three, maintaining a distinctive aesthetic by color-coding his endeavors, and decorating his studio with preserved animals due to his enthusiasm for taxidermy.", "Jack White was called \"eccentric\" due to his unconventional behavior and unique approaches. This includes creating false backstories for his projects, persistent use of the number three in his business ventures and names, referring to himself and his bandmate as brother and sister despite evidence of a past marriage, and consistent color-coding of his projects. Additionally, his interest in taxidermy and decision to decorate his studio in preserved animals contributed to the perception of him as eccentric.", "The mythology Jack White created included claims such as the White Stripes having started on Bastille Day, that he and Meg were the youngest of ten siblings, and that Third Man Records used to be a candy factory. These claims were later questioned or disproven, contributing to the mythology, or fabricated narrative, surrounding his endeavors.", "The context does not provide any other connections Jack White has with mythology.", "Yes, there are a few interesting aspects in the article. One is Jack White's attachment to the number three, which came about from seeing three staples in the back of a couch he helped to upholster. This fascination led him to incorporate \"three\" in his business ventures and frequently use \"III\" after his name. He also used 'Three Quid' as a nickname during his 2005 UK tour. Another interesting facet is his unique aesthetic involving color-coding his endeavors, such as Third Man Records which is outfitted entirely in yellow, black, red, and blue - including staff uniforms. Jack White's interest in taxidermy and subsequent use of preserved animals as decoration in his studio, including a peacock, giraffe, and Himalayan goat, is another distinctive aspect mentioned in the article.", "Based on the provided context, Jack White's interests extend to taxidermy, color-coding his business ventures, upholstery, and creating mythology around his endeavors. There are not additional interests mentioned.", "As per the information provided, Jack White's business ventures include Third Man Records and earlier in his life, an upholstery business called Third Man Upholstery. He was also a member of the musical group, The White Stripes.\n" ]

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[ "What does Sheldon have to do with the Israeli press?", "Was he successful at the paper?", "Was he the owner of the paper?", "Who also owned the paper?", "Did he make changes at the paper?", "Did he own any other papers?", "What did people think regarding him in charge of the paper?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 102 ], [ 246 ], [ 206 ], [ 1866 ], [ 351 ], [ 1866 ], [ 1832 ] ], "texts": [ [ "he proceeded with parallel plans to publish a free daily newspaper to compete with Israeli, a newspaper he had co-founded in 2006" ], [ "The first edition of the new newspaper, Israel Hayom, was published on July 30, 2007." ], [ "he had co-founded" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Adelson received the go-ahead from a Jerusalem court to purchase Maariv and the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon. In" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "had been correct and appropriate." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 102, 246, 206, 1866, 351, 1866, 1832 ], "texts": [ "he proceeded with parallel plans to publish a free daily newspaper to compete with Israeli, a newspaper he had co-founded in 2006", "The first edition of the new newspaper, Israel Hayom, was published on July 30, 2007.", "he had co-founded", "CANNOTANSWER", "Adelson received the go-ahead from a Jerusalem court to purchase Maariv and the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon. In", "CANNOTANSWER", "had been correct and appropriate." ] }

[]

[ "Sheldon Adelson had several interactions with the Israeli press. In 2007, he made an unsuccessful bid to purchase the Israeli newspaper Maariv. Despite this, he established a competing free daily newspaper, Israel Hayom, in the same year. He later received permission from a Jerusalem court in 2014 to purchase Maariv, along with the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon. However, it was announced in 2016 that he does not own Israel Hayom, but rather a relative of his does. Additionally, Adelson expressed dissatisfaction with his portrayal on Israeli Channel 10 in 2011 and threatened a lawsuit, leading to several resignations at the channel.", "Four years after its inception, Israel Hayom – the newspaper Adelson co-founded – became the number-one daily newspaper during weekdays according to a Target Group Index survey published in July 2011. Although Adelson does not own the paper (it is owned by a relative), it is clear that the newspaper he co-founded has achieved considerable success.", "Sheldon Adelson co-founded the Israeli newspaper Israel Hayom in 2007. However, in 2016, it was announced by Adelson's attorney that he did not own Israel Hayom, it was owned by a relative of his. Adelson also made a successful bid to purchase the Israeli newspaper Maariv and the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon in 2014.", "A relative of Sheldon Adelson is stated to be the owner of the newspaper Israel Hayom.", "The text does not provide information on whether Sheldon Adelson made changes at the newspapers he was associated with.", "Yes, Sheldon Adelson went on to purchase the Israeli newspaper Maariv and the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon after receiving permission from a Jerusalem court in 2014.", "The text does not provide information on what people thought of Sheldon Adelson in relation to his role at the newspaper." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "no", "No", "no" ]

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[ "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "what types of controversies?", "How did these connections help him?", "what ligations were against him?", "Was he ever tried for anything?", "Can you tell me more about the litigation?", "The judgement on what case?", "What did Richard Suen do?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 96 ], [ 201 ], [ 274 ], [ 2085 ], [ 357 ], [ 96 ], [ 357 ] ], "texts": [ [ "A June 2008 profile in The New Yorker detailed several controversies involving Adelson." ], [ "Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman who had helped Adelson make connections with top Chinese officials" ], [ "in order to obtain the Macau license," ], [ "alleging he had reneged on his agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Suen won a $43.8 million judgement;" ], [ "Richard Suen," ], [ "Suen won a $43.8 million judgement;" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 96, 201, 274, 2085, 357, 96, 357 ], "texts": [ "A June 2008 profile in The New Yorker detailed several controversies involving Adelson.", "Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman who had helped Adelson make connections with top Chinese officials", "in order to obtain the Macau license,", "alleging he had reneged on his agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Suen won a $43.8 million judgement;", "Richard Suen,", "Suen won a $43.8 million judgement;" ] }

[]

[ "CANNOTANSWER", "The controversies detailed in the context involve legal and ethical disputes. The following are the types of controversies mentioned:\n\n1. Legal dispute: Businessman Richard Suen accused Adelson of reneging on his agreement to allow him to profit from a venture. The court initially awarded Suen $43.8 million, which was later overturned. However, in the retrial, the jury awarded Suen $70 million, which became $101.6 million with added interest.\n\n2. Lawsuits: Adelson faced another trial over claims by three alleged \"middlemen\" in the deal who were suing him for at least $450 million.\n\n3. Alleged corruption: The Las Vegas Sands, in a regulatory filing, acknowledged likely violations of federal law that prohibits bribing foreign officials. It was alleged that Chinese officials were bribed to allow Adelson to build his Macau casino.\n\n4. Libel cases: Adelson sued the Daily Mail for accusing him of pursuing \"despicable business practices\" and having \"habitually and corruptly bought political favour\". Later, he threatened the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) with a libel suit and also sued the National Jewish Democratic Council. In both cases, the entities had claimed Adelson used \"Chinese prostitution money\" in his dealings.", "The context does not provide specific information on how the connections helped Adelson. However, it mentions that these connections facilitated him in obtaining a license in Macau. Specifically, Hong Kong businessman Richard Suen helped Adelson make connections with top Chinese officials, which presumably assisted in his venture in Macau.", "The allegations against Adelson include:\n\n1. Reneging on his agreement: Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman, took Adelson to court alleging that he had reneged on an agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture.\n\n2. Unpaid claims: Three alleged \"middlemen\" in the deal sued Adelson for at least $450 million.\n\n3. Bribing foreign officials: The Las Vegas Sands acknowledged in a regulatory filing that it had likely violated federal law that prohibits the bribing of foreign officials. Allegedly, Chinese officials were bribed to allow Adelson to build his Macau casino.\n\n4. Libel cases: The Daily Mail of London, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC), and the National Jewish Democratic Council made defamatory statements that Adelson contended were false. The claims involved accusations that he donated \"Chinese prostitution money\" to Republicans and that he \"personally approved\" of prostitution at his Macau resorts. Adelson pursued legal action against these entities for libel.", "Yes, Adelson was tried for several issues. He was taken to court by Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman, for allegedly reneging on an agreement to allow Suen to profit from a venture. Initially, Suen won a $43.8 million judgement, which was later overturned by the Nevada Supreme Court. In the 2013 retrial, Suen was awarded $70 million. In addition, Adelson faced another trial involving three alleged \"middlemen\" in the deal who were suing him for at least $450 million. Finally, Adelson was involved in multiple libel suits. He sued the Daily Mail of London for libel in 2008, and later, he threatened the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) with a libel suit and also sued the National Jewish Democratic Council on similar grounds.", "Yes, the context provides some details about the litigations involving Adelson:\n\n1. Richard Suen Lawsuit: In 2008, Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman, accused Adelson of reneging on his agreement to allow him to profit from their venture in Macau. Suen won an initial judgement for $43.8 million in court. However, the Nevada Supreme Court overturned this judgment in November 2010. In a 2013 retrial, Suen was awarded $70 million. In addition to this, the judge added another $31.6 million in interest, bringing the total judgement against Adelson up to $101.6 million.\n\n2. Middlemen lawsuit: Adelson faced another trial over claims by three alleged \"middlemen\" who were involved in his Macau deal. They were suing for at least $450 million.\n\n3. Libel lawsuists: Adelson sued the Daily Mail of London for libel in 2008 and won the case. The newspaper had accused him of pursuing \"despicable business practices\" and having \"habitually and corruptly bought political favour\". \n\n4. Suit against DCCC: In August 2012, after being threatened with a libel suit by Adelson, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) retracted two blog posts that had claimed Adelson had used \"Chinese prostitution money\" to fund the Republican Party.\n\n5. NJDC lawsuit: The National Jewish Democratic Council posted on their website that Adelson \"personally approved\" of prostitution at his Macau resorts. Adelson sued them for libel. In September 2013, a federal judge dismissed the suit and ordered Adelson to pay the NJDC's legal fees.", "The judgment was made in the case raised by Richard Suen. Suen, a Hong Kong businessman, took Adelson to court alleging he had reneged on his agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture related to the Macau license. In the 2013 retrial, the jury awarded Suen a verdict for $70 million. The judge added another $31.6 million in interest, bringing the total judgment against Adelson to $101.6 million.\n", "Richard Suen is a Hong Kong businessman who helped Adelson make connections with top Chinese officials in order to obtain the Macau license. However, Suen sued Adelson, alleging that Adelson reneged on his agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture. In a 2013 retrial, the jury awarded Suen a verdict for $70 million, and with added interest, the total judgment against Adelson was $101.6 million." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "What albums did they release during this time?", "Where there any hit singles on it?", "How did the single do?", "Did they release any other albums?", "Were there any other hit singles from the album?", "Did they tour during this time?", "Did they do any solo albums?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 84 ], [ 232 ], [ 2225 ], [ 622 ], [ 2225 ], [ 1765 ], [ 1389 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Hall and Oates released the Marigold Sky album in 1997" ], [ "Promise Ain't Enough\"." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Hall and Oates released the Do It for Love album in 2003, whose title track was a number-one Adult Contemporary hit." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Hall and Oates are still on the touring circuit, traveling nearly as much as they did in years past." ], [ "Oates released his own solo album in 2002 entitled Phunk Shui and a companion live concert DVD." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 84, 232, 2225, 622, 2225, 1765, 1389 ], "texts": [ "Hall and Oates released the Marigold Sky album in 1997", "Promise Ain't Enough\".", "CANNOTANSWER", "Hall and Oates released the Do It for Love album in 2003, whose title track was a number-one Adult Contemporary hit.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Hall and Oates are still on the touring circuit, traveling nearly as much as they did in years past.", "Oates released his own solo album in 2002 entitled Phunk Shui and a companion live concert DVD." ] }

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[ "Hall and Oates released several albums during this time. These include \"Marigold Sky\" in 1997, a \"VH1 Behind the Music\" Greatest Hits package in 2002, \"Do It for Love\" in 2003, a live album titled \"Hall & Oates Live\" from an A&E Live by Request special, and \"Home For Christmas\" in 2006. They also released their first CD of (mostly) covers, \"Our Kind of Soul,\" in 2004. In addition to these, Hall released solo albums \"Soul Alone\" (1993), \"Can't Stop Dreaming\" (originally released in Japan in 1996), and a live solo album titled \"Live in Philadelphia\" (2004). Oates released a solo album in 2002 entitled \"Phunk Shui\".", "Yes, there were hit singles on some of the albums. \"Promise Ain't Enough\" from \"Marigold Sky\" album and the title track from \"Do It for Love\" album became number-one Adult Contemporary hits. From the Christmas album \"Home For Christmas\", a version of \"It Came Upon a Midnight Clear\" became their second number one Adult Contemporary hit. From the album \"Our Kind of Soul\", the song \"I'll Be Around\" was their first Hot 100 entry in over a decade.", "The singles \"Promise Ain't Enough\", the title track \"Do It for Love\", and their cover of \"It Came Upon a Midnight Clear\" each became number-one hits on the Adult Contemporary chart. The song \"I'll Be Around\" from \"Our Kind of Soul\" made it to the Hot 100, marking their first entry in that chart in over a decade. Specific chart positions or sales figures are not provided in the context.", "According to the context provided, Hall and Oates also released an album titled \"Two Rooms\" in 1991, a tribute to Elton John and Bernie Taupin, on which they covered \"Philadelphia Freedom\". Apart from their joint ventures, Daryl Hall released solo albums \"Soul Alone\" in 1993 and \"Can't Stop Dreaming\" (originally released in 1996), as well as a live two-disc solo album titled \"Live in Philadelphia\" in 2004. John Oates released his solo album titled \"Phunk Shui\" in 2002.", "The context does not provide information on any other hit singles from the albums described.", "Yes, Hall and Oates were still on the touring circuit during this time, traveling nearly as much as they did in years past according to the context. A DVD of live performances of the songs from \"Our Kind of Soul\" was also released in November 2005.", "Yes, both Hall and Oates released solo albums during this time. Hall released the solo albums \"Soul Alone\" in 1993 and \"Can't Stop Dreaming\" (originally released in Japan in 1996), as well as a live two-disc solo album titled \"Live in Philadelphia\" in 2004. Oates released his own solo album in 2002 entitled \"Phunk Shui\"." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "what happened in 1985?", "what albums did they release?", "was the medley successful?", "did they fulfill their contract with RCA?", "was this album a hit?", "did they have any hit songs?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 371 ], [ 448 ], [ 352 ], [ 2086 ], [ 1479 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Hall and Oates have almost always toured extensively for each album release. But in 1985, the duo took a break after the release of their Live at the Apollo album" ], [ "was released primarily to fulfill the duo's contract with RCA, and contained a top-20 hit with a medley of \"The Way You Do the Things You Do\"" ], [ "a top-20 hit" ], [ "Live at the Apollo was released primarily to fulfill the duo's contract with RCA," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 1986, Daryl Hall scored a Top 5 US hit with \"Dreamtime\", from the album \"Three Hearts in the Happy Ending Machine\"." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 371, 448, 352, 2086, 1479 ], "texts": [ "Hall and Oates have almost always toured extensively for each album release. But in 1985, the duo took a break after the release of their Live at the Apollo album", "was released primarily to fulfill the duo's contract with RCA, and contained a top-20 hit with a medley of \"The Way You Do the Things You Do\"", "a top-20 hit", "Live at the Apollo was released primarily to fulfill the duo's contract with RCA,", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 1986, Daryl Hall scored a Top 5 US hit with \"Dreamtime\", from the album \"Three Hearts in the Happy Ending Machine\"." ] }

[]

[ "In 1985, Hall and Oates took a break after the release of their album Live at the Apollo with David Ruffin and Eddie Kendricks. They also participated in the USA for Africa \"We Are the World\" project and performed at the Live Aid concert in Philadelphia. Later that year, they also played at the MTV Video Music Awards in New York and at the Nashville Municipal Auditorium. Before the Live Aid concert, they took part in Liberty Concert, a benefit event in Liberty State Park, New Jersey.", "In 1985, Hall and Oates released their album \"Live at the Apollo\" with David Ruffin and Eddie Kendricks. In 1986, Daryl Hall released a solo album titled \"Three Hearts in the Happy Ending Machine.\"", "Yes, the medley of \"The Way You Do the Things You Do\" and \"My Girl\" from the \"Live at the Apollo\" album was successful, as it was a top-20 hit.", "Yes, the release of the \"Live at the Apollo\" album was primarily to fulfill Hall and Oates' contract with RCA.", "The context does not provide information on whether the entire \"Live at the Apollo\" album was a hit, but it does mention that it contained a top-20 hit medley.", "Yes, Hall and Oates had several hit songs. From the \"Live at the Apollo\" album, there was a top-20 hit medley of \"The Way You Do the Things You Do\" and \"My Girl.\" Daryl Hall had a Top 5 US hit with \"Dreamtime\" from his solo album \"Three Hearts in the Happy Ending Machine,\" which also included the Top 40 hit \"Foolish Pride\" and the Top 100 hit \"Somebody Like You.\" John Oates also had a hit as co-writer of the 1988 Icehouse top 10 US hit \"Electric Blue.\" He was also involved in the top 40 Canadian hit \"Love Is Fire\" by The Parachute Club." ]

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[ "What areas of social activism was he most interested in?", "Did he protest in another ways?", "Were his protests successful?", "Did he do anything for social activism besides protests?", "Does he still do things like this?", "How did he contribute to their education system?", "Does he do anything else for social activism?", "Did he win any awards?", "What do you think was his greatest achievement?", "How was he involved?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 334 ], [ 140 ], [ 306 ], [ 1587 ], [ 2164 ], [ 2349 ], [ 1587 ], [ 2648 ], [ 2861 ], [ 3017 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He is also against the occupation of Iraq. In the 2004 season, Delgado protested the war by silently staying in the dugout during the playing of \"God Bless America\"" ], [ "Delgado was actively opposed to the use of the island of Vieques, Puerto Rico as a bombing target practice facility by the United States Department of Defense," ], [ "bombing was halted in 2003." ], [ "Delgado is well known for his generous visits to hospitals in his hometown where, on Three Kings Day, he brings toys to hospitalized children." ], [ "Delgado has also contributed to improving Puerto Rico's public education system." ], [ "brings distinguished public figures into classrooms in order to raise the public's awareness of the education crisis in Puerto Rico. Delgado taught a class on Athletic Mental Training" ], [ "Delgado is well known for his generous visits to hospitals in his hometown where, on Three Kings Day, he brings toys to hospitalized children." ], [ "Delgado was awarded the Roberto Clemente Award in 2006. The award goes to the player in baseball who best exemplifies humanitarianism and sportsmanship," ], [ "Prior to the 2008 season of the Puerto Rico Baseball League, Delgado was involved in an initiative to provide economic help to the Indios de Mayaguez" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 334, 140, 306, 1587, 2164, 2349, 1587, 2648, 2861, 3017 ], "texts": [ "He is also against the occupation of Iraq. In the 2004 season, Delgado protested the war by silently staying in the dugout during the playing of \"God Bless America\"", "Delgado was actively opposed to the use of the island of Vieques, Puerto Rico as a bombing target practice facility by the United States Department of Defense,", "bombing was halted in 2003.", "Delgado is well known for his generous visits to hospitals in his hometown where, on Three Kings Day, he brings toys to hospitalized children.", "Delgado has also contributed to improving Puerto Rico's public education system.", "brings distinguished public figures into classrooms in order to raise the public's awareness of the education crisis in Puerto Rico. Delgado taught a class on Athletic Mental Training", "Delgado is well known for his generous visits to hospitals in his hometown where, on Three Kings Day, he brings toys to hospitalized children.", "Delgado was awarded the Roberto Clemente Award in 2006. The award goes to the player in baseball who best exemplifies humanitarianism and sportsmanship,", "Prior to the 2008 season of the Puerto Rico Baseball League, Delgado was involved in an initiative to provide economic help to the Indios de Mayaguez", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

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[ "When did he play for the BlueJays?", "What position did he play?", "What were his stats while playing there?", "What impressed you about Carlos from the article?", "Did he win any sports awards for his play?", "When did he leave the BlueJays?", "Was he traded at that time?", "Was Carlos well received by the fans?", "What else did you find interesting from this article?", "Why did he not play in the World Series?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 360 ], [ 514 ], [ 981 ], [ 1586 ], [ 1752 ], [ 1898 ], [ 2145 ], [ 2145 ], [ 429 ], [ 2145 ] ], "texts": [ [ "he made his major league debut with the team during the 1993 season." ], [ "Originally a catcher, he later switched to first base (after an experiment with the Jays placing him in left field failed)" ], [ "44 home runs, along with 134 RBI, and a .272 batting average." ], [ "only player to hit four home runs with only 4 at-bats in a game." ], [ "finished second to Alex Rodriguez for the AL MVP Award." ], [ "Following the 2004 season," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Though he didn't play in the 1993 World Series, he was awarded a World Series ring." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 360, 514, 981, 1586, 1752, 1898, 2145, 2145, 429, 2145 ], "texts": [ "he made his major league debut with the team during the 1993 season.", "Originally a catcher, he later switched to first base (after an experiment with the Jays placing him in left field failed)", "44 home runs, along with 134 RBI, and a .272 batting average.", "only player to hit four home runs with only 4 at-bats in a game.", "finished second to Alex Rodriguez for the AL MVP Award.", "Following the 2004 season,", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "Though he didn't play in the 1993 World Series, he was awarded a World Series ring.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "He played for the Blue Jays from 1988 to the end of the 2004 season.", "Originally a catcher, he later switched to first base after an experiment with the Jays placing him in left field failed.", "The text mentions several of his achievements and stats while playing for the Blue Jays. In 1999, Delgado hit 44 home runs, had 134 RBI, and a .272 batting average. The following year, he batted a career-high .344, along with 41 home runs, 57 doubles, and 137 RBI. He finished fourth in the 2000 American League MVP voting. On September 25, 2003, Delgado became the 15th major league player to hit four home runs in one game. In the 2003 season, Delgado hit 42 home runs and led the Majors with 145 RBI, while batting .302. Despite these impressive stats, he finished second to Alex Rodriguez for the AL MVP Award.", "As an AI, I don't have feelings, but based on the information above, it's noteworthy that Carlos Delgado was a highly accomplished baseball player. He won several awards like the Hank Aaron and The Sporting News' Player of the Year Awards in 2000, and the Silver Slugger Award in 1999, 2000, and 2003. He also became the only player to hit four home runs in a game with only four at-bats, and he holds several Blue Jays single-season and career records. He performed exceptionally well in the sport, leading the majors and earning high rankings in various categories during his career with the Blue Jays.", "Yes, he won several sports awards. Delgado won the Hank Aaron and The Sporting News' Player of the Year Awards in 2000, and the Silver Slugger Award in 1999, 2000, and 2003.", "He left the Blue Jays following the 2004 season.", "No, he was not traded. After the 2004 season, he became a free agent and was pursued by several other teams. The Blue Jays did not express interest in re-signing him due to payroll constraints.", "The text does not provide information on how Carlos Delgado was received by the fans.", "As an artificial intelligence, I don't have personal opinions or feelings. However, based on the information given, it's notable that Delgado had a significant impact on the Blue Jays. Despite being originally a catcher, he was flexible enough to switch to first base and become one of the most productive sluggers in the major leagues. His 1999 and 2000 seasons were particularly impressive, and he became the 15th major league player to hit four home runs in one game in 2003.", "The text does not provide a specific reason why he did not play in the 1993 World Series." ]

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[ "What can you tell me about his activism?", "What did he do to assist in the relief efforts?", "What was the scholarship for?", "Is he involved in any other charities or foundations ?", "What else was he involved in?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 132 ], [ 226 ], [ 344 ], [ 690 ], [ 1273 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Bose assisted in the relief efforts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands after the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami." ], [ "Bose launched the Andaman and Nicobar Scholarship Initiative through his NGO, The Foundation." ], [ "The scholarship program provides for the education of underprivileged children from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands." ], [ "Bose is associated with several charitable organizations such as Teach for India, Akshara Centre, Breakthrough, Citizens for Justice and Peace and the Spastics Society of India." ], [ "He is the founder and chairman of The Group of Groups, an umbrella organisation for 51 Mumbai charitable organisations and NGOs." ], [ "Bose has given lectures on gender equality and human rights at Oxford and during the 2004 World Youth Peace Summit." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 132, 226, 344, 690, 1273 ], "texts": [ "Bose assisted in the relief efforts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands after the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami.", "Bose launched the Andaman and Nicobar Scholarship Initiative through his NGO, The Foundation.", "The scholarship program provides for the education of underprivileged children from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.", "Bose is associated with several charitable organizations such as Teach for India, Akshara Centre, Breakthrough, Citizens for Justice and Peace and the Spastics Society of India.", "He is the founder and chairman of The Group of Groups, an umbrella organisation for 51 Mumbai charitable organisations and NGOs.", "Bose has given lectures on gender equality and human rights at Oxford and during the 2004 World Youth Peace Summit." ] }

[]

[ "Bose's activism is extensive and multifaceted. He contributed to the relief efforts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands after the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami, which led to him establishing a scholarship program for underprivileged children in the area. He is also associated with various charitable organizations, including Teach for India, Citizens for Justice and Peace, and the Spastics Society of India among others. Bose was also the first Indian to become an Oxfam global ambassador. He founded The Group of Groups, an organization for multiple Mumbai based charities and NGOs. Bose is an ambassador for the American India Foundation, World Youth Peace Movement, and Planet Alert. He was a proponent of the Narmada Bachao Andolan and its efforts to stop the construction of the Narmada Dam. Bose also seeks to protect children against sexual abuse, as demonstrated through his Terre des hommes audio book. He has lectured on topics such as gender equality and human rights, and has also participated in global climate change initiatives, including protests at the Copenhagen Climate Change Summit. Furthermore, he helped raise funds for victims of the Sikkim earthquake.", "The text does not provide specific details about what Bose did to assist in the relief efforts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands after the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami. However, it is mentioned that as a result of his work there, he launched the Andaman and Nicobar Scholarship Initiative, which suggests that his involvement could have been significant.", "The Andaman and Nicobar Scholarship Initiative, launched by Bose, provides for the education of underprivileged children from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.", "Yes, Bose is involved with several additional charities and foundations. He is associated with charitable organizations such as Teach for India, Akshara Centre, Breakthrough, Citizens for Justice and Peace, and the Spastics Society of India. He is also the first Indian Oxfam global ambassador, the founder and chairman of The Group of Groups (an umbrella organisation for 51 Mumbai charitable organisations and NGOs), and an ambassador for the American India Foundation, the World Youth Peace Movement and Planet Alert.", "In addition to his extensive charitable work, Bose was a vocal proponent of the Narmada Bachao Andolan, a movement aimed at halting the construction of the Narmada dam. He has also worked on raising awareness and educating individuals about sexual abuse, specifically by recording the Terre des hommes audio book which is designed to provide resources against sexual abuse for children. In the academic realm, Bose has given lectures on gender equality and human rights at institutions like Oxford University and at events like the 2004 World Youth Peace Summit. He has also worked on environmental issues, participating in lectures on global climate change in Canada and protests at the Copenhagen Climate Change Summit. In 2011, he worked with Bhaichung Bhutia to raise funds for victims of the Sikkim earthquake. Furthermore, he delivered the convocation speech at the 8th convocation of BRAC University Bangladesh in 2013.", "An interesting aspect of the context provided is the diverse set of causes Bose is involved with. His activism spans across humanitarian, environmental, and educational areas reflecting his commitment to a range of important social issues. He has, for example, involved himself directly with relief efforts after natural disasters, advocating for education for underprivileged children, lending his voice to the Teach for India movement to address educational inequity, demonstrating against climate change, and working towards preventing child sexual abuse. His dedication is highlighted by the fact that he has spoken at high-profile events like the World Youth Peace Summit and has been associated with reputable organizations like Oxfam as its first Indian global ambassador. The scope of his involvement in social issues is quite comprehensive and noteworthy." ]

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[ "What did he do after 2000", "How were the books received", "What else did he write", "Was it popular", "Did he win any awards", "What other books did he write", "Were there more books", "Did he publish in Japanase", "Did he write any books in English", "Did he translate them himself", "What else should I know" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 136 ], [ 203 ], [ 273 ], [ 2101 ], [ 1500 ], [ 2086 ], [ 1682 ], [ 1314 ], [ 1383 ], [ 1748 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Sputnik Sweetheart was first published in 1999, followed by Kafka on the Shore in 2002, with the English translation following in 2005." ], [ "Kafka on the Shore won the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006." ], [ "The English version of his novel After Dark was released in May 2007." ], [ "It was chosen by The New York Times as a \"notable book of the year\"." ], [ "he published his novel \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\". It became an international best seller but received mixed reviews." ], [ "Shinchosha Publishing published Murakami's novel 1Q84 in Japan on May 29, 2009." ], [ "In April 2013, he published his novel \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\"." ], [ "The book was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize" ], [ "with English translations released in the U.K. and the U.S. in 2008." ], [ "The title is a play on that of Raymond Carver's short story collection," ], [ "However, after the 2012 anti-Japanese demonstrations in China, Murakami's books were removed from sale there," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 136, 203, 273, 2101, 1500, 2086, 1682, 1314, 1383, 1748 ], "texts": [ "Sputnik Sweetheart was first published in 1999, followed by Kafka on the Shore in 2002, with the English translation following in 2005.", "Kafka on the Shore won the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006.", "The English version of his novel After Dark was released in May 2007.", "It was chosen by The New York Times as a \"notable book of the year\".", "he published his novel \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\". It became an international best seller but received mixed reviews.", "Shinchosha Publishing published Murakami's novel 1Q84 in Japan on May 29, 2009.", "In April 2013, he published his novel \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\".", "The book was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize", "with English translations released in the U.K. and the U.S. in 2008.", "The title is a play on that of Raymond Carver's short story collection,", "However, after the 2012 anti-Japanese demonstrations in China, Murakami's books were removed from sale there," ] }

[ { "text": "Multimedia is a form of communication that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, or video into a single interactive presentation, in contrast to traditional mass media, such as printed material or audio recordings, which features little to no interaction between users. Popular examples of multimedia include video podcasts, audio slideshows and animated videos. Multimedia also contains the principles and application of effective interactive communication such as the building blocks of software, hardware, and other technologies. The five main building blocks of multimedia are text, image, audio, video, and animation. \n\nMultimedia can be recorded for playback on computers, laptops, smartphones, and other electronic devices. In the early years of multimedia, the term \"rich media\" was synonymous with interactive multimedia. Over time, hypermedia extensions brought multimedia to the World Wide Web and streaming services became more common.\n\nTerminology \nThe term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein (later 'Bobb Goldsteinn') to promote the July 1966 opening of his \"Lightworks at L'Oursin\" show in Southampton, New York, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, who had two years previously discussed a new approach to art-making he called \"intermedia\".\n\nBefore the invention of the term, the idea of multimedia could be taken back to when the 19th century composer Richard Wagner believed in the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk, meaning 'total artwork'. Wagner strived to combine multiple art forms- opera, drama, music - to create a perfect synthesis on stage. He looked down on the Grand Opera at the time, which emphasized individual talent, rather than the complete work as a whole. By combining these art forms, Wagner believed the most profound art could be made.\n\nOn August 10, 1966, Richard Albarino of Variety borrowed the terminology, reporting: \"Brainchild of song scribe-comic Bob ('Washington Square') Goldstein, the 'Lightworks' is the latest multi-media music-cum-visuals to debut as discothèque fare.\" Two years later, in 1968, the term \"multimedia\" was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldstein's producers at L'Oursin.\n\n In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings. In the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s 'multimedia' took on its current meaning.\n\nIn the 1993 first edition of Multimedia: Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared \"Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what and when these elements are delivered, it is interactive multimedia. When you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia.\"\n\nThe German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the word's significance and ubiquitousness in the 1990s by awarding it the title of German 'Word of the Year' in 1995. The institute summed up its rationale by stating \"[Multimedia] has become a central word in the wonderful new media world\".\n\nIn common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, and text in such a way that can be accessed interactively. Much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. Some computers which were marketed in the 1990s were called \"multimedia\" computers because they incorporated a CD-ROM drive, which allowed for the delivery of several hundred megabytes of video, picture, and audio data. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD-ROMs. A standard CD-ROM can hold on average 700 megabytes of data, while the maximum size a 3.5 inch floppy disk can hold is 2.8 megabytes, with an average of 1.44 megabytes. \n\nThe term \"video\", if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the file format, delivery format, or presentation format instead of \"footage\" which is used to distinguish motion photography from \"animation\" of rendered motion imagery. Multiple forms of information content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of information content with single methods of information processing (e.g. non-interactive audio) are often called multimedia, perhaps to distinguish static media from active media. In the fine arts, for example, Leda Luss Luyken's ModulArt brings two key elements of musical composition and film into the world of painting: variation of a theme and movement of and within a picture, making ModulArt an interactive multimedia form of art. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of both content and media.\n\nIn modern times, a multimedia device can be referred to an electronic device, such as a smartphone, a video game system, or a computer. Each and everyone of these devices have a main function, but also have other uses beyond their intended purpose, such as reading, writing, recording video and audio, listening to music, and playing video games. This has lend them to be called \"multimedia devices\". While previous media was always local, many are now handled through web based solutions, particularly streaming.\n\nMajor characteristics \nMultimedia presentations are presentations featuring multiple types of media. The different types of media can include text, graphics, audio, video and animations. These different types of media convey information to their target audience and effectively communicate with them. Videos are a great visual example to use in multimedia presentations because they can create visual aids to the presenter's ideas. They are commonly used among education and many other industries to benefit students and workers, as they effectively retain chunks of information in a limited amount of time and can be stored easily. Another example is charts and graphs, as the presenters can show their audience the trends using data associated with their researches. This provides the audience a visual idea of a company's capabilities and performances.<ref></</ref> Audio also helps people understand the message being presented, as most modern videos are combined with audio to increase its efficiency, while animations are made to simplify things from the presenter's perspective. These technological methods allow efficient communication and understanding across a wide range of audiences (with an even wider range of abilities) throughout different fields. \n\nMultimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline computer, game system, or simulator.\n\nThe various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to enhance the users' experience, for example to make it easier and faster to convey information. Or in entertainment or art, combine an array of artistic insights that includes elements from different art forms to engage, inspire, or captivate an audience.\n\nEnhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content. Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enabling applications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time. Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on Web sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to simulations whose co-efficients, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia \"experience\" to be altered without reprogramming. In addition to seeing and hearing, haptic technology enables virtual objects to be felt. Emerging technology involving illusions of taste and smell may also enhance the multimedia experience.\n\nCategorization \nMultimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories:\nLinear active content progresses often without any navigational control, only focusing on the user to watch the entire piece by involving higher levels of emotional and sensory stimulation based on what's being shown as a cinema presentation;\nNon-linear uses interactivity to control progress as with a video game or self-paced computer-based training so that the actions made will be based on how the user interacts within the simulated world. Hypermedia is an example of non-linear content.\n\nMultimedia presentations can be live or recorded:\nA recorded presentation may allow interactivity via a navigation system;\nA live multimedia presentation may allow interactivity via an interaction with the presenter or performer.\n\nUsage/application \n\nMultimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited to, advertisements, art, education, entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research and spatial temporal applications. Several examples are as follows:\n\nCreative industries \nCreative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes ranging from fine arts, to entertainment, to commercial art, to journalism, to media and software services provided for any of the industries listed below. An individual multimedia designer may cover the spectrum throughout their career. Request for their skills range from technical, to analytical, to creative.\n\nCommercial uses \nMuch of the electronic old and new media used by commercial artists in multimedia.. Advertising companies rely heavily on social interfaces and television to promote products. Using these platforms, they are able to express their message or persuade a targeted audience. Business to business and interoffice communications are often developed by creative services firms for advanced multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven up training. Commercial multimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental services and nonprofit services applications as well. In addition, the prominence of data mining within multimedia platforms in order to adjust marketing techniques based on the data they mine is a crucial and notable practice of commercial advertisement to efficiently understand the demographic of a target audience. In recent years a new trend of multimedia has arrived, a new sort of digital billboard placed on the side of buildings and usually wrapping around the side of it. These take clips made at differing angles to trick the brain into seeing them as 3-Dimensional, like they're leaving the billboard entirely. This makes them eye-catching and therefore more likely to draw in people's attention which is of course, very good for commercial purposes.\n\nEntertainment and fine arts \nMultimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to develop special effects in movies and animations (VFX, 3D animation, etc.). Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD-ROMs or online. Video games are considered multimedia, as such games meld animation, audio, and interactivity to allow the player an immersive experience. While video games can vary in terms of animation style or audio type, the element of interactivity makes them a striking example of interactive multimedia. Interactive multimedia refers to multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information.\nIn the arts, there are multimedia artists who blend techniques using different media that in some way incorporate interaction with the viewer. Another approach entails the creation of multimedia that can be displayed in a traditional fine arts arena, such as an art gallery. Video has become an intrinsic part of many concerts and theatrical productions in the modern era, and has spawned content creation opportunities for many media professionals. Although multimedia display material may be volatile, the survivability of the content is as strong as any traditional media.\n\nEducation \nIn education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia and almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats.\n\nLearning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of multimedia. Several lines of research have evolved, e.g. cognitive load and multimedia learning.\n\nFrom multimedia learning (MML) theory, David Roberts has developed a large group lecture practice using PowerPoint and based on the use of full-slide images in conjunction with a reduction of visible text (all text can be placed in the notes view' section of PowerPoint). The method has been applied and evaluated in 9 disciplines. In each experiment, students' engagement and active learning have been approximately 66% greater, than with the same material being delivered using bullet points, text, and speech, corroborating a range of theories presented by multimedia learning scholars like Sweller and Mayer. The idea of media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education. Defined as separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications), and video that now share resources and interact with each other, media convergence is rapidly changing the curriculum in universities all over the world. Higher education has been implementing the use of social media applications such as Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, etc. to increase student collaboration and develop new processes in how information can be conveyed to students.\n\nEducational technology \n\nMultimedia provides students with an alternate means of acquiring knowledge designed to enhance teaching and learning through various mediums and platforms. In the 1960s, technology began to expand into the classrooms through devices such as screens and telewriters. This technology allows students to learn at their own pace and gives teachers the ability to observe the individual needs of each student. The capacity for multimedia to be used in multi-disciplinary settings is structured around the idea of creating a hands-on learning environment through the use of technology. Lessons can be tailored to the subject matter as well as be personalized to the students' varying levels of knowledge on the topic. Learning content can be managed through activities that utilize and take advantage of multimedia platforms. This kind of usage of modern multimedia encourages interactive communication between students and teachers and opens feedback channels, introducing an active learning process especially with the prevalence of new media and social media. Technology has impacted multimedia as it is largely associated with the use of computers or other electronic devices and digital media due to its capabilities concerning research, communication, problem-solving through simulations and feedback opportunities. The innovation of technology in education through the use of multimedia allows for diversification among classrooms to enhance the overall learning experience for students.\n\nSocial work \nMultimedia is a robust education methodology within the social work context. The five different multimedia which supports the education process are narrative media, interactive media, communicative media, adaptive media, and productive media. Contrary to long-standing belief, multimedia technology in social work education existed before the prevalence of the internet. It takes the form of images, audio, and video into the curriculum.\n\nFirst introduced to social work education by Seabury & Maple in 1993, multimedia technology is utilized to teach social work practice skills including interviewing, crisis intervention, and group work. In comparison with conventional teaching method, including face-to-face courses, multimedia education shortens transportation time, increases knowledge and confidence in a richer and more authentic context for learning, generates interaction between online users, and enhances understanding of conceptual materials for novice students.\n\nIn an attempt to examine the impact of multimedia technology on students' study, A. Elizabeth Cauble & Linda P. Thurston conducted a research in which Building Family Foundations (BFF), an interactive multimedia training platform, was utilized to assess social work students' reactions to multimedia technology on variables of knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy. The results states that respondents show a substantial increase in academic knowledge, confidence, and attitude. Multimedia also benefits students because it brings expert to students online, fits students' schedule, allows students to choose courses that suit them.\n\nMayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning suggests, \"people learn more from words and pictures than from words alone.\" According to Mayer and other scholars, multimedia technology stimulates people's brains by implementing visual and auditory effects, and thereby assists online users to learn efficiently. Researchers suggest that when users establish dual channels while learning, they tend to understand and memorize better. Mixed literature of this theory are still present in the field of multimedia and social work.\n\nLanguage communication \nWith the spread and development of the English language around the world, multimedia has become an important way of communicating between different people and cultures. Multimedia Technology creates a platform where language can be taught. The traditional form of teaching English as a Second Language in classrooms have drastically changed with the prevalence of technology, making easier for students to obtain language learning skills. Multimedia motivates students to learn more languages through audio, visual and animation support. It also helps create English contexts since an important aspect of learning a language is developing their grammar, vocabulary and knowledge of pragmatics and genres. In addition, cultural connections in terms of forms, contexts, meanings and ideologies have to be constructed. By improving thought patterns, multimedia develops students' communicative competence by improving their capacity to understand the language. One of the studies, carried out by Izquierdo, Simard and Pulido, presented the correlation between \"Multimedia Instruction (MI) and learners' second language (L2)\" and its effects on learning behavior. Their findings based on Gardner's theory of the \"socio-educational model of learner motivation and attitudes\", the study shows that there is easier access to language learning materials as well as increased motivation with MI along with the use of Computer-Assisted Language Learning.\n\nJournalism \nNewspaper companies all over are trying to embrace the new phenomenon by implementing its practices in their work. While some have been slow to come around, other major newspapers like The New York Times, USA Today and The Washington Post are setting a precedent for the positioning of the newspaper industry in a globalized world. To keep up with the changing world of multimedia, journalistic practices are adopting and utilizing different multimedia functions through the inclusion of visuals such as varying audio, video, text, etc. in their writings.\n\nNews reporting is not limited to traditional media outlets. Freelance journalists can use different new media to produce multimedia pieces for their news stories. It engages global audiences and tells stories with technology, which develops new communication techniques for both media producers and consumers. The Common Language Project, later renamed to The Seattle Globalist, is an example of this type of multimedia journalism production.\n\nMultimedia reporters who are mobile (usually driving around a community with cameras, audio and video recorders, and laptop computers) are often referred to as mojos, from mobile journalist.\n\nEngineering \nSoftware engineers may use multimedia in computer simulations for anything from entertainment to training such as military or industrial training. Multimedia for software interfaces are often done as a collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers. Multimedia helps expand the teaching practices that can be found in engineering to allow for more innovated methods to not only educated future engineers, but to help evolve the scope of understanding of where multimedia can be used in specialized engineer careers like software engineers.\n\nMultimedia is also allowing major car manufactures, such as Ford, and General Motors, to expand the design, and safety standards of their cars. By using a game engine and virtual reality glasses, these companies are able to test the safety features, and the design of the car, before a prototype is even made. Building a car virtually reduces the time it takes to produce new vehicles, cutting down on the time needed to test designs, and allowing the designers to make changes in real time. It also reduces expenses, since with a virtual car making real world prototypes is no longer needed.\n\nMathematical and scientific research \nIn mathematical and scientific research, multimedia is mainly used for modeling and simulation. For example, a scientist can look at a molecular model of a particular substance and manipulate it to arrive at a new substance. Representative research can be found in journals such as the Journal of Multimedia. One well known example of this being applied would be in the movie Interstellar where Executive Director Kip Thorne helped create one of the most realistic depictions of a blackhole in film. The visual effects team under Paul Franklin took Kip Thorne's mathematical data and applied it into their own visual effects engine called \"Double Negative Gravitational Renderer\" a.k.a. \"Gargantua\", to create a \"real\" blackhole, used in the final cut. Later on the visual effects team went onto publish a blackhole study\n\nMedicine \nMedical professionals and students have a wide variety of ways to learn new techniques and procedures through interactive media and online courses and lectures. The methods of conveying information to students have drastically evolved with the help of multimedia. From the 1800s to today, lessons are commonly taught using chalkboards. Projected aids, such as the epidiascope and slide projectors, were introduced into the classrooms around the 1960s. With the growing use of computers, the medical field has begun to incorporate new devices and procedures to assist in teaching students, performing procedures, and analyzing patient data. As well as providing that data in a meaningful way to the patients.\n\nVirtual reality \nVirtual reality is a platform for multimedia in which it merges all categories of multimedia into one virtual environment. It has gained much more attention over recent years following technological advancements and is becoming much more commonly used nowadays for various uses like virtual showrooms and video games. Virtual reality was first introduced in 1957 by cinematographer Morton Heilig in the form of an arcade-style booth called Sensorama. The first virtual reality headset was created by American computer scientist Ivan Sutherland and Bob Sproull, his student, in 1968. Virtual reality is used for educational and also recreational purposes like watching movies, interactive video games, simulations etc. Ford Motor Company uses this technology to show customers the interior and exterior of their cars via their Immersion Lab. In Pima County, Arizona their police force is trained by using Virtual Reality to create scenarios for police to practice in.In 1996 Nintendo released the Virtual Boy marking one of the first attempts at a mainstream virtual reality system. Many video game platforms now support virtual reality technology, including Sony's PlayStation, Nintendo's Switch as part of their Labo project, as well as the Oculus VR headsets that can be used for Xbox and PC gaming, with it being more preferable to pair with a PC due to it only being compatible with the original Xbox One and providing limited capabilities.\n\nAugmented reality \n\nAugmented reality overlays digital content or output onto the real world, using media such as audio, animation, and text. Augmented reality became widely popular only in the 21st century; however, some of the earlier versions of such were things like the Sega Genesis Activator Controller back in 1992 which allowed users to literally stand in an octagon and control in game movement with physical movement or to stretch back even further the R.O.B. NES Robot back in 1984 which with its array of accessories was able to also provide users with the sensation of holding a firearm. These multimedia input devices are among some of the earliest of the augmented reality devices by allowing users to input commands to facilitate a different user experience. A more modern example of augmented reality is Pokémon GO, a mobile game released on July 6, 2016, which allows users to see a Pokémon in a real world environment.\n\nSee also \n\n Animation\n Artmedia\n Audio\n Audiovisual\n Computer\n Images\n Internet\n Kraftwerk\n Multi-image\n Multimedia cartography\n Multimedia Messaging Service\n Multimedia search\n New media art\n Non-linear media\n Postliterate society\n Social media\n Text\n Transmedia storytelling\n Universal multimedia access\n Video\n Video Game\n Virtual reality\n Web documentary\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nHistory of Multimedia from the University of Calgary\nMultimedia in Answers.com\n\n \nCategory:Communication design\nCategory:Design\nCategory:Film and video terminology\nCategory:Film production\nCategory:1960s neologisms", "title": "Multimedia" } ]

[ "After 2000, Murakami published several works including \"Kafka on the Shore\" in 2002, a collection of short stories titled \"Tokyo Kitanshu\" in 2005, the anthology \"Birthday Stories\" in 2002, \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\" in 2007, and \"1Q84\" in 2009. His book \"After Dark\" was released in English in 2007, and a collection of his short stories in English titled \"Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman\" was published in 2006. He was awarded the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006 for \"Kafka on the Shore\". Murakami's books were removed from sale in China after the 2012 anti-Japanese demonstrations, and in 2013, he published his novel \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\", which became an international best seller.", "\"Kafka on the Shore\" received recognition and was awarded the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006. The English version of \"After Dark\" was chosen as a \"notable book of the year\" by The New York Times in 2007. \"1Q84\" was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize in 2011, showing strong reception of the novel as well. However, due to political territorial disputes between Japan and China, Murakami's books were removed from sale in China in 2012. \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\", published in 2013, became an international bestseller, although it received mixed reviews.", "Besides the novels and short stories collections mentioned previously, Murakami also wrote \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\", a book containing tales about his experiences as a marathon runner and a triathlete. This was published in Japan in 2007, with English translations released in the U.K. and the U.S. in 2008. The title of this book is a play on that of Raymond Carver's short story collection, \"What We Talk About When We Talk About Love\".", "The context does not provide specific information on the popularity of Murakami's book \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\".", "Yes, Murakami won the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006 for his book \"Kafka on the Shore\".", "Apart from the ones already mentioned, Murakami also wrote a collection of short stories titled \"Tokyo Kitanshu\" in 2005 and an anthology called \"Birthday Stories\" in 2002, which collects short stories on the theme of birthdays by various authors, along with a story by Murakami himself. He also released a collection of the English versions of twenty-four short stories, titled \"Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman\" in 2006. However, the context does not mention any other books by Murakami.", "The context mentions that Murakami also wrote \"After Dark\", which was released in English in May 2007, and was chosen by The New York Times as a \"notable book of the year\". Another book of his, \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\", was published in April 2013. Besides these, the context does not provide information on any other books by Murakami.", "Yes, Murakami published several of his works in Japanese. Examples are \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\" which was published in Japan in 2007 and \"1Q84\" which was published in Japan in 2009. Another example is his collection of short stories titled \"Tokyo Kitanshu,\" which was published in late 2005. These works were later translated into English.", "Murakami's works are typically written in Japanese and later translated into English. The context does not provide specific information about him writing any books initially in English. Notably, English translations of \"Kafka on the Shore\" and \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\" were released in 2005 and 2008 respectively.", "The context does not provide information on whether Murakami translated his own works from Japanese to English.", "Murakami is not only a novelist but also writes short stories as seen with his collections \"Tokyo Kitanshu\" and \"Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman\". He also explores non-fiction with the book \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\", detailing his experiences as a marathon runner and triathlete. His work \"1Q84\", is a play on the pronunciation of the year 1984 in Japanese and was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize in 2011. His books were removed from sale in China after anti-Japanese demonstrations in 2012. After this, he criticized the China-Japan political territorial dispute, characterizing the overwrought nationalistic response as \"cheap liquor\" which politicians were giving to the public." ]

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[ "What is the main point of the article?", "What was the trauma?", "What was his first non-fiction book?", "When did he return to Japan?", "Was The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle a popular book?", "Did he write other novels?", "Did he work with any other authors?", "What books did he help translate?", "Did he have any controversy in this time?", "What else did Murakami do during this time?", "What was the translation?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 420 ], [ 561 ], [ 0 ], [ 588 ], [ 275 ], [ 1184 ], [ 1310 ], [ 1466 ], [ 1897 ], [ 1627 ], [ 1739 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The processing of collective trauma soon became an important theme in Murakami's writing, which had previously been more personal in nature." ], [ "Murakami returned to Japan in the aftermath of the Kobe earthquake and the Aum Shinrikyo gas attack. He came to terms with these events with his first work of non-fiction," ], [ "The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1995) is a novel that fuses the realistic and fantastic, and contains elements of physical violence. It" ], [ "in the aftermath of the Kobe earthquake and the Aum Shinrikyo gas attack." ], [ "The novel won the Yomiuri Prize, awarded by one of his harshest former critics, Kenzaburo Oe, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1994." ], [ "English translations of many of his short stories written between 1983 and 1990 have been collected in The Elephant Vanishes." ], [ "Murakami has also translated many works of F. Scott Fitzgerald, Raymond Carver, Truman Capote, John Irving, and Paul Theroux, among others, into Japanese." ], [ "Murakami took an active role in translation of his work into English, encouraging \"adaptations\" of his texts to American reality rather than direct translation." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Some of his works which appeared in German turned out to be translations from English rather than from Japanese (" ], [ "(South of the Border, West of the Sun, 2000; The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, 2000s), encouraged by Murakami himself. Both were later re-translated from Japanese." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 420, 561, 0, 588, 275, 1184, 1310, 1466, 1897, 1627, 1739 ], "texts": [ "The processing of collective trauma soon became an important theme in Murakami's writing, which had previously been more personal in nature.", "Murakami returned to Japan in the aftermath of the Kobe earthquake and the Aum Shinrikyo gas attack. He came to terms with these events with his first work of non-fiction,", "The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1995) is a novel that fuses the realistic and fantastic, and contains elements of physical violence. It", "in the aftermath of the Kobe earthquake and the Aum Shinrikyo gas attack.", "The novel won the Yomiuri Prize, awarded by one of his harshest former critics, Kenzaburo Oe, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1994.", "English translations of many of his short stories written between 1983 and 1990 have been collected in The Elephant Vanishes.", "Murakami has also translated many works of F. Scott Fitzgerald, Raymond Carver, Truman Capote, John Irving, and Paul Theroux, among others, into Japanese.", "Murakami took an active role in translation of his work into English, encouraging \"adaptations\" of his texts to American reality rather than direct translation.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Some of his works which appeared in German turned out to be translations from English rather than from Japanese (", "(South of the Border, West of the Sun, 2000; The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, 2000s), encouraged by Murakami himself. Both were later re-translated from Japanese." ] }

[ { "text": "Multimedia is a form of communication that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, or video into a single interactive presentation, in contrast to traditional mass media, such as printed material or audio recordings, which features little to no interaction between users. Popular examples of multimedia include video podcasts, audio slideshows and animated videos. Multimedia also contains the principles and application of effective interactive communication such as the building blocks of software, hardware, and other technologies. The five main building blocks of multimedia are text, image, audio, video, and animation. \n\nMultimedia can be recorded for playback on computers, laptops, smartphones, and other electronic devices. In the early years of multimedia, the term \"rich media\" was synonymous with interactive multimedia. Over time, hypermedia extensions brought multimedia to the World Wide Web and streaming services became more common.\n\nTerminology \nThe term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein (later 'Bobb Goldsteinn') to promote the July 1966 opening of his \"Lightworks at L'Oursin\" show in Southampton, New York, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, who had two years previously discussed a new approach to art-making he called \"intermedia\".\n\nBefore the invention of the term, the idea of multimedia could be taken back to when the 19th century composer Richard Wagner believed in the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk, meaning 'total artwork'. Wagner strived to combine multiple art forms- opera, drama, music - to create a perfect synthesis on stage. He looked down on the Grand Opera at the time, which emphasized individual talent, rather than the complete work as a whole. By combining these art forms, Wagner believed the most profound art could be made.\n\nOn August 10, 1966, Richard Albarino of Variety borrowed the terminology, reporting: \"Brainchild of song scribe-comic Bob ('Washington Square') Goldstein, the 'Lightworks' is the latest multi-media music-cum-visuals to debut as discothèque fare.\" Two years later, in 1968, the term \"multimedia\" was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldstein's producers at L'Oursin.\n\n In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings. In the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s 'multimedia' took on its current meaning.\n\nIn the 1993 first edition of Multimedia: Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared \"Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what and when these elements are delivered, it is interactive multimedia. When you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia.\"\n\nThe German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the word's significance and ubiquitousness in the 1990s by awarding it the title of German 'Word of the Year' in 1995. The institute summed up its rationale by stating \"[Multimedia] has become a central word in the wonderful new media world\".\n\nIn common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, and text in such a way that can be accessed interactively. Much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. Some computers which were marketed in the 1990s were called \"multimedia\" computers because they incorporated a CD-ROM drive, which allowed for the delivery of several hundred megabytes of video, picture, and audio data. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD-ROMs. A standard CD-ROM can hold on average 700 megabytes of data, while the maximum size a 3.5 inch floppy disk can hold is 2.8 megabytes, with an average of 1.44 megabytes. \n\nThe term \"video\", if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the file format, delivery format, or presentation format instead of \"footage\" which is used to distinguish motion photography from \"animation\" of rendered motion imagery. Multiple forms of information content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of information content with single methods of information processing (e.g. non-interactive audio) are often called multimedia, perhaps to distinguish static media from active media. In the fine arts, for example, Leda Luss Luyken's ModulArt brings two key elements of musical composition and film into the world of painting: variation of a theme and movement of and within a picture, making ModulArt an interactive multimedia form of art. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of both content and media.\n\nIn modern times, a multimedia device can be referred to an electronic device, such as a smartphone, a video game system, or a computer. Each and everyone of these devices have a main function, but also have other uses beyond their intended purpose, such as reading, writing, recording video and audio, listening to music, and playing video games. This has lend them to be called \"multimedia devices\". While previous media was always local, many are now handled through web based solutions, particularly streaming.\n\nMajor characteristics \nMultimedia presentations are presentations featuring multiple types of media. The different types of media can include text, graphics, audio, video and animations. These different types of media convey information to their target audience and effectively communicate with them. Videos are a great visual example to use in multimedia presentations because they can create visual aids to the presenter's ideas. They are commonly used among education and many other industries to benefit students and workers, as they effectively retain chunks of information in a limited amount of time and can be stored easily. Another example is charts and graphs, as the presenters can show their audience the trends using data associated with their researches. This provides the audience a visual idea of a company's capabilities and performances.<ref></</ref> Audio also helps people understand the message being presented, as most modern videos are combined with audio to increase its efficiency, while animations are made to simplify things from the presenter's perspective. These technological methods allow efficient communication and understanding across a wide range of audiences (with an even wider range of abilities) throughout different fields. \n\nMultimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline computer, game system, or simulator.\n\nThe various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to enhance the users' experience, for example to make it easier and faster to convey information. Or in entertainment or art, combine an array of artistic insights that includes elements from different art forms to engage, inspire, or captivate an audience.\n\nEnhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content. Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enabling applications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time. Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on Web sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to simulations whose co-efficients, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia \"experience\" to be altered without reprogramming. In addition to seeing and hearing, haptic technology enables virtual objects to be felt. Emerging technology involving illusions of taste and smell may also enhance the multimedia experience.\n\nCategorization \nMultimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories:\nLinear active content progresses often without any navigational control, only focusing on the user to watch the entire piece by involving higher levels of emotional and sensory stimulation based on what's being shown as a cinema presentation;\nNon-linear uses interactivity to control progress as with a video game or self-paced computer-based training so that the actions made will be based on how the user interacts within the simulated world. Hypermedia is an example of non-linear content.\n\nMultimedia presentations can be live or recorded:\nA recorded presentation may allow interactivity via a navigation system;\nA live multimedia presentation may allow interactivity via an interaction with the presenter or performer.\n\nUsage/application \n\nMultimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited to, advertisements, art, education, entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research and spatial temporal applications. Several examples are as follows:\n\nCreative industries \nCreative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes ranging from fine arts, to entertainment, to commercial art, to journalism, to media and software services provided for any of the industries listed below. An individual multimedia designer may cover the spectrum throughout their career. Request for their skills range from technical, to analytical, to creative.\n\nCommercial uses \nMuch of the electronic old and new media used by commercial artists in multimedia.. Advertising companies rely heavily on social interfaces and television to promote products. Using these platforms, they are able to express their message or persuade a targeted audience. Business to business and interoffice communications are often developed by creative services firms for advanced multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven up training. Commercial multimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental services and nonprofit services applications as well. In addition, the prominence of data mining within multimedia platforms in order to adjust marketing techniques based on the data they mine is a crucial and notable practice of commercial advertisement to efficiently understand the demographic of a target audience. In recent years a new trend of multimedia has arrived, a new sort of digital billboard placed on the side of buildings and usually wrapping around the side of it. These take clips made at differing angles to trick the brain into seeing them as 3-Dimensional, like they're leaving the billboard entirely. This makes them eye-catching and therefore more likely to draw in people's attention which is of course, very good for commercial purposes.\n\nEntertainment and fine arts \nMultimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to develop special effects in movies and animations (VFX, 3D animation, etc.). Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD-ROMs or online. Video games are considered multimedia, as such games meld animation, audio, and interactivity to allow the player an immersive experience. While video games can vary in terms of animation style or audio type, the element of interactivity makes them a striking example of interactive multimedia. Interactive multimedia refers to multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information.\nIn the arts, there are multimedia artists who blend techniques using different media that in some way incorporate interaction with the viewer. Another approach entails the creation of multimedia that can be displayed in a traditional fine arts arena, such as an art gallery. Video has become an intrinsic part of many concerts and theatrical productions in the modern era, and has spawned content creation opportunities for many media professionals. Although multimedia display material may be volatile, the survivability of the content is as strong as any traditional media.\n\nEducation \nIn education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia and almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats.\n\nLearning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of multimedia. Several lines of research have evolved, e.g. cognitive load and multimedia learning.\n\nFrom multimedia learning (MML) theory, David Roberts has developed a large group lecture practice using PowerPoint and based on the use of full-slide images in conjunction with a reduction of visible text (all text can be placed in the notes view' section of PowerPoint). The method has been applied and evaluated in 9 disciplines. In each experiment, students' engagement and active learning have been approximately 66% greater, than with the same material being delivered using bullet points, text, and speech, corroborating a range of theories presented by multimedia learning scholars like Sweller and Mayer. The idea of media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education. Defined as separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications), and video that now share resources and interact with each other, media convergence is rapidly changing the curriculum in universities all over the world. Higher education has been implementing the use of social media applications such as Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, etc. to increase student collaboration and develop new processes in how information can be conveyed to students.\n\nEducational technology \n\nMultimedia provides students with an alternate means of acquiring knowledge designed to enhance teaching and learning through various mediums and platforms. In the 1960s, technology began to expand into the classrooms through devices such as screens and telewriters. This technology allows students to learn at their own pace and gives teachers the ability to observe the individual needs of each student. The capacity for multimedia to be used in multi-disciplinary settings is structured around the idea of creating a hands-on learning environment through the use of technology. Lessons can be tailored to the subject matter as well as be personalized to the students' varying levels of knowledge on the topic. Learning content can be managed through activities that utilize and take advantage of multimedia platforms. This kind of usage of modern multimedia encourages interactive communication between students and teachers and opens feedback channels, introducing an active learning process especially with the prevalence of new media and social media. Technology has impacted multimedia as it is largely associated with the use of computers or other electronic devices and digital media due to its capabilities concerning research, communication, problem-solving through simulations and feedback opportunities. The innovation of technology in education through the use of multimedia allows for diversification among classrooms to enhance the overall learning experience for students.\n\nSocial work \nMultimedia is a robust education methodology within the social work context. The five different multimedia which supports the education process are narrative media, interactive media, communicative media, adaptive media, and productive media. Contrary to long-standing belief, multimedia technology in social work education existed before the prevalence of the internet. It takes the form of images, audio, and video into the curriculum.\n\nFirst introduced to social work education by Seabury & Maple in 1993, multimedia technology is utilized to teach social work practice skills including interviewing, crisis intervention, and group work. In comparison with conventional teaching method, including face-to-face courses, multimedia education shortens transportation time, increases knowledge and confidence in a richer and more authentic context for learning, generates interaction between online users, and enhances understanding of conceptual materials for novice students.\n\nIn an attempt to examine the impact of multimedia technology on students' study, A. Elizabeth Cauble & Linda P. Thurston conducted a research in which Building Family Foundations (BFF), an interactive multimedia training platform, was utilized to assess social work students' reactions to multimedia technology on variables of knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy. The results states that respondents show a substantial increase in academic knowledge, confidence, and attitude. Multimedia also benefits students because it brings expert to students online, fits students' schedule, allows students to choose courses that suit them.\n\nMayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning suggests, \"people learn more from words and pictures than from words alone.\" According to Mayer and other scholars, multimedia technology stimulates people's brains by implementing visual and auditory effects, and thereby assists online users to learn efficiently. Researchers suggest that when users establish dual channels while learning, they tend to understand and memorize better. Mixed literature of this theory are still present in the field of multimedia and social work.\n\nLanguage communication \nWith the spread and development of the English language around the world, multimedia has become an important way of communicating between different people and cultures. Multimedia Technology creates a platform where language can be taught. The traditional form of teaching English as a Second Language in classrooms have drastically changed with the prevalence of technology, making easier for students to obtain language learning skills. Multimedia motivates students to learn more languages through audio, visual and animation support. It also helps create English contexts since an important aspect of learning a language is developing their grammar, vocabulary and knowledge of pragmatics and genres. In addition, cultural connections in terms of forms, contexts, meanings and ideologies have to be constructed. By improving thought patterns, multimedia develops students' communicative competence by improving their capacity to understand the language. One of the studies, carried out by Izquierdo, Simard and Pulido, presented the correlation between \"Multimedia Instruction (MI) and learners' second language (L2)\" and its effects on learning behavior. Their findings based on Gardner's theory of the \"socio-educational model of learner motivation and attitudes\", the study shows that there is easier access to language learning materials as well as increased motivation with MI along with the use of Computer-Assisted Language Learning.\n\nJournalism \nNewspaper companies all over are trying to embrace the new phenomenon by implementing its practices in their work. While some have been slow to come around, other major newspapers like The New York Times, USA Today and The Washington Post are setting a precedent for the positioning of the newspaper industry in a globalized world. To keep up with the changing world of multimedia, journalistic practices are adopting and utilizing different multimedia functions through the inclusion of visuals such as varying audio, video, text, etc. in their writings.\n\nNews reporting is not limited to traditional media outlets. Freelance journalists can use different new media to produce multimedia pieces for their news stories. It engages global audiences and tells stories with technology, which develops new communication techniques for both media producers and consumers. The Common Language Project, later renamed to The Seattle Globalist, is an example of this type of multimedia journalism production.\n\nMultimedia reporters who are mobile (usually driving around a community with cameras, audio and video recorders, and laptop computers) are often referred to as mojos, from mobile journalist.\n\nEngineering \nSoftware engineers may use multimedia in computer simulations for anything from entertainment to training such as military or industrial training. Multimedia for software interfaces are often done as a collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers. Multimedia helps expand the teaching practices that can be found in engineering to allow for more innovated methods to not only educated future engineers, but to help evolve the scope of understanding of where multimedia can be used in specialized engineer careers like software engineers.\n\nMultimedia is also allowing major car manufactures, such as Ford, and General Motors, to expand the design, and safety standards of their cars. By using a game engine and virtual reality glasses, these companies are able to test the safety features, and the design of the car, before a prototype is even made. Building a car virtually reduces the time it takes to produce new vehicles, cutting down on the time needed to test designs, and allowing the designers to make changes in real time. It also reduces expenses, since with a virtual car making real world prototypes is no longer needed.\n\nMathematical and scientific research \nIn mathematical and scientific research, multimedia is mainly used for modeling and simulation. For example, a scientist can look at a molecular model of a particular substance and manipulate it to arrive at a new substance. Representative research can be found in journals such as the Journal of Multimedia. One well known example of this being applied would be in the movie Interstellar where Executive Director Kip Thorne helped create one of the most realistic depictions of a blackhole in film. The visual effects team under Paul Franklin took Kip Thorne's mathematical data and applied it into their own visual effects engine called \"Double Negative Gravitational Renderer\" a.k.a. \"Gargantua\", to create a \"real\" blackhole, used in the final cut. Later on the visual effects team went onto publish a blackhole study\n\nMedicine \nMedical professionals and students have a wide variety of ways to learn new techniques and procedures through interactive media and online courses and lectures. The methods of conveying information to students have drastically evolved with the help of multimedia. From the 1800s to today, lessons are commonly taught using chalkboards. Projected aids, such as the epidiascope and slide projectors, were introduced into the classrooms around the 1960s. With the growing use of computers, the medical field has begun to incorporate new devices and procedures to assist in teaching students, performing procedures, and analyzing patient data. As well as providing that data in a meaningful way to the patients.\n\nVirtual reality \nVirtual reality is a platform for multimedia in which it merges all categories of multimedia into one virtual environment. It has gained much more attention over recent years following technological advancements and is becoming much more commonly used nowadays for various uses like virtual showrooms and video games. Virtual reality was first introduced in 1957 by cinematographer Morton Heilig in the form of an arcade-style booth called Sensorama. The first virtual reality headset was created by American computer scientist Ivan Sutherland and Bob Sproull, his student, in 1968. Virtual reality is used for educational and also recreational purposes like watching movies, interactive video games, simulations etc. Ford Motor Company uses this technology to show customers the interior and exterior of their cars via their Immersion Lab. In Pima County, Arizona their police force is trained by using Virtual Reality to create scenarios for police to practice in.In 1996 Nintendo released the Virtual Boy marking one of the first attempts at a mainstream virtual reality system. Many video game platforms now support virtual reality technology, including Sony's PlayStation, Nintendo's Switch as part of their Labo project, as well as the Oculus VR headsets that can be used for Xbox and PC gaming, with it being more preferable to pair with a PC due to it only being compatible with the original Xbox One and providing limited capabilities.\n\nAugmented reality \n\nAugmented reality overlays digital content or output onto the real world, using media such as audio, animation, and text. Augmented reality became widely popular only in the 21st century; however, some of the earlier versions of such were things like the Sega Genesis Activator Controller back in 1992 which allowed users to literally stand in an octagon and control in game movement with physical movement or to stretch back even further the R.O.B. NES Robot back in 1984 which with its array of accessories was able to also provide users with the sensation of holding a firearm. These multimedia input devices are among some of the earliest of the augmented reality devices by allowing users to input commands to facilitate a different user experience. A more modern example of augmented reality is Pokémon GO, a mobile game released on July 6, 2016, which allows users to see a Pokémon in a real world environment.\n\nSee also \n\n Animation\n Artmedia\n Audio\n Audiovisual\n Computer\n Images\n Internet\n Kraftwerk\n Multi-image\n Multimedia cartography\n Multimedia Messaging Service\n Multimedia search\n New media art\n Non-linear media\n Postliterate society\n Social media\n Text\n Transmedia storytelling\n Universal multimedia access\n Video\n Video Game\n Virtual reality\n Web documentary\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nHistory of Multimedia from the University of Calgary\nMultimedia in Answers.com\n\n \nCategory:Communication design\nCategory:Design\nCategory:Film and video terminology\nCategory:Film production\nCategory:1960s neologisms", "title": "Multimedia" } ]

[ "C_0bb9ff760c5d4262a59d96b110d5adf9_0_q#0", "C_0bb9ff760c5d4262a59d96b110d5adf9_0_q#1", "C_0bb9ff760c5d4262a59d96b110d5adf9_0_q#2", "C_0bb9ff760c5d4262a59d96b110d5adf9_0_q#3" ]

[ "What year was the BALCO scandal?", "What was the scandal about?", "did anybody report on the scandal?", "Did he use steroids?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 115 ], [ 234 ], [ 388 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Late in 2003," ], [ "one of the baseball players believed to have received anabolic steroids from trainer Greg Anderson." ], [ "the San Francisco Chronicle" ], [ "Giambi admitted to using several different steroids during the off-seasons from 2001 to 2003," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 115, 234, 388 ], "texts": [ "Late in 2003,", "one of the baseball players believed to have received anabolic steroids from trainer Greg Anderson.", "the San Francisco Chronicle", "Giambi admitted to using several different steroids during the off-seasons from 2001 to 2003," ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide a specific year for the BALCO scandal. CANNOTANSWER", "The scandal was about baseball players believed to have received anabolic steroids from trainer Greg Anderson, specifically Giambi who admitted to using several different steroids and injecting himself with human growth hormone.", "Yes, the San Francisco Chronicle reported on Giambi's 2003 grand jury testimony in the BALCO investigation.", "Yes, Giambi admitted to using several different steroids during the off seasons from 2001 to 2003, and injecting himself with human growth hormone during the 2003 season. He also publicly apologized for his use of the drugs." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_1_q#0", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_1_q#1", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_1_q#2", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_1_q#3", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_1_q#4", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_1_q#5", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_1_q#6", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_1_q#7" ]

[ "what happened in 1953?", "did he do anything in the US?", "what was the film?", "did he make any other films in the US?", "was it successful?", "Did he leave the US again?", "did he do any work back in paris?", "was the book successful?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 256 ], [ 414 ], [ 897 ], [ 1361 ], [ 2056 ], [ 2182 ], [ 2719 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1953, soon after the production of Eaux d'Artifice, Anger's mother died and he temporarily returned to the United States" ], [ "artistic scene of California, befriending the film maker Stan Brakhage, who had been inspired by Fireworks, and the two collaborated on producing a film," ], [ "it was confiscated at the film lab for obscenity and presumably destroyed." ], [ "Pleasure Dome. Inauguration, which was created in 1954," ], [ "various European film festivals, winning the Prix du Cine-Club Belge and the Prix de l'Age d'Or," ], [ "Kinsey died and Anger decided to return to Paris, where he was described at the time as being \"extremely remote and lonely\"." ], [ "In desperate need of money, Anger wrote a book titled Hollywood Babylon in which he collected together gossip regarding celebrities," ], [ "The work was not published in the United States initially, and it was first released by the French publisher Jean-Jacques Pauvert." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 256, 414, 897, 1361, 2056, 2182, 2719 ], "texts": [ "In 1953, soon after the production of Eaux d'Artifice, Anger's mother died and he temporarily returned to the United States", "artistic scene of California, befriending the film maker Stan Brakhage, who had been inspired by Fireworks, and the two collaborated on producing a film,", "it was confiscated at the film lab for obscenity and presumably destroyed.", "Pleasure Dome. Inauguration, which was created in 1954,", "various European film festivals, winning the Prix du Cine-Club Belge and the Prix de l'Age d'Or,", "Kinsey died and Anger decided to return to Paris, where he was described at the time as being \"extremely remote and lonely\".", "In desperate need of money, Anger wrote a book titled Hollywood Babylon in which he collected together gossip regarding celebrities,", "The work was not published in the United States initially, and it was first released by the French publisher Jean-Jacques Pauvert." ] }

[]

[ "In 1953, Anger's mother died and he temporarily returned to the United States to assist with the distribution of her estate. During this time, he began to immerse himself in the artistic scene of California and befriended film maker Stan Brakhage. Together, they collaborated to produce a film. However, the film was confiscated at the film lab due to obscenity and was presumably destroyed. Anger also attended a party themed \"Come As Your Madness\", dressed up as the Greek goddess Hekate. The party inspired him to create a new film called Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome.", "Yes, while in the U.S. in 1953, Anger reconnected with the artistic scene in California and began a collaboration with film maker Stan Brakhage. However, their film was confiscated due to obscenity and was presumably destroyed. Anger also attended a party, dressing as the ancient Greek goddess Hekate, which inspired him to create a new film, Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome.", "The film that Anger and film maker Stan Brakhage began working on during his return to the U.S. is not named in the provided context. However, it was confiscated at the film lab for obscenity and is presumed to have been destroyed.", "According to the context, Anger created a new film called Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome in the U.S., which was a 38-minute surrealist work. The film had many Crowleyan and Thelemite themes and its characters personified various pagan gods. The film was subsequently exhibited at various European film festivals and screened at the World Fair held in Brussels in 1958.", "Yes, Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome, Anger's film, was successful. It won the Prix du Cine-Club Belge and the Prix de l'Age d'Or. It was also exhibited at various European film festivals and screened as a projected triptych at Expo 58, the World Fair held in Brussels in 1958.", "Yes, after his friend Alfred Kinsey died in 1956, Kenneth Anger decided to return to Paris. At the time of his return, he was described as being \"extremely remote and lonely\".", "The context does not provide any specific information about Kenneth Anger's work in Paris after he returned there in 1956.", "The context does not provide specific information on the commercial success of Anger's book, Hollywood Babylon. However, the book did provide him with some financial backing for his next film project, The Story of O, implying that it most likely made some degree of profit." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "no", "No" ]

[ "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_0_q#0", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_0_q#1", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_0_q#2", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_0_q#3", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_0_q#4", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_0_q#5", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_0_q#6", "C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_0_q#7" ]

[ "When did he return to making films?", "Was it well recieved?", "what did he do next?", "after the exhibition what did he do?", "What was his next work?", "What else did he do?", "Is it successful?", "what is he doing now?" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 71 ], [ 1984 ], [ 200 ], [ 378 ], [ 532 ], [ 752 ], [ 1984 ], [ 1077 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 2000, at the dawn of the new millennium, Anger began screening a new short film, the anti-smoking Don't Smoke That Cigarette," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "followed a year later by The Man We Want to Hang, which comprised images of Aleister Crowley's paintings that had been exhibited at a temporary exhibition in Bloomsbury, London." ], [ "In 2004, he began showing Anger Sees Red, a short surrealistic film starring himself, and the same year also began showing another work, Patriotic Penis." ], [ "He soon followed this with a flurry of other shorts, including Mouse Heaven, which consisted of images of Mickey Mouse memorabilia, Ich Will! and Uniform Attraction," ], [ "Anger's most recent project has been the Technicolor Skull with musician Brian Butler, described as a \"magick ritual of light and sound in the context of a live performance\"," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Anger makes an appearance in the 2008 feature documentary by Nik Sheehan about Brion Gysin and the Dreamachine titled FLicKeR." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 71, 1984, 200, 378, 532, 752, 1984, 1077 ], "texts": [ "In 2000, at the dawn of the new millennium, Anger began screening a new short film, the anti-smoking Don't Smoke That Cigarette,", "CANNOTANSWER", "followed a year later by The Man We Want to Hang, which comprised images of Aleister Crowley's paintings that had been exhibited at a temporary exhibition in Bloomsbury, London.", "In 2004, he began showing Anger Sees Red, a short surrealistic film starring himself, and the same year also began showing another work, Patriotic Penis.", "He soon followed this with a flurry of other shorts, including Mouse Heaven, which consisted of images of Mickey Mouse memorabilia, Ich Will! and Uniform Attraction,", "Anger's most recent project has been the Technicolor Skull with musician Brian Butler, described as a \"magick ritual of light and sound in the context of a live performance\",", "CANNOTANSWER", "Anger makes an appearance in the 2008 feature documentary by Nik Sheehan about Brion Gysin and the Dreamachine titled FLicKeR." ] }

[]

[ "Anger returned to making films in 2000.", "The text does not provide information on how Anger's films were received after his return in 2000.", "After returning to filmmaking in 2000 starting with the anti-smoking film \"Don't Smoke That Cigarette\", in the following years he developed and screened a number of short films, which include \"The Man We Want to Hang\", \"Anger Sees Red\", \"Patriotic Penis\", \"Mouse Heaven\", \"Ich Will!\", and \"Uniform Attraction\". He also worked on the Technicolor Skull project with musician Brian Butler and made appearances in the 2008 documentary FLicKeR and the 2009 short film \"Night of Pan\". He wrote Hollywood Babylon III, but did not publish it due to potential legal repercussions related to its content about Tom Cruise and the Scientologists. He was also featured in retrospective exhibitions in New York City and London.", "The text does not provide information on what Anger did after the exhibitions in New York City and London.", "The text does not provide information on what Anger's next work was after the exhibitions in New York City and London.", "The text does not provide information on what else Anger did beyond his filmmaking, the Technicolor Skull project, his appearances in other films, and his writing of Hollywood Babylon III.", "The text does not provide information on whether Anger's work was successful.", "The text does not provide information on what Anger is doing currently." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "no", "No", "Yes", "no" ]

[ "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_0_q#0", "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_0_q#1", "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_0_q#2", "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_0_q#3", "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_0_q#4", "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_0_q#5" ]

[ "what is marriage-a-la-mode?", "what were the six pictures called?", "who did viscount squanderfield marry?", "what was the next step after the signing?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "and what else is moral?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 14 ], [ 841 ], [ 1000 ], [ 1128 ], [ 2126 ], [ 2213 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Hogarth painted the six pictures of Marriage a-la-mode (National Gallery, London), a pointed skewering of upper-class 18th-century society." ], [ "The series, which is set in a Classical interior, shows the story of the fashionable marriage of Viscount Squanderfield," ], [ "the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city merchant, starting with the signing of a marriage contract at the Earl's mansion" ], [ "ending with the murder of the son by his wife's lover" ], [ "Moral: don't listen to evil silver-tongued counselors; don't marry a man for his rank," ], [ "or a woman for her money; don't frequent foolish auctions and masquerade balls unknown to your husband;" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 14, 841, 1000, 1128, 2126, 2213 ], "texts": [ "Hogarth painted the six pictures of Marriage a-la-mode (National Gallery, London), a pointed skewering of upper-class 18th-century society.", "The series, which is set in a Classical interior, shows the story of the fashionable marriage of Viscount Squanderfield,", "the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city merchant, starting with the signing of a marriage contract at the Earl's mansion", "ending with the murder of the son by his wife's lover", "Moral: don't listen to evil silver-tongued counselors; don't marry a man for his rank,", "or a woman for her money; don't frequent foolish auctions and masquerade balls unknown to your husband;" ] }

[]

[ "Marriage a-la-mode is a series of six paintings by Hogarth, created in 1743-1745. They depict a moralistic warning about the tragedy of a marriage contracted for money, rather than love. It satirizes a conventional upper-class English marriage of convenience and shows in a serial form the story of Viscount Squanderfield, the son of bankrupt Earl Squander, marrying the daughter of a wealthy city merchant. The series covers events from the signing of their marriage contract to the murder of the Viscount by his wife's lover and the wife's suicide following her lover's execution.", "The context does not provide specific names for each of the six pictures in the Marriage a-la-mode series.", "Viscount Squanderfield married the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city merchant.", "The context does not provide specific details about what happened immediately after the signing of the marriage contract in the Marriage a-la-mode series by Hogarth.", "The context provided elaborates on Hogarth's Marriage a-la-mode as a satirical critique of upper-class 18th-century society and the prevalent practice of marrying for money. This series of paintings is considered to be one of Hogarth's best-planned story cycles. The story depicted within the series, of Viscount Squanderfield and a wealthy merchant's daughter, ends tragically, once again illustrating the moralistic point. Additionally, the paintings themselves were also engraved and widely circulated in print form. Finally, William Makepeace Thackeray, a famed British novelist, praised the wit, skill, and moral grounding of the Marriage a-la-mode series.", "In this context, the moral referred to pertains to the moralistic warning depicted in Hogarth's paintings, mainly that marrying for money rather than love can lead to tragedy. The satirical series creates a condemnation of upper-class 18th-century society and its practice of marriages of convenience, implying ethics such as love, honesty, and fidelity as being of greater value in marital relationships. The series seeks to communicate that unethical actions such as deceit, infidelity, and marrying for perceived social advancement can lead to disastrous consequences. Overall, it illustrates the moralistic belief that love is a much sounder basis for marriage." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_1_q#0", "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_1_q#1", "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_1_q#2", "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_1_q#3", "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_1_q#4", "C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_1_q#5" ]

[ "When did Hogarth paint Harlot's and Rake's Progresses?", "What are Harlot's and Rake's Progresses?", "What is a Rake's Progress?", "What happens to the country girl?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did Hogarth have more series?" ]

[ 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 224 ], [ 264 ], [ 588 ], [ 419 ], [ 509 ], [ 559 ] ], "texts": [ [ ") before being published as engravings." ], [ "A Harlot's Progress depicts the fate of a country girl who begins prostituting" ], [ "the sequel" ], [ "ending with a funeral ceremony that follows the character's death from venereal disease." ], [ "The inaugural series was an immediate success" ], [ "was followed in 1733-1735 by the sequel A Rake's Progress." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 224, 264, 588, 419, 509, 559 ], "texts": [ ") before being published as engravings.", "A Harlot's Progress depicts the fate of a country girl who begins prostituting", "the sequel", "ending with a funeral ceremony that follows the character's death from venereal disease.", "The inaugural series was an immediate success", "was followed in 1733-1735 by the sequel A Rake's Progress." ] }

[]

[ "Hogarth completed A Harlot's Progress in 1731 and A Rake's Progress between 1733 and 1735.", "Harlot's Progress and Rake's Progress are series of works by Hogarth. A Harlot's Progress is a collection of six scenes that depict the fate of a country girl who starts prostituting - the scenes are chronological, starting with a meeting with a bawd and ending with her death from venereal disease. A Rake's Progress is a series of eight pictures that depict the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant, who spends his money on luxurious living, services from prostitutes, and gambling, and ends up in Bethlem Royal Hospital.", "A Rake's Progress is a series of eight pictures by Hogarth that depict the life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant. The series chronicles Tom's reckless lifestyle, in which he squanders his money on luxurious living, services from prostitutes, and gambling, until his life ultimately ends in Bethlem Royal Hospital.", "The country girl, depicted in Hogarth's series A Harlot's Progress, starts prostituting and her life is portrayed in a chronological sequence of six scenes that start with a meeting with a bawd. The series ends with a funeral ceremony following the character's death from venereal disease.", "One interesting aspect in the passage is when the success of A Harlot's Progress and A Rake's Progress led to numerous unauthorized (pirated) reproductions, Hogarth played a major role in advocating for artists' rights. He lobbied in parliament for more control over the reproduction of his work and the work of other artists. This resulted in the Engravers' Copyright Act, also known as 'Hogarth's Act', which became law on 25 June 1735. This was not only the first copyright law to deal with visual works but also the first to recognize the authorial rights of an individual artist.", "The context does not provide information on whether Hogarth had more series apart from A Harlot's Progress and A Rake's Progress." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_33e05296104443a890d19310606eaa33_1_q#0", "C_33e05296104443a890d19310606eaa33_1_q#1", "C_33e05296104443a890d19310606eaa33_1_q#2", "C_33e05296104443a890d19310606eaa33_1_q#3", "C_33e05296104443a890d19310606eaa33_1_q#4", "C_33e05296104443a890d19310606eaa33_1_q#5", "C_33e05296104443a890d19310606eaa33_1_q#6", "C_33e05296104443a890d19310606eaa33_1_q#7" ]

[ "What was his early career like?", "What happen in 1941", "What else was he known for in that year", "What happen in 1942", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What did he do in Chicago", "Did he become one", "What else happen in his early career years?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 137 ], [ 0 ], [ 2797 ], [ 641 ], [ 989 ], [ 1038 ], [ 1090 ], [ 1426 ] ], "texts": [ [ "\"He brought his stuff down and recorded me right in my house,\" Muddy recalled" ], [ "In August 1941, Alan Lomax went to Stovall, Mississippi, on behalf of the Library of Congress to record various country blues musicians." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Lomax came back in July 1942 to record him again." ], [ "In 1943, Muddy Waters headed to Chicago" ], [ "hope of becoming a full-time professional musician." ], [ "He lived with a relative for a short period while driving a truck and working in a factory by day and performing at night." ], [ "In 1944, he bought his first electric guitar and then formed his first electric combo." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 137, 0, 2797, 641, 989, 1038, 1090, 1426 ], "texts": [ "\"He brought his stuff down and recorded me right in my house,\" Muddy recalled", "In August 1941, Alan Lomax went to Stovall, Mississippi, on behalf of the Library of Congress to record various country blues musicians.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Lomax came back in July 1942 to record him again.", "In 1943, Muddy Waters headed to Chicago", "hope of becoming a full-time professional musician.", "He lived with a relative for a short period while driving a truck and working in a factory by day and performing at night.", "In 1944, he bought his first electric guitar and then formed his first electric combo." ] }

[]

[ "Muddy Waters' early career began with his musical recordings by Alan Lomax in August 1941 and again in July 1942, with his sessions later released as Down on Stovall's Plantation, and reissued as Muddy Waters: The Complete Plantation Recordings. In 1943, he moved to Chicago with the goal of becoming a professional musician, delivering a more upbeat version of blues that stood apart from the more melancholy tunes of his peers. Initially, he worked in a factory and played music at night, also opening shows for Big Bill Broonzy. In 1944, he bought his first electric guitar and formed an electric combo to adjust to the louder sound culture of the city. In 1946, he made some recordings with Columbia Records. Waters began recording for Aristocrat Records, later known as Chess Records, in 1947 and achieved hits with \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" and \"I Feel Like Going Home\" in 1948.", "In 1941, Alan Lomax, on behalf of the Library of Congress, went to Stovall, Mississippi, to record various country blues musicians, including Muddy Waters. The sessions were conducted at Waters' own house. Later on, these recordings were released as Down on Stovall's Plantation by Testament Records, and then reissued by Chess Records on CD as Muddy Waters: The Complete Plantation Recordings.", "According to the context provided, in 1941, Muddy Waters is specifically known for being recorded by Alan Lomax in his own house in Stovall, Mississippi. This was a notable event as it marked the beginning of his professional recording career. These sessions were later released as Down on Stovall's Plantation. Apart from this, there are no other significant events or accomplishments mentioned for Muddy Waters in the year 1941.", "In July 1942, Alan Lomax returned to record Muddy Waters for a second time. These recordings, along with the ones from 1941, were eventually released by Testament Records as Down on Stovall's Plantation. They were later reissued by Chess Records on CD as Muddy Waters: The Complete Plantation Recordings. The Historic 1941-42 Library of Congress Field Recordings.", "The article also discusses how Muddy Waters moved to Chicago in 1943 with aspirations of becoming a full-time professional musician. He bought his first electric guitar in 1944 and formed his first electric combo, stating that he wanted his sound to be heard above the noise in the clubs. In 1946, he recorded songs for Columbia Records, which were later released. He also began recording for Aristocrat Records (which later became Chess Records) in 1947. Notably, in 1948, Waters had two hits - \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" and \"I Feel Like Going Home\" which increased his popularity in clubs. His signature tune \"Rollin' Stone\" also became a hit in the same year. Another point of interest is that his upbeat style of blues was considered a reflection of the post-war optimism of African Americans, setting him apart from other artists who were \"singing all sad blues\".", "In Chicago, Muddy Waters initially lived with a relative while working in a factory and driving a truck during the day, and performing at night. He had the opportunity to open shows for Big Bill Broonzy, who was one of the leading bluesmen in Chicago at the time. In 1944, he bought his first electric guitar and formed his first electric combo because he felt that the sound from an acoustic guitar wasn't loud enough in the clubs. In 1946, he recorded some songs for Columbia Records. The following year, he began recording for Aristocrat Records, a new label run by the Chess brothers. His two songs, \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" and \"I Feel Like Going Home\", became hits in 1948 and his popularity began to grow.", "Yes, Muddy Waters did become a full-time professional musician. After moving to Chicago in 1943, he performed at night while working in a factory during the day. By 1948, he had hits with \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" and \"I Feel Like Going Home\", which played in clubs, contributing to his growing popularity. He opened shows for Big Bill Broonzy, a leading bluesman in Chicago, which gave him exposure to a larger audience. He was also recording with Columbia Records and Aristocrat Records (which later became Chess Records), which helped to establish him as a professional musician.", "In Muddy Waters' early career years, he was first recorded by Alan Lomax in Mississippi in 1941, which marked the beginning of his professional recording career. After moving to Chicago in 1943 to pursue a career as a full-time musician, he worked in a factory and played music at night. He also opened for Big Bill Broonzy in various clubs. In 1944, Waters bought his first electric guitar and formed an electric combo to better fit with the louder club scene of Chicago. He recorded some songs for Columbia Records in 1946. Then, in 1947, he began recording for Aristocrat Records, which later transformed into Chess Records. He enjoyed his first hits, \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" and \"I Feel Like Going Home\", in 1948, causing his popularity to take off in clubs. That same year, his signature tune \"Rollin' Stone\" also became a hit." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "What was his biggest success?", "Did Hoochie Coochie Man sell well?", "How did he achieve success?", "What other albums did they have?", "How well did that do?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did they win any awards?", "Did they have a big tour?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 590 ], [ 768 ], [ 1131 ], [ 2059 ], [ 2098 ], [ 1535 ], [ 1264 ], [ 2148 ] ], "texts": [ [ "classics during the early 1950s, some with the help of the bassist and songwriter Willie Dixon, including \"Hoochie Coochie Man\", \"" ], [ "\". Along with his former harmonica player Little Walter Jacobs and recent southern transplant" ], [ "most of the band's classic recordings in the 1950s." ], [ "first album, The Best of Muddy Waters," ], [ "which collected twelve of his singles up to 1956." ], [ "During the mid-1950s, Muddy Waters' singles were frequently on Billboard magazine's various Rhythm & Blues charts including \"Sugar Sweet\" in 1955" ], [ "The success of his ensemble paved the way for others" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 590, 768, 1131, 2059, 2098, 1535, 1264, 2148 ], "texts": [ "classics during the early 1950s, some with the help of the bassist and songwriter Willie Dixon, including \"Hoochie Coochie Man\", \"", "\". Along with his former harmonica player Little Walter Jacobs and recent southern transplant", "most of the band's classic recordings in the 1950s.", "first album, The Best of Muddy Waters,", "which collected twelve of his singles up to 1956.", "During the mid-1950s, Muddy Waters' singles were frequently on Billboard magazine's various Rhythm & Blues charts including \"Sugar Sweet\" in 1955", "The success of his ensemble paved the way for others", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on what Muddy Waters' biggest success was.", "The text does not provide information on the sales of \"Hoochie Coochie Man\".", "Muddy Waters achieved success by recording a series of blues classics during the early 1950s. He worked with a highly acclaimed blues groups including musicians like Little Walter Jacobs, Jimmy Rogers, Elga Edmonds (also known as Elgin Evans), and Otis Spann. Some of his successful tracks included \"Hoochie Coochie Man\", \"I Just Want to Make Love to You\", and \"I'm Ready\", some of which were produced with the help of bassist and songwriter Willie Dixon. Muddy Waters and his band became a significant part of the early 1950s Chicago blues scene. His successful ensemble paved the way for other group members to launch their own solo careers.", "The text only mentions one album, The Best of Muddy Waters, which was released in 1958. Information about any other albums is not provided in the text.", "The text does not provide information on how well The Best of Muddy Waters album did after its release in 1958.", "The text mentions a number of interesting aspects about Muddy Waters and his career. One is that he was not initially permitted to use his own band for studio recordings by the Chess brothers. Instead, he was given a backing band. This changed over time and by September 1953, he was recording with his own band which was one of the most acclaimed blues groups in history. Another interesting element is the long-running rivalry he had with Howlin' Wolf, which is described as generally good-natured. Additionally, the text notes that Muddy Waters' band served as a proving ground for some of the city's best blues talent, with members such as Little Walter and Rogers going on to have successful solo careers.", "The text does not provide information on whether Muddy Waters or his band won any awards.", "The text does not provide information on whether Muddy Waters or his band had a big tour." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Neutral", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "Which country's civil war was Zizka involved in?", "What was the other faction called?", "What were the terms of the armistice?", "Who was the leader of the other side?", "How long did the Civil War last?", "What happened to Zizka then?", "How did the invasion of Hungary turn out?", "What did he achieve?", "What did he do while retreating?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 213 ], [ 2360 ], [ 412 ], [ 833 ], [ 975 ], [ 1072 ], [ 1170 ], [ 2360 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Early in 1423, internal dissent among the Hussites led to civil war. Zizka, as leader of the Taborites, defeated the men of Prague and the Utraquist nobles at Horice" ], [ "a new crusade against Bohemia was being prepared. This induced the Hussites to conclude an armistice at Konopiste on June 24." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "During his temporary rule over Bohemia, Prince Sigismund Korybut of Lithuania had appointed Borek, the lord of Miletinek, governor of the city of Hradec Kralove." ], [ "He acceded to the demand and defeated the Utraquists under Borek at the farm of Strachov, near the city of Hradec Kralove on August 4, 1423." ], [ "Zizka now attempted to invade Hungary, which was under the rule of his old enemy King Sigismund." ], [ "Though this Hungarian campaign was unsuccessful owing to the great superiority of the Hungarians, it ranks among the greatest military exploits of Zizka," ], [ "it ranks among the greatest military exploits of Zizka, on account of the skill he displayed in retreat." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 213, 2360, 412, 833, 975, 1072, 1170, 2360 ], "texts": [ "Early in 1423, internal dissent among the Hussites led to civil war. Zizka, as leader of the Taborites, defeated the men of Prague and the Utraquist nobles at Horice", "a new crusade against Bohemia was being prepared. This induced the Hussites to conclude an armistice at Konopiste on June 24.", "CANNOTANSWER", "During his temporary rule over Bohemia, Prince Sigismund Korybut of Lithuania had appointed Borek, the lord of Miletinek, governor of the city of Hradec Kralove.", "He acceded to the demand and defeated the Utraquists under Borek at the farm of Strachov, near the city of Hradec Kralove on August 4, 1423.", "Zizka now attempted to invade Hungary, which was under the rule of his old enemy King Sigismund.", "Though this Hungarian campaign was unsuccessful owing to the great superiority of the Hungarians, it ranks among the greatest military exploits of Zizka,", "it ranks among the greatest military exploits of Zizka, on account of the skill he displayed in retreat.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

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[ "What was wagenburg", "How did this help them win?", "DId the Hussites win?", "What happened after that?", "What else can you tell me about their tactics", "How did that help them", "`How did that crew fight?", "Were they successful with that method", "Did the Hussites kill the prisoners" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 723 ], [ 1809 ], [ 1913 ], [ 136 ], [ 516 ], [ 1099 ], [ 1809 ], [ 1852 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Zizka helped develop tactics of using wagon forts, called vozova hradba in Czech or Wagenburg by the Germans, as mobile fortifications." ], [ "The Hussites' battle consisted of two stages, the first defensive, the second an offensive counterattack." ], [ "The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "When the Hussite army faced a numerically superior opponent they prepared carts for the battle by forming them into squares or circles." ], [ "The crew of each cart consisted of 16-22 soldiers:" ], [ "the infantry hidden behind the carts used firearms and crossbows to ward off the attack, weakening the enemy." ], [ "The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives." ], [ "the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 723, 1809, 1913, 136, 516, 1099, 1809, 1852 ], "texts": [ "Zizka helped develop tactics of using wagon forts, called vozova hradba in Czech or Wagenburg by the Germans, as mobile fortifications.", "The Hussites' battle consisted of two stages, the first defensive, the second an offensive counterattack.", "The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives.", "CANNOTANSWER", "When the Hussite army faced a numerically superior opponent they prepared carts for the battle by forming them into squares or circles.", "The crew of each cart consisted of 16-22 soldiers:", "the infantry hidden behind the carts used firearms and crossbows to ward off the attack, weakening the enemy.", "The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives.", "the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives." ] }

[]

[ "Wagenburg was a tactic developed by Zizka, which involved using wagons or carts as mobile fortifications. These were arranged in squares or circles when the Hussite army was facing a numerically superior opponent. The carts were connected wheel to wheel by chains and positioned in such a way that horses could quickly be harnessed to them if needed. A crew of 16-22 soldiers manned each cart, and a ditch was dug in front of this wall of carts.", "The usage of wagons as mobile fortifications helped the Hussites win because they allowed the army to take both defensive and offensive steps effectively. In the first stage, the army placed the carts near the enemy and provoked them into battle through artillery fire which inflicted heavy casualties. The soldiers hidden behind the carts used guns and crossbows to fight off the attacking enemy, primarily targeting the horses to deprive the cavalry of its advantage. This weakened the enemy forces and decreased their morale. In the second stage, the Hussite infantry and cavalry would burst from behind the carts, striking harshly at the enemy, mostly from the flank. Simultaneously, the enemy was being shelled from the carts which led to their eventual withdrawal, leaving dismounted knights unable to escape. This led to heavy losses in the enemy armies contributing to the Hussites victories.", "The context does not provide information on whether the Hussites ultimately won their battles or wars using the wagon fort (Wagenburg) tactic.", "The context does not provide information on what happened after the Hussites used the wagon fort (Wagenburg) tactic in their battles.", "The Hussite tactics, as detailed in the context, included a two-stage approach to battle. The first phase was defensive, using their wagon forts or \"Wagenburg\" as a shield and a means to provoke the enemy into battle with artillery fire, often resulting in heavy enemy casualties. Soldiers hidden behind the carts would use firearms and crossbows to counter the enemy attack, aiming primarily at the horses to eliminate the cavalry's advantage.\n\nOnce the enemy’s morale was lowered, the Hussites would transition to the second, offensive stage. Their infantry and cavalry would emerge from behind their carts to strike aggressively at the enemy, often from the flanks. The enemy forces would be simultaneously attacked from the front by shots from the cart-mounted troops and engaged on the ground. The combined shock often forced the enemy to withdraw, suffering heavy losses. Knights that had been dismounted and were left behind were particularly vulnerable, as their heavy armor made escape difficult. The Hussites gained a reputation for not taking captives. These multi-pronged tactics allowed the Hussites to effectively counter numerically superior forces.", "The Hussites tactics helped them by countering the enemy in a defensive and offensive manner. Initially, the wagons or carts provided a defensive fortification, with heavy artillery taking initial aim at the enemy's cavalry and significantly weakening their forces. The key was to break the morale of the enemy. Then the Hussites would transition to the offensive, attacking from both the carts and the flanks, leading to a multi-pronged attack that the enemy found difficult to resist. This caught the enemy off guard and forced them to withdraw with heavy losses. If knights were dismounted in the process, their heavy armor made them unable to escape, leaving them at the mercy of the Hussites who had a reputation for not taking captives. Through these tactics, they effectively neutralised the numerical superiority of their adversaries.", "The crew of each cart, consisting of 16-22 soldiers, would fight by using a mix of crossbows, firearms, pikes, and flails. These crew members would hide behind the carts as they faced the enemy. When the enemy attacked, the soldiers first neutralized the horses of the opposing cavalry using firearms and crossbows from behind the safety of the carts. This strategy deprived the opposing cavalry of its main advantage and led to heavy losses, demoralizing the enemy. After the morale of the enemy was lowered, the infantry, including the crew members, would burst out from behind the carts and launch an offensive attack mainly from the flanks, thus effectively overcoming the enemy.", "The context does not provide specific information on the success rate of the Hussites using their Wagenburg tactic. However, it does indicate that they inflicted heavy casualties on enemy forces and forced them to withdraw, which implies they had some degree of success with this method.", "The context suggests that the Hussites had a reputation for not taking captives, which implies they might have killed their prisoners, but it does not explicitly state they did so." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "did she study literature in college?", "Did she study literature anywhere?", "Was she influenced by other poets?", "Was her only profession writing?", "When did she play tennis?", "Did she do anything else besides tennis and writing?", "for who?", "did she write anything during this time?", "What is her style of writing?", "anything else interesting?", "What else has influenced her?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 14 ], [ 62 ], [ 1584 ], [ 498 ], [ 586 ], [ 385 ], [ 421 ], [ 1877 ], [ 928 ], [ 928 ], [ 1089 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Giannina Braschi was a student of literature" ], [ "Madrid, Rome, Paris and London," ], [ "considers herself \"more French than Beckett, Picasso and Gertrude Stein\", and" ], [ "ranked first place in the U.S. Tennis Association's national tournament in Puerto Rico," ], [ "becoming the youngest female tennis player to win the Women's Division (1966) on the island." ], [ "She was a foreign correspondent" ], [ "Grazie magazine (2001-2002)." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Braschi's early writings were scholarly in nature" ], [ "Braschi's early writings were scholarly in nature and focused on the titans of the Spanish Golden Age," ], [ "She published a book on the Romantic poet Gustavo Adolfo Becquer and essays on Cervantes, Garcilaso, Cesar Vallejo, Juan Ramon Jimenez and Federico Garcia Lorca." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 14, 62, 1584, 498, 586, 385, 421, 1877, 928, 928, 1089 ], "texts": [ "Giannina Braschi was a student of literature", "Madrid, Rome, Paris and London,", "considers herself \"more French than Beckett, Picasso and Gertrude Stein\", and", "ranked first place in the U.S. Tennis Association's national tournament in Puerto Rico,", "becoming the youngest female tennis player to win the Women's Division (1966) on the island.", "She was a foreign correspondent", "Grazie magazine (2001-2002).", "CANNOTANSWER", "Braschi's early writings were scholarly in nature", "Braschi's early writings were scholarly in nature and focused on the titans of the Spanish Golden Age,", "She published a book on the Romantic poet Gustavo Adolfo Becquer and essays on Cervantes, Garcilaso, Cesar Vallejo, Juan Ramon Jimenez and Federico Garcia Lorca." ] }

[ { "text": "Puerto Rican literature is the body of literature produced by writers of Puerto Rican descent. It evolved from the art of oral storytelling. Written works by the indigenous inhabitants of Puerto Rico were originally prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government.\n\nIt was not until the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, that Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. After the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War and the island was ceded to the United States as a condition of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, writers and poets began to express their opposition of the new colonial rule by writing about patriotic themes.\n\nWith the Puerto Rican diaspora of the early and mid-20th century, and the subsequent rise of the Nuyorican Movement, Puerto Rican literature continued to evolve and many Puerto Ricans have distinguished themselves as authors, poets, novelists, playwrights, and essayists.\n\nEarly history\nThe development of Puerto Rican literature was hampered by the Spanish colonial government, which ruled over Puerto Rico since the early 1500s. The Spanish feared that, through literature, Puerto Rico would develop its own social and cultural identity and eventually seek independence. Written works by the indigenous inhabitants were prohibited and punishable by prison or banishment. Even though the first library in Puerto Rico was established in 1642, in the Convent of San Francisco, access to its books was limited to those who belonged to the religious order. The only people who had access to the libraries and who could afford books were either appointed Spanish government officials or wealthy land owners. The poor had to resort to oral story-telling in what are traditionally known in Puerto Rico as Coplas and Decimas.\n\nThe island's first writers were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island. Among these writers were Father Diego de Torres Vargas, who wrote about the history of Puerto Rico, Father Francisco Ayerra de Santa María, who wrote poems about religious and historical themes, and Juan Ponce de León II, who was commissioned to write a general description of the West Indies.\n\nThe first native-born Puerto Rican governor, Ponce de León II, wrote about Taíno culture, particularly their religious ceremonies and language. He also documented the early exploits of the conquistadors. These works were sent to the National Archives in Sevilla, Spain, where they were kept.\n\nPuerto Rican literary history changed with the arrival of the first printing press from Mexico, in 1806. That same year Juan Rodríguez Calderón (a Spaniard) wrote and published the first book in the island, titled Ocios de la Juventud. In 1851, the Spanish appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Juan de la Pezuela Cevallo, founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. This institution contributed greatly to the intellectual and literary progress of the island. The school licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests. However, only those with government positions and the wealthy benefited from the formation of the institution. The first Puerto Rican writers came from some of the island's wealthiest families, and they were critical of the injustices of the Spanish Crown.\n\n19th century\nIn 1806, the Spanish Colonial Government established \"La Gaceta de Puerto Rico\" (The Puerto Rico Gazette), Puerto Rico's first newspaper. The newspaper was biased in favor of the ideals of the government.\n\nThe first written works in Puerto Rico were influenced by the Romanticism of the time. Journalists were the first writers to express their political views in the newspapers of the day and later in books. Through their books and novels, they illuminated social injustices, which included slavery and poverty. Many of these writers were considered to be dangerous liberals by the colonial government and were banished from the island. An example of this treatment was poet and journalist Francisco Gonzalo Marín, who wrote against the Spanish Crown. Some went to the Dominican Republic, Cuba or New York City where they continued to write about patriotic themes while in exile. The literature of these writers helped fuel the desire of some to revolt against the Spanish government in Puerto Rico, resulting in the failed attempt known as the Grito de Lares in 1868.\n\nThe period between 1868 and 1898 was crucial to the development of Puerto Rican institutions and the birth of a national arts and culture: there was a pro-independence rebellion, colonial reform, the formation of national political parties, the abolition of slavery (in 1873), and a brief period of autonomy. These events coincide with the promotion of a national culture expressed through literary language, music, architecture, and other arts.\n\nWhen the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War in 1898, many members of the Puerto Rican literary class welcomed them, believing that eventually Puerto Rico would be granted independence. Instead, the island was declared a territory of the United States. Many writers and poets expressed their opposition by writing about patriotic themes through their work.\n\nTwentieth-century migration to the United States\n\nDuring the early part of the 20th century, many Puerto Ricans moved to the eastern coast and mid-western parts of the United States in search of a better way of life. Most settled in cities such as New York and Chicago. There they faced ethnic and racial discrimination and other hardships. Jesús Colón, known as the father of the Nuyorican Movement, was discriminated against because he was Black and had difficulty speaking English. He wrote about his experiences, as well as the experiences of other immigrants, becoming among the first Puerto Ricans to do so in English.\n\nOne of his works, A Puerto Rican in New York, preceded the literary movement known as the \"Nuyorican Movement\". Ultimately, the Nuyorican Movement significantly influenced Puerto Rican literature, spurring themes such as cultural identity and discrimination. The goal of the Nuyorican Movement is to maintain the cultural identity of the Puerto Rican people in a foreign land. This circle of intellectuals, writers, poets and playwrights express their experiences as Nuyoricans living in the United States, including those whose works eventually found mainstream audiences and scholarly attention: Nicholasa Mohr (El Bronx), Piri Thomas (Down These Mean Streets), Pedro Pietri (The Masses are Asses), Giannina Braschi (Yo-Yo Boing!), Esmeralda Santiago (When I Was Puerto Rican), and others.\n\nFoundational fiction \n\nProminent 19th century Puerto Rican authors include Manuel A. Alonso, author of El Gíbaro (1849), a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. Eugenio María de Hostos wrote La peregrinación de Bayoán (1863), which used Bartolomé de las Casas as a spring board to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change.\n\nAlejandro Tapia y Rivera ushered in a new age of historiography with the publication of The Historical Library of Puerto Rico. Cayetano Coll y Toste published a historical work that illuminated Taínos culture in The Indo-Antillano Vocabulary is valuable. Manuel Zeno Gandía (1894) wrote La Charca about the mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. Antonio S. Pedreira, described in his work Insularismo the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the U.S. invasion.\n\nA trend in Puerto Rican fiction to narrate urban stories and novels about migration and displacement is jettisoned by Puerto Rican authors who themselves migrate to New York City, including Edgardo Vega Yunqué, author of Omaha Bigelow and Blood Fugues; Giannina Braschi, author of Yo-Yo Boing! and United States of Banana; Pedro Juan Soto, author of Spiks; and Manuel Ramos Otero, author of \"Loca la de la locura.\"\n\nPoetry\n\nEarly poetry\n\nMaría Bibiana Benítez published her first poem \"La Ninfa de Puerto Rico\" in 1832. Her niece was Alejandrina Benítez de Gautier, whose \"Aguinaldo Puertorriqueño,\" published in 1843, gave her the recognition of being one of the island's great poets. Alejandrina's son José Gautier Benítez is considered by many to be Puerto Rico's greatest Romantic-era poet. Lola Rodríguez de Tió wrote the lyrics to \"La Borinqueña,\" which was used by the revolutionists in the Grito de Lares. Poets José de Diego, Virgilio Dávila, Luis Lloréns Torres, Nemesio Canales, Francisco Matos Paoli, Juan Antonio Corretjer, Clemente Soto Vélez and Hugo Margenat were independence advocates who wrote poems with patriotic inspired themes.\n\nNationalism\nIn 1928, Soto Vélez, along with Alfredo Margenat (father of Hugo Margenat), Pedro Carrasquillo, Graciany Miranda Archilla, Fernando González Alberti, Luis Hernández Aquino, Samuel Lugo, Juan Calderón Escobar, and Antonio Cruz Nieves founded the group \"El Atalaya de los Dioses,\" which launched the literary movement known as \"Atalayismo.\" The \"El Grupo Atalaya\" movement sought to connect the poetic/literary world with political action and most of its members, including Soto Vélez became involved with the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. Giannina Braschi's postmodern work United States of Banana (2011) addresses the history of Puerto Rico decolonization efforts and declares the independence of Puerto Rico.\n\nUniversal lyricism\nMercedes Negrón Muñoz wrote under the name \"Clara Lair\" and published \"Arras de Cristal\" (1937), which describes the everyday struggles of the Puerto Rican. However, it was Julia de Burgos who was to be considered by many as one of the greatest poets to be born in Puerto Rico and who later lived in New York. The inspiration spurred by her love of Puerto Rico is reflected in her poem \"Río Grande de Loíza\". Other important lyric poets of the early twentieth century include Luis Palés Matos, Luis Lloréns Torres, and Evaristo Ribera Chevremont.\n\nAfter the Spanish Civil War, poets Juan Ramón Jiménez (Nobel Laureate, 1956) and his wife Zenobia Camprubí emigrate to Puerto Rico and settle in Juan Juan in 1946. Jiménez's lyrical, philosophical poems influenced major Puerto Rican-born writers such as Giannina Braschi (Empire of Dreams, 1988), Manuel Ramos Otero (El Libro de la Muerte, 1985), and René Marqués (La Carreta, 1950).\n\nEvaristo Ribera Chevremont's verses deal with nationality, folklore and regionalism, but also touch upon universal lyricism. Victor Hernández Cruz became the first Hispanic poet to be published by a mainstream publishing house (Random House) with the collection Snaps, in 1969.\n\nPlaywrights\n\nAmong the major figures in Puerto Rican theater is René Marqués (1919-1979 ) author of The Oxcart (La Carreta), which dramatizes the hardships of a Puerto Rican family who move from the island to New York City. His prose contributions include El Puertorriqueño Dócil y Otros Ensayos. Francisco Arriví (1915–2007), a prominent voice of Puerto Rican theater, developed a dramatic style known as Areyto and authored \"Bolero y plena\" (1958) and Vejigantes. He helped to establish various theater festivals and the Centro de Bellas Artes Luis A. Ferré (Luis A. Ferré Performing Arts Center) in Puerto Rico.\n\nLuis Rafael Sánchez (1936-) wrote Pasión según Antígona Pérez (The Passion According to Antigona Perez), a tragedy based on the life of Olga Viscal Garriga.\n\nAmong the Puerto Rican experimental theater writers is Giannina Braschi whose dramatic dialogues celebrate Puerto Rican artistic expression and acknowledge the works of her compatriots Luis Palés Matos, Nilita Vientos, Luis Pales Matos, Pedro Pietri, and Julia de Burgos. Braschi's work United States of Banana, which features Hamlet, Zarathustra and Hamlet on a mission to liberate Puerto Rico, was staged at the Shapiro Theater in New York City (2015).\n\nEmerging Puerto Rican playwrights include Aravind Enrique Adyanthaya, founder of Casa Cruz de la Luna in San Germán, Puerto Rico. Also notable in this category is playwright and screenwriter José Rivera, the first Puerto Rican screenwriter to be nominated for an Academy Award.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vigil|first=Delfin|date=2008-01-20|title=Jose Rivera's Che Guevara play: 'School of the Americas|url=https://www.sfgate.com/performance/article/Jose-Rivera-s-Che-Guevara-play-School-of-the-3297525.php|access-date=2020-08-29|website=SFGate}}</ref>\n\nStateside playwrights of Puerto Rican ancestry include Lin-Manual Miranda, who won a Pulitzer Prize and Grammy Awards for the Broadway musical Hamilton. Miranda, whose parents are Puerto Rican, co-created In the Heights with Quiara Alegría Hudes, whose mother is Puerto Rican.\n\nJournalists\nA variety of journalists and columnists further enrich Puerto Rican letters.\n\nNelson Antonio Denis published more than 300 editorials in El Diario La Prensa about the New York/Puerto Rican diaspora, which were recognized with repeated \"Best Editorial Writing\" awards from the National Association of Hispanic Journalists. Denis's history book War Against All Puerto Ricans, about the evolution of US-Puerto Rico relations since 1898, was the best-selling book in Puerto Rico in 2015 and 2016.\n\nJosé Luis González (1926-1996) whose work País de cuatro pisos y otros ensayos describes the rigid structures of island society.\n\nDavid Gonzalez is a journalist at the New York Times. Over a 25-year career, Gonzalez has written hundreds of stories in the New York Times which deal with the history, culture, politics and people of Puerto Rico. In 2013, the National Association of Hispanic Journalists inducted Gonzalez into its Hall of Fame, in recognition of his lifetime of committed and compassionate journalism.\n\nGerson Borrero is a journalist, radio host, and TV commentator in New York City. He has been editor-at-large of City & State NY and editor-in-chief of El Diario/La Prensa, the largest Spanish-language newspaper in New York City. His press coverage has ranged from New York City politics,Gerson Borrero; New York Post; April 22, 2012; \"Hispanic vote not uno-fied\" cultural reviews and personality profiles, to the Somos Uno Conference and the Puerto Rican Day Parade.\n\nHistorians\nHistorians such as Dr. Delma S. Arrigoitia have written books and documented the contributions that Puerto Rican women have made to society. Arrigoitia was the first person in the University of Puerto Rico to earn a master's degree in the field of history. Her publications, which cover Puerto Rico's early-20th-century politicians, include: Jose De Diego el legislador, San Juan, Eduardo Giorgetti Y Su Mundo: La Aparente Paradoja De Un Millonario Genio Empresarial Y Su Noble Humanismo;, Puerto Rico Por Encima de Todo: Vida y Obra de Antonio R. Barcelo, 1868-1938; and Introduccion a la Historia de la Moda en Puerto Rico.\n\nTeresita A. Levy's Puerto Ricans in the Empire: The History of Tobacco Cultivation in Puerto Rico, 1898-1940, a study of the tobacco-growing regions in the eastern and western highlands of Puerto Rico, is the first book to tell how Puerto Ricans challenged United States officials and fought successfully for legislation that benefited the island. Her book has been praised by scholars.Tostones and Matzoh, a Puerto Rican-Jewish journey Puerto Ricans in the Empire provides an excellent introduction to Puerto Rico's crucial tobacco industry, with fascinating material on farmer organizations and agricultural research.\"\n—Herbert S. Klein, Gouverneur Morris Professor Emeritus of History Columbia University\n\nModern and contemporary Puerto Rican literature\nAfter a nationalist tradition of Puerto Rican writers from the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, authors are catalogued by decade into \"generations.\" Some highly representative writers from the early and mid-20th century were: Juan Antonio Corretjer, Luis Lloréns Torres, Palés Matos, Enrique Laguerre, and Francisco Matos Paoli. These Puerto Rican writers wrote in Spanish and reflected a literary Latin American tradition, and offered a variety of universal and social themes. Major writers who got their start in the 1950s include José Luis González, René Marqués, Pedro Juan Soto, and Emilio Díaz Valcárcel.\n\nAuthors whose careers began in the 1960s and 1970s include Jack Agüeros, Angelamaría Dávila, Lourdes Vázquez, Rosario Ferré, Luis Rafael Sánchez, Manuel Ramos Otero, Olga Nolla, Edgardo Rodríguez Juliá, Myrna Casas, and Luis López Nieves. Major writers of the 1980s and 1990s include Ana Lydia Vega, Giannina Braschi, Mayra Santos-Febres, Luz María Umpierre, and Eduardo Lalo.\n\nBreakthrough voices of a new Puerto Rican literature began to emerge at the turn of the new century with the publication of Pedro Cabiya's Historias tremendas in 1999. Identity politics and the complexities of Puerto Rico's relationship with the U.S. — topics that had dominated the work of previous writers — gave way to the exploration of new genres and themes, such as Latinx speculative fiction, horror, fantasy, and noir, as seen in the short stories, novels, and comics by Pedro Cabiya, the experimentation by Bruno Soreno, and the short stories by José Liboy and Luis Negrón (whose Mundo Cruel won a Lambda Literary Award for Gay Fiction, 2014).\n\nEmerging voices on the island include Rafael Acevedo, Moisés Agosto, Yolanda Arroyo Pizarro, Janette Becerra, Ricardo A. Domínguez, Ana María Fuster Lavín, Zoé Jiménez Corretjer, Juan López Bauzá, Alberto Martínez Márquez, Luis Negrón, Maribel Ortiz, Max Resto, and José E. Santos. Lawrence La Fountain-Stokes, Ángel Lozada, Benito Pastoriza Iyodo, Alfredo Villanueva Collado write and publish their works in Spanish on the mainland USA. Puerto Rican authors who write in English include Erika Lopez, Ivelisse Rodriguez, Lilliam Rivera, Quiara Alegría Hudes, Jaquira Díaz, Richie Narvaez, and Ernesto Quiñonez.\n\n Anthologies \nAnthologies that focus on Puerto Rican writers include: \n Aftershocks of Disaster: Puerto Rico Before and After the Storm, edited by Yarimar Bonilla and Marisol LeBrón (Haymarket Books, 2019)\n Boricua en la Luna, edited by Elena M. Aponte \n Boricuas: Influential Puerto Rican Writings, edited by Roberto Santiago (Ballantine Books, 1995)\n Borinquen: An Anthology of Puerto Rican Literature, edited by Maria Teresa Babin and Stan Steiner (Knopf, 1974)\n Breaking Ground/Abriendo Caminos: Anthology of Puerto Rican Women Writers in New York, 1980-2012, edited by Myrna Nieves\n Growing Up Puerto Rican, edited by Joy L. De Jesús (William Morrow and Company, 1997)\n Literatura y narrativa puertorriqueña: La escritura entre siglos, edited by Mario Cancel\n Literatura puertorriqueña del siglo XX: Antología, edited by Mercedes López Baralt \n Los otros cuerpos: Antología de temática gay, lésbica y queer desde Puerto Rico y su diáspora, edited by David Caleb Acevedo, Moisés Agosto, and Luis Negrón, which focuses on LGBT themes \n Nuestro New York: An Anthology of Puerto Rican Plays, edited by John V. Antush (SIgnet, 1994)\n ¡Pa'que Tu Lo Sepas! edited by Angel Luis Colón\n Puerto Rico en Mi Corazón, edited by Raquel Salas Rivera, Ricardo Maldonado, Carina del Valle Schorske (Anomalous Press, 2019)\n Puerto Rican Poetry: A Selection from Aboriginal to Contemporary Times, edited by Robert Márquez\n Puerto Rican Writers at Home in the U.S.A., edited by Faythe Turner (Open Hand, 1991)\n San Juan Noir, edited by Mayra Santos-Febres (Akashic Noir, 2016\n\nSee also\n\n American literature in Spanish\n Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico \n Latin American literature\n List of Puerto Rican writers\n History of women in Puerto Rico\n Nuyorican Movement\n Nuyorican Poets Café\n Media in Puerto Rico\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Aldama, Frederick Luis and Ilan Stavans. Poets, Philosophers, Lovers: On The Writings of Giannina Braschi. U Pittsburgh. (2020)\n Brahan, Persephone. From Amazons to Zombies: Monsters in Latin America (Bucknell Studies in Latin American Literature and Theory). Bucknell University Press (November 19, 2015).\n Caulfield, Carlota. \"US Latina Caribbean Women Poets.\" In Carlota Caulfield and Darién Davis, Jr., eds., A Companion to US Latino Literatures. Woodbridge: Tamesis, 2007. \n Gordis, Yanis. \"Island and Continental Puerto Rican Literature: Cross-Cultural and Intertextual Considerations\". Special Section: Multicultural Literature, Part IV. In ADE Bulletin 91 (Winter 1988). One of five articles about Puerto Rican literature.\n Loustau, Laura R. Cuerpos errantes: literatura latina y latinoamericana en Estados Unidos. Rosario, Argentina: Beatriz Viterbo Editora, 2002. \n Moreira, Rubén A., ed. Antología de Poesía Puertorriqueña. (Vol. 1: Romanticismo, Vol. 2 Modernismo y Post Modernismo, Vol. 3 Contemporánea, Vol.4 Contemporánea). San Juan, P.R.: Tríptico Editores, 1992-1993.\n Pausides, Alex, Pedro Antonio Valdez, and Carlos Roberto Gómez Beras, eds. Los nuevos caníbales: Antología de la más reciente poesía del Caribe hispano. San Juan: Isla Negra Editores, 2003. \n Rosado, José Ángel, ed. El rostro y la máscara: Antología alterna de cuentistas puertorriqueños contemporáneos. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Isla Negra Editores, 1995.\n van Haesendonck, Kristian. \"Enchantment or Fright? Identity and Postmodern Writing in Contemporary Puerto Rico.\" In Theo D'Haen and Pieter Vemeulen, eds., Cultural Identity and Postmodern Writing. New York and Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006. \n Torres-Padilla, Jose L. and Carmen Haydee Rivera. Writing Off the Hyphen: New Critical Perspectives on the Literature of the Puerto Rican Diaspora''. Seattle: U. of Washington Press, 2008.\n\nExternal links\n\nUniversity of Notre Dame Library, The Hispanic Caribbean Literature Collection\nEvaristo Ribera Chevremont; Bio and Poems\n''Sargasso''' a journal of literature, language, and culture is online in the Digital Library of the Caribbean from the University of Puerto Rico\n\n \nCategory:Cultural history of Puerto Rico\nCategory:Latin American literature by country", "title": "Puerto Rican literature" }, { "text": "American literature written in Spanish in the United States dates back as 1610 when the Spanish explorer Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá published his epic poem Historia de Nuevo México (History of New Mexico). He was an early chronicler of the conquest of the Americas and a forerunner of Spanish-language literature in the United States given his focus on the American landscape and the customs of the people. However, it was not until the late 20th century that Spanish language literature written by Americans was regularly published in the United States.\n\nThe rise of Spanish-language Latino literature has been fraught with obstacles related to publication and audience. Latino/a authors have expanded audience expectations by attending to narrative innovation and design and by creating challenging reading situations. Rather than compose their narratives with an actual audience in mind, many Latino/a authors sought to write for a new, ideal audience capable of engaging with even the most complex story worlds and stylistic innovations. From the 1960s to the present, breakthrough authors who created new audiences include Oscar “Zeta” Acosta, Gloria Anzaldúa, Piri Thomas, Giannina Braschi, Sandra Cisneros, Junot Díaz, and Gilbert Hernandez have engaged a sophisticated bilingual readership in their avant-garde narratives, code-switching, serialization, and intertextual play in Spanish, Spanglish, and English. Their works, often first published in independent and academic presses, were widely taught as foundational works in the burgeoning fields of Latino Studies and Third World Feminisms; their academic following helped to create a commercial market for Latino literature.\n\nBy 2000, many more Mexican-Americans/Chicanos, Cuban-Americans, Puerto Ricans on the island and Nuyoricans on the mainland, and US immigrants from Latin America have published literature in Spanish in US trade, academic, and mainstream publishing houses. Other US based authors who either write in Spanish or who regularly use Spanish phrases in their works include: Julia Álvarez, Martín Espada, Nicholasa Mohr, Cristina García, Óscar Hijuelos, Cherríe Moraga, Ricardo Pau-Llosa, Gustavo Pérez Firmat, and Ilan Stavans.\n\nAmerican novels in Spanish and Spanglish \n\nPiri Thomas's Down These Mean Streets and Giannina Braschi's Yo-Yo Boing! are groundbreaking American novels for their prominent use Spanish and Spanglish and their unflinching description of urban life for Hispanic Americans. Piri Thomas was pressured to self-translate Spanish passages into English for the publication of his 1967 novel at his publisher’s insistence that the text not alienate monolingual English readers. Nonetheless, the book was banned by New York City public schools because it was perceived, as reported by The New York Times in 1971, as \"a threat to their values. Many... who assail 'Down These Mean Streets' indicate they do so not so much because it portrays life in New York's Puerto Rican community as because the portrayal includes vulgarities and descriptions of sexual acts\". Three decades years later, Giannina Braschi's 1998 novel, featured entire chapters written in untranslated Spanish and extensive dramatic dialogues that mixed Spanish, Spanglish, and English. Though Braschi's bilingual work also used vulgarities and addressed social justice issues such as domestic violence, racism, discrimination, sexual harassment directly, Yo-Yo Boing! book was not censored. However, critic Christopher Gonzalez observes that non-Spanish speaking reviewers considered the work 'an affront'\". Gonzalez notes that bilingual reviewers, such as David William Foster in Review of Contemporary Fiction praised Yo-Yo Boing! for its \"superb exploration for the lived experiences of Hispanics.\" Other critics such as Harold Augenbraum, Ilan Stavans, Doris Sommer, and Adriana Estill have used the phrase \"a tour de force\" to describe the novel\n\nAmerican poetry in Spanish and Spanglish \n\nMajor Spanish poets who spent time in the United States and wrote poetry in Spanish during their stay include Federico García Lorca who wrote his best known works, including Poeta en Nueva York in New York City in 1929. Though Lorca only stayed in the United States for 10 months, the work is considered both Spanish and American literature given the subject of New York City. While in exile in San Juan, Puerto Rico after the Spanish civil war, Nobel Prize laureate Juan Ramón Jiménez wrote Voces de mi copla (Voices of My Song) and Animal de fondo (Animal of Depth) in the 1940s.\n\nProminent American-born poets who wrote in Spanish about life in American cities include Pedro Pietri (Puerto Rican Obituary), Giannina Braschi (El imperio de los sueños/Empire of Dreams, 1988), Julia de Burgos (Yo Misma Fui Mi Ruta (I Was My Own Path), and Ana Castillo. Williams Carlos Williams used Spanish titles and flourishes in his poetry but did not write publish extensive works in Spanish.\n\nSince 2012, when University of Iowa established the country's first MFA Spanish Creative Writings Program, other American universities such as Hofstra and New York University has also established MFA programs in Spanish.\n\nAnthologies and magazines \nOrganized by decades, these publications debuted new work by US based Latino/a and Latinx authors who wrote in Spanish and Spanglish.\n\n1970s \n\n Revista Chicano-Riqueña was the first national magazine of US Hispanic literature in Spanish. It was first published in 1973 and co-edited by Nicolás Kanellos and Luis Dávila to provide a much-needed outlet for the creative work of young Hispanic writers, who were not yet picked up by the mainstream press, including Lorna Dee Cervantes, Sandra Cisneros, Giannina Braschi, Gary Soto, Luis Raphael Sanchez, and Ana Castillo.\n\n1980s\n\n This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color is a feminist anthology edited by leaders of Chicana literature, Cherríe Moraga and Gloria E. Anzaldúa. First published in 1981 by Persephone Press, the work included Latina authors who wrote in Spanish and Spanglish, among others.\n La ciudad prestada poesía latinoamericana posmoderna en Nueva York edited by Pedro López Adorno featured early works by Postmodern Latino/a/x authors.\n\n1990s\n\n Floricanto Si!: A Collection of Latina Poetry co-edited by Bryce Milligan and Angela de Hoyos featured lyrical and prose poems by Marjorie Agosin, Julia Alvarez, Giannina Braschi, Anna Castillo, Sandra Cisneros, Rosario Ferre, Carmen Gimenez Smith, Lucha Corpi, and Lorna Dee Cervantes, among others. Select poems were written in Spanish or used Spanglish. (Penguin, 1998)\n\n2000s \nSe habla español: Voces Latinas in the US (2000). McOndo authors Edmundo Paz Soldan and Alberto Fuguet co-edited this anthology of short stories in Spanish by Iván Thays (Peru), Ignacio Padilla (Mexico), Jorge Volpi (Mexico), Junot Díaz (Dominican-American), Alvaro Enrigue (Mexico), Silvana Paternostro (Colombia), Mayra Santos-Febres (Puerto Rico), Ilan Stavans (Mexico), Lina Meruane (Chile), Rodrigo Rey Rosa (Guatemala), Ángel Lozada (Puerto Rico), and Giannina Braschi (Puerto Rico). The anthology marked the New Latino Boom of Spanish writing in the United States.\n\n2010 to 2020\n\n The Norton Anthology of Latino Literature, a 2,700-page compendium that includes two hundred authors from the colonial period (the earliest author included is Fray Bartolomé de las Casas) to the present time. Among the featured writers are: Daniel Alarcón, Julia Alvarez, Giannina Braschi, Julia de Burgos, Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, Junot Díaz, Cristina García (journalist), Oscar Hijuelos, José Martí, Octavio Paz, Rolando Pérez (Cuban poet), Esmeralda Santiago, and William Carlos Williams. \nThe FSG Book of Latin American Poetry, (2011) a 728-page volume that contextualizes the history of Latin American poets including those who migrated to the US. Featured poets: José Martí, Rubén Darío, César Vallejo, Oswald de Andrade, Pablo Neruda, Violeta Parra, Nicanor Parra, Gabriela Mistral, Luis Palés Matos, Octavio Paz, Giannina Braschi, and Roberto Bolaño.\n Abriendo Caminos/Breaking Ground: Anthology of Puerto Rican Women Writers in New York 1980-2012 edited by Myrna Nieves. Featured poets: Giannina Braschi and Sandra María Esteves.\nCrisis by Jorge Majfud is one of contemporary classics of the new Latino literature.\nEscribir en Nueva York (2014) edited by Claudia Salazar. This is an anthology of Hispanic American, Latino/a, and Latinx narrators who have lived in New York and written stories in Spanish. It was published in Spanish and includes short stories by: Carmen Boullosa, Lorea Canales (México), Giannina Braschi (Puerto Rico), Sergio Chejfec, Federico Falco, Sylvia Molloy (Argentina), Isaac Goldemberg (Perú), Mónica Ríos, Carlos Labbé, Diamela Eltit (Chile), Jaime Manrique (Colombia), and José Manuel Prieto (Cuba).\n\nLatino authors\nU.S. based authors who write and publish stories, poetry, novels, or theater in Spanish include: \n Giannina Braschi\n Ariel Dorfman \n Isabel Allende \n Jorge Majfud \n Junot Díaz\n Mayra Santos-Febres \n René Marqués\n Lina Meruane\n Manuel Ramos Otero\n Pedro Pietri\n Miguel Piñero \n Reinaldo Arenas \n Tomás Eloy Martínez\n Rolando Hinojosa-Smith\n Tomás Rivera\n Ilan Stavans\n Miguel Méndez\n Daína Chaviano\n Carlos Labbé\n Marco Katz\n Julio César Aguilar\n\nUS publishers of Spanish language books \n\n Latin American Literary Review Press\n Bilingual Review Press\n Alfaguara USA\n Artepoética Press\n AmazonCrossing\n Arte Público Press\n Floricanto Press\n Jade Publishing \n Restless Books\n Random House Español\n Sangría\n HarperCollins's Rayo \n Harlequin Bianca and Harlequin Deseo\n\nSpanish bookstores in the US \n\n LA Libreria\n Lectorum\n Libros in Español \n Libreria Barco De Papel\n Libreria Giron\n Libreria Tesoros\n Tertulia\n\nSee also\nPuerto Rican literature\nSpanish language in the United States\nSpanish-language literature\nSpanglish\nChicano literature\nChicano poetry\nNuyorican\nHispanic and Latino literature\nLatino literature\nLatino poetry\n\nReferences \n\nCategory:American literature\n \nCategory:American poetry\nCategory:Spanish language in the United States\nCategory:American literature in Spanish", "title": "American literature in Spanish" }, { "text": "American poetry refers to the poetry of the United States. It arose first as efforts by American colonists to add their voices to English poetry in the 17th century, well before the constitutional unification of the Thirteen Colonies (although a strong oral tradition often likened to poetry already existed among Native American societies). Most of the early colonists' work was similar to contemporary English models of poetic form, diction, and theme. However, in the 19th century, an American idiom began to emerge. By the later part of that century, poets like Walt Whitman were winning an enthusiastic audience abroad and had joined the English-language avant-garde.\n\nMuch of the American poetry published between 1910 and 1945 remains lost in the pages of small circulation political periodicals, particularly the ones on the far left, destroyed by librarians during the 1950s McCarthy era. Modernist poets like Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot (who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948) are often cited as creative and influential English-language poets of the first half of the 20th century. African American and women poets were published and read widely in the same period but were often somewhat prejudicially marginalized. By the 1960's, the Beat Movement and Black Mountain poets had developed new models for poetry and their contemporaries influenced the British Poetry Revival. Towards the end of the millennium, consideration of American poetry had diversified, as scholars placed an increased emphasis on poetry by women, African Americans, Hispanics, Chicanos, Native Americans, and other ethnic groups. Louise Glück is the only contemporary American writer writing primarily poetry who has been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, while Bob Dylan, a folk-rock songwriter and poet, has been awarded the same prize.\n\nPoetry in the colonies\nAs England's contact with the Americas increased after the 1490s, English explorers sometimes included verse with their descriptions of the New World up through 1650, the year of Anne Bradstreet's \"The Tenth Muse\", which was written in America (most likely in Ipswich, Massachusetts or North Andover, Massachusetts) and printed and distributed in London by her brother-in-law, Rev. John Woodbridge. There are 14 such writers whom might be termed American poets (they had been to America and to different degrees, written poems or verses about the place). Early examples include a 1616 \"testimonial poem\" on the \"sterling and warlike\" character of Captain John Smith (in Barbour, ed. \"Works\") and Rev. William Morrell's 1625 \"Nova Anglia\" or \"New England\", which is a rhymed catalog of everything from American weather to his glimpses of Native American women. Then in May 1627, Thomas Morton of Merrymount – a Devon-born West Country outdoorsman, attorney at law, man of letters and colonial adventurer – raised a maypole to celebrate and foster success at his fur-trading settlement and nailed a \"Poem\" and \"Song\" (one a densely literary manifesto on how European and Native people came together there and must keep doing so for a successful America; the other a light \"drinking song\" also full of deeper American implications). These were published in book form along with other examples of Morton's American poetry in \"New English Canaan\" (1637); and based on the criteria of \"First,\" \"American\" and \"Poetry,\" they make Morton (and not Anne Bradstreet) America's first poet in English.\n\nOne of the first recorded poets of the Thirteen Colonies was Anne Bradstreet (1612 – 1672), who remains one of the early known women poets who wrote in English.\nThe poems she published during her lifetime address religious and political themes. She also wrote tender evocations of home, family life and of her love for her husband, many of which remained unpublished until the 20th century.\n\nEdward Taylor (1645–1729) wrote poems expounding Puritan virtues in a highly wrought metaphysical style that can be seen as typical of the early colonial period.\n\nThis narrow focus on the Puritan ethic was, understandably, the dominant note of most of the poetry written in the colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. The earliest \"secular\" poetry published in New England was by Samuel Danforth in his \"almanacks\" for 1647–1649, published at Cambridge; these included \"puzzle poems\" as well as poems on caterpillars, pigeons, earthquakes, and hurricanes. Of course, being a Puritan minister as well as a poet, Danforth never ventured far from a spiritual message.\n\nA distinctly American lyric voice of the colonial period was Phillis Wheatley, a slave whose book \"Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral,\" was published in 1773. She was one of the best-known poets of her day, at least in the colonies, and her poems were typical of New England culture at the time, meditating on religious and classical ideas.\n\nThe 18th century saw an increasing emphasis on America as fit subject matter for its poets. This trend is most evident in the works of Philip Freneau (1752–1832), who is notable for the unusually sympathetic attitude to Native Americans shown in his writings, which had been interpreted as being reflective of his skepticism toward American culture. However, as might be expected from what was essentially provincial writing, this late colonial-era poetry is generally somewhat old-fashioned in form and syntax, deploying the means and methods of Pope and Gray in the era of Blake and Burns. The work of Rebecca Hammond Lard (1772–1855), although quite old, still apply to life in today's world. She writes about nature, not only the nature of environment, but the nature of humans.\n\nOn the whole, the development of poetry in the American colonies mirrors the development of the colonies themselves. The early poetry is dominated by the need to preserve the integrity of the Puritan ideals that created the settlement in the first place. As the colonists grew in confidence, the poetry they wrote increasingly reflected their drive towards independence. This shift in subject matter was not reflected in the mode of writing which tended to be conservative, to say the least. This can be seen as a product of the physical remove at which American poets operated from the center of English-language poetic developments in London.\n\nPostcolonial poetry\n\nThe first significant poet of the independent United States was William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878), whose great contribution was to write rhapsodic poems on the grandeur of prairies and forests. However, the first internationally acclaimed poet was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882) who nearly surpassed Alfred, Lord Tennyson in international popularity, and, alongside William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., formed the Fireside Poets (known as the Schoolroom or Household Poets). The Fireside Poets were a group of 19th-century American poets from New England. The name \"Fireside Poets\" is derived from that popularity: their general adherence to poetic convention (standard forms, regular meter, and rhymed stanzas) made their body of work particularly suitable for being memorized and recited in school and at home, where it was a source of entertainment for families gathered around the fire. The poets' primary subjects were the domestic life, mythology, and politics of the United States, in which several of the poets were directly involved.\n\nOther notable poets to emerge in the early and middle 19th century include Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), Sidney Lanier (1842–1881), and James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916). As might be expected, the works of all these writers are united by a common search for a distinctive American voice to distinguish them from their British counterparts. To this end, they explored the landscape and traditions of their native country as materials for their poetry.\n\nThe most significant example of this tendency may be The Song of Hiawatha by Longfellow. This poem uses Native American tales collected by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who was superintendent of Indian affairs for Michigan from 1836 to 1841. Longfellow imitated the meter of the Finnish epic poem Kalevala, possibly to avoid British models. The resulting poem, while a popular success, did not provide a model for future U.S. poets.\n\nAs time went on, the influence of the transcendentalism of the poet/philosophers Emerson and Thoreau increasingly influenced American poetry. Transcendentalism was the distinctly American strain of English Romanticism that began with William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Emerson, arguably one of the founders of transcendentalism, had visited England as a young man to meet these two English poets, as well as Thomas Carlyle. While Romanticism transitioned into Victorianism in post-reform England, it became energetic in America from the 1830s through to the Civil War.\n\nEdgar Allan Poe was a unique poet during this time, brooding over themes of the macabre and dark, connecting his poetry and aesthetic vision to his philosophical, psychological, moral, and cosmological theories. In the 20th century, American poet William Carlos Williams said of Poe that \"in him American literature is anchored, in him alone, on solid ground.\"\n\nWhitman and Dickinson\n\nThe final emergence of a truly indigenous English-language poetry in the United States was the work of two poets, Walt Whitman (1819–1892) and Emily Dickinson (1830–1886). On the surface, these two poets could not have been less alike. Whitman's long lines, derived from the metric of the King James Version of the Bible, and his democratic inclusiveness stand in stark contrast with Dickinson's concentrated phrases and short lines and stanzas, derived from Protestant hymnals.\n\nWhat links them is their common connection to Emerson (a passage from whom Whitman printed on the second edition of Leaves of Grass), and the daring originality of their visions. These two poets can be said to represent the birth of two major American poetic idioms—the free metric and direct emotional expression of Whitman, and the gnomic obscurity and irony of Dickinson—both of which would profoundly stamp the American poetry of the 20th century.\n\nThe development of these idioms, as well as conservative reactions against them, can be traced through the works of poets such as Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869–1935), Stephen Crane (1871–1900), Robert Frost (1874–1963), Carl Sandburg (1878–1967), and Edna St. Vincent Millay (1892-1950). Frost, in particular, is a commanding figure, who aligned strict poetic meter, particularly blank verse and terser lyrical forms, with a \"vurry Amur'k'n\" (as Pound put it) idiom. He successfully revitalized a rural tradition with many English antecedents from his beloved Golden Treasury and produced an oeuvre of major importance, rivaling or even excelling in achievement that of the key modernists and making him, within the full sweep of traditional modern English-language verse, a peer of Hardy and Yeats. But from Whitman and Dickinson the outlines of a distinctively new organic poetic tradition, less indebted to English formalism than Frost's work, were clear to see, and they would come to full fruition in the 1910s and 1920s. As Colin Falck noted, \"To the Whitmanian heritage of cadenced free verse she [Millay] brings the greater reflective tightness of Robinson Jeffers.\"\n\nModernism and after\n\nThis new idiom, combined with a study of 19th-century French poetry, formed the basis of American input into 20th-century English-language poetic modernism. Ezra Pound (1885–1972) and T.S. Eliot (1888–1965) were the leading figures at the time, with their rejection of traditional poetic form and meter and of Victorian diction. Both steered American poetry toward greater density, difficulty, and opacity, with an emphasis on techniques such as fragmentation, ellipsis, allusion, juxtaposition, ironic and shifting personae, and mythic parallelism. Pound, in particular, opened up American poetry to diverse influences, including the traditional poetries of China and Japan.\n\nNumerous other poets made important contributions at this revolutionary juncture, including Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), Wallace Stevens (1879–1955), William Carlos Williams (1883–1963), Hilda Doolittle (H.D.) (1886–1961), Marianne Moore (1887–1972), E.E. Cummings (1894–1962), and Hart Crane (1899–1932). The cerebral and skeptical Romantic Stevens helped revive the philosophical lyric, and Williams was to become exemplary for many later poets because he, more than any of his peers, contrived to marry spoken American English with free verse rhythms. Cummings remains notable for his experiments with typography and evocation of a spontaneous, childlike vision of reality.\n\nWhereas these poets were unambiguously aligned with high modernism, other poets active in the United States in the first third of the 20th century were not. Among the more important of the latter were those who were associated with what came to be known as the New Criticism. These included John Crowe Ransom (1888–1974), Allen Tate (1899–1979), and Robert Penn Warren (1905–1989). Other poets of the era, such as Archibald MacLeish (1892–1982), experimented with modernist techniques but were drawn toward traditional modes of writing. Still others, such as Robinson Jeffers (1887–1962), adopted Modernist freedom while remaining aloof from Modernist factions and programs.\n\nIn addition, there were still other, early 20th-century poets who maintained or were forced to maintain a peripheral relationship to high modernism, likely due to the racially charged themes of their work. They include Countee Cullen (1903–1946), Alice Dunbar Nelson (1875–1935), Gwendolyn Bennett (1902–1981), Langston Hughes (1902–1967), Claude McKay (1889–1948), Jean Toomer (1894–1967), and other African American poets of the Harlem Renaissance.\n\nThe modernist torch was carried in the 1930s mainly by the group of poets known as the Objectivists. These included Louis Zukofsky (1904–1978), Charles Reznikoff (1894–1976), George Oppen (1908–1984), Carl Rakosi (1903–2004) and, later, Lorine Niedecker (1903–1970). Kenneth Rexroth, who was published in the Objectivist Anthology, was, along with Madeline Gleason (1909–1973), a forerunner of the San Francisco Renaissance. Many of the Objectivists came from urban communities of new immigrants, and this new vein of experience and language enriched the growing American idiom.\n\nWorld War II and after\nArchibald Macleish called John Gillespie Magee, Jr. \"the first poet of the war\".\n\nWorld War II saw the emergence of a new generation of poets, many of whom were influenced by Wallace Stevens and Richard Eberhart (1904–2005).\nKarl Shapiro (1913–2000), Randall Jarrell (1914–1965) and James Dickey (1923–1997) all wrote poetry that sprang from experience of active service. Together with Elizabeth Bishop (1911–1979), Theodor Seuss Geisel (Dr. Seuss) (1904-1991), Theodore Roethke (1908–1963) and Delmore Schwartz (1913–1966), they formed a generation of poets that in contrast to the preceding generation often wrote in traditional verse forms.\n\nAfter the war, a number of new poets and poetic movements emerged. John Berryman (1914–1972) and Robert Lowell (1917–1977) were the leading lights in what was to become known as the Confessional movement, which was to have a strong influence on later poets like Sylvia Plath (1932–1963) and Anne Sexton (1928–1974). Though both Berryman and Lowell were closely acquainted with Modernism, they were mainly interested in exploring their own experiences as subject matter and a style that Lowell referred to as \"cooked\" – that is, consciously and carefully crafted.\n\nIn contrast, the Beat poets, who included such figures as Jack Kerouac (1922–1969), Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), Gregory Corso (1930–2001), Joanne Kyger (1934-2017), Gary Snyder (born 1930), Diane Di Prima (1934-2020), Amiri Baraka (1934-2014) and Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1919-2020), were distinctly raw. Reflecting, sometimes in an extreme form, the open, relaxed and searching society of the 1950s and 1960s, the Beats pushed the boundaries of the American idiom in the direction of demotic speech perhaps further than any other group.\n\nAround the same time, the Black Mountain poets, under the leadership of Charles Olson (1910–1970), were working at Black Mountain College in North Carolina. These poets were exploring the possibilities of open form but in a much more programmatic way than the Beats. The main poets involved were Robert Creeley (1926–2005), Robert Duncan (1919–1988), Denise Levertov (1923–1997), Ed Dorn (1929–1999), Paul Blackburn (1926–1971), Hilda Morley (1916–1998), John Wieners (1934–2002), and Larry Eigner (1927–1996). They based their approach to poetry on Olson's 1950 essay Projective Verse, in which he called for a form based on the line, a line based on human breath and a mode of writing based on perceptions juxtaposed so that one perception leads directly to another. This in turn influenced the works of Michael McClure (1932-2020), Kenneth Irby (1936–2015), and Ronald Johnson (1935–1998), poets from the Midwestern United States who moved to San Francisco, and in so doing extended the influence of the Black Mountain school geographically westward; their participation in the poetic circles of San Francisco can be seen as partly forming the basis for what would later be known as \"Language poetry.\"\n\nOther poets often associated with the Black Mountain are Cid Corman (1924–2004) and Theodore Enslin (1925-2011), but they are perhaps correctly viewed as direct descendants of the Objectivists. One-time Black Mountain College resident, composer John Cage (1912–1992), along with Jackson Mac Low (1922–2004), wrote poetry based on chance or aleatory techniques. Inspired by Zen, Dada and scientific theories of indeterminacy, they were to prove to be important influences on the 1970s U.S avant-garde.\n\nThe Beats and some of the Black Mountain poets often are considered to have been responsible for the San Francisco Renaissance. However, as previously noted, San Francisco had become a hub of experimental activity from the 1930s thanks to Kenneth Rexroth and Gleason. Other poets involved in this scene included Charles Bukowski (1920–1994) and Jack Spicer (1925–1965). These poets sought to combine a contemporary spoken idiom with inventive formal experiment.\n\nJerome Rothenberg (born 1931) is well known for his work in ethnopoetics, but he was the coiner of the term \"deep image\", which he used to describe the work of poets like Robert Kelly (born 1935), Diane Wakoski (born 1937) and Clayton Eshleman (1935-2021). Deep Image poetry was inspired by the symbolist theory of correspondences, in particular the work of Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. The term later was popularized by Robert Bly. The Deep Image movement was the most international, accompanied by a flood of new translations from Latin American and European poets such as Pablo Neruda, César Vallejo and Tomas Tranströmer. Some of the poets who became associated with Deep Image are Galway Kinnell, James Wright, Mark Strand and W.S. Merwin. Both Merwin and California poet Gary Snyder became known for their interest in environmental and ecological concerns.\n\nThe Small Press poets (sometimes called the mimeograph movement) are another influential and eclectic group of poets who surfaced in the San Francisco Bay Area in the late 1950s and are still active today. Fiercely independent editors, who were also poets, edited and published low-budget periodicals and chapbooks of emerging poets who might otherwise have gone unnoticed. This work ranged from formal to experimental. Gene Fowler, A.D. Winans, Hugh Fox, street poet and activist Jack Hirschman, Paul Foreman, Jim Cohn, John Bennett, and F.A. Nettelbeck are among the many poets who are still actively continuing the Small Press Poets tradition. Many have turned to the new medium of the Web for its distribution capabilities.\n\nLos Angeles poets: Leland Hickman (1934–1991), Holly Prado (1938-2019), Harry Northup (born 1940), Wanda Coleman (1946-2013),\nMichael C. Ford (born 1939), Kate Braverman (1949-2019), Eloise Klein Healy (born 1943), Bill Mohr, Laurel Ann Bogen, met at Beyond Baroque\nLiterary Arts Center, in Venice, California. They are lyric poets, heavily autobiographical; some are practitioners of the experimental long poem. Their predecessors in Los Angeles were Ann Stanford (1916–1987), Thomas McGrath (1916–1990), Jack Hirschman (1933-2021). Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center, created by George Drury Smith in 1968, is the central literary arts center in the Los Angeles area.\n\nJust as the West Coast had the San Francisco Renaissance and the Small Press Movement, the East Coast produced the New York School. This group aimed to write poetry that spoke directly of everyday experience in everyday language and produced a poetry of urbane wit and elegance that contrasts with the work of their Beat contemporaries (though in other ways, including their mutual respect for American slang and disdain for academic or \"cooked\" poetry, they were similar). Leading members of the group include John Ashbery (1927-2017), Frank O'Hara (1926–1966), Kenneth Koch (1925–2002), James Schuyler (1923–1991), Barbara Guest (1920–2006), Ted Berrigan (1934–1983), Anne Waldman (born 1945) and Bernadette Mayer (born 1945). Of this group, John Ashbery, in particular, has emerged as a defining force in recent poetics, and he is regarded by many as the most important American poet since World War II.\n\nAmerican poetry today\n\nThe last 40 years of poetry in the United States have brought new groups, schools, and trends into vogue. The 1970s saw a revival of interest in surrealism, with the more prominent poets working in this field being Andrei Codrescu (born in 1946), Russell Edson (1935-2014) and Maxine Chernoff (born in 1952). Performance poetry emerged from the Beat and hippie happenings, the talk-poems of David Antin (1932-2016), and ritual events performed by Rothenberg, to become a serious poetic stance which embraces multiculturalism and a range of poets from a multiplicity of cultures. This mirrored a general growth of interest in poetry by African Americans including Gwendolyn Brooks (1917–2000), Maya Angelou (1928–2014), Ishmael Reed (born in 1938), Nikki Giovanni (born in 1943), and Detrick Hughes (born in 1966).\n\nAnother group of poets, the Language school (or L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E, after the magazine that bears that name), have continued and extended the Modernist and Objectivist traditions of the 1930s. Some poets associated with the group are Lyn Hejinian, Ron Silliman, Bob Perelman and Leslie Scalapino. Their poems—fragmentary, purposefully ungrammatical, sometimes mixing texts from different sources and idioms—can be by turns abstract, lyrical, and highly comic.\n\nThe Language school includes a high proportion of women, which mirrors another general trend—the rediscovery and promotion of poetry written both by earlier and contemporary women poets. A number of the more prominent African American poets to emerge are women, and other prominent women writers include Adrienne Rich (1929–2012), Jean Valentine (1934–2020), and Amy Gerstler (born in 1956).\n\nAlthough poetry in traditional classical forms had mostly fallen out of fashion by the 1960s, the practice was kept alive by poets of great formal virtuosity like James Merrill (1926–1995), author of the epic poem The Changing Light at Sandover, Richard Wilbur, and British-born San Francisco poet Thom Gunn. The 1980s and 1990s saw a re-emergent interest in traditional form, sometimes dubbed New Formalism or Neoformalism. These include poets such as Molly Peacock, Brad Leithauser, Dana Gioia, Donna J. Stone, Timothy Steele, Alicia Ostriker, and Marilyn Hacker. Some of the more outspoken New Formalists have declared that the return to rhyme and more fixed meters to be the new avant-garde. Their critics sometimes associate this traditionalism with the conservative politics of the Reagan era, noting the recent appointment of Gioia as chair of the National Endowment for the Arts. \n\nHaiku has attracted a community of American poets dedicated to its development as a poetic genre in English. The extremely terse Japanese haiku first influenced the work of Ezra Pound and the Imagists, and post-war poets such as Kerouac and Richard Wright wrote substantial bodies of original haiku in English. Other poets such as Ginsberg, Snyder, Wilbur, Merwin, and many others have at least dabbled with haiku, often simply as a syllabic form. Starting in 1963, with the founding of the journal American Haiku, poets such as Cor van den Heuvel, Nick Virgilio, Raymond Roseliep, John Wills, Anita Virgil, Gary Hotham, Marlene Mountain, Wally Swist, Peggy Willis Lyles, George Swede, Michael Dylan Welch, Jim Kacian, and others have created significant oeuvres of haiku poetry, evincing continuities with both Transcendentalism and Imagism and often maintaining an anti-anthropocentric environmental focus on nature during an unparalleled age of habitat destruction and human alienation.\n\nThe last two decades have seen a revival of the Beat poetry spoken word tradition, in the form of the poetry slam. Chicago construction worker Marc Smith turned urban poetry performance into audience-judged competitions in 1984. Poetry slams emphasize a style of writing that is topical, provocative and easily understood. Poetry slam opened the door for a generation of writers and spoken word performers, including Alix Olson, Apollo Poetry, Taylor Mali, and Saul Williams, and inspired hundreds of open mics across the U.S.\n\nPoetry has become a significant presence on the Web, with a number of new online journals, 'zines, blogs and other websites. An example of the fluid nature of web-based poetry communities is, \"thisisbyus, now defunct, yet this community of writers continues and expands on Facebook and has allowed both novice and professional poets to explore writing styles.\n\nDuring the contemporary time frame, there were major independent voices who defied links to well-known American poetic movements and forms such as poet and literary critic Robert Peters, greatly influenced by the Victorian English poet Robert Browning’s poetic monologues, became reputable for executing his monologic personae like his Mad King Ludwig II of Bavaria into popular one-man performances. Another example is Louise Glück who cites Emily Dickinson and William Blake as her influences. Critics and scholars have discussed whether or not she is a confessional poet. Sylvia Plath may be another of her influences.\n\nThe Library of Congress produces a guide to American poetry inspired by the 9/11 attacks, including anthologies and books dedicated to the subject.\n\nRobert Pinsky has a special place in American poetry as he was the poet laureate of the United States for three terms. No other poet has been so honored. His \"Favorite Poem Project\" is unique, inviting all citizens to share their all-time favorite poetic composition and why they love it. He is a professor at Boston University and the poetry editor at Slate. \"Poems to Read\" is a demonstration of his poetic vision, joining the word and the common man.\n\nWith increased consciousness of society's impact on natural ecosystems, it is inexorable that such themes would become integrated into poetry. The foundations of poems about nature are found in the work of Henry David Thoreau and Walt Whitman. The modern ecopoetics movement was pioneered by Jack Collom, who taught a dedicated course on ecopoetics at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado for 17 years. Contemporary poetry on environmental sustainability is found among the works of J.S. Shipman, for example, in, \"Calling on You.\"\n\nThe growth in the popularity of graduate creative writing programs has given poets the opportunity to make a living as teachers. This increased professionalization of poetry, combined with the reluctance of most major book and magazine presses to publish poetry, has meant that, for the foreseeable future at least, poetry may have found its new home in the academy and in small independent journals. \nA prominent example is Nobel Laureate Louise Glück who teaches at Yale University.\n\nSee also\n\n Academy of American Poets\n Biker Poetry\n Chicano poetry\n Cowboy poetry\n Haiku in English\n Irish language outside Ireland\n List of national poetries\n List of poets from the United States\n Nuyorican Poetry\n Proletarian poetry\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \nBaym, Nina, et al. (eds.): The Norton Anthology of American Literature (Shorter sixth edition, 2003). \nCavitch, Max, American Elegy: The Poetry of Mourning from the Puritans to Whitman (University of Minnesota Press, 2007). \nHoover, Paul (ed): Postmodern American Poetry - A Norton Anthology (1994). \nMoore, Geoffrey (ed): The Penguin Book of American Verse (Revised edition 1983) \nShipman, J.S. 2005. \"Calling on You\"In: Surrender to the Moon. International Library of Poetry. Watermark Press. Owings Mills, MD. P 3.\n\nExternal links \n\nCary Nelson, Ed. (1999–2002) Poet biographies at Modern American Poetry. Retrieved December 5, 2004\nPoet biographies at the Academy of American Poets Captured December 10, 2004\nPoet biographies at the Electronic Poetry Centre Captured December 10, 2004\nVarious anthologies of American verse at Bartleby.com Captured December 10, 2004\nPoetry Resource a website for students of poetry\n\n \nCategory:Poetry by country", "title": "American poetry" }, { "text": "Caribbean poetry is vast and rapidly evolving field of poetry written by people from the Caribbean region and the diaspora.\n\nCaribbean poetry generally refers to a myriad of poetic forms, spanning epic, lyrical verse, prose poems, dramatic poetry and oral poetry, composed in Caribbean territories regardless of language. It is most often, however, written in English, Spanish, Spanglish, French, Hindustani, Dutch, or any number of creoles. Poetry in English from the former British West Indies has been referred to as Anglo-Caribbean poetry or West Indian poetry.\n\nSince the mid-1970s, Caribbean poetry has gained increasing visibility with the publication in Britain and North America of several anthologies. Over the decades the canon has shifted and expanded, drawing both on oral and literary traditions and including more women poets and politically charged works. Caribbean writers, performance poets, newspaper poets, singer-songwriters have created a popular art form, a poetry heard by audiences all over the world. Caribbean oral poetry shares the vigour of the written tradition.\n\nAmong the most prominent Caribbean poets whose works are widely studied (and translated into other languages) are: Derek Walcott (who won the 1992 Nobel Prize for Literature), Kamau Brathwaite, Edouard Glissant, Giannina Braschi, Lorna Goodinson, Aimé Fernand Césaire, Linton Kwesi Johnson, Kwame Dawes, and Claudia Rankine.\n\nCommon themes include: exile and return to the motherland; the relationship of language to nation; colonialism and postcolonialism; self-determination and liberty; racial identity.\n\nCaribbean epic poetry \n\nDerek Walcott's Omeros (1990) is one of the most renown epic poems of the 20th century and of the Caribbean. The work is divided into seven books containing sixty-four chapters. Most of the poem is composed in a three-line form that is reminiscent of the terza rima form that Dante used for The Divine Comedy. The work, referencing Homer and other characters from the Iliad, refers to Greek, Roman, and American slavery. The narrative arch of the epic takes place on the island of St. Lucia, where Walcott was born and raised, but includes imaginings of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as travels to modern day Lisbon, London, Dublin, Toronto.\n\nGiannina Braschi's Empire of Dreams (1988) is a postmodern Caribbean epic composed of six books of poetry that blend elements of eclogues, epigrams, lyrics, prose poem, and manifesto. Braschi's United States of Banana (2011) is a geopolitical tragic-comedy about the fall of the American empire, the liberation of Puerto Rico, and the unification of the Caribbean isles. Blending elements of poetry, lyrical essay, and dramatic dialogues, this postmodern epic tackles the subjects of global debt, labor abuse, and environmental crises on the rise.\n\nAnthony Kellman created the Caribbean poetic form Tuk Verse, which incorporates melodic and rhythmic elements of Barbadian indigenous folk music called Tuk. His 2008 book Limestone: An Epic Poem of Barbados is the first published epic poem of Barbados.\n\nCaribbean poets by country\nGrouped by territory of birth or upbringing.\n\nAnguilla\n\n Bankie Banx\n\nBarbados\n\n Kamau Brathwaite\nFrank Collymore\n George Lamming\n Anthony Kellman\n Paterika Hengreaves (Patricia Hendy)\n Claudia Rankine\n\nCuba\n\n Roberto Fernández Retamar\n Nicolás Guillén\n Lezama Lima\n José Martí\n Nancy Morejon\n Jorge Enrique González Pacheco\n\nDominican Republic\n\n Rafael Nino Féliz\n Blas Jiménez\n Pedro Mir\n Chiqui Vicioso\n\nGuyana\n\n John Agard\n Martin Carter\n Mahadai Das\n Mark McWatt\n Grace Nichols\n\nHaiti\n\n René Depestre\n Félix Morisseau-Leroy \n Jacques Roumain\n\nJamaica\n\n Louise Bennett\n Jean \"Binta\" Breeze\n Michelle Cliff\n Kwame Dawes\n Lorna Goodison\n Ishion Hutchinson\n Linton Kwesi Johnson\n Una Marson\n Claude McKay\n Kei Miller\n Mutabaruka\n Oku Onuora\n Claudia Rankine\n Olive Senior\n Mikey Smith\n\nMartinique\n\n Nicole Cage\n Aimé Césaire\n Edouard Glissant\n\nMontserrat\n\n Howard Fergus\n E. A. Markham\n Yvonne Weekes\n\nPuerto Rico\n\n Julia de Burgos\n Giannina Braschi\n Luis Pales Matos\n Mara Pastor\n\nSt Lucia\n Adrian Augier\n Kendel Hippolyte\n Derek Walcott\n\nSt Martin\n\n Charles Borromeo Hodge\n Drisana Deborah Jack\n Lasana M. Sekou\n\nSt Vincent and the Grenadines\n\n Shake Keane\n N.C. Marks\n Cecil “Blazer” Williams\n\nThe Bahamas\n\n Marion Bethel\n Christian Campbell (poet)\n Telcine Turner-Rolle\n Nicolette Bethel\n Patricia Glinton-Meicholas\n\nTrinidad & Tobago\n\n Vahni Capildeo\n Anthony Joseph\n John La Rose\n Tricia David\n Lauren K. Alleyne\n M. NourbeSe Philip\n\nFurther reading\n Arnold, James. A History of Literature in the Caribbean v. I and II. Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. (2001)\n Breiner, Laurence A. An Introduction to West Indian Poetry, Cambridge University Press, 1998.\n Brown, Lloyd. West Indian Poetry. Boston: Twayne, 1978.\n Bryan, Beverley. Teaching Caribbean Poetry. London: Routledge, 2014.\n Jenkins, Lee Margaret. The Language of Caribbean Poetry. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004.\n \n Perisic, Alexandra. Precarious Crossings: Immigration, Neoliberalism, and the Atlantic. The Ohio State University Press.(2019)\n\nSelected anthologies\n\n James Berry, Bluefoot Traveller, London: Limestone Publications, 1976.\n Stewart Brown, Caribbean Poetry Now, 1984.\n Paula Burnett, The Penguin Book of Caribbean Verse in English, 1986.\n Stewart Brown, Mervyn Morris, Gordon Rohlehr (eds), Voiceprint: An Anthology of Oral and Related Poetry from the Caribbean, 1989.\n E. A. Markham, Hinterland: Caribbean Poetry from the West Indies and Britain, Newcastle upon Tyne: Bloodaxe, 1989.\n Stewart Brown and Ian McDonald (eds), The Heinemann Book of Caribbean Poetry, 1992.\n Anthony Kellman (ed.), Crossing Water: Contemporary Poetry from the English-Speaking Caribbean, NY: Greenfield Review Press, 1992.\n Stewart Brown, Mark McWatt (eds), The Oxford Book of Caribbean Verse, 2005.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in St. Martin, 2013.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in Anguilla. St. Martin: House of Nehesi Publishers, 2015.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See the Sun – Contemporary Poetry in The Virgin Islands (Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada, Jost Van Dyke). St. Martin: House of Nehesi Publishers, 2016.\n\nSee also\n Caribbean literature\n Dub poetry\n Nation language\n Postcolonial literature\n Cuban literature\n Puerto Rican poetry\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\nCategory:Caribbean culture\nCategory:Poetry", "title": "Caribbean poetry" } ]

[ "Yes, Giannina Braschi studied literature in Madrid, Rome, Paris and London in the 1970s.", "Yes, Giannina Braschi studied literature in Madrid, Rome, Paris and London in the 1970s.", "Yes, Giannina Braschi was influenced by other poets. Her early writings focused on the titans of the Spanish Golden Age, and vanguard poets of Latin America and Spain. She later became obsessed with the dramatic and philosophical works of French, German, Polish, Irish, and Russian authors.", "No, Giannina Braschi's profession was not only writing. Besides being a writer, she was also a professor at various universities, a fashion model during her teen years, a foreign correspondent for Grazie magazine, and a tennis player, having ranked first place in the U.S. Tennis Association's national tournament in Puerto Rico.", "Giannina Braschi played tennis as an adolescent. She achieved recognition when she ranked first place in the U.S. Tennis Association's national tournament in Puerto Rico in 1966, becoming the youngest female tennis player to win the Women's Division on the island.", "Yes, besides being a writer and a tennis player, Giannina Braschi was also a professor at various universities including Rutgers University, City University of New York, and Colgate University. Additionally, she was a foreign correspondent for Grazie magazine (2001-2002), a founding member of the San Juan Children's Choir, and a fashion model during her teen years.", "Giannina Braschi was a professor at Rutgers University, City University of New York, and Colgate University. She was also a foreign correspondent for Grazie magazine, and she was a founding member of the San Juan Children's Choir. The text does not specify for whom she modeled as a teenager.", "The text does not provide specific information about her writing during the time she was involved in these various activities. However, it is mentioned that her early writings in the 1980s were scholarly and focused on titans of the Spanish Golden Age and vanguard poets of Latin America and Spain. She later became interested in the works of French, German, Polish, Irish, and Russian authors and began creating novel-like, experimental works that incorporated mixed-genres and celebrated foreign influences.", "Giannina Braschi's writing style is experimental and mixed-genre. While her early writings were scholarly and focused on the titans of the Spanish Golden Age and vanguard poets of Latin America and Spain, her later works, categorized as novels, are said to be celebratory of foreign influences and are distinguished by their experimental style and format.", "Yes, something interesting about Giannina Braschi is her expressive alignment with foreign authors. In the 50th anniversary edition of Evergreen Review, Braschi stated that she considers herself \"more French than Beckett, Picasso and Gertrude Stein\", believes that she is the \"granddaughter of Alfred Jarry and Antonin Artaud, bastard child of Samuel Beckett and James Joyce, half-sister to Heiner Muller, kissing cousin of Tadeusz Kantor, and lover of Witkiewicz\". This illustrates her deep engagement with and respect for the works of these seminal authors, suggesting a profound, perhaps even familial, connection with their writing and thinking.", "According to the text, Giannina Braschi's work has been influenced by literature from notable authors across multiple nationalities including French, German, Polish, Irish, and Russian authors. She has also been influenced by her experiences as a scholar, a professor, a tennis player, a foreign correspondent, a choir member, and a fashion model." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What was a pivotal work for Giannina?", "How well was this work received?", "Was she influenced by anyone for this work?", "Is there other interesting notes about this work?", "What was the format of this work, was it also experimental?", "What was the subject of the poetry?", "Did she have any other pivotal works?", "How did the critics react to La Comedia?", "What awards did she win for her writing?", "Did she have any more works than those 3?", "How well did the critics receive it?", "Was the book a success?" ]

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[ { "text": "Puerto Rican literature is the body of literature produced by writers of Puerto Rican descent. It evolved from the art of oral storytelling. Written works by the indigenous inhabitants of Puerto Rico were originally prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government.\n\nIt was not until the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, that Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. After the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War and the island was ceded to the United States as a condition of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, writers and poets began to express their opposition of the new colonial rule by writing about patriotic themes.\n\nWith the Puerto Rican diaspora of the early and mid-20th century, and the subsequent rise of the Nuyorican Movement, Puerto Rican literature continued to evolve and many Puerto Ricans have distinguished themselves as authors, poets, novelists, playwrights, and essayists.\n\nEarly history\nThe development of Puerto Rican literature was hampered by the Spanish colonial government, which ruled over Puerto Rico since the early 1500s. The Spanish feared that, through literature, Puerto Rico would develop its own social and cultural identity and eventually seek independence. Written works by the indigenous inhabitants were prohibited and punishable by prison or banishment. Even though the first library in Puerto Rico was established in 1642, in the Convent of San Francisco, access to its books was limited to those who belonged to the religious order. The only people who had access to the libraries and who could afford books were either appointed Spanish government officials or wealthy land owners. The poor had to resort to oral story-telling in what are traditionally known in Puerto Rico as Coplas and Decimas.\n\nThe island's first writers were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island. Among these writers were Father Diego de Torres Vargas, who wrote about the history of Puerto Rico, Father Francisco Ayerra de Santa María, who wrote poems about religious and historical themes, and Juan Ponce de León II, who was commissioned to write a general description of the West Indies.\n\nThe first native-born Puerto Rican governor, Ponce de León II, wrote about Taíno culture, particularly their religious ceremonies and language. He also documented the early exploits of the conquistadors. These works were sent to the National Archives in Sevilla, Spain, where they were kept.\n\nPuerto Rican literary history changed with the arrival of the first printing press from Mexico, in 1806. That same year Juan Rodríguez Calderón (a Spaniard) wrote and published the first book in the island, titled Ocios de la Juventud. In 1851, the Spanish appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Juan de la Pezuela Cevallo, founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. This institution contributed greatly to the intellectual and literary progress of the island. The school licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests. However, only those with government positions and the wealthy benefited from the formation of the institution. The first Puerto Rican writers came from some of the island's wealthiest families, and they were critical of the injustices of the Spanish Crown.\n\n19th century\nIn 1806, the Spanish Colonial Government established \"La Gaceta de Puerto Rico\" (The Puerto Rico Gazette), Puerto Rico's first newspaper. The newspaper was biased in favor of the ideals of the government.\n\nThe first written works in Puerto Rico were influenced by the Romanticism of the time. Journalists were the first writers to express their political views in the newspapers of the day and later in books. Through their books and novels, they illuminated social injustices, which included slavery and poverty. Many of these writers were considered to be dangerous liberals by the colonial government and were banished from the island. An example of this treatment was poet and journalist Francisco Gonzalo Marín, who wrote against the Spanish Crown. Some went to the Dominican Republic, Cuba or New York City where they continued to write about patriotic themes while in exile. The literature of these writers helped fuel the desire of some to revolt against the Spanish government in Puerto Rico, resulting in the failed attempt known as the Grito de Lares in 1868.\n\nThe period between 1868 and 1898 was crucial to the development of Puerto Rican institutions and the birth of a national arts and culture: there was a pro-independence rebellion, colonial reform, the formation of national political parties, the abolition of slavery (in 1873), and a brief period of autonomy. These events coincide with the promotion of a national culture expressed through literary language, music, architecture, and other arts.\n\nWhen the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War in 1898, many members of the Puerto Rican literary class welcomed them, believing that eventually Puerto Rico would be granted independence. Instead, the island was declared a territory of the United States. Many writers and poets expressed their opposition by writing about patriotic themes through their work.\n\nTwentieth-century migration to the United States\n\nDuring the early part of the 20th century, many Puerto Ricans moved to the eastern coast and mid-western parts of the United States in search of a better way of life. Most settled in cities such as New York and Chicago. There they faced ethnic and racial discrimination and other hardships. Jesús Colón, known as the father of the Nuyorican Movement, was discriminated against because he was Black and had difficulty speaking English. He wrote about his experiences, as well as the experiences of other immigrants, becoming among the first Puerto Ricans to do so in English.\n\nOne of his works, A Puerto Rican in New York, preceded the literary movement known as the \"Nuyorican Movement\". Ultimately, the Nuyorican Movement significantly influenced Puerto Rican literature, spurring themes such as cultural identity and discrimination. The goal of the Nuyorican Movement is to maintain the cultural identity of the Puerto Rican people in a foreign land. This circle of intellectuals, writers, poets and playwrights express their experiences as Nuyoricans living in the United States, including those whose works eventually found mainstream audiences and scholarly attention: Nicholasa Mohr (El Bronx), Piri Thomas (Down These Mean Streets), Pedro Pietri (The Masses are Asses), Giannina Braschi (Yo-Yo Boing!), Esmeralda Santiago (When I Was Puerto Rican), and others.\n\nFoundational fiction \n\nProminent 19th century Puerto Rican authors include Manuel A. Alonso, author of El Gíbaro (1849), a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. Eugenio María de Hostos wrote La peregrinación de Bayoán (1863), which used Bartolomé de las Casas as a spring board to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change.\n\nAlejandro Tapia y Rivera ushered in a new age of historiography with the publication of The Historical Library of Puerto Rico. Cayetano Coll y Toste published a historical work that illuminated Taínos culture in The Indo-Antillano Vocabulary is valuable. Manuel Zeno Gandía (1894) wrote La Charca about the mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. Antonio S. Pedreira, described in his work Insularismo the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the U.S. invasion.\n\nA trend in Puerto Rican fiction to narrate urban stories and novels about migration and displacement is jettisoned by Puerto Rican authors who themselves migrate to New York City, including Edgardo Vega Yunqué, author of Omaha Bigelow and Blood Fugues; Giannina Braschi, author of Yo-Yo Boing! and United States of Banana; Pedro Juan Soto, author of Spiks; and Manuel Ramos Otero, author of \"Loca la de la locura.\"\n\nPoetry\n\nEarly poetry\n\nMaría Bibiana Benítez published her first poem \"La Ninfa de Puerto Rico\" in 1832. Her niece was Alejandrina Benítez de Gautier, whose \"Aguinaldo Puertorriqueño,\" published in 1843, gave her the recognition of being one of the island's great poets. Alejandrina's son José Gautier Benítez is considered by many to be Puerto Rico's greatest Romantic-era poet. Lola Rodríguez de Tió wrote the lyrics to \"La Borinqueña,\" which was used by the revolutionists in the Grito de Lares. Poets José de Diego, Virgilio Dávila, Luis Lloréns Torres, Nemesio Canales, Francisco Matos Paoli, Juan Antonio Corretjer, Clemente Soto Vélez and Hugo Margenat were independence advocates who wrote poems with patriotic inspired themes.\n\nNationalism\nIn 1928, Soto Vélez, along with Alfredo Margenat (father of Hugo Margenat), Pedro Carrasquillo, Graciany Miranda Archilla, Fernando González Alberti, Luis Hernández Aquino, Samuel Lugo, Juan Calderón Escobar, and Antonio Cruz Nieves founded the group \"El Atalaya de los Dioses,\" which launched the literary movement known as \"Atalayismo.\" The \"El Grupo Atalaya\" movement sought to connect the poetic/literary world with political action and most of its members, including Soto Vélez became involved with the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. Giannina Braschi's postmodern work United States of Banana (2011) addresses the history of Puerto Rico decolonization efforts and declares the independence of Puerto Rico.\n\nUniversal lyricism\nMercedes Negrón Muñoz wrote under the name \"Clara Lair\" and published \"Arras de Cristal\" (1937), which describes the everyday struggles of the Puerto Rican. However, it was Julia de Burgos who was to be considered by many as one of the greatest poets to be born in Puerto Rico and who later lived in New York. The inspiration spurred by her love of Puerto Rico is reflected in her poem \"Río Grande de Loíza\". Other important lyric poets of the early twentieth century include Luis Palés Matos, Luis Lloréns Torres, and Evaristo Ribera Chevremont.\n\nAfter the Spanish Civil War, poets Juan Ramón Jiménez (Nobel Laureate, 1956) and his wife Zenobia Camprubí emigrate to Puerto Rico and settle in Juan Juan in 1946. Jiménez's lyrical, philosophical poems influenced major Puerto Rican-born writers such as Giannina Braschi (Empire of Dreams, 1988), Manuel Ramos Otero (El Libro de la Muerte, 1985), and René Marqués (La Carreta, 1950).\n\nEvaristo Ribera Chevremont's verses deal with nationality, folklore and regionalism, but also touch upon universal lyricism. Victor Hernández Cruz became the first Hispanic poet to be published by a mainstream publishing house (Random House) with the collection Snaps, in 1969.\n\nPlaywrights\n\nAmong the major figures in Puerto Rican theater is René Marqués (1919-1979 ) author of The Oxcart (La Carreta), which dramatizes the hardships of a Puerto Rican family who move from the island to New York City. His prose contributions include El Puertorriqueño Dócil y Otros Ensayos. Francisco Arriví (1915–2007), a prominent voice of Puerto Rican theater, developed a dramatic style known as Areyto and authored \"Bolero y plena\" (1958) and Vejigantes. He helped to establish various theater festivals and the Centro de Bellas Artes Luis A. Ferré (Luis A. Ferré Performing Arts Center) in Puerto Rico.\n\nLuis Rafael Sánchez (1936-) wrote Pasión según Antígona Pérez (The Passion According to Antigona Perez), a tragedy based on the life of Olga Viscal Garriga.\n\nAmong the Puerto Rican experimental theater writers is Giannina Braschi whose dramatic dialogues celebrate Puerto Rican artistic expression and acknowledge the works of her compatriots Luis Palés Matos, Nilita Vientos, Luis Pales Matos, Pedro Pietri, and Julia de Burgos. Braschi's work United States of Banana, which features Hamlet, Zarathustra and Hamlet on a mission to liberate Puerto Rico, was staged at the Shapiro Theater in New York City (2015).\n\nEmerging Puerto Rican playwrights include Aravind Enrique Adyanthaya, founder of Casa Cruz de la Luna in San Germán, Puerto Rico. Also notable in this category is playwright and screenwriter José Rivera, the first Puerto Rican screenwriter to be nominated for an Academy Award.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vigil|first=Delfin|date=2008-01-20|title=Jose Rivera's Che Guevara play: 'School of the Americas|url=https://www.sfgate.com/performance/article/Jose-Rivera-s-Che-Guevara-play-School-of-the-3297525.php|access-date=2020-08-29|website=SFGate}}</ref>\n\nStateside playwrights of Puerto Rican ancestry include Lin-Manual Miranda, who won a Pulitzer Prize and Grammy Awards for the Broadway musical Hamilton. Miranda, whose parents are Puerto Rican, co-created In the Heights with Quiara Alegría Hudes, whose mother is Puerto Rican.\n\nJournalists\nA variety of journalists and columnists further enrich Puerto Rican letters.\n\nNelson Antonio Denis published more than 300 editorials in El Diario La Prensa about the New York/Puerto Rican diaspora, which were recognized with repeated \"Best Editorial Writing\" awards from the National Association of Hispanic Journalists. Denis's history book War Against All Puerto Ricans, about the evolution of US-Puerto Rico relations since 1898, was the best-selling book in Puerto Rico in 2015 and 2016.\n\nJosé Luis González (1926-1996) whose work País de cuatro pisos y otros ensayos describes the rigid structures of island society.\n\nDavid Gonzalez is a journalist at the New York Times. Over a 25-year career, Gonzalez has written hundreds of stories in the New York Times which deal with the history, culture, politics and people of Puerto Rico. In 2013, the National Association of Hispanic Journalists inducted Gonzalez into its Hall of Fame, in recognition of his lifetime of committed and compassionate journalism.\n\nGerson Borrero is a journalist, radio host, and TV commentator in New York City. He has been editor-at-large of City & State NY and editor-in-chief of El Diario/La Prensa, the largest Spanish-language newspaper in New York City. His press coverage has ranged from New York City politics,Gerson Borrero; New York Post; April 22, 2012; \"Hispanic vote not uno-fied\" cultural reviews and personality profiles, to the Somos Uno Conference and the Puerto Rican Day Parade.\n\nHistorians\nHistorians such as Dr. Delma S. Arrigoitia have written books and documented the contributions that Puerto Rican women have made to society. Arrigoitia was the first person in the University of Puerto Rico to earn a master's degree in the field of history. Her publications, which cover Puerto Rico's early-20th-century politicians, include: Jose De Diego el legislador, San Juan, Eduardo Giorgetti Y Su Mundo: La Aparente Paradoja De Un Millonario Genio Empresarial Y Su Noble Humanismo;, Puerto Rico Por Encima de Todo: Vida y Obra de Antonio R. Barcelo, 1868-1938; and Introduccion a la Historia de la Moda en Puerto Rico.\n\nTeresita A. Levy's Puerto Ricans in the Empire: The History of Tobacco Cultivation in Puerto Rico, 1898-1940, a study of the tobacco-growing regions in the eastern and western highlands of Puerto Rico, is the first book to tell how Puerto Ricans challenged United States officials and fought successfully for legislation that benefited the island. Her book has been praised by scholars.Tostones and Matzoh, a Puerto Rican-Jewish journey Puerto Ricans in the Empire provides an excellent introduction to Puerto Rico's crucial tobacco industry, with fascinating material on farmer organizations and agricultural research.\"\n—Herbert S. Klein, Gouverneur Morris Professor Emeritus of History Columbia University\n\nModern and contemporary Puerto Rican literature\nAfter a nationalist tradition of Puerto Rican writers from the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, authors are catalogued by decade into \"generations.\" Some highly representative writers from the early and mid-20th century were: Juan Antonio Corretjer, Luis Lloréns Torres, Palés Matos, Enrique Laguerre, and Francisco Matos Paoli. These Puerto Rican writers wrote in Spanish and reflected a literary Latin American tradition, and offered a variety of universal and social themes. Major writers who got their start in the 1950s include José Luis González, René Marqués, Pedro Juan Soto, and Emilio Díaz Valcárcel.\n\nAuthors whose careers began in the 1960s and 1970s include Jack Agüeros, Angelamaría Dávila, Lourdes Vázquez, Rosario Ferré, Luis Rafael Sánchez, Manuel Ramos Otero, Olga Nolla, Edgardo Rodríguez Juliá, Myrna Casas, and Luis López Nieves. Major writers of the 1980s and 1990s include Ana Lydia Vega, Giannina Braschi, Mayra Santos-Febres, Luz María Umpierre, and Eduardo Lalo.\n\nBreakthrough voices of a new Puerto Rican literature began to emerge at the turn of the new century with the publication of Pedro Cabiya's Historias tremendas in 1999. Identity politics and the complexities of Puerto Rico's relationship with the U.S. — topics that had dominated the work of previous writers — gave way to the exploration of new genres and themes, such as Latinx speculative fiction, horror, fantasy, and noir, as seen in the short stories, novels, and comics by Pedro Cabiya, the experimentation by Bruno Soreno, and the short stories by José Liboy and Luis Negrón (whose Mundo Cruel won a Lambda Literary Award for Gay Fiction, 2014).\n\nEmerging voices on the island include Rafael Acevedo, Moisés Agosto, Yolanda Arroyo Pizarro, Janette Becerra, Ricardo A. Domínguez, Ana María Fuster Lavín, Zoé Jiménez Corretjer, Juan López Bauzá, Alberto Martínez Márquez, Luis Negrón, Maribel Ortiz, Max Resto, and José E. Santos. Lawrence La Fountain-Stokes, Ángel Lozada, Benito Pastoriza Iyodo, Alfredo Villanueva Collado write and publish their works in Spanish on the mainland USA. Puerto Rican authors who write in English include Erika Lopez, Ivelisse Rodriguez, Lilliam Rivera, Quiara Alegría Hudes, Jaquira Díaz, Richie Narvaez, and Ernesto Quiñonez.\n\n Anthologies \nAnthologies that focus on Puerto Rican writers include: \n Aftershocks of Disaster: Puerto Rico Before and After the Storm, edited by Yarimar Bonilla and Marisol LeBrón (Haymarket Books, 2019)\n Boricua en la Luna, edited by Elena M. Aponte \n Boricuas: Influential Puerto Rican Writings, edited by Roberto Santiago (Ballantine Books, 1995)\n Borinquen: An Anthology of Puerto Rican Literature, edited by Maria Teresa Babin and Stan Steiner (Knopf, 1974)\n Breaking Ground/Abriendo Caminos: Anthology of Puerto Rican Women Writers in New York, 1980-2012, edited by Myrna Nieves\n Growing Up Puerto Rican, edited by Joy L. De Jesús (William Morrow and Company, 1997)\n Literatura y narrativa puertorriqueña: La escritura entre siglos, edited by Mario Cancel\n Literatura puertorriqueña del siglo XX: Antología, edited by Mercedes López Baralt \n Los otros cuerpos: Antología de temática gay, lésbica y queer desde Puerto Rico y su diáspora, edited by David Caleb Acevedo, Moisés Agosto, and Luis Negrón, which focuses on LGBT themes \n Nuestro New York: An Anthology of Puerto Rican Plays, edited by John V. Antush (SIgnet, 1994)\n ¡Pa'que Tu Lo Sepas! edited by Angel Luis Colón\n Puerto Rico en Mi Corazón, edited by Raquel Salas Rivera, Ricardo Maldonado, Carina del Valle Schorske (Anomalous Press, 2019)\n Puerto Rican Poetry: A Selection from Aboriginal to Contemporary Times, edited by Robert Márquez\n Puerto Rican Writers at Home in the U.S.A., edited by Faythe Turner (Open Hand, 1991)\n San Juan Noir, edited by Mayra Santos-Febres (Akashic Noir, 2016\n\nSee also\n\n American literature in Spanish\n Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico \n Latin American literature\n List of Puerto Rican writers\n History of women in Puerto Rico\n Nuyorican Movement\n Nuyorican Poets Café\n Media in Puerto Rico\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Aldama, Frederick Luis and Ilan Stavans. Poets, Philosophers, Lovers: On The Writings of Giannina Braschi. U Pittsburgh. (2020)\n Brahan, Persephone. From Amazons to Zombies: Monsters in Latin America (Bucknell Studies in Latin American Literature and Theory). Bucknell University Press (November 19, 2015).\n Caulfield, Carlota. \"US Latina Caribbean Women Poets.\" In Carlota Caulfield and Darién Davis, Jr., eds., A Companion to US Latino Literatures. Woodbridge: Tamesis, 2007. \n Gordis, Yanis. \"Island and Continental Puerto Rican Literature: Cross-Cultural and Intertextual Considerations\". Special Section: Multicultural Literature, Part IV. In ADE Bulletin 91 (Winter 1988). One of five articles about Puerto Rican literature.\n Loustau, Laura R. Cuerpos errantes: literatura latina y latinoamericana en Estados Unidos. Rosario, Argentina: Beatriz Viterbo Editora, 2002. \n Moreira, Rubén A., ed. Antología de Poesía Puertorriqueña. (Vol. 1: Romanticismo, Vol. 2 Modernismo y Post Modernismo, Vol. 3 Contemporánea, Vol.4 Contemporánea). San Juan, P.R.: Tríptico Editores, 1992-1993.\n Pausides, Alex, Pedro Antonio Valdez, and Carlos Roberto Gómez Beras, eds. Los nuevos caníbales: Antología de la más reciente poesía del Caribe hispano. San Juan: Isla Negra Editores, 2003. \n Rosado, José Ángel, ed. El rostro y la máscara: Antología alterna de cuentistas puertorriqueños contemporáneos. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Isla Negra Editores, 1995.\n van Haesendonck, Kristian. \"Enchantment or Fright? Identity and Postmodern Writing in Contemporary Puerto Rico.\" In Theo D'Haen and Pieter Vemeulen, eds., Cultural Identity and Postmodern Writing. New York and Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006. \n Torres-Padilla, Jose L. and Carmen Haydee Rivera. Writing Off the Hyphen: New Critical Perspectives on the Literature of the Puerto Rican Diaspora''. Seattle: U. of Washington Press, 2008.\n\nExternal links\n\nUniversity of Notre Dame Library, The Hispanic Caribbean Literature Collection\nEvaristo Ribera Chevremont; Bio and Poems\n''Sargasso''' a journal of literature, language, and culture is online in the Digital Library of the Caribbean from the University of Puerto Rico\n\n \nCategory:Cultural history of Puerto Rico\nCategory:Latin American literature by country", "title": "Puerto Rican literature" }, { "text": "American literature written in Spanish in the United States dates back as 1610 when the Spanish explorer Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá published his epic poem Historia de Nuevo México (History of New Mexico). He was an early chronicler of the conquest of the Americas and a forerunner of Spanish-language literature in the United States given his focus on the American landscape and the customs of the people. However, it was not until the late 20th century that Spanish language literature written by Americans was regularly published in the United States.\n\nThe rise of Spanish-language Latino literature has been fraught with obstacles related to publication and audience. Latino/a authors have expanded audience expectations by attending to narrative innovation and design and by creating challenging reading situations. Rather than compose their narratives with an actual audience in mind, many Latino/a authors sought to write for a new, ideal audience capable of engaging with even the most complex story worlds and stylistic innovations. From the 1960s to the present, breakthrough authors who created new audiences include Oscar “Zeta” Acosta, Gloria Anzaldúa, Piri Thomas, Giannina Braschi, Sandra Cisneros, Junot Díaz, and Gilbert Hernandez have engaged a sophisticated bilingual readership in their avant-garde narratives, code-switching, serialization, and intertextual play in Spanish, Spanglish, and English. Their works, often first published in independent and academic presses, were widely taught as foundational works in the burgeoning fields of Latino Studies and Third World Feminisms; their academic following helped to create a commercial market for Latino literature.\n\nBy 2000, many more Mexican-Americans/Chicanos, Cuban-Americans, Puerto Ricans on the island and Nuyoricans on the mainland, and US immigrants from Latin America have published literature in Spanish in US trade, academic, and mainstream publishing houses. Other US based authors who either write in Spanish or who regularly use Spanish phrases in their works include: Julia Álvarez, Martín Espada, Nicholasa Mohr, Cristina García, Óscar Hijuelos, Cherríe Moraga, Ricardo Pau-Llosa, Gustavo Pérez Firmat, and Ilan Stavans.\n\nAmerican novels in Spanish and Spanglish \n\nPiri Thomas's Down These Mean Streets and Giannina Braschi's Yo-Yo Boing! are groundbreaking American novels for their prominent use Spanish and Spanglish and their unflinching description of urban life for Hispanic Americans. Piri Thomas was pressured to self-translate Spanish passages into English for the publication of his 1967 novel at his publisher’s insistence that the text not alienate monolingual English readers. Nonetheless, the book was banned by New York City public schools because it was perceived, as reported by The New York Times in 1971, as \"a threat to their values. Many... who assail 'Down These Mean Streets' indicate they do so not so much because it portrays life in New York's Puerto Rican community as because the portrayal includes vulgarities and descriptions of sexual acts\". Three decades years later, Giannina Braschi's 1998 novel, featured entire chapters written in untranslated Spanish and extensive dramatic dialogues that mixed Spanish, Spanglish, and English. Though Braschi's bilingual work also used vulgarities and addressed social justice issues such as domestic violence, racism, discrimination, sexual harassment directly, Yo-Yo Boing! book was not censored. However, critic Christopher Gonzalez observes that non-Spanish speaking reviewers considered the work 'an affront'\". Gonzalez notes that bilingual reviewers, such as David William Foster in Review of Contemporary Fiction praised Yo-Yo Boing! for its \"superb exploration for the lived experiences of Hispanics.\" Other critics such as Harold Augenbraum, Ilan Stavans, Doris Sommer, and Adriana Estill have used the phrase \"a tour de force\" to describe the novel\n\nAmerican poetry in Spanish and Spanglish \n\nMajor Spanish poets who spent time in the United States and wrote poetry in Spanish during their stay include Federico García Lorca who wrote his best known works, including Poeta en Nueva York in New York City in 1929. Though Lorca only stayed in the United States for 10 months, the work is considered both Spanish and American literature given the subject of New York City. While in exile in San Juan, Puerto Rico after the Spanish civil war, Nobel Prize laureate Juan Ramón Jiménez wrote Voces de mi copla (Voices of My Song) and Animal de fondo (Animal of Depth) in the 1940s.\n\nProminent American-born poets who wrote in Spanish about life in American cities include Pedro Pietri (Puerto Rican Obituary), Giannina Braschi (El imperio de los sueños/Empire of Dreams, 1988), Julia de Burgos (Yo Misma Fui Mi Ruta (I Was My Own Path), and Ana Castillo. Williams Carlos Williams used Spanish titles and flourishes in his poetry but did not write publish extensive works in Spanish.\n\nSince 2012, when University of Iowa established the country's first MFA Spanish Creative Writings Program, other American universities such as Hofstra and New York University has also established MFA programs in Spanish.\n\nAnthologies and magazines \nOrganized by decades, these publications debuted new work by US based Latino/a and Latinx authors who wrote in Spanish and Spanglish.\n\n1970s \n\n Revista Chicano-Riqueña was the first national magazine of US Hispanic literature in Spanish. It was first published in 1973 and co-edited by Nicolás Kanellos and Luis Dávila to provide a much-needed outlet for the creative work of young Hispanic writers, who were not yet picked up by the mainstream press, including Lorna Dee Cervantes, Sandra Cisneros, Giannina Braschi, Gary Soto, Luis Raphael Sanchez, and Ana Castillo.\n\n1980s\n\n This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color is a feminist anthology edited by leaders of Chicana literature, Cherríe Moraga and Gloria E. Anzaldúa. First published in 1981 by Persephone Press, the work included Latina authors who wrote in Spanish and Spanglish, among others.\n La ciudad prestada poesía latinoamericana posmoderna en Nueva York edited by Pedro López Adorno featured early works by Postmodern Latino/a/x authors.\n\n1990s\n\n Floricanto Si!: A Collection of Latina Poetry co-edited by Bryce Milligan and Angela de Hoyos featured lyrical and prose poems by Marjorie Agosin, Julia Alvarez, Giannina Braschi, Anna Castillo, Sandra Cisneros, Rosario Ferre, Carmen Gimenez Smith, Lucha Corpi, and Lorna Dee Cervantes, among others. Select poems were written in Spanish or used Spanglish. (Penguin, 1998)\n\n2000s \nSe habla español: Voces Latinas in the US (2000). McOndo authors Edmundo Paz Soldan and Alberto Fuguet co-edited this anthology of short stories in Spanish by Iván Thays (Peru), Ignacio Padilla (Mexico), Jorge Volpi (Mexico), Junot Díaz (Dominican-American), Alvaro Enrigue (Mexico), Silvana Paternostro (Colombia), Mayra Santos-Febres (Puerto Rico), Ilan Stavans (Mexico), Lina Meruane (Chile), Rodrigo Rey Rosa (Guatemala), Ángel Lozada (Puerto Rico), and Giannina Braschi (Puerto Rico). The anthology marked the New Latino Boom of Spanish writing in the United States.\n\n2010 to 2020\n\n The Norton Anthology of Latino Literature, a 2,700-page compendium that includes two hundred authors from the colonial period (the earliest author included is Fray Bartolomé de las Casas) to the present time. Among the featured writers are: Daniel Alarcón, Julia Alvarez, Giannina Braschi, Julia de Burgos, Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, Junot Díaz, Cristina García (journalist), Oscar Hijuelos, José Martí, Octavio Paz, Rolando Pérez (Cuban poet), Esmeralda Santiago, and William Carlos Williams. \nThe FSG Book of Latin American Poetry, (2011) a 728-page volume that contextualizes the history of Latin American poets including those who migrated to the US. Featured poets: José Martí, Rubén Darío, César Vallejo, Oswald de Andrade, Pablo Neruda, Violeta Parra, Nicanor Parra, Gabriela Mistral, Luis Palés Matos, Octavio Paz, Giannina Braschi, and Roberto Bolaño.\n Abriendo Caminos/Breaking Ground: Anthology of Puerto Rican Women Writers in New York 1980-2012 edited by Myrna Nieves. Featured poets: Giannina Braschi and Sandra María Esteves.\nCrisis by Jorge Majfud is one of contemporary classics of the new Latino literature.\nEscribir en Nueva York (2014) edited by Claudia Salazar. This is an anthology of Hispanic American, Latino/a, and Latinx narrators who have lived in New York and written stories in Spanish. It was published in Spanish and includes short stories by: Carmen Boullosa, Lorea Canales (México), Giannina Braschi (Puerto Rico), Sergio Chejfec, Federico Falco, Sylvia Molloy (Argentina), Isaac Goldemberg (Perú), Mónica Ríos, Carlos Labbé, Diamela Eltit (Chile), Jaime Manrique (Colombia), and José Manuel Prieto (Cuba).\n\nLatino authors\nU.S. based authors who write and publish stories, poetry, novels, or theater in Spanish include: \n Giannina Braschi\n Ariel Dorfman \n Isabel Allende \n Jorge Majfud \n Junot Díaz\n Mayra Santos-Febres \n René Marqués\n Lina Meruane\n Manuel Ramos Otero\n Pedro Pietri\n Miguel Piñero \n Reinaldo Arenas \n Tomás Eloy Martínez\n Rolando Hinojosa-Smith\n Tomás Rivera\n Ilan Stavans\n Miguel Méndez\n Daína Chaviano\n Carlos Labbé\n Marco Katz\n Julio César Aguilar\n\nUS publishers of Spanish language books \n\n Latin American Literary Review Press\n Bilingual Review Press\n Alfaguara USA\n Artepoética Press\n AmazonCrossing\n Arte Público Press\n Floricanto Press\n Jade Publishing \n Restless Books\n Random House Español\n Sangría\n HarperCollins's Rayo \n Harlequin Bianca and Harlequin Deseo\n\nSpanish bookstores in the US \n\n LA Libreria\n Lectorum\n Libros in Español \n Libreria Barco De Papel\n Libreria Giron\n Libreria Tesoros\n Tertulia\n\nSee also\nPuerto Rican literature\nSpanish language in the United States\nSpanish-language literature\nSpanglish\nChicano literature\nChicano poetry\nNuyorican\nHispanic and Latino literature\nLatino literature\nLatino poetry\n\nReferences \n\nCategory:American literature\n \nCategory:American poetry\nCategory:Spanish language in the United States\nCategory:American literature in Spanish", "title": "American literature in Spanish" }, { "text": "American poetry refers to the poetry of the United States. It arose first as efforts by American colonists to add their voices to English poetry in the 17th century, well before the constitutional unification of the Thirteen Colonies (although a strong oral tradition often likened to poetry already existed among Native American societies). Most of the early colonists' work was similar to contemporary English models of poetic form, diction, and theme. However, in the 19th century, an American idiom began to emerge. By the later part of that century, poets like Walt Whitman were winning an enthusiastic audience abroad and had joined the English-language avant-garde.\n\nMuch of the American poetry published between 1910 and 1945 remains lost in the pages of small circulation political periodicals, particularly the ones on the far left, destroyed by librarians during the 1950s McCarthy era. Modernist poets like Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot (who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948) are often cited as creative and influential English-language poets of the first half of the 20th century. African American and women poets were published and read widely in the same period but were often somewhat prejudicially marginalized. By the 1960's, the Beat Movement and Black Mountain poets had developed new models for poetry and their contemporaries influenced the British Poetry Revival. Towards the end of the millennium, consideration of American poetry had diversified, as scholars placed an increased emphasis on poetry by women, African Americans, Hispanics, Chicanos, Native Americans, and other ethnic groups. Louise Glück is the only contemporary American writer writing primarily poetry who has been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, while Bob Dylan, a folk-rock songwriter and poet, has been awarded the same prize.\n\nPoetry in the colonies\nAs England's contact with the Americas increased after the 1490s, English explorers sometimes included verse with their descriptions of the New World up through 1650, the year of Anne Bradstreet's \"The Tenth Muse\", which was written in America (most likely in Ipswich, Massachusetts or North Andover, Massachusetts) and printed and distributed in London by her brother-in-law, Rev. John Woodbridge. There are 14 such writers whom might be termed American poets (they had been to America and to different degrees, written poems or verses about the place). Early examples include a 1616 \"testimonial poem\" on the \"sterling and warlike\" character of Captain John Smith (in Barbour, ed. \"Works\") and Rev. William Morrell's 1625 \"Nova Anglia\" or \"New England\", which is a rhymed catalog of everything from American weather to his glimpses of Native American women. Then in May 1627, Thomas Morton of Merrymount – a Devon-born West Country outdoorsman, attorney at law, man of letters and colonial adventurer – raised a maypole to celebrate and foster success at his fur-trading settlement and nailed a \"Poem\" and \"Song\" (one a densely literary manifesto on how European and Native people came together there and must keep doing so for a successful America; the other a light \"drinking song\" also full of deeper American implications). These were published in book form along with other examples of Morton's American poetry in \"New English Canaan\" (1637); and based on the criteria of \"First,\" \"American\" and \"Poetry,\" they make Morton (and not Anne Bradstreet) America's first poet in English.\n\nOne of the first recorded poets of the Thirteen Colonies was Anne Bradstreet (1612 – 1672), who remains one of the early known women poets who wrote in English.\nThe poems she published during her lifetime address religious and political themes. She also wrote tender evocations of home, family life and of her love for her husband, many of which remained unpublished until the 20th century.\n\nEdward Taylor (1645–1729) wrote poems expounding Puritan virtues in a highly wrought metaphysical style that can be seen as typical of the early colonial period.\n\nThis narrow focus on the Puritan ethic was, understandably, the dominant note of most of the poetry written in the colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. The earliest \"secular\" poetry published in New England was by Samuel Danforth in his \"almanacks\" for 1647–1649, published at Cambridge; these included \"puzzle poems\" as well as poems on caterpillars, pigeons, earthquakes, and hurricanes. Of course, being a Puritan minister as well as a poet, Danforth never ventured far from a spiritual message.\n\nA distinctly American lyric voice of the colonial period was Phillis Wheatley, a slave whose book \"Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral,\" was published in 1773. She was one of the best-known poets of her day, at least in the colonies, and her poems were typical of New England culture at the time, meditating on religious and classical ideas.\n\nThe 18th century saw an increasing emphasis on America as fit subject matter for its poets. This trend is most evident in the works of Philip Freneau (1752–1832), who is notable for the unusually sympathetic attitude to Native Americans shown in his writings, which had been interpreted as being reflective of his skepticism toward American culture. However, as might be expected from what was essentially provincial writing, this late colonial-era poetry is generally somewhat old-fashioned in form and syntax, deploying the means and methods of Pope and Gray in the era of Blake and Burns. The work of Rebecca Hammond Lard (1772–1855), although quite old, still apply to life in today's world. She writes about nature, not only the nature of environment, but the nature of humans.\n\nOn the whole, the development of poetry in the American colonies mirrors the development of the colonies themselves. The early poetry is dominated by the need to preserve the integrity of the Puritan ideals that created the settlement in the first place. As the colonists grew in confidence, the poetry they wrote increasingly reflected their drive towards independence. This shift in subject matter was not reflected in the mode of writing which tended to be conservative, to say the least. This can be seen as a product of the physical remove at which American poets operated from the center of English-language poetic developments in London.\n\nPostcolonial poetry\n\nThe first significant poet of the independent United States was William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878), whose great contribution was to write rhapsodic poems on the grandeur of prairies and forests. However, the first internationally acclaimed poet was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882) who nearly surpassed Alfred, Lord Tennyson in international popularity, and, alongside William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., formed the Fireside Poets (known as the Schoolroom or Household Poets). The Fireside Poets were a group of 19th-century American poets from New England. The name \"Fireside Poets\" is derived from that popularity: their general adherence to poetic convention (standard forms, regular meter, and rhymed stanzas) made their body of work particularly suitable for being memorized and recited in school and at home, where it was a source of entertainment for families gathered around the fire. The poets' primary subjects were the domestic life, mythology, and politics of the United States, in which several of the poets were directly involved.\n\nOther notable poets to emerge in the early and middle 19th century include Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), Sidney Lanier (1842–1881), and James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916). As might be expected, the works of all these writers are united by a common search for a distinctive American voice to distinguish them from their British counterparts. To this end, they explored the landscape and traditions of their native country as materials for their poetry.\n\nThe most significant example of this tendency may be The Song of Hiawatha by Longfellow. This poem uses Native American tales collected by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who was superintendent of Indian affairs for Michigan from 1836 to 1841. Longfellow imitated the meter of the Finnish epic poem Kalevala, possibly to avoid British models. The resulting poem, while a popular success, did not provide a model for future U.S. poets.\n\nAs time went on, the influence of the transcendentalism of the poet/philosophers Emerson and Thoreau increasingly influenced American poetry. Transcendentalism was the distinctly American strain of English Romanticism that began with William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Emerson, arguably one of the founders of transcendentalism, had visited England as a young man to meet these two English poets, as well as Thomas Carlyle. While Romanticism transitioned into Victorianism in post-reform England, it became energetic in America from the 1830s through to the Civil War.\n\nEdgar Allan Poe was a unique poet during this time, brooding over themes of the macabre and dark, connecting his poetry and aesthetic vision to his philosophical, psychological, moral, and cosmological theories. In the 20th century, American poet William Carlos Williams said of Poe that \"in him American literature is anchored, in him alone, on solid ground.\"\n\nWhitman and Dickinson\n\nThe final emergence of a truly indigenous English-language poetry in the United States was the work of two poets, Walt Whitman (1819–1892) and Emily Dickinson (1830–1886). On the surface, these two poets could not have been less alike. Whitman's long lines, derived from the metric of the King James Version of the Bible, and his democratic inclusiveness stand in stark contrast with Dickinson's concentrated phrases and short lines and stanzas, derived from Protestant hymnals.\n\nWhat links them is their common connection to Emerson (a passage from whom Whitman printed on the second edition of Leaves of Grass), and the daring originality of their visions. These two poets can be said to represent the birth of two major American poetic idioms—the free metric and direct emotional expression of Whitman, and the gnomic obscurity and irony of Dickinson—both of which would profoundly stamp the American poetry of the 20th century.\n\nThe development of these idioms, as well as conservative reactions against them, can be traced through the works of poets such as Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869–1935), Stephen Crane (1871–1900), Robert Frost (1874–1963), Carl Sandburg (1878–1967), and Edna St. Vincent Millay (1892-1950). Frost, in particular, is a commanding figure, who aligned strict poetic meter, particularly blank verse and terser lyrical forms, with a \"vurry Amur'k'n\" (as Pound put it) idiom. He successfully revitalized a rural tradition with many English antecedents from his beloved Golden Treasury and produced an oeuvre of major importance, rivaling or even excelling in achievement that of the key modernists and making him, within the full sweep of traditional modern English-language verse, a peer of Hardy and Yeats. But from Whitman and Dickinson the outlines of a distinctively new organic poetic tradition, less indebted to English formalism than Frost's work, were clear to see, and they would come to full fruition in the 1910s and 1920s. As Colin Falck noted, \"To the Whitmanian heritage of cadenced free verse she [Millay] brings the greater reflective tightness of Robinson Jeffers.\"\n\nModernism and after\n\nThis new idiom, combined with a study of 19th-century French poetry, formed the basis of American input into 20th-century English-language poetic modernism. Ezra Pound (1885–1972) and T.S. Eliot (1888–1965) were the leading figures at the time, with their rejection of traditional poetic form and meter and of Victorian diction. Both steered American poetry toward greater density, difficulty, and opacity, with an emphasis on techniques such as fragmentation, ellipsis, allusion, juxtaposition, ironic and shifting personae, and mythic parallelism. Pound, in particular, opened up American poetry to diverse influences, including the traditional poetries of China and Japan.\n\nNumerous other poets made important contributions at this revolutionary juncture, including Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), Wallace Stevens (1879–1955), William Carlos Williams (1883–1963), Hilda Doolittle (H.D.) (1886–1961), Marianne Moore (1887–1972), E.E. Cummings (1894–1962), and Hart Crane (1899–1932). The cerebral and skeptical Romantic Stevens helped revive the philosophical lyric, and Williams was to become exemplary for many later poets because he, more than any of his peers, contrived to marry spoken American English with free verse rhythms. Cummings remains notable for his experiments with typography and evocation of a spontaneous, childlike vision of reality.\n\nWhereas these poets were unambiguously aligned with high modernism, other poets active in the United States in the first third of the 20th century were not. Among the more important of the latter were those who were associated with what came to be known as the New Criticism. These included John Crowe Ransom (1888–1974), Allen Tate (1899–1979), and Robert Penn Warren (1905–1989). Other poets of the era, such as Archibald MacLeish (1892–1982), experimented with modernist techniques but were drawn toward traditional modes of writing. Still others, such as Robinson Jeffers (1887–1962), adopted Modernist freedom while remaining aloof from Modernist factions and programs.\n\nIn addition, there were still other, early 20th-century poets who maintained or were forced to maintain a peripheral relationship to high modernism, likely due to the racially charged themes of their work. They include Countee Cullen (1903–1946), Alice Dunbar Nelson (1875–1935), Gwendolyn Bennett (1902–1981), Langston Hughes (1902–1967), Claude McKay (1889–1948), Jean Toomer (1894–1967), and other African American poets of the Harlem Renaissance.\n\nThe modernist torch was carried in the 1930s mainly by the group of poets known as the Objectivists. These included Louis Zukofsky (1904–1978), Charles Reznikoff (1894–1976), George Oppen (1908–1984), Carl Rakosi (1903–2004) and, later, Lorine Niedecker (1903–1970). Kenneth Rexroth, who was published in the Objectivist Anthology, was, along with Madeline Gleason (1909–1973), a forerunner of the San Francisco Renaissance. Many of the Objectivists came from urban communities of new immigrants, and this new vein of experience and language enriched the growing American idiom.\n\nWorld War II and after\nArchibald Macleish called John Gillespie Magee, Jr. \"the first poet of the war\".\n\nWorld War II saw the emergence of a new generation of poets, many of whom were influenced by Wallace Stevens and Richard Eberhart (1904–2005).\nKarl Shapiro (1913–2000), Randall Jarrell (1914–1965) and James Dickey (1923–1997) all wrote poetry that sprang from experience of active service. Together with Elizabeth Bishop (1911–1979), Theodor Seuss Geisel (Dr. Seuss) (1904-1991), Theodore Roethke (1908–1963) and Delmore Schwartz (1913–1966), they formed a generation of poets that in contrast to the preceding generation often wrote in traditional verse forms.\n\nAfter the war, a number of new poets and poetic movements emerged. John Berryman (1914–1972) and Robert Lowell (1917–1977) were the leading lights in what was to become known as the Confessional movement, which was to have a strong influence on later poets like Sylvia Plath (1932–1963) and Anne Sexton (1928–1974). Though both Berryman and Lowell were closely acquainted with Modernism, they were mainly interested in exploring their own experiences as subject matter and a style that Lowell referred to as \"cooked\" – that is, consciously and carefully crafted.\n\nIn contrast, the Beat poets, who included such figures as Jack Kerouac (1922–1969), Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), Gregory Corso (1930–2001), Joanne Kyger (1934-2017), Gary Snyder (born 1930), Diane Di Prima (1934-2020), Amiri Baraka (1934-2014) and Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1919-2020), were distinctly raw. Reflecting, sometimes in an extreme form, the open, relaxed and searching society of the 1950s and 1960s, the Beats pushed the boundaries of the American idiom in the direction of demotic speech perhaps further than any other group.\n\nAround the same time, the Black Mountain poets, under the leadership of Charles Olson (1910–1970), were working at Black Mountain College in North Carolina. These poets were exploring the possibilities of open form but in a much more programmatic way than the Beats. The main poets involved were Robert Creeley (1926–2005), Robert Duncan (1919–1988), Denise Levertov (1923–1997), Ed Dorn (1929–1999), Paul Blackburn (1926–1971), Hilda Morley (1916–1998), John Wieners (1934–2002), and Larry Eigner (1927–1996). They based their approach to poetry on Olson's 1950 essay Projective Verse, in which he called for a form based on the line, a line based on human breath and a mode of writing based on perceptions juxtaposed so that one perception leads directly to another. This in turn influenced the works of Michael McClure (1932-2020), Kenneth Irby (1936–2015), and Ronald Johnson (1935–1998), poets from the Midwestern United States who moved to San Francisco, and in so doing extended the influence of the Black Mountain school geographically westward; their participation in the poetic circles of San Francisco can be seen as partly forming the basis for what would later be known as \"Language poetry.\"\n\nOther poets often associated with the Black Mountain are Cid Corman (1924–2004) and Theodore Enslin (1925-2011), but they are perhaps correctly viewed as direct descendants of the Objectivists. One-time Black Mountain College resident, composer John Cage (1912–1992), along with Jackson Mac Low (1922–2004), wrote poetry based on chance or aleatory techniques. Inspired by Zen, Dada and scientific theories of indeterminacy, they were to prove to be important influences on the 1970s U.S avant-garde.\n\nThe Beats and some of the Black Mountain poets often are considered to have been responsible for the San Francisco Renaissance. However, as previously noted, San Francisco had become a hub of experimental activity from the 1930s thanks to Kenneth Rexroth and Gleason. Other poets involved in this scene included Charles Bukowski (1920–1994) and Jack Spicer (1925–1965). These poets sought to combine a contemporary spoken idiom with inventive formal experiment.\n\nJerome Rothenberg (born 1931) is well known for his work in ethnopoetics, but he was the coiner of the term \"deep image\", which he used to describe the work of poets like Robert Kelly (born 1935), Diane Wakoski (born 1937) and Clayton Eshleman (1935-2021). Deep Image poetry was inspired by the symbolist theory of correspondences, in particular the work of Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. The term later was popularized by Robert Bly. The Deep Image movement was the most international, accompanied by a flood of new translations from Latin American and European poets such as Pablo Neruda, César Vallejo and Tomas Tranströmer. Some of the poets who became associated with Deep Image are Galway Kinnell, James Wright, Mark Strand and W.S. Merwin. Both Merwin and California poet Gary Snyder became known for their interest in environmental and ecological concerns.\n\nThe Small Press poets (sometimes called the mimeograph movement) are another influential and eclectic group of poets who surfaced in the San Francisco Bay Area in the late 1950s and are still active today. Fiercely independent editors, who were also poets, edited and published low-budget periodicals and chapbooks of emerging poets who might otherwise have gone unnoticed. This work ranged from formal to experimental. Gene Fowler, A.D. Winans, Hugh Fox, street poet and activist Jack Hirschman, Paul Foreman, Jim Cohn, John Bennett, and F.A. Nettelbeck are among the many poets who are still actively continuing the Small Press Poets tradition. Many have turned to the new medium of the Web for its distribution capabilities.\n\nLos Angeles poets: Leland Hickman (1934–1991), Holly Prado (1938-2019), Harry Northup (born 1940), Wanda Coleman (1946-2013),\nMichael C. Ford (born 1939), Kate Braverman (1949-2019), Eloise Klein Healy (born 1943), Bill Mohr, Laurel Ann Bogen, met at Beyond Baroque\nLiterary Arts Center, in Venice, California. They are lyric poets, heavily autobiographical; some are practitioners of the experimental long poem. Their predecessors in Los Angeles were Ann Stanford (1916–1987), Thomas McGrath (1916–1990), Jack Hirschman (1933-2021). Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center, created by George Drury Smith in 1968, is the central literary arts center in the Los Angeles area.\n\nJust as the West Coast had the San Francisco Renaissance and the Small Press Movement, the East Coast produced the New York School. This group aimed to write poetry that spoke directly of everyday experience in everyday language and produced a poetry of urbane wit and elegance that contrasts with the work of their Beat contemporaries (though in other ways, including their mutual respect for American slang and disdain for academic or \"cooked\" poetry, they were similar). Leading members of the group include John Ashbery (1927-2017), Frank O'Hara (1926–1966), Kenneth Koch (1925–2002), James Schuyler (1923–1991), Barbara Guest (1920–2006), Ted Berrigan (1934–1983), Anne Waldman (born 1945) and Bernadette Mayer (born 1945). Of this group, John Ashbery, in particular, has emerged as a defining force in recent poetics, and he is regarded by many as the most important American poet since World War II.\n\nAmerican poetry today\n\nThe last 40 years of poetry in the United States have brought new groups, schools, and trends into vogue. The 1970s saw a revival of interest in surrealism, with the more prominent poets working in this field being Andrei Codrescu (born in 1946), Russell Edson (1935-2014) and Maxine Chernoff (born in 1952). Performance poetry emerged from the Beat and hippie happenings, the talk-poems of David Antin (1932-2016), and ritual events performed by Rothenberg, to become a serious poetic stance which embraces multiculturalism and a range of poets from a multiplicity of cultures. This mirrored a general growth of interest in poetry by African Americans including Gwendolyn Brooks (1917–2000), Maya Angelou (1928–2014), Ishmael Reed (born in 1938), Nikki Giovanni (born in 1943), and Detrick Hughes (born in 1966).\n\nAnother group of poets, the Language school (or L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E, after the magazine that bears that name), have continued and extended the Modernist and Objectivist traditions of the 1930s. Some poets associated with the group are Lyn Hejinian, Ron Silliman, Bob Perelman and Leslie Scalapino. Their poems—fragmentary, purposefully ungrammatical, sometimes mixing texts from different sources and idioms—can be by turns abstract, lyrical, and highly comic.\n\nThe Language school includes a high proportion of women, which mirrors another general trend—the rediscovery and promotion of poetry written both by earlier and contemporary women poets. A number of the more prominent African American poets to emerge are women, and other prominent women writers include Adrienne Rich (1929–2012), Jean Valentine (1934–2020), and Amy Gerstler (born in 1956).\n\nAlthough poetry in traditional classical forms had mostly fallen out of fashion by the 1960s, the practice was kept alive by poets of great formal virtuosity like James Merrill (1926–1995), author of the epic poem The Changing Light at Sandover, Richard Wilbur, and British-born San Francisco poet Thom Gunn. The 1980s and 1990s saw a re-emergent interest in traditional form, sometimes dubbed New Formalism or Neoformalism. These include poets such as Molly Peacock, Brad Leithauser, Dana Gioia, Donna J. Stone, Timothy Steele, Alicia Ostriker, and Marilyn Hacker. Some of the more outspoken New Formalists have declared that the return to rhyme and more fixed meters to be the new avant-garde. Their critics sometimes associate this traditionalism with the conservative politics of the Reagan era, noting the recent appointment of Gioia as chair of the National Endowment for the Arts. \n\nHaiku has attracted a community of American poets dedicated to its development as a poetic genre in English. The extremely terse Japanese haiku first influenced the work of Ezra Pound and the Imagists, and post-war poets such as Kerouac and Richard Wright wrote substantial bodies of original haiku in English. Other poets such as Ginsberg, Snyder, Wilbur, Merwin, and many others have at least dabbled with haiku, often simply as a syllabic form. Starting in 1963, with the founding of the journal American Haiku, poets such as Cor van den Heuvel, Nick Virgilio, Raymond Roseliep, John Wills, Anita Virgil, Gary Hotham, Marlene Mountain, Wally Swist, Peggy Willis Lyles, George Swede, Michael Dylan Welch, Jim Kacian, and others have created significant oeuvres of haiku poetry, evincing continuities with both Transcendentalism and Imagism and often maintaining an anti-anthropocentric environmental focus on nature during an unparalleled age of habitat destruction and human alienation.\n\nThe last two decades have seen a revival of the Beat poetry spoken word tradition, in the form of the poetry slam. Chicago construction worker Marc Smith turned urban poetry performance into audience-judged competitions in 1984. Poetry slams emphasize a style of writing that is topical, provocative and easily understood. Poetry slam opened the door for a generation of writers and spoken word performers, including Alix Olson, Apollo Poetry, Taylor Mali, and Saul Williams, and inspired hundreds of open mics across the U.S.\n\nPoetry has become a significant presence on the Web, with a number of new online journals, 'zines, blogs and other websites. An example of the fluid nature of web-based poetry communities is, \"thisisbyus, now defunct, yet this community of writers continues and expands on Facebook and has allowed both novice and professional poets to explore writing styles.\n\nDuring the contemporary time frame, there were major independent voices who defied links to well-known American poetic movements and forms such as poet and literary critic Robert Peters, greatly influenced by the Victorian English poet Robert Browning’s poetic monologues, became reputable for executing his monologic personae like his Mad King Ludwig II of Bavaria into popular one-man performances. Another example is Louise Glück who cites Emily Dickinson and William Blake as her influences. Critics and scholars have discussed whether or not she is a confessional poet. Sylvia Plath may be another of her influences.\n\nThe Library of Congress produces a guide to American poetry inspired by the 9/11 attacks, including anthologies and books dedicated to the subject.\n\nRobert Pinsky has a special place in American poetry as he was the poet laureate of the United States for three terms. No other poet has been so honored. His \"Favorite Poem Project\" is unique, inviting all citizens to share their all-time favorite poetic composition and why they love it. He is a professor at Boston University and the poetry editor at Slate. \"Poems to Read\" is a demonstration of his poetic vision, joining the word and the common man.\n\nWith increased consciousness of society's impact on natural ecosystems, it is inexorable that such themes would become integrated into poetry. The foundations of poems about nature are found in the work of Henry David Thoreau and Walt Whitman. The modern ecopoetics movement was pioneered by Jack Collom, who taught a dedicated course on ecopoetics at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado for 17 years. Contemporary poetry on environmental sustainability is found among the works of J.S. Shipman, for example, in, \"Calling on You.\"\n\nThe growth in the popularity of graduate creative writing programs has given poets the opportunity to make a living as teachers. This increased professionalization of poetry, combined with the reluctance of most major book and magazine presses to publish poetry, has meant that, for the foreseeable future at least, poetry may have found its new home in the academy and in small independent journals. \nA prominent example is Nobel Laureate Louise Glück who teaches at Yale University.\n\nSee also\n\n Academy of American Poets\n Biker Poetry\n Chicano poetry\n Cowboy poetry\n Haiku in English\n Irish language outside Ireland\n List of national poetries\n List of poets from the United States\n Nuyorican Poetry\n Proletarian poetry\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \nBaym, Nina, et al. (eds.): The Norton Anthology of American Literature (Shorter sixth edition, 2003). \nCavitch, Max, American Elegy: The Poetry of Mourning from the Puritans to Whitman (University of Minnesota Press, 2007). \nHoover, Paul (ed): Postmodern American Poetry - A Norton Anthology (1994). \nMoore, Geoffrey (ed): The Penguin Book of American Verse (Revised edition 1983) \nShipman, J.S. 2005. \"Calling on You\"In: Surrender to the Moon. International Library of Poetry. Watermark Press. Owings Mills, MD. P 3.\n\nExternal links \n\nCary Nelson, Ed. (1999–2002) Poet biographies at Modern American Poetry. Retrieved December 5, 2004\nPoet biographies at the Academy of American Poets Captured December 10, 2004\nPoet biographies at the Electronic Poetry Centre Captured December 10, 2004\nVarious anthologies of American verse at Bartleby.com Captured December 10, 2004\nPoetry Resource a website for students of poetry\n\n \nCategory:Poetry by country", "title": "American poetry" }, { "text": "Caribbean poetry is vast and rapidly evolving field of poetry written by people from the Caribbean region and the diaspora.\n\nCaribbean poetry generally refers to a myriad of poetic forms, spanning epic, lyrical verse, prose poems, dramatic poetry and oral poetry, composed in Caribbean territories regardless of language. It is most often, however, written in English, Spanish, Spanglish, French, Hindustani, Dutch, or any number of creoles. Poetry in English from the former British West Indies has been referred to as Anglo-Caribbean poetry or West Indian poetry.\n\nSince the mid-1970s, Caribbean poetry has gained increasing visibility with the publication in Britain and North America of several anthologies. Over the decades the canon has shifted and expanded, drawing both on oral and literary traditions and including more women poets and politically charged works. Caribbean writers, performance poets, newspaper poets, singer-songwriters have created a popular art form, a poetry heard by audiences all over the world. Caribbean oral poetry shares the vigour of the written tradition.\n\nAmong the most prominent Caribbean poets whose works are widely studied (and translated into other languages) are: Derek Walcott (who won the 1992 Nobel Prize for Literature), Kamau Brathwaite, Edouard Glissant, Giannina Braschi, Lorna Goodinson, Aimé Fernand Césaire, Linton Kwesi Johnson, Kwame Dawes, and Claudia Rankine.\n\nCommon themes include: exile and return to the motherland; the relationship of language to nation; colonialism and postcolonialism; self-determination and liberty; racial identity.\n\nCaribbean epic poetry \n\nDerek Walcott's Omeros (1990) is one of the most renown epic poems of the 20th century and of the Caribbean. The work is divided into seven books containing sixty-four chapters. Most of the poem is composed in a three-line form that is reminiscent of the terza rima form that Dante used for The Divine Comedy. The work, referencing Homer and other characters from the Iliad, refers to Greek, Roman, and American slavery. The narrative arch of the epic takes place on the island of St. Lucia, where Walcott was born and raised, but includes imaginings of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as travels to modern day Lisbon, London, Dublin, Toronto.\n\nGiannina Braschi's Empire of Dreams (1988) is a postmodern Caribbean epic composed of six books of poetry that blend elements of eclogues, epigrams, lyrics, prose poem, and manifesto. Braschi's United States of Banana (2011) is a geopolitical tragic-comedy about the fall of the American empire, the liberation of Puerto Rico, and the unification of the Caribbean isles. Blending elements of poetry, lyrical essay, and dramatic dialogues, this postmodern epic tackles the subjects of global debt, labor abuse, and environmental crises on the rise.\n\nAnthony Kellman created the Caribbean poetic form Tuk Verse, which incorporates melodic and rhythmic elements of Barbadian indigenous folk music called Tuk. His 2008 book Limestone: An Epic Poem of Barbados is the first published epic poem of Barbados.\n\nCaribbean poets by country\nGrouped by territory of birth or upbringing.\n\nAnguilla\n\n Bankie Banx\n\nBarbados\n\n Kamau Brathwaite\nFrank Collymore\n George Lamming\n Anthony Kellman\n Paterika Hengreaves (Patricia Hendy)\n Claudia Rankine\n\nCuba\n\n Roberto Fernández Retamar\n Nicolás Guillén\n Lezama Lima\n José Martí\n Nancy Morejon\n Jorge Enrique González Pacheco\n\nDominican Republic\n\n Rafael Nino Féliz\n Blas Jiménez\n Pedro Mir\n Chiqui Vicioso\n\nGuyana\n\n John Agard\n Martin Carter\n Mahadai Das\n Mark McWatt\n Grace Nichols\n\nHaiti\n\n René Depestre\n Félix Morisseau-Leroy \n Jacques Roumain\n\nJamaica\n\n Louise Bennett\n Jean \"Binta\" Breeze\n Michelle Cliff\n Kwame Dawes\n Lorna Goodison\n Ishion Hutchinson\n Linton Kwesi Johnson\n Una Marson\n Claude McKay\n Kei Miller\n Mutabaruka\n Oku Onuora\n Claudia Rankine\n Olive Senior\n Mikey Smith\n\nMartinique\n\n Nicole Cage\n Aimé Césaire\n Edouard Glissant\n\nMontserrat\n\n Howard Fergus\n E. A. Markham\n Yvonne Weekes\n\nPuerto Rico\n\n Julia de Burgos\n Giannina Braschi\n Luis Pales Matos\n Mara Pastor\n\nSt Lucia\n Adrian Augier\n Kendel Hippolyte\n Derek Walcott\n\nSt Martin\n\n Charles Borromeo Hodge\n Drisana Deborah Jack\n Lasana M. Sekou\n\nSt Vincent and the Grenadines\n\n Shake Keane\n N.C. Marks\n Cecil “Blazer” Williams\n\nThe Bahamas\n\n Marion Bethel\n Christian Campbell (poet)\n Telcine Turner-Rolle\n Nicolette Bethel\n Patricia Glinton-Meicholas\n\nTrinidad & Tobago\n\n Vahni Capildeo\n Anthony Joseph\n John La Rose\n Tricia David\n Lauren K. Alleyne\n M. NourbeSe Philip\n\nFurther reading\n Arnold, James. A History of Literature in the Caribbean v. I and II. Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. (2001)\n Breiner, Laurence A. An Introduction to West Indian Poetry, Cambridge University Press, 1998.\n Brown, Lloyd. West Indian Poetry. Boston: Twayne, 1978.\n Bryan, Beverley. Teaching Caribbean Poetry. London: Routledge, 2014.\n Jenkins, Lee Margaret. The Language of Caribbean Poetry. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004.\n \n Perisic, Alexandra. Precarious Crossings: Immigration, Neoliberalism, and the Atlantic. The Ohio State University Press.(2019)\n\nSelected anthologies\n\n James Berry, Bluefoot Traveller, London: Limestone Publications, 1976.\n Stewart Brown, Caribbean Poetry Now, 1984.\n Paula Burnett, The Penguin Book of Caribbean Verse in English, 1986.\n Stewart Brown, Mervyn Morris, Gordon Rohlehr (eds), Voiceprint: An Anthology of Oral and Related Poetry from the Caribbean, 1989.\n E. A. Markham, Hinterland: Caribbean Poetry from the West Indies and Britain, Newcastle upon Tyne: Bloodaxe, 1989.\n Stewart Brown and Ian McDonald (eds), The Heinemann Book of Caribbean Poetry, 1992.\n Anthony Kellman (ed.), Crossing Water: Contemporary Poetry from the English-Speaking Caribbean, NY: Greenfield Review Press, 1992.\n Stewart Brown, Mark McWatt (eds), The Oxford Book of Caribbean Verse, 2005.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in St. Martin, 2013.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in Anguilla. St. Martin: House of Nehesi Publishers, 2015.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See the Sun – Contemporary Poetry in The Virgin Islands (Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada, Jost Van Dyke). St. Martin: House of Nehesi Publishers, 2016.\n\nSee also\n Caribbean literature\n Dub poetry\n Nation language\n Postcolonial literature\n Cuban literature\n Puerto Rican poetry\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\nCategory:Caribbean culture\nCategory:Poetry", "title": "Caribbean poetry" } ]

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[ "What was her relation to Puma?", "Did she receive any awards?", "Who did she first partner with?", "What year was she born?", "Who sees her as their style icon?", "When did she start doing collaborations?", "Did she partner up with Armani?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2170 ], [ 1860 ], [ 267 ], [ 2170 ], [ 2056 ], [ 0 ], [ 2170 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In February 2017, Rihanna was named Harvard University's \"Humanitarian of the Year\" by the Harvard Foundation." ], [ "Rihanna and other public figures designed clothing for the February 2008 H&M Fashion Against AIDS line." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Barack Obama praised Rihanna's work stating \"You've become a powerful force in the fight to give people dignity.\"" ], [ "In 2006, she created her Believe Foundation to help terminally ill children." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2170, 1860, 267, 2170, 2056, 0, 2170 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "In February 2017, Rihanna was named Harvard University's \"Humanitarian of the Year\" by the Harvard Foundation.", "Rihanna and other public figures designed clothing for the February 2008 H&M Fashion Against AIDS line.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Barack Obama praised Rihanna's work stating \"You've become a powerful force in the fight to give people dignity.\"", "In 2006, she created her Believe Foundation to help terminally ill children.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

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[ "The text does not provide information on Rihanna's relation to Puma.", "The text does not provide information on Rihanna receiving any awards.", "The first partnership mentioned in the text is with Cartier, as she was named as one of the Cartier Love Charity Bracelet Ambassadors in 2007.", "The text does not provide information on what year Rihanna was born.", "The text does not provide information on who sees Rihanna as their style icon.", "The text does not provide specific information on when Rihanna started doing collaborations.", "The text does not provide information on Rihanna partnering up with Armani." ]

[ "Yes", "no", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What happened in 2004?", "Was it a success?", "Did they go on tour", "What other album did they release", "Did it have hits?", "Did they win any awards", "Did they go on tour", "What are some other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 66 ], [ 2481 ], [ 1246 ], [ 1695 ], [ 1548 ], [ 2481 ], [ 2233 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Fabolous' third album Real Talk was released on November 5, 2004." ], [ "It debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 with 10,000 copies and had two charting singles, the lowest in his career." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "His fourth studio album, From Nothin' to Somethin," ], [ "The first single and video, \"Diamonds" ], [ "The album was certified Gold in July 2007." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The fourth single was \"Baby Don't Go.\"" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 66, 2481, 1246, 1695, 1548, 2481, 2233 ], "texts": [ "Fabolous' third album Real Talk was released on November 5, 2004.", "It debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 with 10,000 copies and had two charting singles, the lowest in his career.", "CANNOTANSWER", "His fourth studio album, From Nothin' to Somethin,", "The first single and video, \"Diamonds", "The album was certified Gold in July 2007.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The fourth single was \"Baby Don't Go.\"" ] }

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[ "In 2004, Fabolous released his third album, Real Talk, which debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 with two charting singles - \"Breathe\" and \"Baby.\" After the album's release, his second single was promoted. He later released his third single, \"Tit 4 Tat,\" produced by Pharrell of The Neptunes. Fabolous also expressed his desire to launch his own clothing line that year, and was nominated for a Grammy for his collaboration on Christina Milian's \"Dip it Low\" remix.", "The album Real Talk did achieve success and debuted at number six on the Billboard 200, but the two singles from the album were the lowest in his career. Fabulous felt that his third single, \"Tit 4 Tat,\" did not achieve the success it should have because of poor advertising. However, he was nominated for a Grammy Award in that same year for his collaboration on the \"Dip It Low\" remix by Christina Milian, which indicates some degree of success.", "The context does not provide information on whether Fabolous went on tour in 2004.", "Aside from \"Real Talk,\" the context also mentions that Fabolous released the album \"From Nothin' to Somethin\" in June 2007 after signing a recording contract with Def Jam Recordings.", "Yes, Fabolous' album \"From Nothin' to Somethin\" had hits. One of the singles, \"Make Me Better,\" which features Ne-Yo, spent 14 weeks at number one on the Hot Rap Track Billboard Chart. A song from the album called \"Baby Don't Go\" also found success, reaching number four on the Hot Rap Track Chart.", "The context does not provide information on whether Fabolous won any awards.", "The context does not provide information on whether Fabolous went on tour.", "Some interesting aspects from this article include Fabolous expressing his desire to launch his own clothing line in 2004, and eventually launching the \"Rich Yung Society\" line in 2006. He was let out of his contract with Atlantic in early 2006 and officially signed a recording contract with Def Jam Recordings. His album \"From Nothin' to Somethin\" took the number one spot on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and Top Rap Albums charts, and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200. He was featured on the cover of the video game Def Jam: Icon." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "what happeend in 2001?", "was the album successful?", "did it have any hit singles?", "did it make the charts?", "did they produce any other albums?", "was this album successful?", "did they go on tour at all?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 75 ], [ 170 ], [ 1638 ], [ 609 ], [ 753 ], [ 1638 ], [ 1135 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Fabolous released his debut album, Ghetto Fabolous, on September 11, 2001." ], [ "It debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, selling over 140,000 copies in its first week." ], [ "The album's first single, \"Can't Deny It\", was produced by Rick Rock and features a chorus by Nate Dogg" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Fabolous released his second album Street Dreams on March 4, 2003." ], [ "Can't Let You Go\" reached number one on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart and number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. \"" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Exactly seven months later, on November 4, 2003, Fabolous dropped his official mixtape, More Street Dreams, Pt. 2:" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 75, 170, 1638, 609, 753, 1638, 1135 ], "texts": [ "Fabolous released his debut album, Ghetto Fabolous, on September 11, 2001.", "It debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, selling over 140,000 copies in its first week.", "The album's first single, \"Can't Deny It\", was produced by Rick Rock and features a chorus by Nate Dogg", "CANNOTANSWER", "Fabolous released his second album Street Dreams on March 4, 2003.", "Can't Let You Go\" reached number one on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart and number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. \"", "CANNOTANSWER", "Exactly seven months later, on November 4, 2003, Fabolous dropped his official mixtape, More Street Dreams, Pt. 2:" ] }

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[ "Fabolous released his debut album, Ghetto Fabolous, in 2001. The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, selling over 140,000 copies in its first week.", "Yes, the album was successful. It debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, selling over 140,000 copies in its first week.", "Yes, the album included hit singles such as \"Can't Deny It\" and \"Young'n (Holla Back)\", and \"Trade It All\". These songs all charted on the US Billboard Hot 100.", "Yes, Ghetto Fabolous, debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 and some of its singles also charted on the US Billboard Hot 100.", "Yes, after Ghetto Fabolous, Fabolous released his second album Street Dreams on March 4, 2003. After that, he also dropped an official mixtape titled More Street Dreams, Pt. 2: The Mixtape on November 4, 2003.", "Yes, Fabolous' second album, Street Dreams was successful. Two of its singles, \"Can't Let You Go\" and \"Into You\", reached number one on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart and number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart respectively.", "The context doesn't provide information on whether or not Fabolous went on tour for these albums.", "Yes, there are a few other interesting aspects in the article. One is that Fabolous' song \"Can't Deny It\" samples a chorus from Tupac Shakur's song \"Ambitionz Az a Ridah\". Additionally, his second album, Street Dreams, includes a club banger titled \"This Is My Party\" and \"Trade It All Pt. 2,\" which features Jagged Edge and Diddy. Furthermore, Fabolous released an official mixtape called More Street Dreams, Pt. 2: The Mixtape which was a release by his record label, Elektra. It featured remixes and tracks not originally on Street Dreams and involved his three-man crew, known as the Triangle Offense, consisting of himself, Paul Cain, and Joe Budden." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "what was the name of the country chsrles had the most issue with?", "what year did he have his conflict with his nemisis?", "did France concur Milan?", "what year was the final war? Who was in it?", "What did Henrys eventual defeat lead to?", "What year did he come to a truce and who was involved?", "who seceded Charles after the last war?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 816 ], [ 983 ], [ 735 ], [ 1372 ], [ 1113 ], [ 1372 ], [ 2157 ] ], "texts": [ [ "From 1515 to 1523, Charles's government in the Netherlands also had to contend with the rebellion of Frisian peasants" ], [ "The rebels were initially successful but after a series of defeats, the remaining leaders were captured and decapitated in 1523." ], [ "The outcome was that France relinquished its ancient claim on Flanders in 1528." ], [ "In 1549, Charles issued a Pragmatic Sanction, declaring the Low Countries to be a unified entity of which his family would be the heirs." ], [ "Charles extended the Burgundian territory with the annexation of Tournai, Artois, Utrecht, Groningen and Guelders." ], [ "In 1549, Charles issued a Pragmatic Sanction, declaring the Low Countries to be a unified entity of which his family would be the heirs." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 816, 983, 735, 1372, 1113, 1372, 2157 ], "texts": [ "From 1515 to 1523, Charles's government in the Netherlands also had to contend with the rebellion of Frisian peasants", "The rebels were initially successful but after a series of defeats, the remaining leaders were captured and decapitated in 1523.", "The outcome was that France relinquished its ancient claim on Flanders in 1528.", "In 1549, Charles issued a Pragmatic Sanction, declaring the Low Countries to be a unified entity of which his family would be the heirs.", "Charles extended the Burgundian territory with the annexation of Tournai, Artois, Utrecht, Groningen and Guelders.", "In 1549, Charles issued a Pragmatic Sanction, declaring the Low Countries to be a unified entity of which his family would be the heirs.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "The Royal Armoury of Madrid or Real Armería de Madrid, is a collection that, among many other things, contains the personal arms of the Kings of Spain, and also houses military weapons, armours and diplomatic works of art like mixed tapestries, paintings and other works of art and trophies. Among the most notable parts of the collection are armor and full tools that Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Philip II used. It is considered, along with the Imperial Armory of Vienna, one of the best in the world.\n\nThe decision to grant preferential treatment to the Armory dates back at least to the death of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, which occurred on 21 September 1558.\n\nLocation\n\nThe armory of the Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, had come, mostly, from Brussels to Spain via the port of Laredo, in September 1556, from where it went to Valladolid. At his death his weapons were scattered between Valladolid, the Monastery of Yuste, and possibly the Alcázar of Madrid.\n\nFormer building\n\nThis building that is currently known as \"Antigua Real Armería de Felipe II\" was chosen, apparently, in 1553, to provide the Alcázar of a new Stables. Its conception was probably due to Philip II himself, judging by a sketch he made that is preserved in the Archivo General de Simancas.\n\nThis former armoury was located in the complex of the Royal Stables of the Alcázar of the Habsburgs, built by the master builder Gaspar de Vega between 1556 and 1564 at the behest of King Philip II. When works were completed, the king commanded that the Armoury be moved to the wing of the Stables that was in front of the main facade of the Alcázar.\n\nThe new site was structured around a rectangular hall of 63 meters long by 10 meters wide, and consisted of a ground floor and main floor. Crowning the building was a ledge of stone on which stood the roof truss and slate roof, with stepped gables at both front ends. Downstairs were three naves, while the upper floor, housing the Armory, was completely open. The interior of the hall was completed in 1565. It was whitewashed and a large portion decorated with azulejos from Talavera de la Reina pottery by Juan Florez.\n\nThe most characteristic element of its structure was the called \"Arc of the Armoury\" that connected the Alcázar with the outside. The arc was built during the reign of Charles II of Habsburg.\n\nCurrent location\n\nIn 1884 a fire partially destroyed the structure built by Philip II. Alfonso XII ordered no expense be spared in the construction of a new building which is its current headquarters. Alfonso's early death meant he did not see the culmination of his work, which was finally completed by the will of the Queen Maria Cristina. The main floor of the new building was conceived as a large room decorated with tapestries, weapons and outfits in which was installed the entire collection. The new facility was inaugurated in 1893.\n\nThe current Royal Armoury of Madrid is located on the ground floor of the Royal Palace of Madrid, and is considered, along with the Imperial Armoury of Vienna, one of the best in the world. It consists of pieces from as early as the 15th century. The collection highlights the tournament pieces made for Charles V and Philip II by the leading armourers of Milan and Augsburg. Among the most remarkable works are the full armour and weapons that Emperor Charles V used in the Battle of Mühlberg, and which was portrayed by Titian in his famous equestrian portrait housed at the Museo del Prado. The armoury retains some of the most important pieces of this art in Europe and the world, including several signed by Filippo Negroli, one of the most famous designers in the armourers' guild.\n\nCollections\nThe weapons were guarded in the former building in large \"drawers\" of wood, i.e. large closets like cloakrooms. The distribution of the weapons in the room was thought through thoroughly. Higher grade weapons were stored inside the drawers. Firearms, archery, and to a lesser extent, some knives and small, were placed over the windows. The remaining pole weapons occupied the front ends of the room and the drawers. The western headwall highlighted two small pieces of artillery and four sledges with fittings of its shots.\n\nThe criteria of distribution and management inside the drawers were more complex. The first criterion of distribution catered to the owners of the weapons. Those belonging to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor occupied mainly the first eight drawers in the southern side, while those of Philip II were stored next to those of his father in the northern wall. According to the second criterion, certain drawers housed the set of armor, spines, trappings and clothing that constituted each of the harnesses of Charles V and Philip II. The third criterion, broader, responded to the types of objects. Thus each drawer kept only one type of weapon, dedicated for example to knives, or chain mail, or other objects with common features, duch as arms decorated in damascene. Other drawers guarded weapons of particular interest to the dynasty, such as the trophies of Mülhberg and Pavia, guns of legendary characters or some symbolic importance, the ceremonial sword of the Catholic Monarchs, the rapier sent by Pope Clement VII to Charles V, the armor sent to Philip II by the shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi or the swords attributed to El Cid, to el Gran Capitán, to Roland and to Boabdil.\n\nThe core of the current collection corresponds to the armory guarded by Philip II when he established the Court in Madrid, consisting of his personal armory, but especially that of his father, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who in turn had retained weapons belonging to his father, Philip I of Castile and his grandparents, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Within this set stand the armor of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Philip II as a set of most important and core on which is based the rest of the collection. Alongside are other significant sets of the formation of the current collection, despite the irregular increase of its funds from the 16th to the 19th century: among these are the medieval weapons from the Treasury of the Alcázar of Segovia; the firearms of Charles V and Philip II; the child armor of the Princes and Infantes of Spain; military trophies; and diplomatic and family gifts sent by the following persons: the Duke of Mantua to Charles V; the shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi to Philip II; Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy and James I of England to Philip III; Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia and Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria to Philip IV; or the Sultan of Turkey to Charles III among others. The last set of special importance in the collection are the firearms forged in Madrid for the venatoria activities of the Court, of great reputation throughout the continent.\n\nThe medieval and transition to Renaissance funds are a set of importance for its meaning, despite its number and diverse origins. One part was in the armory of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who had inherited his father's weapons, of his grandparents and some of his contemporaries. A second set comes from the Royal Treasury of the Alcazar of Segovia, moved to the Armory of Madrid by Philip II. A third group consists of several purchases, donations and transfers of royal medals made between the reigns of Ferdinand VII to Alfonso XII. Highlights the depiction of the emblems of the kingdoms of Castile, León and Aragon, present in the acicates and the mantle of Ferdinand III of Castile, those coming from his burial in the Cathedral of Seville, and the crest of Drac Alat attributed to Martin of Aragon. Together with them stand the royal sword of the Catholic Monarchs, used as ceremonial sword in the Spanish Court until the 18th century.\n\nThe reign of the Catholic Monarchs and the weaponry of Late Middle Ages, is also represented by weapons from various sources that frame the activity in this period. Also preserved are contemporary war weapons to the Granada War, consisting of illustrative defensive pieces of the Spanish, Italian and German workshops; and two of the oldest portable fire weapons known in Spain, even debtors in some ways, of the archery that supersede with the time. Within this group it deserve special mention the helmets and the armor pieces associated with a peculiar prestigious peninsular production, whose workshops have not yet been identified, but are supposed are from Aragonese origin; The Nasrid sultanate of Granada is present through a small but important sample of its panoply, since are preserved an example of each of the three types of weapons of Granadan creation; one genet from the collection of Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria; one leather shield preserved in the armory of Charles V; and a dagger wing associated with a belt with pouch and a holster for a Quran, those latter captured at the Battle of Lucena to Muhammad XII (Boabdil), and those presented to Alfonso XIII by the Marquis of Viana as part of the Villaseca legacy.\n\nThe collection retains weapons related with some of the facts and prominent figures of the reign of the Catholic Monarchs through their weapons, such as the sword of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (el Gran Capitán), or the weapons of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, specifically a headpiece of horse, a coracina and two fences. The firsts allude to his power and dynasty by a decoration and heraldic and allegorical character that puts the imperial emblems. These weapons come from the collection of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor where were also guarding the weapons of his father, Philip I of Castile, representative of the marriage alliances between the Catholic Monarchs and Maximilian. The armory of Philip I of Castile is currently divided between the Hofjagd und Rüstkammer (Kunsthistorisches Museum) of Vienna and the Royal Armory of Madrid, where are primarily the weapons used since his marriage with Joanna of Castile, among which a two hands sword with his personal motto, and helmets and testeras of Flemish, German and Italian origin; between these, two helmets by the Milanos workshop of Filippo Negroli and three armor that match only two examples in the Flemish and Spanish production period.\n\nThe Armouries of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Philip II\nThe armouries of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Philip II constitute the core of the collection, especially in regard to the imperial armory. Meanwhile, the weapons of Philip II can not be dissociated from those of his father, given the close relationship between the two, and by their German or Italian origin within the same chronological period. In fact, most of the armors of Philip II were forged when Charles V lived, coinciding at times in its development with those of the Emperor. The whole of the armors of Charles V and Philip II was forged between 1519 and 1560, during the Renaissance, during the time of splendor of the art of the armour.\n\nEssentially, is not a set of war weapons, but a collection of luxury weapons as a representation of power, intended to be used in the various events of the Court: fairs, tournaments, military parades, jousting, etc. Most of the armours of Charles V and Philip II were forged following the concept of fitting armor invented by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor: consisted of a base armour provided with reinforcement parts or complement, decorated uniformly, so that the exchange of the different pieces that compose it, could lead to the formation of various figures intended to the combat on foot, to the fair and to the equestrian tournament, to the war in its different variants or to the parade. The Spanish Royal Collection retains much of these auxiliary pieces and a high number of fences or armors of horse, associated, in some cases, to such armors.\n\nIn this type of weapons is especially valued the constructive and technical wit, the formal design and the decoration, the latter rich in connotations of all being, from chivalry to the reflection of the ideas and themes of humanism through allegorical, religious, heraldic and / or dynastic, or recreating the classical tradition of the Roman times. The physical implementation of the decoration is done by techniques to show or enhance the beauty and richness of the pieces sculpted thanks to etched surfaces, light embossed, golden or silver surfaces, bluing, gold and silver damascened, etc. Therefore, throughout Europe the luxury weapons could only be forged and decorated in a limited number of highly specialized workshops. The most important were located, for historical and geographical reasons, in Germany and northern Italy. In the case of Charles V stand out the workshops of Kolman and Desiderius Helmschmid from Augsburg, and of Filippo Negroli and brothers from Milan. In the case of Philip II, Franz and Wolfgang Grosschedel from Landshut, Desiderius Helmschmid and Antoni Peffenhauser from Augsburg. These armourers are given special preference, but both Charles V and Philip II possessed weapons coming from other high-level workshops, such as Mattheus Frawenbrys, Caremolo Mondrone, or Bartolomeo Campi, either because these are specific orders, or by being parts submitted by various personages related to the Spanish Court.\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nMarchesi, José María (1849). Catálogo de la Real Armería, mandado formar por S.M.... Madrid: Aguado. https://books.google.com/books?id=_G6ynFwGCMoC\nMuseo Nacional del Prado (2012). «La Real Armería de Madrid».\n\nExternal links\n\nCategory:Royal Palace of Madrid\nCategory:Culture in Madrid\nCategory:Demolished buildings and structures in Madrid\nCategory:Armour collections\nCategory:History museums in Spain\nCategory:Military and war museums in Spain\nCategory:Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\nCategory:Philip II of Spain\nCategory:Buildings and structures completed in 1565\nCategory:1558 establishments in Spain", "title": "Royal Armoury of Madrid" }, { "text": "The Museum of Military History – Military History Institute () in Vienna is the leading museum of the Austrian Armed Forces. It documents the history of Austrian military affairs through a wide range of exhibits comprising, above all, weapons, armours, tanks, aeroplanes, uniforms, flags, paintings, medals and badges of honour, photographs, battleship models, and documents. Although the museum is owned by the Federal Government, it is not affiliated with the Federal museums but is organised as a subordinate agency reporting directly to the Ministry of Defence and Sports.\n\nThe museum building and its history \nThe museum building (Arsenal object number 18) is the centrepiece of Vienna's Arsenal, a huge military complex previously consisting of a total of 72 buildings erected in the wake of the 1848/49 revolution. The Arsenal was the largest building project of the young Kaiser Franz Joseph I in his first years of reign, and served to consolidate his neoabsolutist position of power, as opposed to the revolutionary Vienna of 1848.\nIt was Danish architect Theophil Hansen who designed what was then referred to as the weapons museum. The museum was completed on 8 May 1856, just six years after the beginning of construction (15 April 1850), making it the oldest museum building – planned and executed as such – in Austria.\nAt the time of its construction, the Arsenal was located outside the outer ring of fortifications; in 1850, however, the area was incorporated into Vienna along with the original Favoriten (4th District; as of 1874, 10th District; since 1938, the Arsenal forms part of Vienna's 3rd District). Along the south-west side of the Arsenal ran the Vienna-Raab railway, for which the main Vienna station, the Wiener Bahnhof had been opened in 1848.\n\nThe front \nHansen's plan provided for a 235-meter long building with protruding transverse sections and corner towers, and a tower-like central segment with a square shape, crowned with a dome, with a total height of 43 meters. Just as many other historicist buildings borrowed models from historic architecture, Theophil Hansen chose the Venetian Arsenal, built after 1104, as his prototype. He borrowed Byzantine style elements, adding some Gothic elements in the process. What really stands out is the characteristic brickwork structure. The brickwork, consisting of two-tone bricks, is decorated with terracotta ornaments and wrought iron clasps, the segmentation of the façade is set off in natural stone, and the median risalit is rich with decorative elements such as the three round windows in front of the side wings. The richly adorned attic section is borne by a magnificent lombard band reminiscent of Florentine palazzi. The dovetail crenellation is interrupted by turrets at the axes of the side wings and at the corners of the central part of the building, with terracotta trophy sculptures positioned inside their alcoves. Allegoric representations of military virtues made of sandstone are featured on and in front of the facade, created by Hans Gasser, one of the most influential sculptors of his time. Just below the round windows, the female figures (from left to right) represent strength, vigilance, piety, and wisdom; next to the three openings leading to the lobby are four male figures, which stand for bravery, loyalty to the flag, self-sacrifice, and military intelligence.\n\nThe interior \nThe interior of the Museum of Military History is witness to the intention of Emperor Franz Joseph to create not just a building to house the imperial arms collections, but above all to establish a magnificent hall of fame and a memorial for the Imperial Army. The Feldherrenhalle, for instance, exhibits 56 full-figure statues of \"Austria's most famous warlords and field commanders worthy of eternal emulation\", as they are described in the Imperial resolution of 28 February 1863. All statutes are made of Carrara marble and stand equally tall at exactly 186 centimetres. The names and biographical data of those depicted can be found on plates located above each statue, while the base of each statue bears one of the 32 names of the artists who created them, the date it was installed, and the name of the patron who paid for the statue. Half of the costs were borne by Emperor Franz Joseph himself, and the rest was financed by private sponsors who were often descendants of the respective field commanders depicted. The chronological period covered by these statues ranges from the Margrave Leopold I of Babenberg to the Habsburg Archduke Charles.\n\nThe staircase too, was lavishly decorated. An additional four statues of field commanders are exhibited in the mezzanine, thus bringing the total to the aforementioned 60, though contrary to the ones in the Feldherrenhalle, these stand in considerably more elevated positions in wall niches. These portray important personalities of the revolutionary year 1848, namely those military leaders who – at times very bloodily – quelled the revolutionary efforts in all parts of the Empire on behalf of the House of Habsburg: Julius von Haynau, Joseph Wenzel Radetzky, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, and Count Josip Jelačić of Bužim. Carl Rahl was assigned with the pictorial decoration of the Staircase, a task he carried out together with his students Christian Griepenkerl and Eduard Bitterlich in 1864. The centre of the gold-ornamented ceiling features frescos with allegorical depictions of power and unity (centre), fame and honour (right), and cleverness and courage (left). The staircase is crowned by an allegorical marble sculpture group titled Austria, created by Johannes Benk in 1869.\n\nIndisputably, the most representative section of the entire museum is the Ruhmeshalle (hall of fame) located in the first floor. A particular highlight of the Ruhmeshalle are the frescos by Karl von Blaas, portraying the most important military events (victories) in Austrian history since the times of the Babenberg dynasty. The four large wall arches show the victories of the Imperial Army, the battle of Nördlingen 1634, the war council at the battle of St. Gotthard 1664, the battle of Zenta 1697, and the relief of Turin 1706; the left adjacent hall contains depictions of events during the reign of Maria Theresia and Joseph II until the siege of Belgrade in 1789; the right adjacent hall contains depictions of the Napoleonic Wars stretching from the battle of Würzburg in 1796 to Tyrol's struggle for freedom in 1809 and the armistice negotiations of field Marshal Radetzky with King Vittorio Emanuele II of Sardinia following the battle of Novara in 1849. The true significance of the Ruhmeshalle, that of a memorial, however, only becomes discernible at the second glance: On the walls of the adjacent halls and in the Ruhmeshalle itself, one will find several marble plaques, bearing the names of over 500 officers (from colonels to generals of the Imperial Army, known as Imperial and Royal (k.u.k.) Army as of the beginning of the Thirty Years' War in 1618 until the end of World War I in 1918), indicating the place and date of their death.\n\nHistory \nAlthough the museum building itself was already completed in 1856, work on its interior lasted until 1872. The collection was completed with pieces from the former court arms collection of the Imperial armoury, the Imperial private collection in the Laxenburg Palace, and the Imperial treasury in Vienna. Initially, the collection consisted exclusively of arms and trophies, with a major focus on suits of armour and weapons of the Imperial Leibrüstkammer (Chamber of Personal Armour). After the collection was systematically arranged, it was opened to the public as the k.k. Hofwaffenmuseum in 1869. When construction of the Museum of Fine Arts began in Vienna in 1871 (it was opened in 1891), many believed in the beginning of the 1880s that significant parts of the collections previously exhibited in the Hofwaffenmuseum could be moved there. These considerations brought great uncertainty over the future and orientation of the k.k. Hofwaffenmuseum. Therefore, a committee chaired by Crown Prince Rudolf was formed in 1885, assigned with the task of defining the new orientation of the museum, henceforth called the k.k. Heeresmuseum. From there on, the focus of the collections and exhibitions would be placed on the deeds of the Imperial Army. On the foundation meeting of the committee on 22 February 1885, the Crown Prince underscored the purpose of the museum: He stressed the importance of the museum, which \"would contribute to glorifying the nimbus and the honour of the Army, in which the genuine old Imperial spirit lives on, which has held the Imperial position in high esteem at all times and thus constitutes the symbol of cohesiveness of all people\". For this reason, he hoped \"that the museum would come to life in the greatest possible magnificence″.\n\nThe committee consisted of the following members:\n Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, Protector and Chairman\n Archduke Wilhelm of Austria, Deputy Protector and Chairman\n Quirin Ritter von Leitner, then Director of the Hofwaffenmuseum.\n Alfred Ritter von Arneth, President of the Imperial Academy of Sciences\n Johann Nepomuk Count Wilczek, patron and collector, and main sponsor of the Payer-Weyprecht polar expedition.\n\nApart from the requests addressed to various military institutions, the committee also approached private civilians to obtain historic objects for the new museum. The principle applied was: The collections were to be divided into war trophies and ″otherwise historically interesting objects of exclusively Austrian origin which are of significance for the proper acknowledgement of the past of the Imperial and Royal Army in all its factors″. Only originals were allowed to be exhibited, and projects and models were admissible only under special circumstances. As a result of the work of the committee and the generous support of the Emperor, his family, the nobility, and the bourgeoisie, as well as the Imperial War Ministry, ″a plethora of treasures was gathered, which a contemporary individual can hardly imagine.″ Finally, on 25 May 1891, the new k.u.k. Heeresmuseum in the Arsenal was solemnly inaugurated by Emperor Franz Joseph and dedicated to its intended use.\nOnce World War I broke out, the museum was immediately closed down for visitors. This was mainly attributed to the fact that so much material was appropriated from the various war theatres that it became impossible to manage an orderly exhibition. The end of the war in 1918 also seemed to bring the final curtain down for the museum. There was even a plan to sell the museum's collections to improve the precarious economic situation, but this was eventually averted. In September 1921, the building was reopened as the Österreichisches Heeresmuseum (Austrian Military Museum). From there on, the museum was to focus primarily on documenting the most recent military events, especially those of World War I. The opening of a gallery for war paintings in 1923 marked the first time that the museum dedicated a large section to fine arts. These did not only depict army chiefs and battles, but also the everyday life of soldiers during wartime. \nFollowing Austria's annexation into the Third Reich, the museum was placed under the management of the director of military museums in Berlin and was renamed to Heeresmuseum Wien (Vienna military museum). During World War II, the museum was once again inaccessible to the public, and admission remained reserved to military personnel. As of 1943, civilians were allowed into the museum as visitors only on weekends. During this time, the museum was primarily used for propaganda purposes. For instance, military campaigns of the Wehrmacht were documented in special propaganda exhibitions (Sieg im Westen (summer 1940), Griechenland und Kreta 1941 – Bild und Beute (March/May 1942) and Kampfraum Südost (summer 1944)).\nAs with all museums in Vienna, the most valuable collections were evacuated once the allied bombings on Vienna began in autumn 1943. These measures proved absolutely necessary, since the Arsenal and the Südbahnhof were directly hit by allied bomber groups on 10 September and 11 December 1944, severely damaging or completely destroying not only the museum building but also several depots. Toward the end of the war, in particular during the so-called Vienna Offensive, the Arsenal grounds, too, were heavily damaged.\nDuring the occupation, many of the evacuated collection items that had survived the turmoil of war were requisitioned by the Allies. Several items, however, also fell victim to theft and looting by the soldiers of the Red Army and the civilian population. In the end, the museum faced the prospect of a complete shutdown. Despite the aforementioned difficulties, reconstruction of the museum already began in 1946 under the direction of Alfred Mell, who proposed what was eventually to become its final name, the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum. The management of the museum at the time received particular support from the Austrian Belvedere Gallery and the Museum of Fine Arts. The collection of ship models provided by the Vienna Technical Museum has remained the core attraction of the Marinesaal to this day. During the term of Rudolf Pühringer as director, the museum, now called Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, was solemnly reopened by the Federal Minister for Education, Heinrich Drimmel on 24 June 1955.\nIn the post-war period, the halls of the reopened museum were designed primarily as exhibition areas for trophies (″A cult site and a shrine″). It was not until Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck became the museum's director in 1965 (through to 1983) that the exhibition areas were comprehensively renovated. The halls for the 16th and 17th century periods, and for the time between 1866 and 1914 were rebuilt and presented in a different design. The purpose was to go beyond the mere display of objects and to scientifically address the topic while thoroughly composing the halls as an artistic synthesis, matching the status of the institution as one of the world's most significant museums. Allmayer-Beck believed that the museum was not a place for maintaining tradition: ″Tradition must be maintained outside - inside, the objective is to make the history of the Austrian and Imperial Army visible - including those often neglected cultural and social elements.″ In September 1998, during the term of Manfried Rauchensteiner as director, the museum opened the Republik und Diktatur hall, which exhibited objects from the period from 1918 until 1945. On 9 December 2008, the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum was awarded the Austrian Museum Quality Seal, a distinction it received again in 2013. Following two years of construction under director Christian Ortner, the hall group on World War I opened its doors to the public in a modernized and redesigned form on 28 June 2014, just in time for the 100th anniversary of the Assassination at Sarajevo.\n\nExhibition \nThe collections of the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum count among the oldest state collections in the city of Vienna. They can be traced back to the collections that had been gathered in the old armoury of the Imperial Army in the Inner City since the 17th century and had already become a much-admired attraction in the 18th century.\nThe museum illustrates the history of the Habsburg monarchy and the fortunes of Austria from the late 16th century until 1945, and various special exhibitions are dedicated to other (sometimes contemporary) themes. The exhibits on display in the tank collection, such as the Kürassier tank destroyer or the M109 self-propelled howitzer include references reaching to the present day. Yet the exhibition items do not only include weapons and military equipment such as the huge medieval cannon Pumhart von Steyr, but also exhibits that trace the path to the war, such as the car in which Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife Sophie Chotek, Duchess of Hohenberg were murdered on 28 June 1914.\n\nHall I – From the Thirty Years' War to Prince Eugene (16th century–1700) \nThe first hall of the museum is dedicated to the history of Europe in the 16th and 17th century. The Holy Roman Empire, of which Vienna became the capital with Emperor Maximilian I (1508-1519), Emperor Charles V (1519-1556) and Emperor Ferdinand I (1556-1564), was often a theatre of war during this period and was consistently involved in military conflicts over power, confessions, land, and people. The collections of the Museum of Military History begin at a time when military history is undergoing a transformation from the Volksaufgebot (people's volunteer corps) to the standing army. The Imperial armies, which up to the Thirty Years' War were inconsistently equipped and enlisted only for the period of a campaign, were now transformed into a salaried, \"standing\" army. These armies were primarily financed by field commanders like Albrecht von Wallenstein. One can follow the technical development of firearms from the arquebus of the 16th century to the matchlock, the wheellock, and the flintlock musket. Several suits of armour, batons, and thrusting weapons round off the theme of the Thirty Years' War. A special exhibit is a hand-written letter of Wallenstein to his field Marshal Gottfried Heinrich zu Pappenheim of 15 November 1632, which he wrote on the evening before the battle of Lützen. Pappenheim was to be fatally injured in battle on the next day, carrying the letter on him, to which the large blood stains on the paper bear witness. The collection also includes a ribauldequin from the year 1678, the so-called death organ, which was constructed by the Imperial gun founder Daniel Kollmann, and represents an attempt to manufacture a quick-firing gun for the Imperial Army.\n\nA lot of space is dedicated to the Ottoman Wars, in particular the Second Siege of Vienna in 1683. Several objects of the Ottoman Army are on display, including the reflex bows of the famous Sipahi. Special exhibits include a Turkish mail shirt belonging to the victor of the battle of Mogersdorf, Imperial field commander Raimondo Montecuccoli, a Turkish silver calendar dial, numerous Turkish insignia – including guidons, flags, and horsetails, as well as the seal of the Turkish Sultan Mustafa II, captured by Prince Eugene of Savoy at the battle of Zenta in 1697. The last bay in Hall I is exclusively dedicated to this exceptional field commander and important patron. The exhibits include two of his personal clothing pieces, his cuirass, his baton and sword, and the funeral decoration that was kept after the prince's death in 1736.\n\nHall II – Spanish War of Succession and Maria Theresia Hall (1701–1789) \nHall II is dedicated to the 18th century and is also called the Maria Theresia Hall, though the beginning of this section is still dominated by the personality of Prince Eugene and his achievements. The noble knight did not only fight and win in the Ottoman Wars, but also in the Spanish War of Succession. As a consequence of the Great Turkish War, which culminated in the victories of Peterwardein (1716) and Belgrade (1717) and ended with the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, the Habsburg monarchy achieved its greatest territorial expansion. The sphere of influence of the Habsburg Empire thus extended over Central and South Eastern Europe, rendering it a major power. Items particularly reminiscent of this period include a Turkish state tent and the ten-pound mortar of Belgrade, which destroyed an entire district of Sarajevo in 1717 with a direct hit on a Turkish gunpowder depot.\n\nThe death of Prince Eugene in 1736 and of the last male Habsburg, Emperor Karl VI. marked a turning point, which was followed by the reign of Maria Theresia, who was faced with a wide front of enemies from the very beginning. During the Austrian War of Succession, she did not only defend her claim to power but also all the inherited territories against almost all neighbouring countries. At the helm of her enemies was King Friedrich II of Prussia. Although Austria won quite a few of the many battles fought in the so-called three Silesian Wars, this never sufficed for a victory in a decisive confrontation. Several spoils of war such as Fusilier caps, backswords, flags and uniforms serve to document the Austrian and Prussian armies during this period. The personal items of field Marshal Gideon Ernst Freiherr von Laudon are exhibited in a separate display cabinet and include the Maria Theresia Order, Austria's highest military distinction awarded to Laudon for his bravery during the battle of Hochkirch in 1758. On display are also items documenting the establishment of the Theresian Military Academy in 1751, the world's oldest military academy still to be found at its original location.\n\nHall III – Hall of Revolutions (1789–1848) \nEmperor Joseph II fought the last Ottoman War of the Habsburg monarchy together with the Russian troops of Empress Catherine II of Russia. This conflict, too, ended with the capture of Belgrade in 1789, at the moment when revolution broke out in France, heralding the downfall of the French monarchy. The French king and his wife Marie Antoinette lost their throne and their lives during the revolution. At the same time, however, began the rise of the man who would dramatically transform Europe's political map: Napoleon Bonaparte. The Hall of Revolutions is dominated by the battles of Austerlitz, Würzburg, Aspern, Deutsch-Wagram, and Leipzig, and by the Tyrolean Rebellion of 1809 led by Andreas Hofer. A highlight of the exhibition is the world's oldest remaining military aircraft, the French war balloon \"L' Intrépide\", captured by Austrian troops at the battle of Würzburg on 3 September 1796. The large paintings by Johann Peter Krafft (Archeduke Karl and his staff at the battle of Aspern and Victory declaration in the battle of Leipzig) impressively illustrate the events of these turbulent times.\n\nA documentation of a special kind are the figurines by Helmut Krauhs (1912–1995), which illustrate the soldiers' uniforms of the Josephinist and Napoleonic eras with meticulous precision and authenticity. Uniforms, medals, and weapons, and also special individual items add to the overall picture, such as the coat of the Russian general Pavel Andreyevich Shuvalov, worn by Napoleon on his journey to exile on the island of Elba. The Vienna Congress and the personality of Archduke Karl are documented in detail, and the so-called Info-Points – interactive touchscreen monitors which visitors can use - provide further information on the events of this period using contemporary graphics, maps, and biographical notes. Hall III is also called the Hall of Revolutions because the exhibition it contains begins with the French Revolution and ends with the Revolution of 1848.\n\nHall IV – Field Marshal Radetzky and his era (1848–1866) \nHall IV is dedicated to Joseph Radetzky von Radetz and his era. He joined the Imperial Army as a cadet already in 1784 and fought in the last Ottoman War under commanders Lacy and Laudon. After an impressive 72 years of service, he was retired only after he reached the age of 90. He served under a total of five emperors and participated in no fewer than 17 campaigns, for which he was awarded 146 Austrian and foreign medals. His victories against Sardinia-Piemont at Santa Lucia, Verona, Vicenza, and Custoza in 1848 and those in Mortara and Novara in 1849 consolidated the reign of young emperor Franz Joseph, at least temporarily. Poet Franz Grillparzer even composed an ode to Radetzky: \"Glück auf, mein Feldherr, führe den Streich! Nicht bloß um des Ruhmes Schimmer – In deinem Lager ist Österreich!\", for which the poet was awarded an honorary cup now on display in the hall. The Radetzky hall also contains numerous paintings of contemporary artists such as Albrecht Adam and Wilhelm Richter, which make his military campaigns come alive.\n\nFollowing the death of Radetzky, the tables turned radically in Northern Italy for young Emperor Franz Joseph, who had only recently ascended to the throne on 2 December 1848: In the battle of Solferino in 1859, at which Franz Joseph was personally in command of the troops, Austria suffered a heavy defeat. The atrocity of the battle and the helplessness of the wounded soldiers prompted Henry Dunant to found the Red Cross, and led to the agreement of the Geneva Convention. The flow of young men to the Imperial Army, however, did not recede, because the \"magic of the uniform\" continued to cast its spell, illustrated by the numerous uniforms of different branches and regiments on display in the hall. As of 1864, the Austrian artillery was in possession of developments that rendered it superior to the enemy's guns, both in terms of precision and manoeuvrability. This is demonstrated by the exhibited M 1863 field gun. The situation was exactly the opposite in the case of infantry weaponry, however, exemplified by the comparison between the Austria muzzle-loader system and the Prussian breech-loading needle rifle. The defeat of the Austrian army at the battle of Königgrätz in 1866 is the subject of an impressive monumental painting by Vaclav Sochor. A separate room is dedicated to the fate of the emperor's brother Ferdinand Maximilian, who ascended to the throne of Mexico in 1864, only to be executed there at the order of Benito Juárez in 1867. The collection on display features private items which were partly obtained from Miramare Castle, and which provide evidence of his unfortunate reign in Mexico (including his death mask).\n\nHall V – Franz Joseph Hall and Sarajevo (1867–1914) \nApart from the uniforms and guns, when entering the Franz Joseph Hall visitors immediately notice the 34 uniform presentations of the Imperial and Royal Army painted by Oskar Brüch for the Budapest Millennium Exhibition in 1896. A section of the hall is devoted to the 1878 occupation campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina under the command of Joseph Philippovich von Philippsberg. The central display cabinet in the hall shows the technical innovations of the army prior to 1914, such as the model of a chain-driven combat vehicle (Burstyn tank) that was never actually built, the first powerful machine-gun of the Imperial and Royal Army (Schwarzlose) and the model of a field kitchen. Also on display are examples of the beginnings of military aviation, such as models of the Etrich Taube, the Lohner Pfeilflieger, and the M 1896 k.u.k. military balloon. The highlight of the exhibition is certainly the display cabinet with the personal items of Emperor Franz Joseph. These are the only ones accessible to the public, and they include his campaign and gala surcoats, his medals, cigar holders, and pince-nez. The next items on display here are the magnificent uniforms of the Arcièren Imperial Guards, a strong contrast to the uniforms of the Imperial and Royal Army before the outbreak of World War I on the opposite side. Certainly of particular significance are the personal utensils of the Chief of General Staff of the k.u.k. Army, Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf.\n\nA separate bay is dedicated to the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which directly triggered World War I. This is where one of the highlights of the entire exhibition is on display, the Gräf & Stift automobile in which the Austrian heir to the throne, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophie Chotek were murdered on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo. The traces of both assassinations are still clearly discernible on the car. Equally visible are the traces on two other items accessible to visitors: the blood-stained uniform of the Archduke, and the chaise longue on which the heir to the throne subsequently died of his injuries. Also on display are the weapons with which the assassins waited in Sarajevo for their moment to come, including Browning M.1910/12 pistols and a Kragujevac-hand grenade. In addition to the exhibits, photographs and films of the events are also displayed on digital monitors in the Sarajevo hall.\n\nHall VI – World War I and the end of the Habsburg monarchy (1914–1918) \nBetween 2012 and 2014, the group of halls dedicated to World War I was completely converted, modernised, and redesigned. To enlarge the initial exhibition area from 1,000 to 1,400 m2, the room height was reduced and an intermediate platform was introduced, so that the entire exhibition now spreads over three levels. As a result of these measures, some 2,000 items relating to World War I are now accessible to the public, about twice as many as were on display in the previous exhibition.\nA series of display cabinets contain the uniforms, weapons, and equipment of the warring powers. At the beginning of the exhibition, the themes focus on the mobilization of the troops in the summer of 1914, the Austrian infantry, followed by the cavalry. Next on display are uniforms and arms of the opposing parties, the Kingdom of Serbia, the Russian Empire, and the Kingdom of Italy, which declared war on Austria-Hungary in 1915. This led to the so-called Italian Front of 1915–1918, to which a separate area is dedicated to in the exhibition. A particular exhibit is the 7-cm M 1899 mountain gun which was positioned around the Ortler summit at an altitude of 3,850 meters, making it Europe's highest gun emplacement. Apart from the weapons, uniforms, and military equipment items, the exhibition also thematizes other related material in separate areas, such as women in war, the k.u.k. military justice system, escape and displacement, deprivation and propaganda, injury and emergency medical services, religion, war captivity, disability and death. Hundreds of digital images and films are presented on flat screens.\n\nCentrepiece of the exhibition is an Austrian M 1916 38 cm siege-howitzer, which could fire shells weighing 750 kg over a distance of 15 km and shell-damaged cupolas from the Antwerp and Przemyśl Forts show the effect of bombardments by such heavy artillery. A replicated emplacement system features a series of display cabinets showing the innovations in weapons technology and equipment as of 1916, including the first Austrian steel-helmet built on the basis of the German model. Another particularly noteworthy exhibit is the Phönix 20.01 training and reconnaissance aircraft, prototype of the Austro-Hungarian produced Albatros B.I(Ph), one of 5,200 planes that the Army and the k.u.k. Navy used in World War I. Moreover, a separate area was dedicated to the k.u.k. Kriegspressequartier (k.u.k. war press bureau) and thus to the arts in war, featuring works by war painters such as Albin Egger-Lienz, Wilhelm Thöny, Oswald Roux, Fritz Schwarz-Waldegg, Stephanie Hollenstein, Anton Faistauer, Ludwig Heinrich Jungnickel, Alexander Pock, and Egon Schiele.\n\nHall VII – Republic and Dictatorship (1918–1955) \nThis Hall is dedicated to the quite turbulent history of the First Republic and World War II. It focuses mainly on the impact of the political events on society and the military, such as, for instance, the July Revolt of 1927 triggered by the Schattendorf judgement and the clashes of February 1934. Exhibits include the weapon used in Schattendorf, and even an M 1918 field howitzer developed in the final stage of World War I and used against the Schutzbund in 1934. The museum only recently obtained those two writings that sculptors Wilhelm Frass and Alfons Riedel had hidden in a shell underneath the monument of the dead soldier in the crypt of Vienna's Heldenplatz. On display are copies of the two documents. Also documented is the history of the Volkswehr and the subsequent Austrian Federal Army; moreover, the assassination of Federal Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, Austria's annexation to the Nazi Germany and the resulting integration of the Federal Army in the Wehrmacht in 1938, and the resistance against national socialism in Austria.\n\nApart from infantry/army, navy and air force uniforms of the German Wehrmacht, the exhibition also features uniforms and armour used by the opposing war parties. In addition, a large variety of technical equipment is on display, including: BMW R 12 motorcycle in camouflage painting, NSU Kettenkrad (Sd.Kfz. 2), 8.8-cm anti-aircraft gun, VW type 82 VW Kübelwagen, Fieseler Fi 156 Storch aircraft, Goliath tracked mine, engine fragments of a V-2 rocket, Raupenschlepper Ost caterpillar tractor, and bunker systems from the South-east wall. The exhibition also features separate theme areas such as the Battle of Stalingrad, the aerial war above Austria, and the fate of the civilian population. Moreover, it addresses the issue of resistance against the Nazi regime, the Holocaust, and the consequences of total war. Another major topic is the Battle of Vienna in April 1945, featuring weapons and uniforms that were given to the troops in the final stage of the war, such as the Panzerschreck anti-tank rocket launcher and the Sturmgewehr 44 rifle. The final section of the exhibition deals with the transition to the period of occupation by the Allies (four in a jeep) and the postwar situation in Austria. In 2012, the permanent exhibition received an additional item, the heavy explosive carrier Borgward IV, which was discovered during demolition work on the former Vienna Südbahnhof and was transferred to the museum.\n\nHall VIII – Austria as a naval power \nA separate hall (VIII) is dedicated to the history of the Austrian navy. The exhibition covers the entire period from the creation of the first Danube flotilla to the end of the k.u.k. war navy in 1918. What really stands out are the numerous ship models and figureheads. Various oil paintings, including some of monumental dimensions, illustrate the turbulent history of the Austrian navy, such as the one by navy painter Alexander Kircher depicting the naval battle of Lissa, an Austrian naval victory to which the exhibition devotes quite some space. Apart from some personal items of Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, exhibits also feature the model of his flagship, the SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max.\n\nThe particular significance of the Austrian war navy from the point of view of scientific research is illustrated by those areas dedicated to expeditions (including the circumnavigation of the globe by the SMS Novara (1857–1859) and the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition (1872–1874) led by Julius von Payer and Karl Weyprecht). Spoils of war and photographs of the mission in the International Squadron off Crete in 1897-1898 and of the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 illustrate the military aspects in the run-up to World War I. One particular item is the cutaway model of the flagship of the k.u.k. war navy, SMS Viribus Unitis on a scale of 1:25 and a total length of 6 metres, built between 1913 and 1917 by eight craftsmen of the shipyard Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino. The model is true to the original in structure, layout, and engine system. It is accurate to the point that, for instance, the painting in the wardroom of the model exactly replicates the original not only in subject but also in the painting technique (oil on canvas).\nThe collection documents the first k.u.k. navy pilots such as Gottfried von Banfield, and the fate of the submarine fleet in World War I. Particularly noteworthy is the only surviving fragment of a k.u.k. submarine, the sail of U-20, which was sunk in 1918 in the estuary of the Tagliamento River and salvaged in 1962. The exhibition reaches its logic conclusion with the models of the Danube fleet, the so-called Donaumonitore, which had to be surrendered to the SHS-state on 31 December 1918.\n\nTank Garden (Panzergarten) \nThe \"Tank Garden\" (Panzergarten), located behind the museum building and usually open to the public from March to October, accommodates the most important combat vehicles of the Austrian Armed Forces from 1955 to the present, with the different types demonstrating the continuous advancement of tank weaponry. The first Austrian tank troops were equipped entirely with vehicles of the occupation powers, such as the M24 Chaffee, the Charioteer, the Centurion and the AMX-13.\n\nTwo major Soviet World War II tank types are represented in the collection, the T-34 battle tank and the SU-100 tank destroyer, initially on display in front of the Soviet War Memorial on Vienna's Schwarzenbergplatz. Several exhibits of Austrian origin, however, are also on display here, such as the prototype of the Saurer armoured personnel carrier and the Kürassier tank destroyer, shown here in the newer A1 version. The last two armoured vehicles mentioned are still in use in the Austrian Armed Forces, just like the M109 tank howitzer, also on display in the tank garden. A Jaguar 1 tank destroyer is on display and the M60 main battle tank, in use by the Austrian Armed Forces for several years, is the largest and heaviest track vehicle of this collection. In addition, two aircraft are on display in the outdoor area in front of the museum, a Saab 29 Tunnan, also known as the \"Flying barrel\", and a Saab 35-OE Draken.\n\nArtillery halls \nThe collection of cannons of the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum comprises a total of 550 guns and barrels, making it one of the most important collections of its kind in the world. The majority of the exhibits in the collection are still from the old Imperial armoury. Initially, the collection was more than double the size of the current one, but several historically valuable items were melted down for their metal content. Many of the gun barrels are located either inside the halls or in front of the museum building, yet the majority is on display in the two artillery halls (buildings 2 and 17) which flank building 1, the former headquarters of the Arsenal. Building 2 - the one on the left as seen from the museum - is dedicated to the development of artillery from the Middle Ages until the 18th century.\n\nA side chamber contains what is probably the historically most valuable part of the collection, the wrought-iron guns of the Middle Ages. These include the world-famous Pumhart von Steyr, a thousand-pound, 80 cm-calibre stone cannon from the early 15th century. This is the oldest gun from the Imperial armoury and one of the very few surviving huge medieval guns. The opposite chamber and the central area contain brass barrels in all sizes dating back to the 17th and 18th century. The right artillery hall (building 17) contains mostly foreign exhibits, such as Venetian and Turkish gun barrels, though French gun barrels - spoils from the Napoleonic Wars - are also on display. The two side chambers, on the other hand, feature Austrian gun barrels, including some early breech-loading guns.\nThe frescos in the artillery halls are the work of various artists. Painter Hans Wulz, for instance, created the fresco titled Seizure of Utrecht by Maximilian I for building 17; portraitist and military painter Hugo von Bouvard decorated building 2 with illustrations of the medieval army and transportation systems, various military vehicles, and means of carriage from the Maximilian era. The opposite hall of the artillery hall in building 2 was designed by Arbert Janesch with the help of contemporary references from Jörg Kölderer's Artillerie Maximilians I.\n\nEvents, information, special exhibitions, branches\n\nEvents \nThousands of visitors flock to the museum to see four major events:\n Go Modelling, an exhibition for scale models organised each year around mid-March by the International Plastic Modellers Society Austria (IPMS). The items on display include several models of historical military vehicles, aircraft, and ships built in true scale dimensions.\n Auf Rädern und Ketten (on wheels and chains), is a major gathering of historical military vehicles built until 1969, which takes place each year around the beginning of June. More than 100 vehicles from various branches of the military - from tanks to bicycles - are presented to the public in the outdoor area behind the museum building.\n Montur und Pulverdampf (Uniform and Gunpowder) a three-day festival of time-travel in military history from the Middle Ages to the present, which takes place each year between early and mid-July. The large outdoor area behind the museum serves as a stage for story tellers, historical battle re-enactments, craftsmen, traders, musicians, culinary delights, and a comprehensive children's programme.\n Mittelalterlicher Adventmarkt (Medieval Christmas market), is usually organised on a weekend in early December and draws up to 20,000 visitors. It involves a medieval Christmas market with jugglers, musicians, fencing performances, and trader's tents.\n\nApart from these large events, the museum regularly hosts fencing performances by the Rittersporn and Klingenspiel groups, as well as drill performances and gun salutes by the 2nd horse artillery division. Particular highlights during the year include the Long Night of Museums organised by the Austrian Broadcasting Corporation ORF, and events accompanying the Austrian National Day on 26 October.\n\nInformation \nThe museum is open daily from 9 am to 5 pm (except on New Year's Day, Easter Sunday, 1 May, All Saints' Day, and on 25 and 31 Decembe)r. Admission is free of charge on the first Sunday of each month and on Austrian National Day (26 October). Each Sunday and holiday, museum employees offer guided tours on special historical eras and areas. Of great importance is the work of the museum's educational team, which offers a diversified children's and school programme for the different grades. Moreover, it is possible to organize children's birthday parties and other special events.\n\nSpecial exhibitions \nAs a rule, the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum hosts a special exhibition twice a year on a military history theme. Past and present exhibitions include:\n Seelen der gewesenen Zeit - Historische Schätze der Bibliothek (Souls of past time - historical treasures of the library, 3 December 2013 to 31 August 2014)\n Dröhnende Motoren (Roaring engines, 7 September to 20 October 2013), Zeltweg Air Base\n Fliegen im Ersten Weltkrieg (Flying in World War I, 26 April to 20 October 2013), Zeltweg Air Base, Hangar 8\n WoMen at War – k.u.k. Frauenbilder 1914-1918 (14 March 2013 to 29 September 2013)\n Alexander Pock – Militärmalerei als Beruf (Alexander Pock - Military painting as a profession, 12 September 2012 to 13 January 2013)\n Kaiser Karl I. – Gesalbt, Geweiht, Gekrönt (Emperor Charles I, anointed, sacred, crowned, 12 April to 19 August 2012)\n Projekt & Entwurf – Militärische Innovationen aus fünf Jahrhunderten (Project & Conception - Military innovations from five centuries, 2011)\n Schutz und Hilfe – 50 Jahre Auslandseinsatz (Protection and Help - 50 years of foreign assignment, 2010)\n Bulgarien – Der unbekannte Verbündete (Bulgaria - the unknown ally, 2009)\n\nBranches \n Patrol boats Oberst Brecht and Niederösterreich: In 2006, the Austrian Armed Forces committed the two Patrol boats to the Museum of Military History. The boats are now berthed in the shipyard of Korneuburg under the care of the Austrian Naval Force and are accessible to the public.\n Ungerberg bunker system near Bruckneudorf: since 2014, this largely preserved bunker system of the Austrian Armed Forces from the time of the Cold War has been accessible to the public as an open-air museum.\n Military aviation exhibition in the Zeltweg Air Base: Since 2005, 23 historical aircraft ranging from a Jak-18 to a Swedish Draken are on display in a 5,000m² exhibition area in Hangar 8. In addition, the exhibition includes aircraft motors and jet engines, air surveillance radar systems, flight equipment, anti-aircraft guns, historical vehicles of the air force, equipment of the Imperial German Army Air Service and signal corps, uniforms, flight suits, models, insignia, and historical photographs. Special exhibitions are also staged here, such as Fliegen im Ersten Weltkrieg (26 April to 20 October 2013) or Dröhnende Motoren (7 September to 20 October 2013).\n Collection of signalling equipment in the Starhemberg barracks: This collection contains a large number of historical signalling equipment, ranging from historically valuable exhibits from the 19th century, communications and coding technology from the Cold War, to state-of-the-art military communication equipment.\n\nReception\n\nLiterature \n In his essays titled Eine Reise in das Innere von Wien, Austrian writer Gerhard Roth describes his impressions from a guided tour through the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum.\n\nFilm \n In 1993, historian Ernst Trost (narrator: Axel Corti) filmed the documentary Zwingburg und Ruhmeshalle. Das Wiener Arsenal, which mainly focuses on the Museum of Military History as the centrepiece of the Arsenal.\n Parts of the television film Kronprinz Rudolf, starring Max von Thun were shot in the Ruhmeshalle of the Museum of Military History in 2005.\n In January 2013, Karl Hohenlohe paid tribute to the Museum of Military History in the documentary Aus dem Rahmen by the special-interest channel ORF III of the Austrian Broadcasting Corporation.\n\nMiscellaneous \n The stately rooms of the Museum of Military History, i.e. the Feldherrenhalle and the Ruhmeshalle, can be rented for events and celebrations.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n Museum of Military History official website\n Documentary Aus dem Rahmen (ORF III) from January 2013.\n Documentary Zwingburg und Ruhmeshalle. Das Wiener Arsenal by Ernst Trost and Axel Corti from 1993.\n Homepage of the Austrian Armed Forces\n Austro-Hungarian Navy in WWI See item 24 for information on the U.20, the submarine on display in the museum.\n\nCategory:Buildings and structures in Landstraße\nCategory:Government buildings completed in 1856\nCategory:Infrastructure completed in 1856\nCategory:Military and war museums in Austria\nCategory:Museums in Vienna\nCategory:World War I museums\nCategory:World War II museums\nCategory:Theophil Hansen buildings\nCategory:1856 establishments in the Austrian Empire\nCategory:19th-century architecture in Austria", "title": "Museum of Military History, Vienna" } ]

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[ "What happened in 2008?", "why did she leave?", "did they have a replacement?", "what were the members?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 4 ], [ 177 ], [ 456 ], [ 532 ], [ 560 ] ], "texts": [ [ "group was scheduled to have their comeback in March 2008 with their second album, however, member Kim Sung-hee suddenly announced that she would be leaving" ], [ "parental pressure because her participation in the group was contingent on the maintenance of her grades." ], [ "Auditions were held, and the two new members were eventually revealed" ], [ "Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung." ], [ "The group made their return in the music industry as a quintet on July 24, 2008" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 4, 177, 456, 532, 560 ], "texts": [ "group was scheduled to have their comeback in March 2008 with their second album, however, member Kim Sung-hee suddenly announced that she would be leaving", "parental pressure because her participation in the group was contingent on the maintenance of her grades.", "Auditions were held, and the two new members were eventually revealed", "Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung.", "The group made their return in the music industry as a quintet on July 24, 2008" ] }

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[ "In 2008, the group experienced a member change when Kim Sung-hee left due to parental pressure regarding her grades. New members Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung were added after auditions and the group made a comeback in the music industry as a quintet in July 2008 with \"Rock U\" on M! Countdown. They also released their first mini-album \"Rock U\". The second season of Kara Self Camera premiered, showcasing how the group was adapting to its new members. In November 2008, a teaser video for their single \"Pretty Girl\" was released and it received over 40,000 hits within 12 hours. The full video was released online on December 2 and was positively received. The EP, Pretty Girl, was released on December 4. The group's popularity increased and their busy schedule led to some members being taken to the hospital for cold symptoms and exhaustion in December.", "Kim Sung-hee left the group due to parental pressure because her participation in the group was contingent on the maintenance of her grades.", "Yes, after Kim Sung-hee left the group, auditions were held to find replacements. Two new members, Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung, were added to the group.", "The context does not list all the members of the group, only mentioning the member who left, Kim Sung-hee, and the two new members who joined, Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung.", "The article also mentions an incident during a performance at KBS's Music Bank where member Goo Hara unexpectedly gasped live on air due to slipping on falling confetti and reportedly cried a lot afterwards. This caused a significant reaction among viewers, but instead of criticism, Goo Hara received comfort from the public. The group's popularity increased, with Park Gyuri attributing it to their \"pretty but natural\" appeal. Media reports also credited the band for finding its own identity in the music industry." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_0_q#0", "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_0_q#1", "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_0_q#2", "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_0_q#3", "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_0_q#4", "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_0_q#5" ]

[ "What happened in 2009?", "What was the ending vote?", "Did Honey do well?", "Did it receive any awards?", "Did they get any other titles?", "What was Revolution?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 220 ], [ 685 ], [ 921 ], [ 3220 ], [ 2541 ] ], "texts": [ [ "At the end of January 2009, DSP announced that it would commence voting on January 28 at the group's official website for the follow-up single to \"Pretty Girl\"," ], [ "Honey\" was the clear winner, with 60% of the votes." ], [ "\"Honey\" became the group's first number one single when it topped Gaon's weekly singles chart." ], [ "The song also won the Mutizen award on SBS's program Inkigayo and the \"Best Dance Award\" at the 2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "During promotions for Revolution, the group also performed internationally, including at Bangkok's Parc Paragon." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 220, 685, 921, 3220, 2541 ], "texts": [ "At the end of January 2009, DSP announced that it would commence voting on January 28 at the group's official website for the follow-up single to \"Pretty Girl\",", "Honey\" was the clear winner, with 60% of the votes.", "\"Honey\" became the group's first number one single when it topped Gaon's weekly singles chart.", "The song also won the Mutizen award on SBS's program Inkigayo and the \"Best Dance Award\" at the 2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards.", "CANNOTANSWER", "During promotions for Revolution, the group also performed internationally, including at Bangkok's Parc Paragon." ] }

[]

[ "In 2009, DSP announced in January that voting would begin for the follow-up single to \"Pretty Girl\". By February 2nd \"Honey\" was announced as the winner with 60% of the votes. It was remixed and underwent a slight name change. The music video for \"Honey\" was released on February 16. They also had a live broadcast comeback on KBS's Music Bank program on February 13, followed by a repackaged mini-album release on February 19. The song topped Gaon's weekly singles chart, becoming the group's first number one single.\n\nIn March, the group was picked for the fourth season of MBC's Idol Show marking their first hosting duties. They also had a reality show called MTV Meta Friends and held their first concert since their debut in 2007. In June 2009, the group announced a comeback with upgraded concept. Their single \"Wanna\" was released on July 28, and the full album, Revolution, on July 30. \n\nThe popular \"butt dance\" featured in the choreography of \"Mister\" also led to Kara's increased popularity. They also had more advertisements in October 2009 than the previous two years. \"Wanna\" won the Mutizen award on August 30, 2009 from Inkigayo.\n\nIn November, M.Net premiered a reality show called Kara Bakery. The show followed the group as they planned and promoted their own bakery. The proceeds were donated to charity.\n\nOn December 14, 2009, reports stated that the group held a fan-meeting for their Japanese fans earlier that year in February marking their first promotional tour in Japan. The number of fans that registered exceeded the venue's capacity which led to a second showcase.", "The ending vote resulted in the song \"Honey\" being chosen as the winner with 60% of the votes.", "Yes, \"Honey\" did well. It became the group's first number one single when it topped Gaon's weekly singles chart. The song also earned the group their first music show award on M! Countdown and held onto the position for three nonconsecutive weeks. Additionally, the song won the Mutizen award on SBS's program Inkigayo and the \"Best Dance Award\" at the 2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards.", "Yes, the song \"Honey\" received several awards. It earned the group their first music show award on the program M! Countdown. It also won the Mutizen award on SBS's program Inkigayo and the \"Best Dance Award\" at the 2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards.", "Yes, in 2009, the group's single \"Wanna\" also became a number one single for the group and won the Mutizen award from the program Inkigayo. Furthermore, the group's increased popularity led to a surge in advertisement requests and they had more advertisements in October 2009 than they had in the previous two years. Additionally, they were chosen for the fourth season of MBC's Idol Show, marking their first time hosting a show.", "\"Revolution\" was the full album released by the group in 2009. The album was made available online on July 30, after the release of the music video for the single \"Wanna\" which was included in the album. The group commenced comeback activities with performances, beginning with KBS's Music Bank, following the album's release." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#0", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#1", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#2", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#3", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#4", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#5", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#6", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#7", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#8", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#9", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1_q#10" ]

[ "Can you provide me with a little information about Walter Winterbottom and his career as an England Team Manager?", "How long did he serve as an England team manager?", "How old was he when he first began his career as a team manager?", "What led to his career as a team manager?", "Was he ever trained?", "What else is unique about this time as a team manager?", "What are some important aspects of his career?", "What happened after?", "Is there anything elsse that happened after this took place?", "Can you tell me what followed that?", "Did the team celebrate after their winnings?" ]

[ 0, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 0, 0, 2, 2, 1 ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1424 ], [ 0 ], [ 117 ], [ 2071 ], [ 117 ], [ 213 ], [ 384 ], [ 516 ], [ 620 ], [ 2071 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Walter Winterbottom has the distinction of being England's first, youngest and longest serving England team manager;" ], [ "his departure in 1966" ], [ "Walter Winterbottom has the distinction of being England's first, youngest" ], [ "he is also the only England manager to have had no previous professional managerial experience." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "he is also the only England manager to have had no previous professional managerial experience." ], [ "In all matches in which he was in charge, England played 139, won 78, drew 33, and lost 28; goals for 383, against 196." ], [ "England won the British championship in thirteen out of his sixteen seasons (seven times outright and six times sharing top place)." ], [ "In the World Cup tournament England qualified on all four occasions, reaching the quarter finals twice," ], [ "playing 28 matches, winning 15, drawing 7 and losing 6; goals for 75 against 35 (including World Cup qualifying matches)." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1424, 0, 117, 2071, 117, 213, 384, 516, 620, 2071 ], "texts": [ "Walter Winterbottom has the distinction of being England's first, youngest and longest serving England team manager;", "his departure in 1966", "Walter Winterbottom has the distinction of being England's first, youngest", "he is also the only England manager to have had no previous professional managerial experience.", "CANNOTANSWER", "he is also the only England manager to have had no previous professional managerial experience.", "In all matches in which he was in charge, England played 139, won 78, drew 33, and lost 28; goals for 383, against 196.", "England won the British championship in thirteen out of his sixteen seasons (seven times outright and six times sharing top place).", "In the World Cup tournament England qualified on all four occasions, reaching the quarter finals twice,", "playing 28 matches, winning 15, drawing 7 and losing 6; goals for 75 against 35 (including World Cup qualifying matches).", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#0", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#1", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#2", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#3", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#4", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#5", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#6", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#7", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#8", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#9", "C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0_q#10" ]

[ "When was he FA director of Coaching?", "Was he successful there?", "Who were some of the new managers?", "How long were they with the team?", "Did he bring on any other coaches?", "What else can you tell me about his time as FA Director of Coaching?", "Was it successful?", "What clubs did they coach in?", "What was the new attitude?", "What coaches participated in his new coaching scheme?", "How long did he run this coaching scheme?" ]

[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 281 ], [ 1786 ], [ 1841 ], [ 1877 ], [ 1967 ], [ 473 ], [ 744 ], [ 1077 ], [ 1967 ], [ 1448 ], [ 1967 ] ], "texts": [ [ "When he joined the FA in 1946, club directors, managers and players were cynical about the need for coaching but Winterbottom had a passion for coaching" ], [ "He inspired a new generation of managers," ], [ "Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson," ], [ "graduated through every level of coaching, both eventually becoming England team manager." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "He soon created a national coaching scheme with summer residential courses at Lilleshall, Shropshire," ], [ "They developed their teaching skills by coaching in schools and then moved into part-time coaching positions in junior clubs." ], [ "Over time a new breed of managers emerged in the League clubs and began to change attitudes to coaching." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 1947 three hundred had taken the full coaching award and the numbers of qualified coaches grew each year." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 281, 1786, 1841, 1877, 1967, 473, 744, 1077, 1967, 1448, 1967 ], "texts": [ "When he joined the FA in 1946, club directors, managers and players were cynical about the need for coaching but Winterbottom had a passion for coaching", "He inspired a new generation of managers,", "Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson,", "graduated through every level of coaching, both eventually becoming England team manager.", "CANNOTANSWER", "He soon created a national coaching scheme with summer residential courses at Lilleshall, Shropshire,", "They developed their teaching skills by coaching in schools and then moved into part-time coaching positions in junior clubs.", "Over time a new breed of managers emerged in the League clubs and began to change attitudes to coaching.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 1947 three hundred had taken the full coaching award and the numbers of qualified coaches grew each year.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide specific information on when Winterbottom was the FA Director of Coaching.", "Yes, Winterbottom was successful as the FA Director of Coaching. Under his leadership, a national coaching scheme was created, and the number of qualified coaches increased every year. He was regarded as a leading thinker in association football and was successful in changing attitudes towards coaching in English football. He also inspired a new generation of managers, including Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson.", "Some of the new managers that emerged under Winterbottom's influence were Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill, Bobby Robson, with Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson eventually becoming England team managers.", "The text does not provide specific information on how long these managers were with the England team.", "Yes, Winterbottom gathered around him a cadre of young FA staff coaches which included Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill, and Bobby Robson.", "As FA Director of Coaching, Winterbottom created a national coaching scheme that included the establishment of summer residential courses at several locations like Lilleshall, Shropshire, Loughborough College, Carnegie College, Bisham Abbey, and Birmingham University. He convinced his international players to attend these courses, giving the scheme credibility, and encouraged them to earn their FA preliminary and full coaching badges. He expanded the scheme to include professional players, referees, school masters, club trainers, schoolboys, and youth leaders. By 1947, three hundred people had taken the full coaching award and the number of qualified coaches grew each year with international participation and praise. In addition to these duties, Winterbottom also served as a lecturer internationally and was recognized globally as a leading technical thinker and exponent of association football in his time.", "Yes, Winterbottom's efforts as FA Director of Coaching were successful. He established a national coaching scheme that witnessed an increase in the number of qualified coaches each year. The creation of summer residential courses, the encouragement of international players to earn their coaching badges, and the inclusion of a wide range of people - from professional players to schoolboys - in the scheme, collectively speak to its success. Winterbottom's work transformed attitudes towards coaching in English football, and his courses attracted international participation and praise. His influence also helped inspire and guide noteworthy managers like Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson in their careers.", "The text does not provide specific information on which clubs the coaches trained under Winterbottom's scheme coached in.", "The text does not provide specific details about the new attitude that emerged among League clubs under Winterbottom's influence. However, it implies that there was a shift in perception about the importance and role of coaching in football, likely towards recognizing coaching as a vital aspect of the sport's development and success.\n", "The text mentions that Winterbottom gathered a cadre of young FA staff coaches around him. These included Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill, and Bobby Robson. These coaches participated in his national coaching scheme.", "The text does not provide specific information on how long Winterbottom ran the national coaching scheme." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_b75490a09bfa482eb3d5f3d613617661_0_q#0", "C_b75490a09bfa482eb3d5f3d613617661_0_q#1", "C_b75490a09bfa482eb3d5f3d613617661_0_q#2", "C_b75490a09bfa482eb3d5f3d613617661_0_q#3" ]

[ "Why is Notts County important to Tommy Lawton?", "Who did Lawton and Notts County play against?", "How did Lawton and Nots County perform against Bristol Rovers?", "Did Lawton and Notts play against anyone else?" ]

[ 1, 0, 1, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 606 ], [ 552 ], [ 1679 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In November 1947, Lawton was sold to Notts County of the Third Division South for a British record transfer fee of PS20,000" ], [ "Bristol Rovers" ], [ "He scored two goals on his home debut, a 4-2 win" ], [ "Nottingham Forest at Meadow Lane" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 606, 552, 1679 ], "texts": [ "In November 1947, Lawton was sold to Notts County of the Third Division South for a British record transfer fee of PS20,000", "Bristol Rovers", "He scored two goals on his home debut, a 4-2 win", "Nottingham Forest at Meadow Lane" ] }

[ { "text": "Specific may refer to:\n\n Specificity (disambiguation)\n Specific, a cure or therapy for a specific illness\n\nLaw \n Specific deterrence, focussed on an individual\n Specific finding, intermediate verdict used by a jury in determining the final verdict\n Specific jurisdiction over an out-of-state party, specific to cases that have a substantial connection to the party's in-state activity\n Order of specific performance, court order to perform a specific act\n\nEconomics, finance, and accounting\n Asset specificity, the extent to which the investments made to support a particular transaction have a higher value to that transaction than they would have if they were redeployed for any other purpose\n Specific identification (inventories), summing purchase costs of all inventory items\n Specific rate duty, duty paid at a specific amount per unit\n Specific risk, risk that affects a very small number of assets\n\nPsychology \n Domain specificity, theory that many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized, presumably evolutionarily specified, learning devices\n Specific developmental disorder, disorders in which development is delayed in one specific area or areas, and in which basically all other areas of development are not affected\n Specific learning disability\n Specific phobia, phobia of a specific thing or situation\n Specific social phobia, triggered only by specific social situations\n\nBiology \n pertaining to a species\n Specific name (botany), species name of a plant\n Specific name (zoology), species name of an animal\n Specific appetite, drive to eat foods with specific flavors or other characteristics\n Specific granule, secretory vesicle in granulocytes\n Specific immunity, to a particular pathogen\n Specific Pathogen Free, of a laboratory animal guaranteed free of particular (i.e., specific and named) pathogens\n\nOther fields \n A specific quantity generally means a physical quantity normalized \"per unit\" of something (often mass).\n SPECIFIC, The Sustainable Product Engineering Centre for Innovative Functional Industrial Coatings\n Specific creation, creationism as opposed to evolution\n Specific interval, shortest possible clockwise distance between pitch classes on the chromatic circle\n Specific integral, in calculus, eliminates the constant of integration\n Specific Physical Preparedness, being prepared for the movements in a specific physical activity (usually a sport)\n\nSee also \n Species (disambiguation)\n Specification (disambiguation)\n Specialty (disambiguation)\n Site-specific (disambiguation)\n Language for specific purposes, has been primarily used to refer to two areas within applied linguistics", "title": "Specific" } ]

[ "Notts County is important to Tommy Lawton because it was the club he decided to join in 1947, a decision that surprised many as he dropped down two divisions to do so. He also had a productive career there, forming a notable forward partnership with Jackie Sewell and scoring numerous goals. Additionally, the move reunited Lawton with Arthur Stollery, his former masseur and friend at Chelsea. Lawton was also promised a job outside of football upon his retirement by Notts County's vice-chairman. However, Lawton had disagreements with the club's directors and was made available for transfer later on.", "In the provided context, Lawton and Notts County are described as playing against Bristol Rovers, Northampton Town, Nottingham Forest, and, indirectly, Sheffield Wednesday.", "Lawton and Notts County performed well against Bristol Rovers. They won 4-2 in Lawton's home debut, with Lawton scoring two of the goals. The game was in front of 38,000 spectators at Meadow Lane.", "In the provided context, aside from Bristol Rovers, Notts County - with Lawton on the team - also played against Northampton Town, Nottingham Forest, and Sheffield Wednesday. They secured promotion with a victory over Nottingham Forest, and the sale of Lawton's teammate Jackie Sewell to Sheffield Wednesday is mentioned, though a specific match against them is not detailed." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_b75490a09bfa482eb3d5f3d613617661_1_q#0", "C_b75490a09bfa482eb3d5f3d613617661_1_q#1", "C_b75490a09bfa482eb3d5f3d613617661_1_q#2", "C_b75490a09bfa482eb3d5f3d613617661_1_q#3" ]

[ "What was Burnley?", "What did he play?", "What position did he play?", "Was there anything else interesting in the article?" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 160 ], [ 426 ], [ 1104 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Lawton played his first game for Burnley Reserves against Manchester City Reserves" ], [ "a regular Reserve team player by the age of 16." ], [ "centre-forward" ], [ "Lawton continued to train his heading skills intensely in the summer of 1936," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 160, 426, 1104 ], "texts": [ "Lawton played his first game for Burnley Reserves against Manchester City Reserves", "a regular Reserve team player by the age of 16.", "centre-forward", "Lawton continued to train his heading skills intensely in the summer of 1936," ] }

[ { "text": "Specific may refer to:\n\n Specificity (disambiguation)\n Specific, a cure or therapy for a specific illness\n\nLaw \n Specific deterrence, focussed on an individual\n Specific finding, intermediate verdict used by a jury in determining the final verdict\n Specific jurisdiction over an out-of-state party, specific to cases that have a substantial connection to the party's in-state activity\n Order of specific performance, court order to perform a specific act\n\nEconomics, finance, and accounting\n Asset specificity, the extent to which the investments made to support a particular transaction have a higher value to that transaction than they would have if they were redeployed for any other purpose\n Specific identification (inventories), summing purchase costs of all inventory items\n Specific rate duty, duty paid at a specific amount per unit\n Specific risk, risk that affects a very small number of assets\n\nPsychology \n Domain specificity, theory that many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized, presumably evolutionarily specified, learning devices\n Specific developmental disorder, disorders in which development is delayed in one specific area or areas, and in which basically all other areas of development are not affected\n Specific learning disability\n Specific phobia, phobia of a specific thing or situation\n Specific social phobia, triggered only by specific social situations\n\nBiology \n pertaining to a species\n Specific name (botany), species name of a plant\n Specific name (zoology), species name of an animal\n Specific appetite, drive to eat foods with specific flavors or other characteristics\n Specific granule, secretory vesicle in granulocytes\n Specific immunity, to a particular pathogen\n Specific Pathogen Free, of a laboratory animal guaranteed free of particular (i.e., specific and named) pathogens\n\nOther fields \n A specific quantity generally means a physical quantity normalized \"per unit\" of something (often mass).\n SPECIFIC, The Sustainable Product Engineering Centre for Innovative Functional Industrial Coatings\n Specific creation, creationism as opposed to evolution\n Specific interval, shortest possible clockwise distance between pitch classes on the chromatic circle\n Specific integral, in calculus, eliminates the constant of integration\n Specific Physical Preparedness, being prepared for the movements in a specific physical activity (usually a sport)\n\nSee also \n Species (disambiguation)\n Specification (disambiguation)\n Specialty (disambiguation)\n Site-specific (disambiguation)\n Language for specific purposes, has been primarily used to refer to two areas within applied linguistics", "title": "Specific" } ]

[ "Burnley is a football club.", "Lawton played football and cricket.", "Lawton played as the centre-forward in football.", "Yes, besides his football career, the article mentioned that Lawton also played cricket for the Burnley Cricket Club in the Lancashire League where he scored 369 runs in 15 completed innings for an average of 24.06. Additionally, Lawton turned professional at Burnley football club at the age of 17, earning wages of PS7 a week. His grandfather tried to negotiate a PS500 signing-on fee on his behalf, but the attempt was thwarted after the Football League declared it illegal. In his first professional match, Lawton scored a goal within the first 30 seconds, and then went on to score a hat-trick in a 3-1 victory over Tottenham Hotspur." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_76e434aa1ed64b5884f831f59f0300c8_1_q#0", "C_76e434aa1ed64b5884f831f59f0300c8_1_q#1", "C_76e434aa1ed64b5884f831f59f0300c8_1_q#2", "C_76e434aa1ed64b5884f831f59f0300c8_1_q#3" ]

[ "When did Nash go to college?", "What years was he in college?", "How did his college team perform?", "What happened when his college career ended?" ]

[ 2, 1, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 609 ], [ 1742 ], [ 1103 ], [ 2787 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Nash was awarded a scholarship by Santa Clara for the 1992-93 season." ], [ "In the 1995-96 season, Nash began attracting the attention of the national media and professional scouts." ], [ "the 1992-93 campaign was considered a successful one. However, the Broncos failed to sustain the momentum the following season," ], [ "In September 2006, Nash had his jersey (#11) retired, becoming the first Santa Clara student-athlete to receive that honour." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 609, 1742, 1103, 2787 ], "texts": [ "Nash was awarded a scholarship by Santa Clara for the 1992-93 season.", "In the 1995-96 season, Nash began attracting the attention of the national media and professional scouts.", "the 1992-93 campaign was considered a successful one. However, the Broncos failed to sustain the momentum the following season,", "In September 2006, Nash had his jersey (#11) retired, becoming the first Santa Clara student-athlete to receive that honour." ] }

[ { "text": "This is a list of basketball players from Canada who have played in the National Basketball Association (NBA).\n\nActive players\nNickeil Alexander-Walker\nNew Orleans Pelicans (2019–2022)\nUtah Jazz (2022–2023)\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2023–present)\nDalano Banton\nToronto Raptors (2021–present)\nRJ Barrett\nNew York Knicks (2019–present)\nKhem Birch\nOrlando Magic (2017–2021)\nToronto Raptors (2021–2023)\nSan Antonio Spurs (2023–present)\nChris Boucher\nGolden State Warriors (2017–2018)\nToronto Raptors (2018–present)\nOshae Brissett\nToronto Raptors (2019–2020)\nIndiana Pacers (2021–present)\nDillon Brooks\nMemphis Grizzlies (2017–present)\nBrandon Clarke\nMemphis Grizzlies (2019–present)\nLuguentz Dort\nOklahoma City Thunder (2019–present)\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander\nLos Angeles Clippers (2018–2019)\nOklahoma City Thunder (2019–present)\nCaleb Houstan\nOrlando Magic (2022-present)\nCory Joseph\nSan Antonio Spurs (2011–2015)\nToronto Raptors (2015–2017)\nIndiana Pacers (2017–2019)\nSacramento Kings (2019–2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–present)\nMfiondu Kabengele\nLos Angeles Clippers (2019–2020)\nCleveland Cavaliers (2021)\nBoston Celtics (2022–present)\nA.J. Lawson\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2022)\nDallas Mavericks (2022-present)\nTrey Lyles\nUtah Jazz (2015–2017)\nDenver Nuggets (2017–2019)\nSan Antonio Spurs (2019–2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–2022)\nSacramento Kings (2021–present)\nBennedict Mathurin\nIndiana Pacers (2022-present)\nJamal Murray\nDenver Nuggets (2016–present)\nAndrew Nembhard\nIndiana Pacers (2022-present)\nKelly Olynyk\nBoston Celtics (2013–2017)\nMiami Heat (2017–2021)\nHouston Rockets (2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–2022)\nUtah Jazz (2022-present)\nEugene Omoruyi\nDallas Mavericks (2021)\nOklahoma City Thunder (2022-2023)\nDetroit Pistons (2023-present)\nDwight Powell\nBoston Celtics (2014)\nDallas Mavericks (2014–present)\nShaedon Sharpe\nPortland Trail Blazers (2022-present)\nTristan Thompson\nCleveland Cavaliers (2011-2019)\nBoston Celtics (2020–21)\nSacramento Kings (2021–22)\nIndiana Pacers (2022)\nChicago Bulls (2022)\nLos Angeles Lakers (2023-present)\nAndrew Wiggins\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2014–2020)\nGolden State Warriors (2020–present)\n\nAwards and honors\nHall of Famers\n\nBob Houbregs, 1987\nSteve Nash, 2018\n\nMost Valuable Player\n\nSteve Nash, 2 times, 2005–2006\n\nAll-NBA Team\n\nSteve Nash, First Team 3 times (2005–2007), Second Team 2 times (2008, 2010), Third Team 2 times (2002–2003)\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, First Team, 2023\n\nFirst overall draft pick\n\nAnthony Bennett (Cleveland Cavaliers, UNLV, 2013)\nAndrew Wiggins (Cleveland Cavaliers, Kansas, 2014)\n\nRookie of the Year Award\n\nAndrew Wiggins (Minnesota Timberwolves, 2015)\n\nDefensive Player of the Year\n\nNone\n\nMost Improved Player\n\nNone\n\nSixth Man of the Year\n\nNone\n\nAll-Rookie Team\n\nRick Fox, Second Team, 1992\nTristan Thompson, Second Team, 2012\nKelly Olynyk, Second Team, 2014\nAndrew Wiggins, First Team, 2015\nJamal Murray, Second Team, 2017\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, Second Team, 2019\nBrandon Clarke, First Team, 2020\nBennedict Mathurin, First Team, 2023\n\nNBA Champions\n\nMike Smrek, 2 times, 1987–1988\nBill Wennington, 3 times, 1996–1998\nRick Fox, 3 times, 2000–2002\nJoel Anthony, 2 times, 2012–2013\nCory Joseph, 1 time, 2014\nTristan Thompson, 1 time, 2016\nChris Boucher, 2 times, 2018–2019\nAndrew Wiggins, 1 time, 2022\n\nNBA Finals MVP\n\nNone\n\nNBA Citizenship Award\n Steve Nash, 2007\n Samuel Dalembert, 2010\n\nNBA Sportsmanship Award\n\nNone\n\nTeammate of the Year\n\nNone\n\nAll-Star selection\nSteve Nash, 8 times, 2002–2003, 2005–2008, 2010, 2012\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, 2023\nAndrew Wiggins, 2022\nJamaal Magloire, 2004\n\nPlayers\nThis is an alphabetical list of 62 basketball players from Canada who have played in the National Basketball Association since 1946. Players name listed in BOLD are currently active players.\n__NOTOC__\n\nA\nKyle Alexander\nNickeil Alexander-Walker\n Joel Anthony\n\nB\nNorm Baker\nDalano Banton\nRJ Barrett\nAnthony Bennett\nSim Bhullar\nHank Biasatti\nKhem Birch\nChris Boucher\nIgnas Brazdeikis\nOshae Brissett\nDillon Brooks\n\nC\n\nBrandon Clarke\nRon Crevier\n\nD\nSamuel Dalembert\n Nate Darling\nLuguentz Dort\n\nE\nTyler Ennis\n\nF\nRick Fox\n\nG\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander\nStewart Granger\n\nH\nLars Hansen\nBob Houbregs\nCaleb Houstan\n\nJ\nCory Joseph\nKris Joseph\n\nK\nMfiondu Kabengele\n\nL\nA. J. Lawson\nTrey Lyles\n\nM\nTodd MacCulloch\nJamaal Magloire\nKarim Mané\nBennedict Mathurin\nNaz Mitrou-Long\nMychal Mulder\nJamal Murray\n\nN\nSteve Nash\nAndrew Nicholson\nAndrew Nembhard\n\nO\nKelly Olynyk\nEugene Omoruyi\n\nP\nKevin Pangos\nDwight Powell\nJoshua Primo\n\nR\nXavier Rathan-Mayes\nAndy Rautins\nLeo Rautins\n\nS\nRobert Sacre\nMarial Shayok\nMike Smrek\nGino Sovran\nNik Stauskas\nShaedon Sharpe\n\nT\nTristan Thompson\n\nV\nErnie Vandeweghe\n\nW\nBill Wennington\nAndrew Wiggins\nLindell Wigginton\nKyle Wiltjer\n\nZ\nJim Zoet\n\nSee also\n List of foreign NBA players\n List of Canadians in NASCAR\n List of Canadians in the National Football League\n List of Major League Baseball players from Canada\n\nReferences\n\nNBA\n \nCanadian Nba", "title": "List of Canadians in the National Basketball Association" }, { "text": "This is a list of basketball players who are the leaders in career games played in the National Basketball Association (NBA).\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nList of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders\nList of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders\nList of NBA players who have spent their entire career with one franchise\nList of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nNBA & ABA Career Leaders and Records for Games – BasketballReference.com\n\nGames", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season assists recorded\nProgressive assist leaders list\n\nAssist leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season assists recorded.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of assists leaders\nThis is a progressive list of assists leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA regular season records\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in assists\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in assists\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season turnovers recorded.\nA progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nTurnovers leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season turnovers recorded.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of turnovers leaders\nThis is a progressive list of turnovers leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA regular season records\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in turnovers\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in turnovers\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of NBA career regular season three-point field goals made.\nA progressive list of three-point leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nList of 3-point scoring leaders\n\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of 3-point scoring leaders\nThis is a progressive list of 3-point scoring leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in 3-point field goals made\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in 3-point field goals made\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season leaders in minutes played.\nA progressive list of leaders, and records for minutes played showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nMinutes played leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season leaders in minutes played.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of minutes played leaders\nThis is a progressive list of leaders and records for minutes played showing how the record has increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in minutes played\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in minutes played\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association (NBA) players by total career playoff assists recorded.\nA progressive list of assist leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nPlayoff assist leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff assists recorded.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff assist leaders\n\nThis is a progressive list of assist leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in assists\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association (NBA) players by total career playoff turnovers recorded.\nA progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nCareer playoff turnover leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff turnovers recorded.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff turnover leaders\n\nThis is a progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in turnovers\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff three-point field goals made.\nA progressive list of three-point leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nPlayoff 3-point field goals made leaders\n\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff three-point field goals made.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff 3-point field goals made\n\nThis is a progressive list of 3-point scoring leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\nList of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in 3-point field goals made\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders" }, { "text": "This is a list of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is a men's professional basketball league in North America. The NBA was founded in 1946 as the Basketball Association of America (BAA). The league adopted its current name at the start of the when it merged with the National Basketball League (NBL). The oldest person ever to play in the NBA was Nat Hickey, a coach who activated himself as a player for a game two days before his 46th birthday. The youngest player ever to play in the NBA was Andrew Bynum, who played his first game only six days after his 18th birthday. The oldest active player is Miami Heat power forward Udonis Haslem, who is currently 42 years old. The youngest active player in the NBA is Detroit Pistons center Jalen Duren, the 13th overall pick in the 2022 NBA draft, who is currently 19 years old and was born on November 18, 2003.\n\nKey\n\nOldest players\n\nThe oldest player ever to play in the NBA was Nat Hickey who played one game in the 1947–48 season when he was 45 years and 363 days old. Hickey, who was coaching the Providence Steamrollers at the time, decided to activate himself and played in a game for the Steamrollers. In his first game as a player for the Steamrollers, he missed all six of his shot attempts and only scored two points from three free throw attempts; he only played in one more game before retiring as a player two days shy of his 46th birthday. The second-oldest player is Kevin Willis, who played 20 seasons (excluding the 1988–89 season he missed due to injury) in the league before he sat out the 2005–06 season and earned a contract with the Dallas Mavericks on April 2, 2007. Willis then played five games for the Mavericks at the age of 44. The third-oldest player is Hall of Famer Robert Parish. Parish, who played with the Boston Celtics in the 1980s, played his last season with the Chicago Bulls at the age of 43. He played in 1,611 regular season games during his 21-year career, more than any other player in NBA history. When the Bulls won the 1997 Finals, Parish became the oldest player ever to win the NBA championship. There are 31 players who played in the NBA after they turned 40. The oldest active player is Udonis Haslem, who is now 42 years old. Haslem played his first game in the 2003–04 NBA season and has played for 20 seasons. He is the only player born before 1984 who is still active and under contract with an NBA team.\n\nAll-time\n\nActive\nThis list includes active players who is/will be 35 or above years old in the current year\n\nYoungest players\n\nNBA players usually come from U.S. college basketball. In the past, a college player had to complete his four-year college eligibility before he could enter the league through the NBA draft or as a free agent. In the 1970s, the league began to allow college underclassmen and high school players to enter the league. However, the trend of drafting high school players only began in the mid 1990s. This has led to more younger players entering the league directly after high school graduation. In 2005, the league and the players' union agreed on a new collective bargaining agreement that includes a minimum age limit which requires that players who wish to enter the league must be at least 19 years old on December 31 of the year of the draft, and at least one year removed from high school. International players who did not play college basketball also have to be at least 19 years old on the same date to be able to play in the NBA. Despite a trend toward drafting younger players, the NBA has a higher average age than it had in the 1980s. However, since the NBA introduced the minimum age limit in 2005, the league's average age has decreased in the past few seasons. The youngest player to ever play in the NBA was Andrew Bynum who played his first game at the age of 18 years and 6 days old. Bynum, who was also the youngest player ever selected in the NBA Draft, went into the NBA straight out of high school. Jermaine O'Neal and Kobe Bryant, both drafted in 1996, were the second- and third-youngest players. Serbian Darko Miličić was the youngest player ever to play in an NBA Finals game. He played for the Detroit Pistons in Game 3 of the 2004 Finals at the age of 18 years and 356 days old. The Pistons won the 2004 Finals and Miličić became the youngest player ever to win the NBA championship, being only five days away from his 19th birthday at the time. There are currently 29 players who played in the NBA before they turned 19. Nineteen of them came to the league straight out of high school, while 7 of them are international players who never played basketball in the U.S. high schools or colleges before they entered the NBA, and three players, Devin Booker, Joshua Primo and Jalen Duren played one year of college before entering the NBA all while remaining 18 years old throughout the process.\n\nAll-time\n\nActive\n\nSee also\nList of National Basketball Association career games played leaders\nList of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders\nList of oldest professional athletes by sport\nList of oldest Major League Baseball players\nList of oldest National Hockey League players\n\nReferences\nGeneral\n\nSpecific\n\nOldest\nNational Basketball Association players\nNational Basketball Association players", "title": "List of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players" }, { "text": "The following is a list of athletes with dual nationality. It includes both players who can trace their origins to a foreign country and those who have attained foreign nationality during their career, as well as players who hail from semi-autonomous regions within countries.\n\nAthletics\n\nAuto racing\n\nBaseball\n\nBasketball\n\nBoxing\n\nCycling\n\nFencing\n\nField hockey\n\nFootball (Association)\n\nFootball (Gridiron)\n\nIce hockey (Junior)\n\nIce hockey (Senior)\n\nKickboxing\n\nRugby (league & union)\n\nSkating\n\nSwimming\n\nTennis\n\nWeightlifting\n\nSee also\nList of nationality transfers in sport\nOriundo\n\nReferences\n\nDual nationality", "title": "List of sportspeople with dual nationality" } ]

[ "Nash went to college in the 1992-93 season.", "Nash was in college from the 1992-93 season to the 1995-96 season.", "Nash's college team, the Santa Clara Broncos, had varied performance during his time there. In his first year (1992-93), Nash led the Broncos to a WCC Tournament title and an upset win in the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. Despite this success, the team was defeated by Temple in the next round. The 1993-94 season was less successful, with the Broncos only managing a 5-7 record in the conference. The team rebounded in the 1994-95 season, topping the WCC. However, they were defeated by Mississippi State in the NCAA tournament. In the 1995-96 season, Santa Clara again captured the WCC title, and earned a first round upset win in the NCAA tournament, before being eliminated by Kansas.", "When Nash's college career ended, he began attracting attention from the national media and professional scouts. He played with the Canadian national team and worked out with established NBA players during the summer. He also finished his career as Santa Clara's all-time leader in several categories. Later, in September 2006, Nash had his jersey (#11) retired, becoming the first Santa Clara student-athlete to receive that honour." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_76e434aa1ed64b5884f831f59f0300c8_0_q#0", "C_76e434aa1ed64b5884f831f59f0300c8_0_q#1", "C_76e434aa1ed64b5884f831f59f0300c8_0_q#2", "C_76e434aa1ed64b5884f831f59f0300c8_0_q#3" ]

[ "What did Steve Nash do when he retired from basketball?", "When did he retire from the NBA?", "What team did he finish his career with?", "What were his career stats when he retired?" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 545 ], [ 0 ], [ 1491 ], [ 1491 ] ], "texts": [ [ "On September 25, 2015, it was confirmed that Nash would take on part-time consulting duties for the Golden State Warriors." ], [ "Nash announced his retirement from playing on March 21, 2015." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 545, 0, 1491, 1491 ], "texts": [ "On September 25, 2015, it was confirmed that Nash would take on part-time consulting duties for the Golden State Warriors.", "Nash announced his retirement from playing on March 21, 2015.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "This is a list of basketball players from Canada who have played in the National Basketball Association (NBA).\n\nActive players\nNickeil Alexander-Walker\nNew Orleans Pelicans (2019–2022)\nUtah Jazz (2022–2023)\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2023–present)\nDalano Banton\nToronto Raptors (2021–present)\nRJ Barrett\nNew York Knicks (2019–present)\nKhem Birch\nOrlando Magic (2017–2021)\nToronto Raptors (2021–2023)\nSan Antonio Spurs (2023–present)\nChris Boucher\nGolden State Warriors (2017–2018)\nToronto Raptors (2018–present)\nOshae Brissett\nToronto Raptors (2019–2020)\nIndiana Pacers (2021–present)\nDillon Brooks\nMemphis Grizzlies (2017–present)\nBrandon Clarke\nMemphis Grizzlies (2019–present)\nLuguentz Dort\nOklahoma City Thunder (2019–present)\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander\nLos Angeles Clippers (2018–2019)\nOklahoma City Thunder (2019–present)\nCaleb Houstan\nOrlando Magic (2022-present)\nCory Joseph\nSan Antonio Spurs (2011–2015)\nToronto Raptors (2015–2017)\nIndiana Pacers (2017–2019)\nSacramento Kings (2019–2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–present)\nMfiondu Kabengele\nLos Angeles Clippers (2019–2020)\nCleveland Cavaliers (2021)\nBoston Celtics (2022–present)\nA.J. Lawson\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2022)\nDallas Mavericks (2022-present)\nTrey Lyles\nUtah Jazz (2015–2017)\nDenver Nuggets (2017–2019)\nSan Antonio Spurs (2019–2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–2022)\nSacramento Kings (2021–present)\nBennedict Mathurin\nIndiana Pacers (2022-present)\nJamal Murray\nDenver Nuggets (2016–present)\nAndrew Nembhard\nIndiana Pacers (2022-present)\nKelly Olynyk\nBoston Celtics (2013–2017)\nMiami Heat (2017–2021)\nHouston Rockets (2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–2022)\nUtah Jazz (2022-present)\nEugene Omoruyi\nDallas Mavericks (2021)\nOklahoma City Thunder (2022-2023)\nDetroit Pistons (2023-present)\nDwight Powell\nBoston Celtics (2014)\nDallas Mavericks (2014–present)\nShaedon Sharpe\nPortland Trail Blazers (2022-present)\nTristan Thompson\nCleveland Cavaliers (2011-2019)\nBoston Celtics (2020–21)\nSacramento Kings (2021–22)\nIndiana Pacers (2022)\nChicago Bulls (2022)\nLos Angeles Lakers (2023-present)\nAndrew Wiggins\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2014–2020)\nGolden State Warriors (2020–present)\n\nAwards and honors\nHall of Famers\n\nBob Houbregs, 1987\nSteve Nash, 2018\n\nMost Valuable Player\n\nSteve Nash, 2 times, 2005–2006\n\nAll-NBA Team\n\nSteve Nash, First Team 3 times (2005–2007), Second Team 2 times (2008, 2010), Third Team 2 times (2002–2003)\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, First Team, 2023\n\nFirst overall draft pick\n\nAnthony Bennett (Cleveland Cavaliers, UNLV, 2013)\nAndrew Wiggins (Cleveland Cavaliers, Kansas, 2014)\n\nRookie of the Year Award\n\nAndrew Wiggins (Minnesota Timberwolves, 2015)\n\nDefensive Player of the Year\n\nNone\n\nMost Improved Player\n\nNone\n\nSixth Man of the Year\n\nNone\n\nAll-Rookie Team\n\nRick Fox, Second Team, 1992\nTristan Thompson, Second Team, 2012\nKelly Olynyk, Second Team, 2014\nAndrew Wiggins, First Team, 2015\nJamal Murray, Second Team, 2017\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, Second Team, 2019\nBrandon Clarke, First Team, 2020\nBennedict Mathurin, First Team, 2023\n\nNBA Champions\n\nMike Smrek, 2 times, 1987–1988\nBill Wennington, 3 times, 1996–1998\nRick Fox, 3 times, 2000–2002\nJoel Anthony, 2 times, 2012–2013\nCory Joseph, 1 time, 2014\nTristan Thompson, 1 time, 2016\nChris Boucher, 2 times, 2018–2019\nAndrew Wiggins, 1 time, 2022\n\nNBA Finals MVP\n\nNone\n\nNBA Citizenship Award\n Steve Nash, 2007\n Samuel Dalembert, 2010\n\nNBA Sportsmanship Award\n\nNone\n\nTeammate of the Year\n\nNone\n\nAll-Star selection\nSteve Nash, 8 times, 2002–2003, 2005–2008, 2010, 2012\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, 2023\nAndrew Wiggins, 2022\nJamaal Magloire, 2004\n\nPlayers\nThis is an alphabetical list of 62 basketball players from Canada who have played in the National Basketball Association since 1946. Players name listed in BOLD are currently active players.\n__NOTOC__\n\nA\nKyle Alexander\nNickeil Alexander-Walker\n Joel Anthony\n\nB\nNorm Baker\nDalano Banton\nRJ Barrett\nAnthony Bennett\nSim Bhullar\nHank Biasatti\nKhem Birch\nChris Boucher\nIgnas Brazdeikis\nOshae Brissett\nDillon Brooks\n\nC\n\nBrandon Clarke\nRon Crevier\n\nD\nSamuel Dalembert\n Nate Darling\nLuguentz Dort\n\nE\nTyler Ennis\n\nF\nRick Fox\n\nG\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander\nStewart Granger\n\nH\nLars Hansen\nBob Houbregs\nCaleb Houstan\n\nJ\nCory Joseph\nKris Joseph\n\nK\nMfiondu Kabengele\n\nL\nA. J. Lawson\nTrey Lyles\n\nM\nTodd MacCulloch\nJamaal Magloire\nKarim Mané\nBennedict Mathurin\nNaz Mitrou-Long\nMychal Mulder\nJamal Murray\n\nN\nSteve Nash\nAndrew Nicholson\nAndrew Nembhard\n\nO\nKelly Olynyk\nEugene Omoruyi\n\nP\nKevin Pangos\nDwight Powell\nJoshua Primo\n\nR\nXavier Rathan-Mayes\nAndy Rautins\nLeo Rautins\n\nS\nRobert Sacre\nMarial Shayok\nMike Smrek\nGino Sovran\nNik Stauskas\nShaedon Sharpe\n\nT\nTristan Thompson\n\nV\nErnie Vandeweghe\n\nW\nBill Wennington\nAndrew Wiggins\nLindell Wigginton\nKyle Wiltjer\n\nZ\nJim Zoet\n\nSee also\n List of foreign NBA players\n List of Canadians in NASCAR\n List of Canadians in the National Football League\n List of Major League Baseball players from Canada\n\nReferences\n\nNBA\n \nCanadian Nba", "title": "List of Canadians in the National Basketball Association" }, { "text": "This is a list of basketball players who are the leaders in career games played in the National Basketball Association (NBA).\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nList of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders\nList of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders\nList of NBA players who have spent their entire career with one franchise\nList of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nNBA & ABA Career Leaders and Records for Games – BasketballReference.com\n\nGames", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season assists recorded\nProgressive assist leaders list\n\nAssist leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season assists recorded.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of assists leaders\nThis is a progressive list of assists leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA regular season records\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in assists\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in assists\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season turnovers recorded.\nA progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nTurnovers leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season turnovers recorded.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of turnovers leaders\nThis is a progressive list of turnovers leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA regular season records\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in turnovers\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in turnovers\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of NBA career regular season three-point field goals made.\nA progressive list of three-point leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nList of 3-point scoring leaders\n\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of 3-point scoring leaders\nThis is a progressive list of 3-point scoring leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in 3-point field goals made\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in 3-point field goals made\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season leaders in minutes played.\nA progressive list of leaders, and records for minutes played showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nMinutes played leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season leaders in minutes played.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of minutes played leaders\nThis is a progressive list of leaders and records for minutes played showing how the record has increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in minutes played\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in minutes played\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association (NBA) players by total career playoff assists recorded.\nA progressive list of assist leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nPlayoff assist leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff assists recorded.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff assist leaders\n\nThis is a progressive list of assist leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in assists\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association (NBA) players by total career playoff turnovers recorded.\nA progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nCareer playoff turnover leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff turnovers recorded.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff turnover leaders\n\nThis is a progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in turnovers\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff three-point field goals made.\nA progressive list of three-point leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nPlayoff 3-point field goals made leaders\n\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff three-point field goals made.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff 3-point field goals made\n\nThis is a progressive list of 3-point scoring leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\nList of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in 3-point field goals made\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders" }, { "text": "This is a list of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is a men's professional basketball league in North America. The NBA was founded in 1946 as the Basketball Association of America (BAA). The league adopted its current name at the start of the when it merged with the National Basketball League (NBL). The oldest person ever to play in the NBA was Nat Hickey, a coach who activated himself as a player for a game two days before his 46th birthday. The youngest player ever to play in the NBA was Andrew Bynum, who played his first game only six days after his 18th birthday. The oldest active player is Miami Heat power forward Udonis Haslem, who is currently 42 years old. The youngest active player in the NBA is Detroit Pistons center Jalen Duren, the 13th overall pick in the 2022 NBA draft, who is currently 19 years old and was born on November 18, 2003.\n\nKey\n\nOldest players\n\nThe oldest player ever to play in the NBA was Nat Hickey who played one game in the 1947–48 season when he was 45 years and 363 days old. Hickey, who was coaching the Providence Steamrollers at the time, decided to activate himself and played in a game for the Steamrollers. In his first game as a player for the Steamrollers, he missed all six of his shot attempts and only scored two points from three free throw attempts; he only played in one more game before retiring as a player two days shy of his 46th birthday. The second-oldest player is Kevin Willis, who played 20 seasons (excluding the 1988–89 season he missed due to injury) in the league before he sat out the 2005–06 season and earned a contract with the Dallas Mavericks on April 2, 2007. Willis then played five games for the Mavericks at the age of 44. The third-oldest player is Hall of Famer Robert Parish. Parish, who played with the Boston Celtics in the 1980s, played his last season with the Chicago Bulls at the age of 43. He played in 1,611 regular season games during his 21-year career, more than any other player in NBA history. When the Bulls won the 1997 Finals, Parish became the oldest player ever to win the NBA championship. There are 31 players who played in the NBA after they turned 40. The oldest active player is Udonis Haslem, who is now 42 years old. Haslem played his first game in the 2003–04 NBA season and has played for 20 seasons. He is the only player born before 1984 who is still active and under contract with an NBA team.\n\nAll-time\n\nActive\nThis list includes active players who is/will be 35 or above years old in the current year\n\nYoungest players\n\nNBA players usually come from U.S. college basketball. In the past, a college player had to complete his four-year college eligibility before he could enter the league through the NBA draft or as a free agent. In the 1970s, the league began to allow college underclassmen and high school players to enter the league. However, the trend of drafting high school players only began in the mid 1990s. This has led to more younger players entering the league directly after high school graduation. In 2005, the league and the players' union agreed on a new collective bargaining agreement that includes a minimum age limit which requires that players who wish to enter the league must be at least 19 years old on December 31 of the year of the draft, and at least one year removed from high school. International players who did not play college basketball also have to be at least 19 years old on the same date to be able to play in the NBA. Despite a trend toward drafting younger players, the NBA has a higher average age than it had in the 1980s. However, since the NBA introduced the minimum age limit in 2005, the league's average age has decreased in the past few seasons. The youngest player to ever play in the NBA was Andrew Bynum who played his first game at the age of 18 years and 6 days old. Bynum, who was also the youngest player ever selected in the NBA Draft, went into the NBA straight out of high school. Jermaine O'Neal and Kobe Bryant, both drafted in 1996, were the second- and third-youngest players. Serbian Darko Miličić was the youngest player ever to play in an NBA Finals game. He played for the Detroit Pistons in Game 3 of the 2004 Finals at the age of 18 years and 356 days old. The Pistons won the 2004 Finals and Miličić became the youngest player ever to win the NBA championship, being only five days away from his 19th birthday at the time. There are currently 29 players who played in the NBA before they turned 19. Nineteen of them came to the league straight out of high school, while 7 of them are international players who never played basketball in the U.S. high schools or colleges before they entered the NBA, and three players, Devin Booker, Joshua Primo and Jalen Duren played one year of college before entering the NBA all while remaining 18 years old throughout the process.\n\nAll-time\n\nActive\n\nSee also\nList of National Basketball Association career games played leaders\nList of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders\nList of oldest professional athletes by sport\nList of oldest Major League Baseball players\nList of oldest National Hockey League players\n\nReferences\nGeneral\n\nSpecific\n\nOldest\nNational Basketball Association players\nNational Basketball Association players", "title": "List of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players" }, { "text": "The following is a list of athletes with dual nationality. It includes both players who can trace their origins to a foreign country and those who have attained foreign nationality during their career, as well as players who hail from semi-autonomous regions within countries.\n\nAthletics\n\nAuto racing\n\nBaseball\n\nBasketball\n\nBoxing\n\nCycling\n\nFencing\n\nField hockey\n\nFootball (Association)\n\nFootball (Gridiron)\n\nIce hockey (Junior)\n\nIce hockey (Senior)\n\nKickboxing\n\nRugby (league & union)\n\nSkating\n\nSwimming\n\nTennis\n\nWeightlifting\n\nSee also\nList of nationality transfers in sport\nOriundo\n\nReferences\n\nDual nationality", "title": "List of sportspeople with dual nationality" } ]

[ "After retiring from basketball, Steve Nash took on part-time consulting duties for the Golden State Warriors.", "Steve Nash retired from the NBA on March 21, 2015.", "Steve Nash finished his career with the Los Angeles Lakers.", "The context does not provide information on Steve Nash's career stats when he retired." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_0_q#0", "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_0_q#1", "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_0_q#2", "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_0_q#3", "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_0_q#4", "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_0_q#5" ]

[ "Where is he from?", "Is he single?", "What are his hobbies?", "What is interesting in this section?", "How did he overcome?", "What is he doing currently?" ]

[ 1, 1, 2, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2531 ], [ 2531 ], [ 48 ], [ 1816 ], [ 2396 ], [ 2531 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "he had stopped smoking marijuana" ], [ "In a 2013 interview, Cudi revealed he had suffered an addiction to anti-depressant medication, which had been prescribed to help him deal with an \"emotional breakdown\"" ], [ "In October 2016, Cudi revealed on his Facebook page that he had checked himself into rehabilitation for depression and suicidal urges." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2531, 2531, 48, 1816, 2396, 2531 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "he had stopped smoking marijuana", "In a 2013 interview, Cudi revealed he had suffered an addiction to anti-depressant medication, which had been prescribed to help him deal with an \"emotional breakdown\"", "In October 2016, Cudi revealed on his Facebook page that he had checked himself into rehabilitation for depression and suicidal urges.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "Some interesting aspects from this section are Kid Cudi's transparency about his struggles with drug and alcohol addiction. He talks about having quit smoking marijuana and giving up alcohol. Despite having a cocaine problem, Cudi expressed that he didn't go to rehab, choosing to quit cold turkey. He also discussed his addiction to anti-depressant medication prescribed after an emotional breakdown as well as his ongoing struggles with depression and suicidal thoughts. Furthermore, he mentioned checking himself into rehabilitation for his mental health issues.", "Kid Cudi overcame his struggles with drug and alcohol addiction by choosing to quit cold turkey, without going to rehab. He made a commitment to sobriety for his own sake, for his daughter and for his family. In terms of his mental health, he revealed that he checked himself into rehabilitation for depression and suicidal urges, demonstrating a proactive approach towards addressing and overcoming his emotional challenges.", "CANNOTANSWER" ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_1_q#0", "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_1_q#1", "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_1_q#2", "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_1_q#3", "C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_1_q#4" ]

[ "What kind of music does he play", "When did he get started", "has he won any awards", "has he worked with other rappers on anything", "what is he most known for" ]

[ 0, 1, 1, 1, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 1, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 79 ], [ 2173 ], [ 419 ], [ 1206 ], [ 11 ] ], "texts": [ [ "rap," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "sound is what inspired and led Kanye West to create his cathartic 808s & Heartbreak (" ], [ "Outkast." ], [ "musical style" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 79, 2173, 419, 1206, 11 ], "texts": [ "rap,", "CANNOTANSWER", "sound is what inspired and led Kanye West to create his cathartic 808s & Heartbreak (", "Outkast.", "musical style" ] }

[]

[ "Kid Cudi's music is an atmospheric take on melodic rap, with elements of indie rock, electronica, dubstep, trip hop, psychedelia, R&B, synthpop and grunge. He is known for his introspective lyrics and his unique sound that incorporates harmonizing, humming, and sometimes screamed vocals and yodeling.", "The text does not provide information on when Kid Cudi started his music career.", "The text does not provide information on any awards that Kid Cudi may have won.", "Yes, Kid Cudi has worked with rapper Kanye West. His sound inspired Kanye West to create his album 808s & Heartbreak (2008). Further, West complimented Cudi's writing. However, the text does not provide specific information on any collaborations between the two.", "Kid Cudi is most known for his atmospheric take on melodic rap with unique elements such as off-key singing, harmonizing, and humming. His introspective lyrics and ability to express his insecurities and fallibilities in his songs are also notable. He has greatly influenced the music industry, even inspiring Kanye West's 808s & Heartbreak. Moreover, Cudi is known for his mission to use his music to provide guidance for young listeners and help them deal with feelings of loneliness and suicidal thoughts." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0_q#0", "C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0_q#1", "C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0_q#2", "C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0_q#3", "C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0_q#4", "C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0_q#5", "C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0_q#6", "C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0_q#7", "C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0_q#8", "C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0_q#9" ]

[ "Did Oprah star in any films?", "Was this an award winning film by chance?", "Was she in any other films in her career?", "Did she do any voice rolls in the films or did she always perform?", "Did she receive an award for this movie?", "Was there any other films she performed in?", "How long was her career in filming?", "When did she perform in the color purple?", "Did she ever do any musicals in her filming?", "Did she ever donate money she has made from filming?" ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1 ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 98 ], [ 310 ], [ 1459 ], [ 1952 ], [ 1842 ], [ 1952 ], [ 0 ], [ 186 ], [ 1952 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1985, Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple as distraught housewife Sofia." ], [ "She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance." ], [ "In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film Beloved, based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel of the same name." ], [ "Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in Bee Movie (2007)," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 1985," ], [ "The Alice Walker novel went on to become a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 98, 310, 1459, 1952, 1842, 1952, 0, 186, 1952 ], "texts": [ "In 1985, Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple as distraught housewife Sofia.", "She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance.", "In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film Beloved, based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel of the same name.", "Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in Bee Movie (2007),", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 1985,", "The Alice Walker novel went on to become a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "African Americans in Mississippi or Black Mississippians are residents of the state of Mississippi who are of African American ancestry. As of the 2019 U.S. Census estimates, African Americans were 37.8% of the state's population which is the highest in the nation.\n\nAfrican Americans were brought to Mississippi for cotton production during the slave trade.\n\nHistory \n\nIn 1718, French officials established rules to allow the importation of African slaves into the Biloxi area. By 1719, the first African slaves arrived. Most of those early enslaved people in Mississippi were Caribbean Creoles.\n\nAs the demographer William H. Frey noted, \"In Mississippi, I think it's [identifying as mixed race] changed from within.\" Historically in Mississippi, after Indian removal in the 1830s, the major groups were designated as black (African American), who were then mostly enslaved, and white (primarily European American). Matthew Snipp, also a demographer, commented on the increase in the 21st century in the number of people identifying as being of more than one race: \"In a sense, they're rendering a more accurate portrait of their racial heritage that in the past would have been suppressed.\"\n\nAfter having accounted for a majority of the state's population since well before the Civil War and through the 1930s, today African Americans constitute approximately 37 percent of the state's population. Some of these slaves were mixed race, with European ancestors, as there were many children born into slavery with white fathers. Some also have Native American ancestry. During the first half of the 20th century, a total of nearly 400,000 African Americans left the state during the Great Migration, for opportunities in the North, Midwest and West. They became a minority in the state for the first time since early in its development.\n\nLynching\n\nThe late 1800s and early 1900s in the Mississippi Delta showed both frontier influence and actions directed at repressing African Americans. After the Civil War, 90% of the Delta was still undeveloped. Both whites and African Americans migrated there for a chance to buy land in the backcountry. It was frontier wilderness, heavily forested and without roads for years. Before the start of the 20th century, lynchings often took the form of frontier justice directed at transient workers as well as residents.\n\nWhites accounted for just over 12 percent of the Delta region's population, but made up nearly 17 percent of lynching victims. So, in this region, they were lynched at a rate that was over 35 percent higher than their proportion in the population, primarily due to being accused of crimes against property (chiefly theft). Conversely, blacks were lynched at a rate, in the Delta, lesser than their proportion of the population. However, this was unlike the rest of the South, where blacks comprised the majority of lynching victims. In the Delta, they were most often accused of murder or attempted murder, in half the cases, and 15 percent of the time, they were accused of rape, meaning that another 15 percent of the time they were accused of a combination of rape and murder, or rape and attempted murder.\n\nA clear seasonal pattern to lynchings existed with colder months being the deadliest. As noted, cotton prices fell during the 1880s and 1890s, increasing economic pressures. \"From September through December, the cotton was picked, debts were revealed, and profits (or losses) realized... Whether concluding old contracts or discussing new arrangements, [landlords and tenants] frequently came into conflict in these months and sometimes fell to blows.\" During the winter, murder was most cited as a cause for lynching. After 1901, as economics shifted and more blacks became renters and sharecroppers in the Delta, with few exceptions, only African Americans were lynched. The frequency increased from 1901 to 1908 after African Americans were disfranchised. \"In the twentieth century Delta vigilantism finally became predictably joined to white supremacy.\"\n\nConclusions of numerous studies since the mid-20th century have found the following variables affecting the rate of lynchings in the South: \"lynchings were more numerous where the African American population was relatively large, the agricultural economy was based predominantly on cotton, the white population was economically stressed, the Democratic Party was stronger, and multiple religious organizations competed for congregants.\"\n\nBy the 1950s, the civil rights movement was gaining momentum. A 1955 lynching that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with relatives in Money, Mississippi, Till was killed for allegedly having wolf-whistled at a white woman. Till had been badly beaten, one of his eyes was gouged out, and he was shot in the head. The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the black community throughout the U.S. Vann R. Newkirk| wrote \"the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of white supremacy\". The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were speedily acquitted by an all-white jury.\n\nNotable people\n\n Mae Bertha Carter - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n Aunjanue Ellis - Actress\n Fannie Lou Hamer - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n John M. Perkins - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n B.B. King - Musician\n Morgan Freeman - Actor\n Oprah Winfrey - Television personality, actress, producer\n Jerry Rice - NFL Football Player with the San Francisco 49ers\n Walter Payton NFL Football Player with the Chicago Bears\n Brandy Norwood Singer, actress\n Jerome Barkum - NFL Football Player with the New York Jets\n Lester Young - Musician, Tenor Saxophone\n Muddy Waters - Musician\n Howlin Wolf - Musician\n Elmore James - Musician\n Swae Lee - Musician\n Karlous Miller - Comedian\n James Earl Jones - Actor\n Ray J - Singer, TV Personality, singer\n Sam Cooke - Singer\n Robert Johnson - Musician\n Ruby Bridges - Activist\n Medgar Evers - Activist\n Ida B. Wells - Activist\n Big K.R.I.T - Rapper\n Cassi Davis - Actress\n Shelby McEwen - Athlete\n Frederick O'Neal - Actor\n Beah Richards - Actress\n David Banner - Musician\n Rick Ross - Musician\n Soulja Boy - Musician\n\nSee also\n\n Education segregation in the Mississippi Delta\n History of slavery in Mississippi\nMississippi-in-Africa\n Mississippi Masala\nBlack Southerners\nDemographics of Mississippi\nList of plantations in Mississippi\nList of African-American historic places in Mississippi\nList of African-American newspapers in Mississippi\nVietnamese in Mississippi\nHistory of Italians in Mississippi\nAfrican Americans in Alabama\nAfrican Americans in Tennessee\nAfrican Americans in Louisiana\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\nBlack Life on the Mississippi: Slaves, Free Blacks, and the Western Steamboat World\n Black History in Mississippi\n African American\n Slave Trade\n African-Americans in the Mississippi River Valley, 1851-1900\n A Contested Presence: Free Black People in Antebellum Mississippi, 1820–1860\n African Presence in Mississippi", "title": "African Americans in Mississippi" } ]

[ "Yes, Oprah has starred in several films such as \"The Color Purple\", \"Beloved\", and \"A Wrinkle in Time\".", "The text does not provide information on whether the films Oprah starred in won any awards.", "Yes, aside from \"The Color Purple\", \"Beloved\", and \"A Wrinkle in Time\", Oprah also lent her voice to several animated films. These include \"Charlotte's Web\", \"Bee Movie\", and \"The Princess and the Frog\".", "Yes, Oprah did voice roles in several films. She voiced Gussie the goose in \"Charlotte's Web\", Judge Bumbleton in \"Bee Movie\", and Eudora in \"The Princess and The Frog\".", "The text does not provide information on whether Oprah received any awards for the movies she voiced in.", "The context mentions that Oprah Winfrey starred in \"The Color Purple\", \"Beloved\", \"A Wrinkle in Time\" and provided voice roles in \"Charlotte's Web\", \"Bee Movie\", and \"The Princess and The Frog\". No other films are mentioned in the context.", "The context does not provide specific information on the length of Oprah Winfrey's career in film.", "Oprah Winfrey co-starred in \"The Color Purple\" in 1985.", "The context does not indicate that Oprah Winfrey performed in any musicals during her film career. However, it is mentioned that she was a producer for the Broadway musical adaptation of \"The Color Purple\", a novel which had also been adapted into a film in which she co-starred.", "The context does not provide information on whether Oprah Winfrey donated any money she made from filming." ]

[ "Yes", "no", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "What celebrities has she interviewed?", "Who else has she interviewed?", "When did she appear on the late show?", "Did she appear on his show more then once?", "Did she do any other high profile interviews?", "Did she ever interview a president after they were elected?", "Has she ever said what her favorite celebrity interview was?", "Does she still do celebrity interviews?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "How did this effect her career?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 9 ], [ 247 ], [ 226 ], [ 813 ], [ 2196 ], [ 2306 ], [ 2997 ], [ 2997 ], [ 2465 ], [ 2631 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history" ], [ "Winfrey appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman" ], [ "On December 1, 2005," ], [ "On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as its season premiere was filmed in New York City." ], [ "Although Obama appeared twice on her show, those appearances were prior to his declaring himself a candidate. Winfrey" ], [ "Winfrey added that Palin would make a fantastic guest and that she would love to have her on the show after the election, which she did on November 18, 2009." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine." ], [ "Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 9, 247, 226, 813, 2196, 2306, 2997, 2997, 2465, 2631 ], "texts": [ "Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history", "Winfrey appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman", "On December 1, 2005,", "On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as its season premiere was filmed in New York City.", "Although Obama appeared twice on her show, those appearances were prior to his declaring himself a candidate. Winfrey", "Winfrey added that Palin would make a fantastic guest and that she would love to have her on the show after the election, which she did on November 18, 2009.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine.", "Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests" ] }

[ { "text": "African Americans in Mississippi or Black Mississippians are residents of the state of Mississippi who are of African American ancestry. As of the 2019 U.S. Census estimates, African Americans were 37.8% of the state's population which is the highest in the nation.\n\nAfrican Americans were brought to Mississippi for cotton production during the slave trade.\n\nHistory \n\nIn 1718, French officials established rules to allow the importation of African slaves into the Biloxi area. By 1719, the first African slaves arrived. Most of those early enslaved people in Mississippi were Caribbean Creoles.\n\nAs the demographer William H. Frey noted, \"In Mississippi, I think it's [identifying as mixed race] changed from within.\" Historically in Mississippi, after Indian removal in the 1830s, the major groups were designated as black (African American), who were then mostly enslaved, and white (primarily European American). Matthew Snipp, also a demographer, commented on the increase in the 21st century in the number of people identifying as being of more than one race: \"In a sense, they're rendering a more accurate portrait of their racial heritage that in the past would have been suppressed.\"\n\nAfter having accounted for a majority of the state's population since well before the Civil War and through the 1930s, today African Americans constitute approximately 37 percent of the state's population. Some of these slaves were mixed race, with European ancestors, as there were many children born into slavery with white fathers. Some also have Native American ancestry. During the first half of the 20th century, a total of nearly 400,000 African Americans left the state during the Great Migration, for opportunities in the North, Midwest and West. They became a minority in the state for the first time since early in its development.\n\nLynching\n\nThe late 1800s and early 1900s in the Mississippi Delta showed both frontier influence and actions directed at repressing African Americans. After the Civil War, 90% of the Delta was still undeveloped. Both whites and African Americans migrated there for a chance to buy land in the backcountry. It was frontier wilderness, heavily forested and without roads for years. Before the start of the 20th century, lynchings often took the form of frontier justice directed at transient workers as well as residents.\n\nWhites accounted for just over 12 percent of the Delta region's population, but made up nearly 17 percent of lynching victims. So, in this region, they were lynched at a rate that was over 35 percent higher than their proportion in the population, primarily due to being accused of crimes against property (chiefly theft). Conversely, blacks were lynched at a rate, in the Delta, lesser than their proportion of the population. However, this was unlike the rest of the South, where blacks comprised the majority of lynching victims. In the Delta, they were most often accused of murder or attempted murder, in half the cases, and 15 percent of the time, they were accused of rape, meaning that another 15 percent of the time they were accused of a combination of rape and murder, or rape and attempted murder.\n\nA clear seasonal pattern to lynchings existed with colder months being the deadliest. As noted, cotton prices fell during the 1880s and 1890s, increasing economic pressures. \"From September through December, the cotton was picked, debts were revealed, and profits (or losses) realized... Whether concluding old contracts or discussing new arrangements, [landlords and tenants] frequently came into conflict in these months and sometimes fell to blows.\" During the winter, murder was most cited as a cause for lynching. After 1901, as economics shifted and more blacks became renters and sharecroppers in the Delta, with few exceptions, only African Americans were lynched. The frequency increased from 1901 to 1908 after African Americans were disfranchised. \"In the twentieth century Delta vigilantism finally became predictably joined to white supremacy.\"\n\nConclusions of numerous studies since the mid-20th century have found the following variables affecting the rate of lynchings in the South: \"lynchings were more numerous where the African American population was relatively large, the agricultural economy was based predominantly on cotton, the white population was economically stressed, the Democratic Party was stronger, and multiple religious organizations competed for congregants.\"\n\nBy the 1950s, the civil rights movement was gaining momentum. A 1955 lynching that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with relatives in Money, Mississippi, Till was killed for allegedly having wolf-whistled at a white woman. Till had been badly beaten, one of his eyes was gouged out, and he was shot in the head. The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the black community throughout the U.S. Vann R. Newkirk| wrote \"the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of white supremacy\". The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were speedily acquitted by an all-white jury.\n\nNotable people\n\n Mae Bertha Carter - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n Aunjanue Ellis - Actress\n Fannie Lou Hamer - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n John M. Perkins - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n B.B. King - Musician\n Morgan Freeman - Actor\n Oprah Winfrey - Television personality, actress, producer\n Jerry Rice - NFL Football Player with the San Francisco 49ers\n Walter Payton NFL Football Player with the Chicago Bears\n Brandy Norwood Singer, actress\n Jerome Barkum - NFL Football Player with the New York Jets\n Lester Young - Musician, Tenor Saxophone\n Muddy Waters - Musician\n Howlin Wolf - Musician\n Elmore James - Musician\n Swae Lee - Musician\n Karlous Miller - Comedian\n James Earl Jones - Actor\n Ray J - Singer, TV Personality, singer\n Sam Cooke - Singer\n Robert Johnson - Musician\n Ruby Bridges - Activist\n Medgar Evers - Activist\n Ida B. Wells - Activist\n Big K.R.I.T - Rapper\n Cassi Davis - Actress\n Shelby McEwen - Athlete\n Frederick O'Neal - Actor\n Beah Richards - Actress\n David Banner - Musician\n Rick Ross - Musician\n Soulja Boy - Musician\n\nSee also\n\n Education segregation in the Mississippi Delta\n History of slavery in Mississippi\nMississippi-in-Africa\n Mississippi Masala\nBlack Southerners\nDemographics of Mississippi\nList of plantations in Mississippi\nList of African-American historic places in Mississippi\nList of African-American newspapers in Mississippi\nVietnamese in Mississippi\nHistory of Italians in Mississippi\nAfrican Americans in Alabama\nAfrican Americans in Tennessee\nAfrican Americans in Louisiana\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\nBlack Life on the Mississippi: Slaves, Free Blacks, and the Western Steamboat World\n Black History in Mississippi\n African American\n Slave Trade\n African-Americans in the Mississippi River Valley, 1851-1900\n A Contested Presence: Free Black People in Antebellum Mississippi, 1820–1860\n African Presence in Mississippi", "title": "African Americans in Mississippi" } ]

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[ "What other activities did they do?", "Was it comedy?", "Did they do other commercials?", "Were they received well?", "Anything else interesting?", "Were they on any other shows?", "Did they win any awards for any of this?", "Were there anyother interesting things?", "Did they sell them?", "When were they there?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 817 ], [ 940 ], [ 1457 ], [ 1824 ], [ 1634 ], [ 986 ], [ 1824 ], [ 0 ], [ 216 ], [ 1824 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In December 2008, the duo starred in a seasonal advert, their first in seven years, for the supermarket chain Sainsbury's." ], [ "The duo appeared alongside chef Jamie Oliver." ], [ "From February 2013 to March 2015 they appeared in adverts for supermarket Morrisons." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 2015, the pair made a cameo appearance on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway, NBC's Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris." ], [ "In March 2009, the duo filmed a short film for inclusion on Comic Relief, which highlighted their story upon visiting a community centre for young carers in the North East." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 2006, a celebration of the show Spitting Image saw Ant and Dec having their own puppets made." ], [ "Waxworks of the duo could once be found in London's Madame Tussauds." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 817, 940, 1457, 1824, 1634, 986, 1824, 0, 216, 1824 ], "texts": [ "In December 2008, the duo starred in a seasonal advert, their first in seven years, for the supermarket chain Sainsbury's.", "The duo appeared alongside chef Jamie Oliver.", "From February 2013 to March 2015 they appeared in adverts for supermarket Morrisons.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 2015, the pair made a cameo appearance on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway, NBC's Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris.", "In March 2009, the duo filmed a short film for inclusion on Comic Relief, which highlighted their story upon visiting a community centre for young carers in the North East.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 2006, a celebration of the show Spitting Image saw Ant and Dec having their own puppets made.", "Waxworks of the duo could once be found in London's Madame Tussauds.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Ant and Dec have been involved in several activities. They had their own puppets made for a celebration of the show Spitting Image. They’ve also been made into cartoon characters on the comedy show 2DTV and face masks in Avid Merrion's Bo Selecta. In 2008, their production company, Gallowgate Productions, purchased the rights to Byker Grove and SMTV Live. They were also once attacked by the Taliban in Afghanistan while presenting a Pride of Britain Award. The duo made commercials for Sainsbury's and Nintendo, and appeared on the ITV2 comedy panel show Celebrity Juice. They had cameo roles on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway, and were executive producers on the show. They appeared in commercials for Morrisons and car company Suzuki, and they released an autobiography in 2009.", "Ant and Dec have been involved in several comedy-related activities, including having cartoons of themselves on the comedy show 2DTV, and appearing on the ITV2 comedy panel show Celebrity Juice. They also had face masks of themselves in the comedy show Avid Merrion's Bo Selecta.", "Yes, besides the Sainsbury's advertisement, Ant and Dec have appeared in several other commercials. They were in advertisements for Nintendo, popular supermarket chain Morrisons, and car company Suzuki.", "The text does not provide information on how well Ant and Dec's commercials or other activities were received by the public or the critics.", "Some other interesting facts mentioned in the text include the pair being attacked by the Taliban while they were in Afghanistan to present a Pride of Britain Award and having a cameo appearance on the U.S. adaptation of their own show, Saturday Night Takeaway. Additionally, they had their own waxworks at Madame Tussauds in London, and they're also executive producers on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway.", "Yes, Ant and Dec appeared on several shows. In addition to their appearance on the ITV2 comedy panel show Celebrity Juice, they also made a cameo appearance on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway, NBC's Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris. They were made into cartoon characters on the comedy show 2DTV, and had face masks in Avid Merrion's Bo Selecta. They also visited Afghanistan to present a Pride of Britain Award.", "The text does not provide information on whether Ant and Dec won any awards for their activities.", "Some of the interesting things mentioned in the text include the fact that Ant and Dec's production company, Gallowgate Productions, purchased the rights to the shows Byker Grove and SMTV Live to prevent digital channels from showing repeats of the programmes. Also, they once starred in a seasonal advert for Sainsbury's, their first advert in seven years. In September 2009, they released their official autobiography, \"Ooh! What a Lovely Pair. Our Story\". Furthermore, in March 2009 they filmed a short film for Comic Relief that highlighted their visit to a community centre for young carers in the North East.", "The text does not provide information on whether Ant and Dec sold the rights to Byker Grove and SMTV Live after purchasing them.", "The text does not specify the exact dates when Ant and Dec were involved in the various activities and appearances. However, it does mention that they purchased the rights to Byker Grove and SMTV Live in 2008, presented a Pride of Britain Award in Afghanistan in 2008, and appeared in a Sainsbury's advert in December 2008. Moreover, they filmed a short film for Comic Relief in March 2009, released their autobiography in September 2009, and appeared in Nintendo adverts in October 2010. They also appeared on the ITV2 show Celebrity Juice in 2011 and 2014 and in commercials for supermarket Morrisons from February 2013 to March 2015. They then appeared in adverts for car company Suzuki between February 2016 and March 2018." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "No" ]

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[ "What was there first experience with children's television?", "What year did they do this?", "Were they on any other television shows?", "What happened after 1997?", "Was this show successful?", "Did he work on anything after it was dropped?", "How long did this last?", "Is there anything else interesting?", "What was \"Friends Like These\"?", "How did it do?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 120 ], [ 44 ], [ 396 ], [ 803 ], [ 916 ], [ 1001 ], [ 1173 ], [ 1691 ], [ 1816 ], [ 2122 ] ], "texts": [ [ "They co-presented a Saturday-morning children's show entitled Gimme 5," ], [ "1994, while they were still releasing music under the alias of PJ & Duncan." ], [ "The Ant & Dec Show. The series was broadcast from 1995 to 1997," ], [ "In 1998, the duo switched to Channel 4, presenting an early-evening children's show entitled Ant & Dec Unzipped." ], [ "This show also won a BAFTA, but was dropped from the airwaves after just one series." ], [ "ITV soon signed the duo in August 1998, and within weeks, were assigned to present ITV1's Saturday morning programmes" ], [ "The duo presented the shows alongside Deeley for three years," ], [ "Ant & Dec made their permanent departure from children's television in 2001 after trying out formats like Friends Like These" ], [ "for BBC One in 2000" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 120, 44, 396, 803, 916, 1001, 1173, 1691, 1816, 2122 ], "texts": [ "They co-presented a Saturday-morning children's show entitled Gimme 5,", "1994, while they were still releasing music under the alias of PJ & Duncan.", "The Ant & Dec Show. The series was broadcast from 1995 to 1997,", "In 1998, the duo switched to Channel 4, presenting an early-evening children's show entitled Ant & Dec Unzipped.", "This show also won a BAFTA, but was dropped from the airwaves after just one series.", "ITV soon signed the duo in August 1998, and within weeks, were assigned to present ITV1's Saturday morning programmes", "The duo presented the shows alongside Deeley for three years,", "Ant & Dec made their permanent departure from children's television in 2001 after trying out formats like Friends Like These", "for BBC One in 2000", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Ant & Dec's first experience with children's television was co-presenting a Saturday-morning children's show entitled Gimme 5, broadcast on CITV in 1994.", "Ant & Dec began co-presenting the children's show Gimme 5 in 1994.", "Yes, after Gimme 5, they presented their own series, The Ant & Dec Show on CBBC, from 1995 to 1997. In 1998, they presented Ant & Dec Unzipped on Channel 4. They then signed with ITV in August 1998 and presented Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK. They also starred in the children's TV series Engie Benjy. Other shows they tried out include Friends Like These on BBC One in 2000 and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec for ITV in 2001.", "After 1997, Ant & Dec switched to Channel 4 in 1998 and presented a children's show named Ant & Dec Unzipped which won a BAFTA but was taken off air after just one series. Then in August 1998, ITV signed the duo and within weeks, assigned them to present ITV1's Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK, alongside Cat Deeley. They also tried out other formats like Friends Like These for BBC One in 2000 and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec for ITV in 2001. They left children's television for good in 2001.", "Their show SMTV Live, which they presented alongside Cat Deeley for three years, became the most popular ITV Saturday morning show. However, the duo's show on Channel 4, Ant & Dec Unzipped, was dropped after just one series despite winning a BAFTA. Their other shows, such as Friends Like These and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec, are not mentioned as being particularly successful in the provided text.", "Yes, after Ant & Dec Unzipped was dropped, they were signed by ITV in August 1998. They presented ITV1's Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK, alongside Cat Deeley. They also starred in the children's TV series Engie Benjy and tried presenting formats like Friends Like These for BBC One in 2000 and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec for ITV in 2001.", "Ant & Dec presented the ITV1's Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK for three years, from 1998 until their departure from children's television in 2001.", "One interesting note is that during their stint on SMTV Live, it's mentioned that the success of the programme was due to a mix of games and sketches, as well as the chemistry between Ant, Dec, and their co-presenter, Cat Deeley. Furthermore, they won two BAFTA Awards in 1996 for 'Best Children's Show' and 'Best Sketch Comedy Show' when they were presenting their own series on CBBC, The Ant & Dec Show. They have also said that the main reason they left SMTV was because the Pop Idol live finals were due to begin on Saturday nights on ITV in December 2001.", "The text does not provide specific information about what \"Friends Like These\" is, other than it was a show format that Ant & Dec tried out for BBC One in 2000.", "The text does not provide information on how \"Friends Like These\" performed when Ant & Dec presented the show in 2000." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "What position did he play as a junior?", "Which school did he attend?", "Which years did he attend?", "Was he awarded any honors during his junior year?", "Did he win any others that year?", "Did he receive any other awards from his home city?", "Did he talk about NBA prospects that year?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Why did they give him this honor?", "Did he travel a lot that year?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2618 ], [ 1536 ], [ 1861 ], [ 1834 ], [ 2004 ], [ 2072 ], [ 2618 ], [ 0 ], [ 106 ], [ 2618 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Chicago Public High School" ], [ "2013" ], [ "Okafor was recognized as a 2013 All-Public League first team selection by the Chicago Sun-Times" ], [ "he was named the Chicago Sun-Times Player of the Year." ], [ "Okafor finished as runner-up in the Illinois Mr. Basketball" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In June 2012, Sports Illustrated named him one of their \"Future Game Changers\"," ], [ "athletes who are considered to be the brightest talents of their respective sport (" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2618, 1536, 1861, 1834, 2004, 2072, 2618, 0, 106, 2618 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "Chicago Public High School", "2013", "Okafor was recognized as a 2013 All-Public League first team selection by the Chicago Sun-Times", "he was named the Chicago Sun-Times Player of the Year.", "Okafor finished as runner-up in the Illinois Mr. Basketball", "CANNOTANSWER", "In June 2012, Sports Illustrated named him one of their \"Future Game Changers\",", "athletes who are considered to be the brightest talents of their respective sport (", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on what position Okafor played as a junior.", "He attended Whitney Young.", "The text does not provide specific information on which years Okafor attended Whitney Young.", "Yes, Okafor was awarded several honors during his junior year. He was named as one of the top 5 Illinois Mr. Basketball contenders, the Chicago Sun-Times named him a 2013 All-Public League first team selection and the Player of the Year. He also finished as runner-up in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting, and was a first team All-USA selection by USA Today.", "The context does not provide information on any other awards Okafor won in his junior year apart from those mentioned in the previous response.", "Yes, Okafor was recognized as a 2013 All-Public League first team selection and he was named as the Chicago Sun-Times Player of the Year. These awards were from his home city of Chicago.", "The text does not provide information about Okafor talking about NBA prospects during his junior year.", "The text does not provide information on whether there are any other interesting aspects about the article.", "The context does not provide specific reasons as to why Okafor was given these honors. However, his performances and statistics like scoring 26 points, 7 rebounds and 3 blocks in a game against Long Beach Polytechnic High School, and 19 points, 14 rebounds and 7 blocked shots against Morgan Park High School, suggest his high level of play could have contributed to his recognition.", "The text does not provide information on whether Okafor traveled a lot during his junior year." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0_q#0", "C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0_q#1", "C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0_q#2", "C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0_q#3", "C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0_q#4", "C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0_q#5", "C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0_q#6", "C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0_q#7", "C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0_q#8", "C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0_q#9" ]

[ "What countries was his career in?", "Are there other countries?", "What other coutnries?", "Was his career successful?", "What other recognition did he receive?", "What other awards did he earn?", "Did he receive any other honors?", "What other awards did he receive during his career?", "What else happened during his career?", "What invitation did he accept?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1513 ], [ 751 ], [ 1937 ], [ 105 ], [ 256 ], [ 358 ], [ 516 ], [ 847 ], [ 1215 ], [ 1338 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Czech Republic." ], [ "Las Palmas, Canary Islands the week before the championship began, he was named tournament MVP." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In June 2011, he qualified for the 12-man United States team at the 2011 FIBA Americas Under-16 Championship along with Simeon rivals Parker and Nunn." ], [ "In the gold medal game, Okafor made all of his field goal attempts posting 18 points and 14 rebounds." ], [ "For the tournament, his 46 rebounds over 5 games ranked him second on the United States team (to Aaron Gordon) and third at the Championships in rebounding." ], [ "He was a member of USA Basketball's 12-man Team USA at the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship with Parker and Nunn again." ], [ "He was also named MVP of the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship for the gold medal-winning United States team." ], [ "USA Basketball announced the roster of 24 players, including Okafor, who had accepted invitations to the June 14-19, 2013," ], [ "USA Basketball Men's U19 World Championship team training camp. The camp was used to select the 12-man team" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1513, 751, 1937, 105, 256, 358, 516, 847, 1215, 1338 ], "texts": [ "Czech Republic.", "Las Palmas, Canary Islands the week before the championship began, he was named tournament MVP.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In June 2011, he qualified for the 12-man United States team at the 2011 FIBA Americas Under-16 Championship along with Simeon rivals Parker and Nunn.", "In the gold medal game, Okafor made all of his field goal attempts posting 18 points and 14 rebounds.", "For the tournament, his 46 rebounds over 5 games ranked him second on the United States team (to Aaron Gordon) and third at the Championships in rebounding.", "He was a member of USA Basketball's 12-man Team USA at the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship with Parker and Nunn again.", "He was also named MVP of the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship for the gold medal-winning United States team.", "USA Basketball announced the roster of 24 players, including Okafor, who had accepted invitations to the June 14-19, 2013,", "USA Basketball Men's U19 World Championship team training camp. The camp was used to select the 12-man team" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide specific information on what countries Okafor's career was in.", "The text does not provide specific information on what countries Okafor's career was in.", "The text does not provide specific information on what countries Okafor's career was in.", "The text suggests that Okafor had a successful career in basketball, having made several teams for USA Basketball, winning a number of tournaments and earned personal accolades such as tournament MVPs and making the All-Tournament team.", "Apart from winning tournaments with his team, Okafor was recognized as an important player consistently throughout his career. He was named the MVP of the preliminary exhibition tournament in Las Palmas, Canary Islands. He went on to be named the MVP of the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship. The icing on the cake came when he made the All-Tournament team at the FIBA Under-19 World Championship.", "The text mentions that Okafor was named tournament MVP at a preliminary exhibition tournament in Las Palmas, Canary Islands and at the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship. He also made the All-Tournament team at the FIBA Under-19 World Championship.", "Based on the context provided, Jahlil Okafor was named tournament MVP at a preliminary exhibition tournament in Las Palmas, the Canary Islands, and at the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship. He also made the All-Tournament team at the FIBA Under-19 World Championship. No other honors are mentioned in the context provided.", "The context does not provide information on any other awards Jahlil Okafor received during his career.", "Throughout his career, Okafor consistently excelled and achieved numerous milestones. In addition to his MVP recognitions and being selected for All-Tournament teams, he also led tournaments in certain statistics. For instance, he had the highest field goal percentage, 77%, in the FIBA Under-19 World Championship. Furthermore, Okafor was repeatedly selected for USA Basketball's teams for multiple international championships. However, his coaches Billy Donovan and Shaka Smart highlighted that he needed to improve his conditioning.", "Okafor accepted an invitation to the June 14-19, 2013, USA Basketball Men's U19 World Championship team training camp." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What was his career?", "What was one of his song title?", "Did his album hit the charts?", "How did he die?", "Did he perform with anybody?", "Anything else interesting in this article?", "What else did he do that was important" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 18 ], [ 1876 ], [ 1753 ], [ 2034 ], [ 1462 ], [ 1411 ], [ 963 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Jackson performed with many jazz musicians," ], [ "Jackson played on four albums with pianist Cecil Taylor: Cecil Taylor Unit," ], [ "Jackson went to Paris with Prime Time in 1976 to perform concerts and record Dancing in Your Head and Body Meta." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "1975 he joined saxophonist Ornette Coleman's electric free funk band, Prime Time." ], [ "was a Buddhist and a vegetarian for 17 years.\"" ], [ "spent the next few years addicted to heroin. He said, \"I couldn't play drums then, spiritually.... I just didn't feel right.\"" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 18, 1876, 1753, 2034, 1462, 1411, 963 ], "texts": [ "Jackson performed with many jazz musicians,", "Jackson played on four albums with pianist Cecil Taylor: Cecil Taylor Unit,", "Jackson went to Paris with Prime Time in 1976 to perform concerts and record Dancing in Your Head and Body Meta.", "CANNOTANSWER", "1975 he joined saxophonist Ornette Coleman's electric free funk band, Prime Time.", "was a Buddhist and a vegetarian for 17 years.\"", "spent the next few years addicted to heroin. He said, \"I couldn't play drums then, spiritually.... I just didn't feel right.\"" ] }

[]

[ "C_70466913d5ff4f1badc0020514fd90cf_0_q#0", "C_70466913d5ff4f1badc0020514fd90cf_0_q#1", "C_70466913d5ff4f1badc0020514fd90cf_0_q#2", "C_70466913d5ff4f1badc0020514fd90cf_0_q#3", "C_70466913d5ff4f1badc0020514fd90cf_0_q#4", "C_70466913d5ff4f1badc0020514fd90cf_0_q#5", "C_70466913d5ff4f1badc0020514fd90cf_0_q#6", "C_70466913d5ff4f1badc0020514fd90cf_0_q#7" ]

[ "Who did he play with in his late career?", "Did he ever win any awards for his playing?", "How did he die?", "Did he have any tributes made to him?", "What else did he do in his later career?", "What instruments did he play during this time?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Dow many compositions did he make?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 319 ], [ 1522 ], [ 971 ], [ 1333 ], [ 1218 ], [ 385 ], [ 1433 ], [ 1333 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Jackson joined trumpeter Wadada Leo Smith's Golden Quartet with pianist Vijay Iyer and double-bassist John Lindberg in 2005." ], [ "The performance was voted as one of the Ten Best Concerts of 2012 in the Dallas Observer." ], [ "Jackson suffered a heart attack and underwent an angioplasty." ], [ "violinist Leonard Hayward, trumpeter John Weir, guitarist Gregg Prickett, and bassist Melvin Gibbs." ], [ "Jackson performed at the Kessler Theater in Dallas with the latest version of the Decoding Society," ], [ "pianist" ], [ "The new compositions were described as being as strong as the best of his recorded work." ], [ "violinist Leonard Hayward, trumpeter John Weir, guitarist Gregg Prickett, and bassist Melvin Gibbs." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 319, 1522, 971, 1333, 1218, 385, 1433, 1333 ], "texts": [ " Jackson joined trumpeter Wadada Leo Smith's Golden Quartet with pianist Vijay Iyer and double-bassist John Lindberg in 2005.", "The performance was voted as one of the Ten Best Concerts of 2012 in the Dallas Observer.", "Jackson suffered a heart attack and underwent an angioplasty.", "violinist Leonard Hayward, trumpeter John Weir, guitarist Gregg Prickett, and bassist Melvin Gibbs.", "Jackson performed at the Kessler Theater in Dallas with the latest version of the Decoding Society,", "pianist", "The new compositions were described as being as strong as the best of his recorded work.", "violinist Leonard Hayward, trumpeter John Weir, guitarist Gregg Prickett, and bassist Melvin Gibbs." ] }

[]

[ "In his late career, Jackson played with trumpeter Wadada Leo Smith's Golden Quartet which included pianist Vijay Iyer and double-bassist John Lindberg. He also played with the Punk Funk All Stars in 2006, which included Melvin Gibbs, Joseph Bowie, Vernon Reid, and James Blood Ulmer. Furthermore, he performed with Jamaaladeen Tacuma and The Last Poets in 2008. Additionally, Jackson formed a power trio called Encryption with Vernon Reid and Melvin Gibbs in 2011. In 2012, he performed at the Kessler Theater in Dallas with the latest version of the Decoding Society, which included violinist Leonard Hayward, trumpeter John Weir, guitarist Gregg Prickett, and bassist Melvin Gibbs.", "The context does not provide information on whether or not Jackson won any awards for his playing.", "The context does not provide information on how Jackson died.", "The context does not provide information on any tributes made to Jackson.", "In his later career, Jackson composed new material which he unveiled on YouTube in 2012. He also toured Europe with Jamaaladeen Tacuma and The Last Poets in 2008, a collaboration documented in the film \"The Last Poets / Made in Amerikkka.\" Jackson formed the power trio Encryption in 2011 and performed at the Moers Festival in Germany that same year. He also performed at the Kessler Theater in Dallas in 2012 with the Decoding Society. The performance was quite acclaimed and was even voted as one of the Ten Best Concerts of 2012 in the Dallas Observer.", "The context does not provide information on which instruments Jackson played during his later career.", "The article highlights Jackson's resilience and dedication to his music, despite facing physical challenges due to nerve damage in his left arm. Instead of undergoing surgery, he chose physical therapy and was able to regain his strength and continue his career. Even after experiencing a heart attack in 2011, he still managed to check himself out of the hospital to perform at a festival in Germany before returning for medical observation. The new material that he composed and unveiled on YouTube in 2012, and his performance with the Decoding Society at the Kessler Theater in Dallas that same year, were very well-received. The latter was even included among the Ten Best Concerts of 2012 in the Dallas Observer. Jackson's collaborations with various artists across his later career are also notable.", "The context does not provide specific information on how many compositions Jackson made." ]

[ "Yes", "no", "No", "No", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "What were the Palme assassination rumors about ?", "Who's assassination was he accused of ?", "What was the consequence of this action ?", "how did it affect him?", "How did the depression harm him?", "In what other ways did the accusation affect him?", "Was he able to go back to music ?", "Did he release any songs or albums with Harpo?", "Is there any other significant information you would like to share about this article ?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 108 ], [ 52 ], [ 242 ], [ 646 ], [ 2364 ], [ 439 ], [ 772 ], [ 2364 ], [ 542 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Gardestad was wrongly mentioned in the Swedish media as \"the 33-year-old\", a suspect in the investigation of the assassination," ], [ "the Prime Minister of Sweden, Olof Palme, was murdered." ], [ "severely affected him although Gardestad was on vacation in Greece at the time of the murder," ], [ "The rumours affected the sensitive and already unstable former star, and Gardestad withdrew and fell into a deep depression." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "the speculations and rumours followed him and his family for the rest of the 1980s." ], [ "In the early 1990s, Gardestad was briefly coaxed out of retirement by his friend and fellow Swedish pop singer Harpo." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "he was again the subject of rumours accusing him of being Lasermannen, a bank robber and serial killer." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 108, 52, 242, 646, 2364, 439, 772, 2364, 542 ], "texts": [ "Gardestad was wrongly mentioned in the Swedish media as \"the 33-year-old\", a suspect in the investigation of the assassination,", "the Prime Minister of Sweden, Olof Palme, was murdered.", "severely affected him although Gardestad was on vacation in Greece at the time of the murder,", "The rumours affected the sensitive and already unstable former star, and Gardestad withdrew and fell into a deep depression.", "CANNOTANSWER", "the speculations and rumours followed him and his family for the rest of the 1980s.", "In the early 1990s, Gardestad was briefly coaxed out of retirement by his friend and fellow Swedish pop singer Harpo.", "CANNOTANSWER", "he was again the subject of rumours accusing him of being Lasermannen, a bank robber and serial killer." ] }

[]

[ "The Palme assassination rumors were about Gardestad being a suspect in the investigation of the murder.", "He was accused of the assassination of the Prime Minister of Sweden, Olof Palme.", "The consequence of this action was damaging for Gardestad. He was severely affected by the speculations and rumours which followed him and his family for the rest of the 1980s even though he was never under suspicion by the authorities. A few years later, he was the subject of rumours of being a bank robber and serial killer. This caused him to withdraw and fall into a deep depression.", "The accusations and rumors severely affected Gardestad. He was under psychological distress over the rumors that persisted despite him never being under official suspicion. This led him to withdraw from public life and fall into a deep depression.", "The context does not provide specific information on how the depression harmed Gardestad.", "The context only mentions that the accusations led to Gardestad withdrawing from public life and falling into a deep depression. No other ways in which the accusations affected him are provided in the context.", "Yes, Gardestad was able to go back to music. In the early 1990s, he was coaxed out of retirement by his friend and fellow Swedish pop singer Harpo to join him on a concert tour and make guest appearances. In 1992, they even released a duet titled \"Lycka\" or \"Happiness\". This marked Gardestad's return to music. A year later, he had a successful album and tour and his composition \"For karlekens skull\" or \"For Love's Sake\" topped the Svensktoppen chart.", "Yes, with Harpo, Gardestad released the duet \"Lycka\" (\"Happiness\") as a single in 1992, marking his return to music.", "Yes, in the early 1990s, Gardestad made a successful comeback in music, releasing successful works such as \"For karlekens skull\" (\"For Love's Sake\") and an album titled Kalendarium 1972-93. All of his albums from the 1970s and early 1980s were re-released, and his body of work has since come to be regarded as a national treasure in Sweden. The Kalendarium collection included a Swedish-language version of \"Himlen ar oskyldigt bla\" (\"The Sky is Innocently Blue\"), which became a hit, and is among his best-known work." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

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[ "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Was the album successful?", "Did he go back to Sweden after the album was unsuccessful?", "Where else did his international career take him?", "What other songs were hits?" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 0, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 76 ], [ 785 ], [ 3394 ], [ 1108 ], [ 2643 ] ], "texts": [ [ "he and his brother Kenneth travelled to Hollywood in late 1977 to record Gardestad's first English-language album Blue Virgin Isles." ], [ "his Swedish success did not translate internationally." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Ted and Kenneth Gardestad had a fourth attempt at Melodifestivalen and won with the song \"Satellit\"," ], [ "The Swedish-language single became a Top 10 hit back home in Sweden and \"Satellit\" is regarded as one of Ted's signature tunes." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 76, 785, 3394, 1108, 2643 ], "texts": [ "he and his brother Kenneth travelled to Hollywood in late 1977 to record Gardestad's first English-language album Blue Virgin Isles.", "his Swedish success did not translate internationally.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Ted and Kenneth Gardestad had a fourth attempt at Melodifestivalen and won with the song \"Satellit\",", "The Swedish-language single became a Top 10 hit back home in Sweden and \"Satellit\" is regarded as one of Ted's signature tunes." ] }

[]

[ "CANNOTANSWER", "The album, \"Blue Virgin Isles,\" was not successful internationally. Despite promotional appearances and an expensive production, Ted Gardestad's Swedish success did not translate to an international level. The album peaked at No. 29 in Sweden and spent one week on the chart.", "The text does not provide specific information on whether Ted Gardestad returned to Sweden directly after the lack of success of his album \"Blue Virgin Isles.\" However, the text does mention that he continued making music, including participating in the Melodifestivalen contest in Sweden, suggesting that he likely returned at some point.", "The text mentions that Ted Gardestad represented Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest in Jerusalem in March 1979, after his song \"Satellit\" won at the Melodifestivalen. This suggests that his international career took him to Jerusalem. Beyond this, the text does not provide further information on other places his international career took him.", "The text mentions that the song \"Satellit\", with which Ted Gardestad represented Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest, became a Top 10 hit back home in Sweden and is regarded as one of his signature tunes. No other hit songs are mentioned in the text provided." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "what caused thee beaak up", "when did they break up", "what do they do after break up", "any intressting thing" ]

[ 0, 2, 1, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 747 ], [ 923 ], [ 2221 ], [ 592 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Farrar would claim that he had been tempted to quit the band after seeing Tweedy stroking the hair of Farrar's girlfriend," ], [ "In January 1994," ], [ "Tweedy and Farrar each performed nine songs during the concert, and Mike Heidorn performed as drummer during the encore." ], [ "Tweedy felt the new members gave him a new opportunity to contribute to the band, but Farrar felt disdain for Tweedy's new carefree attitude." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 747, 923, 2221, 592 ], "texts": [ "Farrar would claim that he had been tempted to quit the band after seeing Tweedy stroking the hair of Farrar's girlfriend,", "In January 1994,", "Tweedy and Farrar each performed nine songs during the concert, and Mike Heidorn performed as drummer during the encore.", "Tweedy felt the new members gave him a new opportunity to contribute to the band, but Farrar felt disdain for Tweedy's new carefree attitude." ] }

[]

[ "Jay Farrar decided to break up the band due to his tumultuous relationship with Jeff Tweedy, differences over songwriting, and what he perceived as Tweedy's out-of-control ego and carefree attitude. He felt that their compatibility was no longer there, he was no longer having fun, and he didn't want to work with Tweedy.", "The band, Uncle Tupelo, broke up in January 1994.", "The context does not provide information on what the band members did after the breakup of Uncle Tupelo.", "One interesting thing that happened after the breakup of the band was that Farrar agreed to a final tour with Uncle Tupelo in North America out of respect for their manager, Tony Margherita, who had invested a lot of money in the band. During this tour, the band made its first appearance on national television on the show Late Night with Conan O'Brien and they ended with a concert at Mississippi Nights in St. Louis, Missouri, where both Tweedy and Farrar each performed nine songs." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

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[ "what took place post break up?", "when did they start recording?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did they ever reunite?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 37 ], [ 312 ], [ 761 ], [ 1771 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Tweedy encouraged his bandmates to join him in a new group, while Farrar searched for members for a band of his own." ], [ "by August 1994 they were in the recording studio for their first album," ], [ "Wilco signed to Reprise Records while Son Volt signed with Warner Bros. Records." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 37, 312, 761, 1771 ], "texts": [ "Tweedy encouraged his bandmates to join him in a new group, while Farrar searched for members for a band of his own.", "by August 1994 they were in the recording studio for their first album,", "Wilco signed to Reprise Records while Son Volt signed with Warner Bros. Records.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "After Uncle Tupelo's breakup, Tweedy formed a new group called Wilco, which retained the rest of the Uncle Tupelo lineup. They began rehearsing a few days after the final Uncle Tupelo concert and were in the recording studio for their first album, A.M., by August 1994. On the other hand, Farrar started his new band, Son Volt, joined by Jim Boquist, Dave Boquist, and Mike Heidorn. They began recording their debut album, Trace, in November 1994. Wilco signed to Reprise Records and Son Volt signed with Warner Bros. Records. Wilco had a more commercially successful career while Son Volt had an early college rock hit with \"Drown.\" There were talks of a reunion, but it was generally discouraged by the band members. Additionally, Farrar and Tweedy sued Rockville Records and Dutch East India Trading CEO Barry Tenenbaum over owed royalties, and won reparations and the joint rights to Uncle Tupelo's first three albums. After securing the rights, the band released a compilation entitled 89/93: An Anthology.", "Wilco began recording their first album, A.M., in August 1994. Son Volt began recording their debut album, Trace, in November 1994.", "Interesting aspects include the post-breakup developments as Tweedy and Farrar each ventured to form their own successful bands. Wilco evolved with the previous Uncle Tupelo lineup, crafting a commercially successful career, while Son Volt, headed by Farrar, had an early college rock hit with \"Drown.\" Another noteworthy aspect was the lawsuit filed by Farrar and Tweedy against Rockville Records and Dutch East India Trading CEO Barry Tenenbaum over unpaid royalties. They managed to win the joint rights to Uncle Tupelo's first three albums and released a compilation titled 89/93: An Anthology. However, despite these subsequent successes, both musicians did not foresee a productive reunion of Uncle Tupelo.", "As per the context provided, there was no reunion of the band Uncle Tupelo. Both Farrar and Tweedy expressed that they didn't believe a reunion would be productive." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Neutral", "No" ]

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[ "What notable events happened in this time frame?", "Did he continue running for office after that?", "How long was a governor?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did he have a of critics?", "Why did he blame him?", "Did he pass any notable legislation in his time in office?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1527 ], [ 1788 ], [ 1843 ], [ 2892 ], [ 5711 ], [ 3113 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Long first ran unsuccessfully for lieutenant governor in 1932 without the support of his brother," ], [ "Earl Long handily defeated fellow Democrat Clement Murphy Mos much later a judge in Lake Charles, in the primary held for lieutenant governor in January 1936." ], [ "Long succeeded for eleven months to the governorship." ], [ "In 1944, Long did not run for governor as many had expected but instead for his earlier position as lieutenant governor" ], [ "Long blamed his failure to become lieutenant governor in 1944 on Louisiana Secretary of State Wade O. Martin, Jr., a former ally" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 1957, Long pushed through a new law, taking jurisdiction of insurance and voting machines from the secretary of state's office and setting up two new patronage positions." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1527, 1788, 1843, 2892, 5711, 3113 ], "texts": [ "Long first ran unsuccessfully for lieutenant governor in 1932 without the support of his brother,", "Earl Long handily defeated fellow Democrat Clement Murphy Mos much later a judge in Lake Charles, in the primary held for lieutenant governor in January 1936.", "Long succeeded for eleven months to the governorship.", "In 1944, Long did not run for governor as many had expected but instead for his earlier position as lieutenant governor", "Long blamed his failure to become lieutenant governor in 1944 on Louisiana Secretary of State Wade O. Martin, Jr., a former ally", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 1957, Long pushed through a new law, taking jurisdiction of insurance and voting machines from the secretary of state's office and setting up two new patronage positions." ] }

[ { "text": "Earl () is a rank of the nobility in the United Kingdom. The title originates in the Old English word eorl, meaning \"a man of noble birth or rank\". The word is cognate with the Scandinavian form jarl, and meant \"chieftain\", particularly a chieftain set to rule a territory in a king's stead. After the Norman Conquest, it became the equivalent of the continental count (in England in the earlier period, it was more akin to a duke; in Scotland, it assimilated the concept of mormaer). Alternative names for the rank equivalent to \"earl\" or \"count\" in the nobility structure are used in other countries, such as the hakushaku (伯爵) of the post-restoration Japanese Imperial era.\n\nIn modern Britain, an earl is a member of the peerage, ranking below a marquess and above a viscount. A feminine form of earl never developed; instead, countess is used.\n\nEtymology \n\nThe term earl has been compared to the name of the Heruli, and to runic erilaz.\nProto-Norse eril, or the later Old Norse , came to signify the rank of a leader.\n\nIn Anglo-Saxon Britain, the term Ealdorman was used for men who held the highest political rank below King. Over time the Danish eorl became substituted for Ealdorman, which evolved into the modern form of the name.\n\nThe Norman-derived equivalent count (from Latin ) was not introduced following the Norman Conquest of England though countess was and is used for the female title. Geoffrey Hughes writes, \"It is a likely speculation that the Norman French title 'Count' was abandoned in England in favour of the Germanic 'Earl' […] precisely because of the uncomfortable phonetic proximity to cunt\".\n\nIn the other languages of Great Britain and Ireland, the term is translated as: Welsh , Irish and Scottish Gaelic , Scots , or , Cornish .\n\nHistory\n\nEngland\n\nAnglo-Saxon period \n\nIn Anglo-Saxon England, the ealdorman was appointed by the English king to be the chief officer in a shire. He commanded the local fyrd and presided with the bishop of the shire court. As compensation, he received the third penny—one-third of the profits of royal justice and one-third of the revenues from boroughs under his jurisdiction. By the late 900s, ealdormen often controlled multiple shires at once. During Cnut's reign (1016–1035), they became known as earls (from Old English meaning \"noble\"). He divided the kingdom into four earldoms: Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. Earls were governors or viceroys, ruling in the king's name, keeping the peace, dispensing justice, and raising armies. Like the earlier ealdormen, they received the third penny from their jurisdictions. There were, however, limitations on their authority. They could not mint coins or hold their own courts, and in theory, they could be removed by the king. In rank, earls were below the king and above thegns, they were therefore the king's chief counselors in the Witan. Earls were an \"élite within an élite\", numbering at most 25 men at any one time between 1000 and 1300.\n\nWhen Edward the Confessor () came to the throne, he inherited the royal estates of Harthacnut but lacked family lands of his own. As a result, the earls collectively possessed more land than the king, especially Earl Godwin of Wessex. In 1066, according to the Domesday Book, the Godwin family estates were valued at £7,000, Earl Leofric of Mercia at £2,400, and Earl Siward of Northumbria at £350. In comparison, the king's lands were valued at £5,000. This concentration of land and wealth in the hands of the earls, and one earl in particular, weakened the Crown's authority. The situation was reversed when Godwin's son Harold became king, and he was able to restore the Crown's authority.\n\nPost-Conquest \n\nThe Norman Conquest of 1066 introduced a new Anglo-Norman aristocracy that gradually replaced the old Anglo-Saxon elite. In Normandy, the equivalent of an earl was a count. In 1066, there were three counts in the Duchy of Normandy: Richard of Évreux, Robert of Eu, and Robert of Mortain. In Normandy, counts were junior members of the Norman dynasty with responsibility for guarding border regions. Elsewhere in France, the definition and powers of counts varied widely. Some counts were nearly independent rulers who gave only nominal loyalty to the King of France.\n\nWilliam I () reduced the size of earldoms; those created after 1071 had responsibility for one shire. Like Norman counts, earls became military governors assigned to vulnerable border or coastal areas. To protect the Welsh Marches, the king made Roger de Montgomery the Earl of Shrewsbury and Hugh d'Avranches the Earl of Chester (see Marcher Lord). Likewise, the king's half-brother Odo of Bayeux was made Earl of Kent to guard the English Channel. After the Revolt of the Earls in 1075, only four earldoms remained, all held by Anglo-Normans: Kent, Shrewsbury, Chester, and Northumbria. This number was reduced to three after 1082 when Odo of Bayeux was arrested and deprived of Kent. At the death of William Rufus in 1100, there were five earldoms: Chester, Shrewsbury, Surrey (or Warrenne), Warwick, and Huntingdon–Northampton. In 1122, Henry I made his illegitimate son Robert the Earl of Gloucester.\n\nAfter the Conquest, new earldoms tended to be named for the city and castle in which they were based. However, some titles became attached to the family name rather than location. For example, the holder of the earldom of Surrey was more commonly called \"Earl Warenne\". The same was true of the earldom of Buckingham, whose holder was called \"Earl Gifford\". These earls may have preferred to be known by family names that were older and more prestigious than their newer territorial designations.\n\nStephen and Matilda \nThe number of earls rose from seven in 1135 to twenty in 1141 as King Stephen () created twelve new earls to reward supporters during the Anarchy, the civil war fought with his cousin Empress Matilda for the English throne. In 1138, Stephen created eight new earldoms. Waleran de Beaumont, who was already Count of Meulan in Normandy and the twin brother of the 2nd Earl of Leicester, was made Earl of Worcester. Their younger brother Hugh de Beaumont was made Earl of Bedford. Gilbert de Clare was made Earl of Pembroke, and his nephew, also named Gilbert de Clare, was made Earl of Hertford. William de Aumale was made Earl of York and Robert de Ferrers was made Earl of Derby as rewards for their service during the Battle of the Standard. William d'Aubigny was made Earl of Lincoln, and William de Roumare was made Earl of Cambridge. In 1140, William de Roumare was given the earldom of Lincoln in exchange for Cambridge, and William d'Aubigny received the Earldom of Sussex (commonly known as Arundel). The same year, Geoffrey de Mandeville was made Earl of Essex, and his is the oldest surviving charter of creation. Around the same time, Hugh Bigod was made Earl of Norfolk.\n\nIn February 1141, Stephen was captured at the Battle of Lincoln, and Empress Matilda elected \"Lady of the English\" in April. At this time, she created three earldoms for her own supporters. Her illegitimate brother Reginald de Dunstanville was made Earl of Cornwall. Baldwin de Redvers was made Earl of Devon, and William de Mohun, lord of Dunster, was made Earl of Somerset. Aubrey de Vere was made Earl of Oxford in 1142. Sometime around 1143, Matilda's constable Patrick of Salisbury was made Earl of Salisbury.\n\nDuring the Anarchy, earls took advantage of the power vacuum to assume Crown rights. Robert of Gloucester, Patrick of Salisbury, Robert of Leicester, and Henry of Northumbria all minted their own coinage. Earls and barons had also built adulterine castles (castles built without royal permission).\n\nPlantagenets \n\nIt fell to Stephen's successor Henry II () to again curtail the power of earls. He confiscated or demolished illegal castles. He reduced the number of earldoms by allowing them to die with their holders and did not create new ones. During his reign, \"the title became a mark of rank, rather than a substantive office: the real power lay with the king's sheriffs and justices.\"\n\nThe real power possessed by any individual earl in this period depended on the amount of land and wealth he possessed that could be translated into patronage and influence. The more land and resources concentrated in a region, the more influence an earl had. The most powerful were the earls of Chester, who by the middle of the 13th century were described as earls palatine. Their power derived from owning most of the land in Cheshire. As a result, the shire court and the earl's honour court were identical, and the sheriff answered to the earl. The Earl of Oxford, however, possessed less than an acre of land in Oxfordshire (most of his land was in Essex), and therefore possessed no power in the county.\n\nAn earldom along with its land was inherited generally according to primogeniture. If the only heirs were female, then the land would be partitioned equally between co-heirs with the eldest co-heir receiving the title. In 1204, Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester, died without children. His heirs were his sisters, Amice and Margaret. Amice's son, Simon de Montfort, succeeded as Earl of Leicester, and Margaret's husband, Saer de Quincy, was created the Earl of Winchester in 1207. This was the first new hereditary earldom created since the reign of Stephen.\n\nIn 1227, Henry III () granted his justiciar and chief minister, Hubert de Burgh, the earldom of Kent. The terms of inheritance, however, were unprecedented: the earldom was to pass to Hubert's son by his third wife Margaret of Scotland, thereby passing over his eldest son by his first wife. It may have been thought that Margaret's royal blood made her children more worthy of inheritance.\n\nBy the 13th century earls had a social rank just below the king and princes, but were not necessarily more powerful or wealthier than other noblemen. The only way to become an earl was to inherit the title or to marry into one—and the king reserved a right to prevent the transfer of the title. By the 14th century, creating an earl included a special public ceremony where the king personally tied a sword belt around the waist of the new earl, emphasizing the fact that the earl's rights came from him.\n\nEarls still held influence and, as \"companions of the king\", generally acted in support of the king's power. They showed their own power prominently in 1327 when they deposed King Edward II. They would later do the same with other kings of whom they disapproved. In 1337 Edward III declared that he intended to create six new earldoms.\n\nAn earldom became, with a few exceptions, the default rank of the peerage to which a former prime minister was elevated. However, the last prime minister to accept an earldom was Harold Macmillan, who became Earl of Stockton in 1984.\n\nIreland\nThe first Irish earldom was the Earl of Ulster, granted to the Norman knight Hugh de Lacy in 1205 by John, King of England and Lord of Ireland. Other early earldoms were Earl of Carrick (1315), Earl of Kildare (1316), Earl of Desmond (1329) and Earl of Waterford (1446, extant).\n\nAfter the Tudor reconquest of Ireland (1530s–1603), native Irish kings and clan chiefs were encouraged to submit to the English king (now also King of Ireland) and were, in return, granted noble titles in the Peerage of Ireland. Notable among those who agreed to this policy of \"surrender and regrant\" were Ulick na gCeann Burke, 1st Earl of Clanricarde, Murrough O'Brien, 1st Earl of Thomond, Donald McCarthy, 1st Earl of Clancare, Rory O'Donnell, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, Randal MacDonnell, 1st Earl of Antrim and Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. The earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell later rebelled against the crown and were forced to flee Ireland in 1607; their departure, along with about ninety followers, is famed in Irish history as the Flight of the Earls, seen as the ultimate demise of native Irish monarchy.\n\nIreland became part of the United Kingdom in 1801, and the last Irish earldom was created in 1824. The Republic of Ireland does not recognise titles of nobility.\n\nNotable later Irish earls include Jacobite leader Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan; Postmaster General Richard Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty; Prime Minister William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne (later made a marquess) and the (alleged) murderer John Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan.\n\nScotland\n\nThe oldest earldoms in Scotland (with the exception of the Earldom of Dunbar and March) originated from the office of mormaer, such as the Mormaer of Fife, of Strathearn, etc.; subsequent earldoms developed by analogy. The principal distinction between earldom and mormaer is that earldoms were granted as fiefs of the King, while mormaers were virtually independent. The earl is thought to have been introduced by the anglophile king David I. While the power attached to the office of earl was swept away in England by the Norman Conquest, in Scotland earldoms retained substantial powers, such as regality throughout the Middle Ages.\n\nIt is important to distinguish between the land controlled directly by the earl, in a landlord-like sense, and the region over which he could exercise his office. Scottish use of Latin terms provincia and comitatus makes the difference clear. Initially these terms were synonymous, as in England, but by the 12th century they were seen as distinct concepts, with comitatus referring to the land under direct control of the earl, and provincia referring to the province; hence, the comitatus might now only be a small region of the provincia. Thus, unlike England, the term county, which ultimately evolved from the Latin comitatus, was not historically used for Scotland's main political subdivisions.\n\nSheriffs were introduced at a similar time to earls, but unlike England, where sheriffs were officers who implemented the decisions of the shire court, in Scotland they were specifically charged with upholding the king's interests in the region, thus being more like a coroner. As such, a parallel system of justice arose, between that provided by magnates (represented by the earls), and that by the king (represented by sheriffs), in a similar way to England having both Courts Baron and Magistrates, respectively. Inevitably, this led to a degree of forum shopping, with the king's offering – the Sheriff – gradually winning.\n\nAs in England, as the centuries wore on, the term earl came to be disassociated from the office, and later kings started granting the title of earl without it, and gradually without even an associated comitatus. By the 16th century there started to be earls of towns, of villages, and even of isolated houses; it had simply become a label for marking status, rather than an office of intrinsic power. In 1746, in the aftermath of the Jacobite rising, the Heritable Jurisdictions Act brought the powers of the remaining ancient earldoms under the control of the sheriffs; earl is now simply a noble rank.\n\nWales\nSome of the most significant Earls (Welsh: ieirll, singular iarll) in Welsh history were those from the West of England. As Wales remained independent of any Norman jurisdiction, the more powerful Earls in England were encouraged to invade and establish effective \"buffer states\" to be run as autonomous lordships. These Marcher Lords included the earls of Chester, Gloucester, Hereford, Pembroke and Shrewsbury (see also English Earls of March).\n\nThe first Earldoms created within Wales were the Lordship of Glamorgan (a comital title) and the Earldom of Pembroke.\n\nTir Iarll (English: Earl's land) is an area of Glamorgan, which has traditionally had a particular resonance in Welsh culture.\n\nCoronet\n\nA British earl is entitled to a coronet bearing eight strawberry leaves (four visible) and eight silver balls (or pearls) around the rim (five visible). The actual coronet is rarely, if ever, worn except at the coronation of a new monarch, but in heraldry an earl may bear his coronet of rank on his coat of arms above the shield.\n\nForms of address\nAn earl has the title Earl of [X] when the title originates from a placename, or Earl [X] when the title comes from a surname. In either case, he is referred to as Lord [X], and his wife as Lady [X]. A countess who holds an earldom in her own right also uses Lady [X], but her husband does not have a title (unless he has one in his own right).\n\nThe eldest son of an earl, though not himself a peer, is entitled to use a courtesy title, usually the highest of his father's lesser titles (if any). For instance, prior to his elevation to the Dukedom of Edinburgh, the eldest son of the Earl of Wessex was styled as James, Viscount Severn. The eldest son of the eldest son of an earl is entitled to use one of his grandfather's lesser titles, normally the second-highest of the lesser titles. Younger sons are styled The Honourable [Forename] [Surname], and daughters, The Lady [Forename] [Surname] (Lady Diana Spencer being a well-known example).\n\nThere is no difference between the courtesy titles given to the children of earls and the children of countesses in their own right, provided the husband of the countess has a lower rank than she does. If her husband has a higher rank, their children will be given titles according to his rank.\n\nIn the peerage of Scotland, when there are no courtesy titles involved, the heir to an earldom, and indeed any level of peerage, is styled Master of [X], and successive sons as The Honourable [Firstname Surname].\n\nList of earldoms \n\nThere are many earldoms, extant, extinct, dormant, abeyant, or forfeit, in the peerages of England, Scotland, Great Britain, Ireland and the United Kingdom.\n\nIn fiction\n\nEarls have appeared in various works of fiction.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nWorks cited\n\nExternal links \n \n Morris, Marc (December 2005). \"The King's Companions\". History Today.\n\n \n \n \nCategory:Men's social titles\nCategory:Noble titles\nCategory:Peerage", "title": "Earl" } ]

[ "Some of the notable events that took place within this time frame include Earl Long's unsuccessful attempt to run for lieutenant governor without the support of his brother, Huey Long, in 1932. His subsequent win in the primary held for lieutenant governor in 1936 after his brother's assassination. Richard W. Leche of New Orleans was elected governor in 1936 but resigned in scandal in 1939, and Long served as governor for eleven months. Earl Long did not run for governor in 1944, instead running for lieutenant governor again, but he lost the runoff to J. Emile Verret. Long blamed his failure to become lieutenant governor in 1944 on Louisiana Secretary of State Wade O. Martin, Jr. Long was elected governor in 1948, succeeding Jimmie Davis. In 1950, Governor Long suffered a major heart attack. In the same year, he struck a deal with Mayor deLesseps Story Morrison to return home rule to the Crescent City.", "The context does not provide information on whether Earl Long continued to run for office after his term as governor in 1948 and his major heart attack in 1950.", "Earl Long served as governor for eleven months in 1939 after Richard W. Leche resigned due to a scandal. He was also elected governor in 1948, but the text does not specify how long he served in this term.", "Other interesting aspects from the article include: \n\n1. Huey Long's concern about potential charges of nepotism and a family dynasty when his brother, Earl, first ran for office.\n2. Earl Long's subsequent defeat, then victory in later elections.\n3. The various political rivalries and alliances that shaped Louisiana's political landscape during Earl Long's political career.\n4. Earl Long's relationship with Margaret Dixon, the first woman managing editor of the Baton Rouge Morning Advocate, who often advised him on political strategy and whom he appointed to the LSU Board of Supervisors.\n5. The various political deals made by Earl Long, such as arrangements with Mayor deLesseps Story Morrison.\n6. The changes Earl Long pushed for in the state's administration, like the creation of new positions for insurance commissioner and commissioner of voting machines.", "The context indicates that there were critics of Earl Long. The Memphis Commercial Appeal criticized Long's election as governor in 1948, stating that he had promised too much to the voters. Huey Long had also expressed concern that Earl's candidacy would attract charges of a family dynasty and dictatorship. This implies that there was criticism and scrutiny from both within his political circle and from the press. However, the text does not provide a specific number or list of critics.", "Earl Long blamed Louisiana Secretary of State Wade O. Martin, Jr. for his failure to become lieutenant governor in 1944. The text does not provide explicit details or reasons as to why Martin, a former ally, was specifically blamed for this outcome. It does, however, indicate that this event led to many years of quarreling between Long and Martin.", "The text mentions that Earl Long pushed through a new law in 1957, which removed jurisdiction of insurance and voting machines from the secretary of state's office and established two new patronage positions. Moreover, in 1950, he made a deal with Mayor deLesseps Story Morrison to return home rule to the Crescent City, which had been primarily governed from Baton Rouge. However, the text does not provide further details about any other specific legislation that Earl Long may have passed during his time in office." ]

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[ "Was Uncle Earl a nickname?", "How did he feel about the nickname?", "What is a popular anecdote?", "Did he make any public statements regarding this song?", "Are there any anecdotes about him that relate to his family?", "Any other information relating tot he nickname?", "Were there any anecdotes regarding his affairs?", "Did the anecdotes embarass him or his family?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 13 ], [ 110 ], [ 1412 ], [ 1543 ], [ 218 ], [ 1264 ], [ 1543 ], [ 1543 ] ], "texts": [ [ "\"Uncle Earl\" (so-named because of his relatives, including nephew and U.S. Senator Russell Long)" ], [ "once joked that one day the people of Louisiana would elect \"good government, and they won't like it!\"" ], [ "Long's erratic political behavior led the aspiring singer Jay Chevalier to compose in 1959 the song, \"The Ballad of Earl K. Long\"." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "beneath his public persona as a simple, plain-spoken rural Louisianan of little education, he had an astute political mind of considerable intelligence." ], [ "Long demanded absolute loyalty among his inner circle, often saying that he did not need them to back him when he was right but when he was wrong." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 13, 110, 1412, 1543, 218, 1264, 1543, 1543 ], "texts": [ "\"Uncle Earl\" (so-named because of his relatives, including nephew and U.S. Senator Russell Long)", "once joked that one day the people of Louisiana would elect \"good government, and they won't like it!\"", "Long's erratic political behavior led the aspiring singer Jay Chevalier to compose in 1959 the song, \"The Ballad of Earl K. Long\".", "CANNOTANSWER", "beneath his public persona as a simple, plain-spoken rural Louisianan of little education, he had an astute political mind of considerable intelligence.", "Long demanded absolute loyalty among his inner circle, often saying that he did not need them to back him when he was right but when he was wrong.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Earl () is a rank of the nobility in the United Kingdom. The title originates in the Old English word eorl, meaning \"a man of noble birth or rank\". The word is cognate with the Scandinavian form jarl, and meant \"chieftain\", particularly a chieftain set to rule a territory in a king's stead. After the Norman Conquest, it became the equivalent of the continental count (in England in the earlier period, it was more akin to a duke; in Scotland, it assimilated the concept of mormaer). Alternative names for the rank equivalent to \"earl\" or \"count\" in the nobility structure are used in other countries, such as the hakushaku (伯爵) of the post-restoration Japanese Imperial era.\n\nIn modern Britain, an earl is a member of the peerage, ranking below a marquess and above a viscount. A feminine form of earl never developed; instead, countess is used.\n\nEtymology \n\nThe term earl has been compared to the name of the Heruli, and to runic erilaz.\nProto-Norse eril, or the later Old Norse , came to signify the rank of a leader.\n\nIn Anglo-Saxon Britain, the term Ealdorman was used for men who held the highest political rank below King. Over time the Danish eorl became substituted for Ealdorman, which evolved into the modern form of the name.\n\nThe Norman-derived equivalent count (from Latin ) was not introduced following the Norman Conquest of England though countess was and is used for the female title. Geoffrey Hughes writes, \"It is a likely speculation that the Norman French title 'Count' was abandoned in England in favour of the Germanic 'Earl' […] precisely because of the uncomfortable phonetic proximity to cunt\".\n\nIn the other languages of Great Britain and Ireland, the term is translated as: Welsh , Irish and Scottish Gaelic , Scots , or , Cornish .\n\nHistory\n\nEngland\n\nAnglo-Saxon period \n\nIn Anglo-Saxon England, the ealdorman was appointed by the English king to be the chief officer in a shire. He commanded the local fyrd and presided with the bishop of the shire court. As compensation, he received the third penny—one-third of the profits of royal justice and one-third of the revenues from boroughs under his jurisdiction. By the late 900s, ealdormen often controlled multiple shires at once. During Cnut's reign (1016–1035), they became known as earls (from Old English meaning \"noble\"). He divided the kingdom into four earldoms: Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. Earls were governors or viceroys, ruling in the king's name, keeping the peace, dispensing justice, and raising armies. Like the earlier ealdormen, they received the third penny from their jurisdictions. There were, however, limitations on their authority. They could not mint coins or hold their own courts, and in theory, they could be removed by the king. In rank, earls were below the king and above thegns, they were therefore the king's chief counselors in the Witan. Earls were an \"élite within an élite\", numbering at most 25 men at any one time between 1000 and 1300.\n\nWhen Edward the Confessor () came to the throne, he inherited the royal estates of Harthacnut but lacked family lands of his own. As a result, the earls collectively possessed more land than the king, especially Earl Godwin of Wessex. In 1066, according to the Domesday Book, the Godwin family estates were valued at £7,000, Earl Leofric of Mercia at £2,400, and Earl Siward of Northumbria at £350. In comparison, the king's lands were valued at £5,000. This concentration of land and wealth in the hands of the earls, and one earl in particular, weakened the Crown's authority. The situation was reversed when Godwin's son Harold became king, and he was able to restore the Crown's authority.\n\nPost-Conquest \n\nThe Norman Conquest of 1066 introduced a new Anglo-Norman aristocracy that gradually replaced the old Anglo-Saxon elite. In Normandy, the equivalent of an earl was a count. In 1066, there were three counts in the Duchy of Normandy: Richard of Évreux, Robert of Eu, and Robert of Mortain. In Normandy, counts were junior members of the Norman dynasty with responsibility for guarding border regions. Elsewhere in France, the definition and powers of counts varied widely. Some counts were nearly independent rulers who gave only nominal loyalty to the King of France.\n\nWilliam I () reduced the size of earldoms; those created after 1071 had responsibility for one shire. Like Norman counts, earls became military governors assigned to vulnerable border or coastal areas. To protect the Welsh Marches, the king made Roger de Montgomery the Earl of Shrewsbury and Hugh d'Avranches the Earl of Chester (see Marcher Lord). Likewise, the king's half-brother Odo of Bayeux was made Earl of Kent to guard the English Channel. After the Revolt of the Earls in 1075, only four earldoms remained, all held by Anglo-Normans: Kent, Shrewsbury, Chester, and Northumbria. This number was reduced to three after 1082 when Odo of Bayeux was arrested and deprived of Kent. At the death of William Rufus in 1100, there were five earldoms: Chester, Shrewsbury, Surrey (or Warrenne), Warwick, and Huntingdon–Northampton. In 1122, Henry I made his illegitimate son Robert the Earl of Gloucester.\n\nAfter the Conquest, new earldoms tended to be named for the city and castle in which they were based. However, some titles became attached to the family name rather than location. For example, the holder of the earldom of Surrey was more commonly called \"Earl Warenne\". The same was true of the earldom of Buckingham, whose holder was called \"Earl Gifford\". These earls may have preferred to be known by family names that were older and more prestigious than their newer territorial designations.\n\nStephen and Matilda \nThe number of earls rose from seven in 1135 to twenty in 1141 as King Stephen () created twelve new earls to reward supporters during the Anarchy, the civil war fought with his cousin Empress Matilda for the English throne. In 1138, Stephen created eight new earldoms. Waleran de Beaumont, who was already Count of Meulan in Normandy and the twin brother of the 2nd Earl of Leicester, was made Earl of Worcester. Their younger brother Hugh de Beaumont was made Earl of Bedford. Gilbert de Clare was made Earl of Pembroke, and his nephew, also named Gilbert de Clare, was made Earl of Hertford. William de Aumale was made Earl of York and Robert de Ferrers was made Earl of Derby as rewards for their service during the Battle of the Standard. William d'Aubigny was made Earl of Lincoln, and William de Roumare was made Earl of Cambridge. In 1140, William de Roumare was given the earldom of Lincoln in exchange for Cambridge, and William d'Aubigny received the Earldom of Sussex (commonly known as Arundel). The same year, Geoffrey de Mandeville was made Earl of Essex, and his is the oldest surviving charter of creation. Around the same time, Hugh Bigod was made Earl of Norfolk.\n\nIn February 1141, Stephen was captured at the Battle of Lincoln, and Empress Matilda elected \"Lady of the English\" in April. At this time, she created three earldoms for her own supporters. Her illegitimate brother Reginald de Dunstanville was made Earl of Cornwall. Baldwin de Redvers was made Earl of Devon, and William de Mohun, lord of Dunster, was made Earl of Somerset. Aubrey de Vere was made Earl of Oxford in 1142. Sometime around 1143, Matilda's constable Patrick of Salisbury was made Earl of Salisbury.\n\nDuring the Anarchy, earls took advantage of the power vacuum to assume Crown rights. Robert of Gloucester, Patrick of Salisbury, Robert of Leicester, and Henry of Northumbria all minted their own coinage. Earls and barons had also built adulterine castles (castles built without royal permission).\n\nPlantagenets \n\nIt fell to Stephen's successor Henry II () to again curtail the power of earls. He confiscated or demolished illegal castles. He reduced the number of earldoms by allowing them to die with their holders and did not create new ones. During his reign, \"the title became a mark of rank, rather than a substantive office: the real power lay with the king's sheriffs and justices.\"\n\nThe real power possessed by any individual earl in this period depended on the amount of land and wealth he possessed that could be translated into patronage and influence. The more land and resources concentrated in a region, the more influence an earl had. The most powerful were the earls of Chester, who by the middle of the 13th century were described as earls palatine. Their power derived from owning most of the land in Cheshire. As a result, the shire court and the earl's honour court were identical, and the sheriff answered to the earl. The Earl of Oxford, however, possessed less than an acre of land in Oxfordshire (most of his land was in Essex), and therefore possessed no power in the county.\n\nAn earldom along with its land was inherited generally according to primogeniture. If the only heirs were female, then the land would be partitioned equally between co-heirs with the eldest co-heir receiving the title. In 1204, Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester, died without children. His heirs were his sisters, Amice and Margaret. Amice's son, Simon de Montfort, succeeded as Earl of Leicester, and Margaret's husband, Saer de Quincy, was created the Earl of Winchester in 1207. This was the first new hereditary earldom created since the reign of Stephen.\n\nIn 1227, Henry III () granted his justiciar and chief minister, Hubert de Burgh, the earldom of Kent. The terms of inheritance, however, were unprecedented: the earldom was to pass to Hubert's son by his third wife Margaret of Scotland, thereby passing over his eldest son by his first wife. It may have been thought that Margaret's royal blood made her children more worthy of inheritance.\n\nBy the 13th century earls had a social rank just below the king and princes, but were not necessarily more powerful or wealthier than other noblemen. The only way to become an earl was to inherit the title or to marry into one—and the king reserved a right to prevent the transfer of the title. By the 14th century, creating an earl included a special public ceremony where the king personally tied a sword belt around the waist of the new earl, emphasizing the fact that the earl's rights came from him.\n\nEarls still held influence and, as \"companions of the king\", generally acted in support of the king's power. They showed their own power prominently in 1327 when they deposed King Edward II. They would later do the same with other kings of whom they disapproved. In 1337 Edward III declared that he intended to create six new earldoms.\n\nAn earldom became, with a few exceptions, the default rank of the peerage to which a former prime minister was elevated. However, the last prime minister to accept an earldom was Harold Macmillan, who became Earl of Stockton in 1984.\n\nIreland\nThe first Irish earldom was the Earl of Ulster, granted to the Norman knight Hugh de Lacy in 1205 by John, King of England and Lord of Ireland. Other early earldoms were Earl of Carrick (1315), Earl of Kildare (1316), Earl of Desmond (1329) and Earl of Waterford (1446, extant).\n\nAfter the Tudor reconquest of Ireland (1530s–1603), native Irish kings and clan chiefs were encouraged to submit to the English king (now also King of Ireland) and were, in return, granted noble titles in the Peerage of Ireland. Notable among those who agreed to this policy of \"surrender and regrant\" were Ulick na gCeann Burke, 1st Earl of Clanricarde, Murrough O'Brien, 1st Earl of Thomond, Donald McCarthy, 1st Earl of Clancare, Rory O'Donnell, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, Randal MacDonnell, 1st Earl of Antrim and Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. The earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell later rebelled against the crown and were forced to flee Ireland in 1607; their departure, along with about ninety followers, is famed in Irish history as the Flight of the Earls, seen as the ultimate demise of native Irish monarchy.\n\nIreland became part of the United Kingdom in 1801, and the last Irish earldom was created in 1824. The Republic of Ireland does not recognise titles of nobility.\n\nNotable later Irish earls include Jacobite leader Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan; Postmaster General Richard Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty; Prime Minister William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne (later made a marquess) and the (alleged) murderer John Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan.\n\nScotland\n\nThe oldest earldoms in Scotland (with the exception of the Earldom of Dunbar and March) originated from the office of mormaer, such as the Mormaer of Fife, of Strathearn, etc.; subsequent earldoms developed by analogy. The principal distinction between earldom and mormaer is that earldoms were granted as fiefs of the King, while mormaers were virtually independent. The earl is thought to have been introduced by the anglophile king David I. While the power attached to the office of earl was swept away in England by the Norman Conquest, in Scotland earldoms retained substantial powers, such as regality throughout the Middle Ages.\n\nIt is important to distinguish between the land controlled directly by the earl, in a landlord-like sense, and the region over which he could exercise his office. Scottish use of Latin terms provincia and comitatus makes the difference clear. Initially these terms were synonymous, as in England, but by the 12th century they were seen as distinct concepts, with comitatus referring to the land under direct control of the earl, and provincia referring to the province; hence, the comitatus might now only be a small region of the provincia. Thus, unlike England, the term county, which ultimately evolved from the Latin comitatus, was not historically used for Scotland's main political subdivisions.\n\nSheriffs were introduced at a similar time to earls, but unlike England, where sheriffs were officers who implemented the decisions of the shire court, in Scotland they were specifically charged with upholding the king's interests in the region, thus being more like a coroner. As such, a parallel system of justice arose, between that provided by magnates (represented by the earls), and that by the king (represented by sheriffs), in a similar way to England having both Courts Baron and Magistrates, respectively. Inevitably, this led to a degree of forum shopping, with the king's offering – the Sheriff – gradually winning.\n\nAs in England, as the centuries wore on, the term earl came to be disassociated from the office, and later kings started granting the title of earl without it, and gradually without even an associated comitatus. By the 16th century there started to be earls of towns, of villages, and even of isolated houses; it had simply become a label for marking status, rather than an office of intrinsic power. In 1746, in the aftermath of the Jacobite rising, the Heritable Jurisdictions Act brought the powers of the remaining ancient earldoms under the control of the sheriffs; earl is now simply a noble rank.\n\nWales\nSome of the most significant Earls (Welsh: ieirll, singular iarll) in Welsh history were those from the West of England. As Wales remained independent of any Norman jurisdiction, the more powerful Earls in England were encouraged to invade and establish effective \"buffer states\" to be run as autonomous lordships. These Marcher Lords included the earls of Chester, Gloucester, Hereford, Pembroke and Shrewsbury (see also English Earls of March).\n\nThe first Earldoms created within Wales were the Lordship of Glamorgan (a comital title) and the Earldom of Pembroke.\n\nTir Iarll (English: Earl's land) is an area of Glamorgan, which has traditionally had a particular resonance in Welsh culture.\n\nCoronet\n\nA British earl is entitled to a coronet bearing eight strawberry leaves (four visible) and eight silver balls (or pearls) around the rim (five visible). The actual coronet is rarely, if ever, worn except at the coronation of a new monarch, but in heraldry an earl may bear his coronet of rank on his coat of arms above the shield.\n\nForms of address\nAn earl has the title Earl of [X] when the title originates from a placename, or Earl [X] when the title comes from a surname. In either case, he is referred to as Lord [X], and his wife as Lady [X]. A countess who holds an earldom in her own right also uses Lady [X], but her husband does not have a title (unless he has one in his own right).\n\nThe eldest son of an earl, though not himself a peer, is entitled to use a courtesy title, usually the highest of his father's lesser titles (if any). For instance, prior to his elevation to the Dukedom of Edinburgh, the eldest son of the Earl of Wessex was styled as James, Viscount Severn. The eldest son of the eldest son of an earl is entitled to use one of his grandfather's lesser titles, normally the second-highest of the lesser titles. Younger sons are styled The Honourable [Forename] [Surname], and daughters, The Lady [Forename] [Surname] (Lady Diana Spencer being a well-known example).\n\nThere is no difference between the courtesy titles given to the children of earls and the children of countesses in their own right, provided the husband of the countess has a lower rank than she does. If her husband has a higher rank, their children will be given titles according to his rank.\n\nIn the peerage of Scotland, when there are no courtesy titles involved, the heir to an earldom, and indeed any level of peerage, is styled Master of [X], and successive sons as The Honourable [Firstname Surname].\n\nList of earldoms \n\nThere are many earldoms, extant, extinct, dormant, abeyant, or forfeit, in the peerages of England, Scotland, Great Britain, Ireland and the United Kingdom.\n\nIn fiction\n\nEarls have appeared in various works of fiction.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nWorks cited\n\nExternal links \n \n Morris, Marc (December 2005). \"The King's Companions\". History Today.\n\n \n \n \nCategory:Men's social titles\nCategory:Noble titles\nCategory:Peerage", "title": "Earl" } ]

[ "Yes, \"Uncle Earl\" was a nickname for Earl Long.", "The text does not provide information on how Earl Long felt about his nickname \"Uncle Earl\".", "A popular anecdote mentioned in the text is that Earl Long once joked that one day the people of Louisiana would elect \"good government, and they won't like it!\"", "The text does not provide information on whether Earl Long made any public statements regarding the song \"The Ballad of Earl K. Long\".", "In the text, it's mentioned that both Earl Long and his brother, Huey, had grown close with Earl Williamson, a local politician. There's an anecdote about Earl coming to the town of Vivian to pick up Williamson for a trip involving buttermilk drinking and horse racing in Hot Springs, Arkansas, although it's not explicitly referring to Long's direct family members.", "The text does not provide any additional information relating to the nickname \"Uncle Earl\".", "The text does not provide any anecdotes regarding Earl Long's affairs.", "The text does not provide information on whether the anecdotes about Earl Long caused embarrassment for him or his family." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_0_q#0", "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_0_q#1", "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_0_q#2", "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_0_q#3", "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_0_q#4" ]

[ "What genre of music she did?", "What was some of the songs?", "What album they released?", "What other interesting inspects in this article?", "What did they do to make the band a success." ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 157 ], [ 2621 ], [ 1075 ], [ 812 ], [ 297 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Pearl Jam has cited many punk rock and classic rock bands as influences," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The band's 1996 album, No Code," ], [ "Vedder sought to make the band's musical output less catchy." ], [ "Pearl Jam's success has been attributed to its sound, which fuses \"the riff-heavy stadium rock of the '70s with the grit and anger of '80s post-punk," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 157, 2621, 1075, 812, 297 ], "texts": [ "Pearl Jam has cited many punk rock and classic rock bands as influences,", "CANNOTANSWER", "The band's 1996 album, No Code,", "Vedder sought to make the band's musical output less catchy.", "Pearl Jam's success has been attributed to its sound, which fuses \"the riff-heavy stadium rock of the '70s with the grit and anger of '80s post-punk," ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide information on any female musician's genre of music.", "Some songs mentioned in the context include \"Alive\", \"Better Man\", \"Even Flow\", and \"World Wide Suicide\".", "The context mentions several albums released by Pearl Jam, including \"Vitalogy\", \"No Code\", \"Yield\", \"Binaural\", \"Riot Act\", \"Pearl Jam\", and \"Backspacer\".", "Some interesting aspects in this article include the detailed discussion of Pearl Jam's evolving musical style - starting with a fusion of '70s rock and '80s post-punk, then incorporating influences from punk, garage rock, worldbeat, experimentalism, art rock, folk rock, and even elements of pop and new wave in their later works. The article also highlights the changes in the guitar dynamics within the band, with Eddie Vedder starting to play more rhythm guitar. Additionally, Vedder's unique vocals, compared to Jim Morrison's, and his lyrical range covering both personal and social-political topics, are also stressed.", "Pearl Jam's success could be attributed to their unique sound, which fused \"the riff-heavy stadium rock of the '70s with the grit and anger of '80s post-punk, without ever neglecting hooks and choruses.\" Particular elements such as Gossard's rhythm guitar style and McCready's lead guitar style, influenced by artists such as Jimi Hendrix, also contributed to their distinctive sound. The evolving dynamic within the band, with Eddie Vedder playing more rhythm guitar, also enriched their music. Additionally, Vedder's impactful and often confessional lyrical style, covering a wide range of personal to social-political topics, added a significant depth to their music." ]

[ "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_1_q#0", "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_1_q#1", "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_1_q#2", "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_1_q#3", "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_1_q#4", "C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_1_q#5" ]

[ "How did they get their start?", "Did they have success with them?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did he join?", "How long did he stay with them?", "Why did he leave?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 0, 0, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 23 ], [ 2499 ], [ 1185 ], [ 2415 ], [ 621 ], [ 639 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Ament were members of pioneering grunge band Green River during the mid-1980s." ], [ "In an early promotional interview," ], [ "They gave former Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons the demo to see if he would be interested in joining the band" ], [ "1991. Mookie Blaylock soon signed to Epic Records" ], [ "four months" ], [ "Wood died of a heroin overdose." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 23, 2499, 1185, 2415, 621, 639 ], "texts": [ "Ament were members of pioneering grunge band Green River during the mid-1980s.", "In an early promotional interview,", "They gave former Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons the demo to see if he would be interested in joining the band", "1991. Mookie Blaylock soon signed to Epic Records", "four months", "Wood died of a heroin overdose." ] }

[]

[ "Stone Gossard and Jeff Ament, who were part of the mid-1980s grunge band Green River, started playing with the vocalist from Malfunkshun, Andrew Wood, after Green River disbanded. They organized the band Mother Love Bone, which saw increasing interest and eventually signed with the PolyGram record label. After Wood's death and the subsequent dissolution of Mother Love Bone, Gossard began writing harder-edged material and started practicing with Mike McCready, who persuaded Gossard to reconnect with Ament. They created a demo tape to search for a singer and a drummer. The tape made its way to Eddie Vedder, who after recording his vocals on it, was flown up to Seattle for an audition and joined the band within a week. With the addition of Dave Krusen on drums, they named the band Mookie Blaylock. They later signed with Epic Records and renamed themselves Pearl Jam.", "The context doesn't provide specific information on the success of Pearl Jam.", "One interesting aspect from the article is the story behind the band's name, Pearl Jam. Originally called Mookie Blaylock, the band changed its name after signing to Epic Records. Eddie Vedder initially said that \"Pearl Jam\" was a reference to his great-grandmother Pearl's recipe for peyote-laced jam. However, Vedder later admitted that this story was not true. Instead, the band members explained that \"pearl\" was suggested by Jeff Ament and they decided on \"Pearl Jam\" after attending a Neil Young concert where songs were extended through lengthy improvisations.", "Yes, Eddie Vedder joined the band after his audition. Within a week of sending his vocal recordings to the trio of Seattle musicians, Vedder was flown up to Seattle and became part of the band.", "The context does not provide information on how long Eddie Vedder stayed with the band Pearl Jam.", "The context does not provide information on Eddie Vedder leaving the band Pearl Jam." ]

[ "No", "no", "No", "No", "no", "No" ]

[ "C_edaebe3ab81442119e1b04a542df10d0_0_q#0", "C_edaebe3ab81442119e1b04a542df10d0_0_q#1", "C_edaebe3ab81442119e1b04a542df10d0_0_q#2", "C_edaebe3ab81442119e1b04a542df10d0_0_q#3" ]

[ "What is the reflections in western culture ?", "How did their culture reflect on western culture ?", "What did the authors said about him ?", "Did they like his writing ?" ]

[ 1, 2, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1586 ], [ 56 ], [ 128 ], [ 1586 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "the Popol Vuh has attracted the attention of many authors." ], [ "the myths and legends included in Louis L'Amour's novel The Haunted Mesa are largely based on the Popol Vuh." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1586, 56, 128, 1586 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "the Popol Vuh has attracted the attention of many authors.", "the myths and legends included in Louis L'Amour's novel The Haunted Mesa are largely based on the Popol Vuh.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "C_edaebe3ab81442119e1b04a542df10d0_1_q#0", "C_edaebe3ab81442119e1b04a542df10d0_1_q#1", "C_edaebe3ab81442119e1b04a542df10d0_1_q#2", "C_edaebe3ab81442119e1b04a542df10d0_1_q#3" ]

[ "When was Father Ximenez's manuscript written?", "What was the significance of these manuscript?", "What was the name of the Library?", "Anything else interesting about this script?" ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 0 ]

[ 1, 1, 1, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 384 ], [ 941 ], [ 1407 ], [ 1480 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In or around 1714, Ximenez incorporated the Spanish content in book one, chapters 2-21 of his Historia de la provincia de San" ], [ "Scherzer found Ximenez's writings in the university library, noting that there was one particular item \"del mayor interes\" ('of the greatest interest')." ], [ "the university library." ], [ "Brasseur apparently stole the university's volume and took it back to France." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 384, 941, 1407, 1480 ], "texts": [ "In or around 1714, Ximenez incorporated the Spanish content in book one, chapters 2-21 of his Historia de la provincia de San", "Scherzer found Ximenez's writings in the university library, noting that there was one particular item \"del mayor interes\" ('of the greatest interest').", "the university library.", "Brasseur apparently stole the university's volume and took it back to France." ] }

[]

[ "Father Ximenez's manuscript was written in or around 1714.", "The manuscript transcribed and translated a mythistory from the K'iche' culture, which was later used as content in Ximenez's book, \"Historia de la provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala de la orden de predicadores\". The manuscript was later recognized as being of great interest by Moritz Wagner and Carl Scherzer, and was copied and published upon their return to Europe. The manuscript, referred to as \"Popol Vuh\", was also donated to The Newberry Library, where it was (re)discovered and considered by some as Ximenez's one and only \"original\".", "The name of the library is The Newberry Library.", "An interesting fact about this manuscript is that it sank into obscurity for a quite a number of years. It was rediscovered in The Newberry Library in 1941 by Adrian Recinos, who is generally credited for finding the manuscript and publishing the first direct edition since Scherzer. However, the credit for the first (re)discovery has also been attributed to Walter Lehmann in 1928. Also, there is some contention around the manuscript as various experts consider the Newberry's volume to be Ximenez's one and only \"original\"." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_0_q#0", "C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_0_q#1", "C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_0_q#2", "C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_0_q#3", "C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_0_q#4" ]

[ "What did he say about fetishes?", "What else did he say?", "Did he have any more comments?", "What did he say next about fetishes?", "Did he have any other thoughts on this topic?" ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 76 ], [ 234 ], [ 729 ], [ 1112 ], [ 1621 ] ], "texts": [ [ "They become pathological only when they have pushed the whole love object into the background and themselves appropriate the function of a love object," ], [ "when a lover satisfies himself with the possession of a woman's shoe and considers the woman herself as secondary or even disturbing and superfluous" ], [ "points out the significance of the repressed religious \"self\" in neuroses and indicates that apart from the repressed sexuality type, there is also a repressed morality type." ], [ "Normal\" fetishes for Stekel contributed more broadly to choice of lifestyle: thus \"choice of vocation was actually an attempt to solve mental conflicts through the displacement of them" ], [ "Stekel's \"elaboration of the idea that everyone, and in particular every neurotic, has a peculiar form of sexual gratification which is alone adequate\"" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 76, 234, 729, 1112, 1621 ], "texts": [ "They become pathological only when they have pushed the whole love object into the background and themselves appropriate the function of a love object,", "when a lover satisfies himself with the possession of a woman's shoe and considers the woman herself as secondary or even disturbing and superfluous", "points out the significance of the repressed religious \"self\" in neuroses and indicates that apart from the repressed sexuality type, there is also a repressed morality type.", "Normal\" fetishes for Stekel contributed more broadly to choice of lifestyle: thus \"choice of vocation was actually an attempt to solve mental conflicts through the displacement of them", "Stekel's \"elaboration of the idea that everyone, and in particular every neurotic, has a peculiar form of sexual gratification which is alone adequate\"" ] }

[]

[ "Stekel described \"normal fetishes\" as interests that only become pathological when they overshadow the whole love object and replace it. For instance, when a lover is satisfied only with possessing a woman's shoe and considers the woman herself as secondary or a distraction. Stekel also believed that so-called \"normal\" fetishes contributed to the choice of lifestyle, such as choosing a profession, suggesting that such choices were attempts to solve mental conflicts through displacement. He suggested that fetichism could serve as the patient's unconscious religion in certain situations.", "Stekel also commented on what he termed the problem of perversion. He suggested that many perversions are defense mechanisms of the moral \"self\". He contrasted this perspective with Freud's, who viewed primal sexual expression as healthy and neuroses as the result of repressed sexual drives. Stekel emphasized the importance of the repressed religious \"self\" in neuroses and indicated that there is a type of person whose neuroses stem from repressed morality. This type of person emerges in situations of sexual licentiousness while concurrently opposing such behaviour. On another topic, Stekel described the essence of the sadomasochistic act to be humiliation.", "The context provided does not offer further information on this matter.", "The context provided does not contain any additional information on Stekel's views about fetishes.", "The text does not provide any more information about Stekel's thoughts on the topic of fetishes." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "no", "No" ]

[ "C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_1_q#0", "C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_1_q#1", "C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_1_q#2", "C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_1_q#3", "C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_1_q#4" ]

[ "what is the theory of neurosis?", "When was the theory of neurosis developed?", "Did he write any other books?", "Where was the theory of neurosis developed?", "Was there anything else interesting about the theory of neurosis?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 1, 2, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 675 ], [ 1018 ], [ 374 ], [ 510 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Stekel made significant contributions to symbolism in dreams, \"as successive editions of The Interpretation of Dreams attest, with their explicit acknowledgement of Freud's debt to Stekel\":" ], [ "Stekel wrote one of a set of three early \"Psychoanalytic studies of psychical impotence\" referred to approvingly by Freud: \"Freud had written a preface to Stekel's book" ], [ "Freud credited Stekel as a potential forerunner when pondering the possibility that (for obsessional neurotics) \"in the order of development hate is the precursor of love." ], [ "In anxiety the libido is transformed into organic and somatic symptoms; in doubt, the libido is transformed into intellectual symptoms." ], [ "The more intellectual someone is, the greater will be the doubt component of the transformed forces." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 675, 1018, 374, 510 ], "texts": [ "Stekel made significant contributions to symbolism in dreams, \"as successive editions of The Interpretation of Dreams attest, with their explicit acknowledgement of Freud's debt to Stekel\":", "Stekel wrote one of a set of three early \"Psychoanalytic studies of psychical impotence\" referred to approvingly by Freud: \"Freud had written a preface to Stekel's book", "Freud credited Stekel as a potential forerunner when pondering the possibility that (for obsessional neurotics) \"in the order of development hate is the precursor of love.", "In anxiety the libido is transformed into organic and somatic symptoms; in doubt, the libido is transformed into intellectual symptoms.", "The more intellectual someone is, the greater will be the doubt component of the transformed forces." ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on what the theory of neurosis is.", "The text does not provide information on when the theory of neurosis was developed.", "The text does not provide information on any other books Wilhelm Stekel may have written.", "The text does not provide information on where the theory of neurosis was developed.", "The text does not provide any information on the theory of neurosis." ]

[ "No", "No", "No", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_8ec26f5ba97949c5a5d343a2b5b4bc90_1_q#0", "C_8ec26f5ba97949c5a5d343a2b5b4bc90_1_q#1", "C_8ec26f5ba97949c5a5d343a2b5b4bc90_1_q#2", "C_8ec26f5ba97949c5a5d343a2b5b4bc90_1_q#3", "C_8ec26f5ba97949c5a5d343a2b5b4bc90_1_q#4", "C_8ec26f5ba97949c5a5d343a2b5b4bc90_1_q#5", "C_8ec26f5ba97949c5a5d343a2b5b4bc90_1_q#6" ]

[ "What kind of music were the Indigenous people involved in?", "What was their art work like?", "Were the indigenous people well known for their music and art?", "What are some other important things to know about their music and art?", "What happened after that?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did they get into trouble for doing that?" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 5961 ], [ 7525 ], [ 8226 ], [ 6964 ], [ 7215 ], [ 7642 ], [ 7785 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Native American music in North America is almost entirely monophonic, but there are notable exceptions. Traditional Native American music often centers around drumming." ], [ "Contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry, carvings, and beadwork." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya of the Late Classic Era (600-900 CE), which" ], [ "This instrument is one of the very few stringed instruments known in the Americas prior to the introduction of European musical instruments;" ], [ "too many artists were posing as Native Americans and Alaska Natives in order to profit from the cachet of Indigenous art in the United States," ], [ "the U.S. passed the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, requiring artists to prove that they are enrolled in a state or federally recognized tribe." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 5961, 7525, 8226, 6964, 7215, 7642, 7785 ], "texts": [ "Native American music in North America is almost entirely monophonic, but there are notable exceptions. Traditional Native American music often centers around drumming.", "Contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry, carvings, and beadwork.", "CANNOTANSWER", "No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya of the Late Classic Era (600-900 CE), which", "This instrument is one of the very few stringed instruments known in the Americas prior to the introduction of European musical instruments;", "too many artists were posing as Native Americans and Alaska Natives in order to profit from the cachet of Indigenous art in the United States,", "the U.S. passed the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, requiring artists to prove that they are enrolled in a state or federally recognized tribe." ] }

[ { "text": "\n\nDefinition \n\nIndigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those which have a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, and may consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system.\n\nThis historical continuity may consist of the continuation, for an extended period reaching into the present of one or more of the following factors:\n Occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them\n Common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands\n Culture in general, or in specific manifestations (such as religion, living under a tribal system, membership in an Indigenous community, dress, means of livelihood, lifestyle, etc.)\n Language (whether used as the only language, as mother-tongue, as the habitual means of communication at home or in the family, or as the main, preferred, habitual, general or normal language)\n Residence in certain parts of the country, or in certain regions of the world\n Other relevant factors.\n On an individual basis, an Indigenous person is one who belongs to these Indigenous populations through self-identification as Indigenous (group consciousness) and is recognized and accepted by these populations as one of its members (acceptance by the group). This preserves for these communities the sovereign right and power to decide who belongs to them, without external interference.\n\nAfrica\n\nAfrican Great Lakes \n\nAbagusii: Kenya\nHadza (Hadzabe): Tanzania, Singida region: southeast, south and northwest of Lake Eyashi.\nIraqw: Tanzania\nKalenjin: Kenya\nKikuyu: Kenya\nLuhya: Kenya\nMaasai: Kenya, Tanzania\nRendille: Kenya\nSamburu: Kenya, Tanzania\nSandawe: Tanzania, Dodoma region: Kondoa district, between Bubu and Mponde rivers, Singida region.\nPygmy peoples:\nTwa\nBangweulu Twa: Northern Zambia, Bangweulu Swamps,\nGreat Lakes Twa: Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo\nKafwe Twa: Southern Zambia, Kafue Flats\nLukanga Twa: Central Zambia, Lukanga Swamp\nNsua: Western Uganda\n\nCentral Africa \n\nPygmy peoples:\nBedzan: Northern Central Cameroon\nMbenga:\nAka (Bayaka)\nBaka (Bebayaka): Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville), Gabon, and Central African Republic\nBongo (Babongo):\nGyele (Bagyele):\nKola (Bakola):\nMbuti (Bambuti):\nAsua: Democratic Republic of the Congo\nEfé: Democratic Republic of the Congo\nKango/Sua:\nMbuti:\nWochua:\nTwa\nAngola Twa: Northeastern, Eastern and Southern Angola\nKasai Twa (Kuba Twa): Central Democratic Republic of Congo\nMbote Twa: Southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Northwest of Lake Tanganyika\nMongo Twa (Ntomba Twa): Western Democratic Republic of Congo, Lake Tumba, Lake Mai-Ndombe\nUpemba Twa (Luba Twa): Southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Upemba Depression\n\nHorn of Africa \nAfar people (Qafár/'Afár): the Afar Triangle of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia\nAmhara: Ethiopia\nBanna: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nBasketo: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nBerta (Funj): Western Ethiopia, Benishangul-Gumuz Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nBurji: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nGedeo: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nGumuz: Western Ethiopia, Benishangul-Gumuz Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nHamer: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nKaro: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nKunama: Western Eritrea, Gash-Barka Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nMaale: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nMursi (Mun): mainly in Debub Omo Zone, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region, Southwest Ethiopia\nNara: Western Eritrea, Gash-Barka Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nOromo people: Ethiopia, Kenya\nSaho: Central Eritrea, Southern part of Northern Red Sea Region\nShinasha (Shinasha): Northwestern Ethiopia\nSidama: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nSomalis: Somalia, Djibouti, eastern Ethiopia, northeastern Kenya\nSuri Baale: Ethiopia\nSuri Chai: Ethiopia\nSuri Timaga: Ethiopia\nWolayta: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nYem: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\n\nNorth Africa \n\nAfroasiatic languages\nBerbers (Imazighen): Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mediterranean Coast, Atlas Mountains (Idurar n Waṭlas), North and Western Sahara\nEastern Berbers\nNafusa people: Nafusa Mountains (Drar n infusen), Tripolitania, northwestern Libya\nZuwara Berbers: Zuwara, coast of western Tripolitania in northwestern Libya.\nMatmata Berbers: Matmâta, southern Tunisia\nDjerba Berbers: Djerba Island, southern Tunisia coast\nSokna Berbers: Sokna Oasis (Isuknan), Fezzan, north central Libya, Sahara\nAwjila: Awjila oasis, Cyrenaica, eastern Libya, Sahara\nGhadamès: Ghadamès Oasis, Western Libya, Sahara\nNorthern Berbers\nKabyles (Iqvayliyen): Kabylie (Tamurt n Iqvayliyen), Mediterranean coast of northern Algeria\nZenati (Iznaten/Iznasen) speakers: regions in Algeria and Morocco\nMozabites (At Mzab): Mzab region, northern Sahara, north central Algeria\nShawiya (Išawiyen): Aurès Mountains (Idurar n Awras), northeastern Algeria\nShenwa (Ichenwiyen): west-central mountains of northwestern Algeria\nRiffians (Irifiyen): Rif, Rif Mountains (Arrif), northern Morocco\nSanhaja (Iẓnagen/Iẓnajen) peoples: regions in Middle West Atlas mountains and Eastern Morocco\nMasmuda peoples: regions in Northern and Western Morocco\nGhomara: Far West Rif Mountains (Arrif), Northern Morocco\nShilha (Shlḥi): West Atlas mountains, Western Morocco\nHaratin: Indigenous population of the Maghreb and Sahara of uncertain origin; members now speak either Berber languages or Arabic; inhabit Morocco, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Algeria.\nSerer - current habit Senega, Gambia, Mauritania\nToubou: Chad\n\nNile Valley\n\nEgypt\nCopts (Rem en Khēmi/Rem en Kēme): Egypt, the majority of Egypt's population descended from Ancient Egyptians\nBeja: Northeastern Sudan, between Red Sea coast and almost to the Nile River (White Nile and Blue Nile) eastern banks, Far Northwest Eritrea, Sahara Eastern Desert, Far Southeast Egypt \nSiwi Berbers: Siwa Oasis (Isiwan), western Egypt, Sahara\n\nSudan\nNuba peoples: Sudan, Nuba Hills\n\nNubians: Far Northern North Sudan and Far Southern Egypt, along middle Nile river valley banks \nDinka (Jieng): mainly in Lakes, Warrap and Unity States, Upper Nile river course, Central and North South Sudan.\nNuer (Naadh): mainly in Jonglei State, East of Upper Nile river course, East Central South Sudan.\nAnuak (Anywaa): mainly East Jonglei State, East South Sudan, and also mainly in Gambela Region, Lowlands of Far Southwest Ethiopia (border areas between South Sudan and Ethiopia).\nShilluk (Chollo/Cøllø): mainly in North South Sudan, west of the Upper Nile river course, Upper Nile State, South Sudan (Kodok or Kothok, formerly known as Fashoda is in their territory).\nFur (Fòòrà): Darfur, Western Sudan\nMasalit: Darfur, Western Sudan\nKadu peoples: Sudan, Nuba Hills\n\nSouthern Africa \n\nSouthern Khoikhoi languages speaking peoples: Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Kalahari desert, Zimbabwe, west and southwestern South Africa.\nKhoikhoi\nNama (Namaqua)\nDamara \n\nHaiǁom\nGǀu and Gǁana\nNaro\nTsoa/Tshwa/Kua\nSouthern San languages speaking peoples: Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Kalahari desert, west and southwestern South Africa.\nKx'a/Ju–ǂHoan\nǃKung/Juu\nǂʼAmkoe\nǂKxʼao-ǁʼae (Auen)\nTuu\nǃKwi (!Ui)\nǀXam\nǂKhomani (Nǀu)\nKhwe (Khoi, Kxoe)\nTaa\nǃXooŋake/Nǀumde\n\nEurasia\n\nAsia\n\nWest Asia (Middle East) \n\nAfroasiatic languages\nSemitic peoples\nEast Semitic peoples\nAssyrians (Āṯūrāyē/Sūrāyē/Sūryāyē): A Christian Neo-Aramaic speaking people indigenous to Assyria, which is located in what is now northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria and northwestern Iran in Upper Mesopotamia. There is a testified historical continuity between ancient Assyrians and modern Assyrians, for the majority of Assyrians in the same land that they have lived in since antiquity: (Assyria, Athura, Roman Assyria, & Asoristan), before the Arabization of Upper Mesopotamia, that corresponds with old Assyria (originally speakers of the Akkadian language but in antiquity, by the end of the 1st millennium BC, Assyrians adopted the Aramaic language from Aramaeans as an official language of the Assyrian Empire and in present times speak Assyrian Neo-Aramaic. However, not all Assyrians identify as Assyrian, and several are from peoples that adopted an Assyrian ethnic identity (see terms for Syriac Christians).\nWest Semitic peoples\nCentral Semitic peoples\nArabic peoples\nBedouin (Badawī) of the interior deserts of Arabia and Syria.\nDruze (Al-Muwaḥḥidūn/Al-Muwaḥḥidīn/Ahl al-Tawḥīd): of Jabal al-Druze, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel. The faith of the Druze is a blend of Islam's Ismailism, Judaism, Christianity, Neoplatonism, Pythagoreanism, Gnosticism and Greek philosophy. The foundational text of the faith is the Epistles of Wisdom. Even though they have been a minority for their entire history, they have played a significant role in shaping the history of the Levant. Although the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, Druze are usually not considered Muslims. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon and in the south of Syria around Jabal al-Druze (literally the \"Mountain of the Druze\").\nMandaeans\nMarsh Dwellers/Marsh Arabs (Ma'dan/ʻArab al-Ahwār): An Arabic-speaking people living in the marshes of southern Iraq or on the Iranian side of the Shatt al-Arab.\nNorthwest Semitic peoples\nArameans (Āramayē): Central and Western Syria, ancient land of the Aramaeans (Aram) in the Levant, an Aramaic-speaking people that descends from ancient Aramaeans. In recent years, there has been an attempt to revive Western Aramaic among Aramean Christians living in the Israeli village of Jish.\nCanaanite peoples\nJews: along with Samaritans, descend from the Israelite nation of the southern Levant, who are believed by archaeologists and historians to have branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatrous—and later monotheistic—religion centered on El/Yahweh, one of the Ancient Canaanite deities. A Jewish diaspora existed for several centuries before the fall of the Second Temple, and their dwelling in other countries for the most part was not a result of compulsory dislocation. Following the Roman Siege of Jerusalem, destruction of Herod's Temple, and failed Jewish revolts, some Jews were either expelled, taken as slaves to Rome, or massacred, while other Jews continued to live in the region over the centuries, despite the conversion of many Jews to Christianity and Islam as well as persecution by the various conquerors of the region, including the Romans, Arabs, Ottomans, and the British. Additionally, a substantial number of diaspora Jews immigrated to Palestine during the 19th and 20th centuries (mainly under the Zionist movement), as well as after the modern State of Israel was established in 1948. This was coupled with the revival of Hebrew, the only Canaanite language still spoken today. DNA studies show that many major diaspora Jewish communities derive a substantial portion of their ancestry from ancient Israelites.\n\nThere are competing claims that Palestinian Arabs and Jews are indigenous to historic Palestine/the Land of Israel. The argument entered the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with Palestinians claiming Indigenous status as a pre-existing population displaced by Jewish settlement, and currently constituting a minority in the State of Israel. Israeli Jews have in turn claimed indigeneity based on historic ties to the region and disputed the authenticity of Palestinian claims. In 2007, the Negev Bedouin were officially recognised as Indigenous peoples of Israel by the United Nations. This has been criticised both by scholars associated with the Israeli state, who dispute the Bedouin's claim to indigeneity, and those who argue that recognising just one group of Palestinians as Indigenous risks undermining others' claims and \"fetishising\" nomadic cultures.\n\nSamaritans (Samerim): of Samaria. An ethno-religious group of the Levant, closely related genetically and culturally to the Jewish diaspora and are understood to have branched off from the latter around the time of the Assyrian exile. The Samaritans are adherents of Samaritanism, an Abrahamic religion closely related to Judaism. Their sole norm of religious observance is the Samaritan Pentateuch.\n\nBathari people: Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nHarasis: Jiddat al-Harasis, Central Oman. Descendants from the original people of South Arabia before Arabization.\nHobyót people: Dhofar, Southern Oman, Far Eastern Yemen. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nMehris: Al Mahrah, Eastern Yemen, Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nShehri people/Jibbali people: Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nSoqotri people: Soqotra island and group of islands, southeast of mainland Yemen, Indian Ocean. Descendants from the original natives of South Arabia before Arabization.\n\nArmenians (Hayer): The Christian Armenian people were the original inhabitants of what is now modern Eastern Turkey, specifically around Lake Van and the biblical mountain of Ararat and spoke the Western Armenian language. Since the Armenian genocide in which up to 1,500,000 people perished, the number of the original Armenian inhabitants is almost non-existent and they have since been replaced with ethnic Turks and Kurds.\nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nOssetians (Iræттæ): South Ossetia, Georgia, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nWest Iranian peoples\nCaspian/South Caspian peoples\nGilaks: Gilan, North Iran, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nMazanderanis/Mazanis/Tabaris: Mazanderan, Tabaristan, Northern Iran, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nNorthwest Iranian peoples\nNorthwestern I\nKurds (Kurd/Kurmandzh): Kurdistan, Northwestern and Western Iran, Northern Iraq, Northeast and Northern Syria, Southeast Turkey, Zagros and East Anatolian Plateau\nYazidis (Êzidî): Nineveh Governorate, Northern Iraq\nLak people (Iran): Southwestern Iran, Zagros Mountains\nZaza-Gorani peoples \nShabaks: Sinjar District of the Nineveh Governorate in northern Iraq.\nZazas: Southeastern Turkey, Upper Euphrates river, East Anatolian Plateau\nNorthwestern II\nBaluchis (Baloch/Baluch): Baluchistan, Southeastern Iran, Southwestern Pakistan, Extreme Southern Afghanistan\nTatic peoples\nTalysh (Talyshon): Northwestern Iran, Far South Azerbaijan, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nTats (Iran)/South Tats (Irünə Tâtün): Northwest Iran\nSouthwest Iranian peoples\nPersian: Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan\nLarestani–Gulf peoples\nKumzaris: Northern Musandam, Oman\nLurs and Bakhtiaris\nLurs (Lur): Luristan, Western and Southwestern Iran, Zagros Mountains\nBakhtiaris (Bakhtiar): Southwestern Iran, Zagros\nTats (Caucasus): Republic of Azerbaijan, Dagestan (Russia)\n\nCaucasus \n\nIndo-European peoples\nArmenians (Hayer): \nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nOssetians (Iræттæ): Ossetia (Iryston), North Ossetia (Cægat Iryston), a Republic of Russia, and South Ossetia (Khussar Iryston), a De Jure autonomous region of Georgia (Sakartvelo), self-proclaimed sovereign country, North and South slopes of Central Caucasus Mountains.\nWest Iranian peoples\nSouthwest Iranian peoples\nPersian peoples\nTats (Caucasus) (Tati/Parsi/Lohijon/Daghli): East Caucasus Mountains, Azerbaijan\nKartvelian peoples\nZan\nLazs (Lazepe): Southwestern Georgia, Far Northeastern Turkey\nNortheast Caucasian peoples\nAvar-Andic peoples\nAvar people (Caucasus) (Magharulal/Avaral): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nAndic peoples\nAkhvakh (Ashvado/Atluatii)\nAndis (Qhvannal/Khivannal)\nBagvalal (Bagval)\nBotlikhs (Buykhal'ida/Buykhalyi)\nChamalals (Chamalaldu)\nGodoberis (Giybdiridi)\nKaratas (Khkhiridi)\nTindis (Idarab)\nDargins (Darganti): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKhinalug (Kettiturdur/Kayttiodur/Ketid/Ketsh Khalkh)\nLak people (Dagestan): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nLezgic peoples\nAghul (Agular): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nArchins (Arshishttib)\nBudukh (Budad)\nJeks (Cekad/Dzhekad)\nKryts (Kh'rytsha'/Kyrtuar)\nLezgians (Lezgiyar/Leqer): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nRutul (Mykhabyr): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTabasarans: Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTsakhur (Yiqby): Azerbaijan, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nUdins (Udi/Uti): Northern Azerbaijan, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nNakh peoples\nBats (Batsbi)\nVainakh peoples\nChechens (Nokhchiy): Chechenia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nIngush (Ghalghay): Ingushetia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTsezic (Didoic) peoples\nBezhtas\nHinukh (Hinuqes)\nHunzibs (Hunzib)\nKhwarshi (Khuani)\nTsez/Dido people\nNorthwest Caucasian peoples\nAbkhaz-Abaza peoples\nAbazins (Abaza)\nAbkhazians (Aphsua): Abkhazia (Aphsny) - a De Jure autonomous region of Georgia (Sakartvelo), self-proclaimed sovereign country.\nCircassian peoples\nWest Circassian peoples\nAdyghe (Adyge): Adyghe Republic, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nEast Circassian peoples\nCherkess (Cherkes): Karachay-Cherkessia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKabardians (Qeberdeykher): Kabardino-Balkaria, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKarachays (Karachai): Karachay-Cherkessia, North Caucasian peoples, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nUbykh (Tʷaχ): were indigenous to the mountains of West Caucasus, Sochi area, Krasnodar Krai, Russia, later migrated to Turkey.\n\nSiberia (North Asia) \n\n \n\nOver 40 distinct peoples, each with their own language and culture in the Asiatic part of Russia (Siberia/North Asia).\nChukchi-Kamchatkan peoples\nChukotkan peoples\nChukchi (Lyg'oravetl'et/Chukchi people|O'ravetl'et/Ankalyn-Chavchu): Northeast Siberia, Russia\nKoryaks (Nymylan-Chauchuven): Russian Far East\nAlyutors: Russian Far East\nKereks: Russian Far East\nKamchatkan peoples\nItelmens: Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo-Aleut peoples\nYupik: Alaska and the Russian Far East\nSiberian Yupik (Yupighyt): Siberia, Russia, Alaska, United States.\nSirenik Eskimos, Russian Far East.\nNaukan, Russian Far East.\nMongolic peoples\nBuryats (Buryaad): Buryatia, Russia, and Mongolia\nHamnigans: Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia, Mongolia, and China\nTungusic peoples\nNorthern Tungusic peoples\nEvenks (Evenkil): Siberia (They are also distributed in China and Mongolia in East Asia).\nUdege (Udihe/Udekhe/Udeghe): Russian Far East, Ukraine\nTurkic peoples\nSiberian Turks\nAltaians (Altay-kizhi): titular nation of Altai Republic, Russia\nChelkans\nTelengits\nTubalars\nChulyms: Tomsk Oblast, Russia\nDolgans: Northern Siberia \nKhakas (Tadarlar): titular nation of Khakassia, Russia\nKumandins: Altai Krai, Russia\nShors: Southern Siberia\nSoyots: Buryatia, Russia\nTeleuts: Kemerovo Oblast, Russia\nTofalars: Southern Siberia \nTuvans (Tyvalar): titular nation of Tuva Republic, Russia\nTozhu Tuvans: Tuva Republic, Russia\nYakuts (Sakha): titular nation of Yakutia, Russia\nKipchak Turks\nSiberian Tatars\nBaraba Tatars\nUgric peoples\nUgrians: Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nKhanty (Hantõ-Kantõk/Kantek/Khanti): Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nMansi (Maan's'i/Maan's'i Maahum/Mansi), formerly known as Voguls: Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nSamoyedic peoples\nNorthern Samoyedic peoples: West Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nEnets (Entsi): Far Northern Western Siberia, Russia\nNenets (Neney Neneche): Far Northern Western Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nNganasan (Ŋənəhsa(nəh)): Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia, Russia\nYukaghirs (Odul/Vadul/Detkil'): Far Northern East Siberia, Russia\nYeniseian peoples\nKet (Deng): Along middle Yenisei river banks\nNivkh (Gilyak): Sakhalin, Russia\nOroks (Uilta): Sakhalin, Russia\n\nEurasian Steppe \n\nIndo-European peoples\nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nPamiris (Pomir): Badakhshan (Afghanistan, Tajikistan), Pamir Mountains, Tashkurgan (in Xinjiang)\nTajiks: Tajikistan\nYaghnobi (Yaγnōbī́t): Tajikistan\nMongolic peoples\nCentral Mongolic peoples\nKhoid: Mongolia\nMangud: Historically Mongolia\nMongols: Mongolia, China\nNaimans (Nayman): Inner Mongolia, China\nOirats (Oirad/Oird) (Dzungars and Torghuts): Dzungaria (Northern Xinjiang), China\nSartuul: Zavkhan, Mongolia\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nTibetans: Tibet, China and neighbouring regions\nTurkic peoples\nCommon Turks\nKarluk Turks (Southeastern Common Turkic peoples)\nUyghurs (Uyghur): Tarim Basin (Southern Xinjiang), China\nIli Turks: Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Northern Xinjiang, China\nYugur (Yogïr/Sarïg Yogïr): Sunan Yugur Autonomous County, Gansu province, China\nSalar (Salır): Xunhua Salar Autonomous County, Qinghai province, China\nDukha (Dukha/Dukhans/Duhalar/Tsaatan): Mongolia\nUriankhai (Wūliánghǎi/Uriankhan/урианхан/Uriankhat/урианхад): Mongolia\nKipchak Turks (Northwestern Common Turkic peoples)\nBashkirs (Başqorttar): Bashkir Republic, European Russia\nKazakhs: Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, Russia\nKyrgyzs: Kyrgyzstan, China\nKrymchaks (Qrymçaklar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nCrimean Karaites (Qrymqaraylar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nCrimean Tatars (Qırımtatarlar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nVolga Tatars (Tatarlar): Tatarstan, European Russia\nOghuz Turks (Southwestern Common Turkic peoples)\nGagauz (Gagauzlar): Gagauzia, Moldova\nOghur (tribe)\nChuvash (Chăvаsh): Chuvash Republic, Russia\n\nSouth Asia \n\nAdivasis: collective term for many Indigenous peoples in India (see also Scheduled Tribes in India)\nDravidian peoples\nBadaga: Tamil Nadu, South India\nGond: Gondwana Land, Central India\nIrula: Tamil Nadu, South India\nKisan: Indigenous peoples of the Odisha, East India\nKodava: Kodagu, Karnataka, South India\nKota (Kothar/Kov): Tamil Nadu, South India\nKuruba: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, South India\nTamil: Tamil Nadu, South India and Sri Lanka\nToda: Tamil Nadu, South India\nSouth Dravidian peoples\nGiraavaru: Maldives\nIndo-European peoples\nIranian peoples\nPashtuns: southern Afghanistan and Northwest Pakistan\nBaloch: southeastern Iran and southwest Pakistan\nIndo-Aryan peoples\nDard: Dardistan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nKalasha of Chitral (Kaĺaśa): Ancient pre-Muslim polytheistic pagan ethnic minority in Chitral District, Northern Pakistan\nShina: Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nKashmiri Hindus: India\nSindhi: Sindh, Pakistan, India\nBengali: Bangladesh, India\nGujarati: India \nBanjara: Rajasthan\nBhil people: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh\nJaunsari people: Uttarakhand\nDogras: Jammu\nTharu: Nepal, East India\nWarli\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nBodish peoples\nLadakhi: Ladakh, North India\nKonyak peoples\nIndigenous Assamese people\nTripuri (Borok): Tripura, North-East India\nKonyak peoples\nNocte: Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India\nKukish peoples\nKarbi: Karbi Anglong, Assam, North-East-India\nMizo (Mizo hnam): Mizoram, North-East India\nNaga: Nagaland, North-East India\nRaji-Raute peoples\nRaute: Nepal, North India\nDigaro peoples\nMishmi: Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India\nJumma people (a collective term for several peoples)\nChakma: Bangladesh, Arunachal Pradesh - North-East India\nIndigenous peoples of Sikkim: India\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nBodish peoples\nBhutia (Denzongpa)\nLepcha (Róng ʔágít/Róngkup/Mútuncí Róngkup Rumkup)\nMeitei: Manipur, North-East India\nBurusho: Hunza and Chitral districts, Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nLolo-Burmese peoples\nBurmish peoples\nMarma: Bangladesh\nMeitei people: Manipur and neighboring states of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar\nVedda (Wanniyala-Aetto): Sri Lanka\nSinhalese: Sri Lanka\nDhivehi: Maldives\n\nSoutheast Asia\n\nMainland Southeast Asia (Indochinese Peninsula) \n\nAustroasiatic peoples\nAslian peoples\nSenoi (Sengoi/Sng'oi) (a people of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): in Peninsular Malaysia)\nKhmer Krom: of Vietnam\nKhmuic groups:\nKhmu (Kmm̥uʔ/Kmmúʔ): Thailand and Laos\nMlabri: Northern Thailand and Laos\nPray: Thailand and Laos\nPalaungic peoples\nWa (Vāx): One of the hill tribes of Myanmar (They are also distributed in Yunnan Province, China in East Asia).\nZomi (Zo Pau): One of the Indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia. The word Zomi is the collective name given to many tribes who traced their descent from a common ancestor. Through history they have been known under various appellation, such as Chin, Kuki and Mizo, but the expression was disliked by them, and they insist that the term was a misnomer given by others and by which they have been recorded in certain documents designate their ancient origins as a separate ethnicity.\nVietic peoples\nMuong\nTho\nTuom\nLiha\nPhong\nThavueng\nAhoe (Phon Sung)\nAhao\nAhlao\nChuet\nRục\nMày\nArem\nMã Liềng\nSách\nSalang\nMaleng–Pakatan\nBo\nArao\nAtel\nAtop\nKaleun\nMaleng\nPakatan\nThemarou\nKri–Phoóng\nKrii\nPhoóng\nMlengbrou\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nChamic peoples\nCham (Chams/Urang Campa): of Vietnam and Cambodia\nProto-Malay (a people of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): in Peninsular Malaysia\nMoken: in Myanmar, and Thailand\nHmong-Mien peoples\nHmong: subgroups of Thailand, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam (They are also distributed in China in East Asia). \nMontagnards (Degar): an umbrella term for several Pre-Vietnamese peoples that dwell in the plateaus and mountains of the southern regions of Vietnam\nAustroasiatic peoples\nBahnaric peoples\nNorth Bahnaric peoples\nSedang, Halang and Kayong: Vietnam\nH're people: Quảng Ngãi Province, Central Vietnam\nCentral Bahnaric peoples\nBahnar: Central Highland provinces of Gia Lai and Kon Tum, as well as the coastal provinces of Bình Định and Phú Yên (Vietnam)\nJeh-Tariang people: Kon Tum, Vietnam\nSouthern Bahnaric peoples\nMạ people: Central Highlands, Vietnam\nMnong: Cambodia and Vietnam\nStieng: Cambodia and Vietnam\nKoho: Di Linh Highland of Vietnam \nEastern Bahnaric:\nCor people \nKatuic peoples\nKatu\nKatu: Vietnam and Laos\nWest\nBru (Bruu): Thailand, Laos, India and Vietnam\nTa Oi people: Laos, Vietnam\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nChamic peoples\nHighlands Chamic peoples\nRade-Jarai\nJarai: Central Highlands of Vietnam, as well as in the Northeast Province of Ratanakiri (Cambodia)\nRhade: Southern Vietnam\nChru–Northern\nNorthern Cham\nRaglai: in Khánh Hòa Province of South Central Coast, and Ninh Thuận Province in the Southeast region of Vietnam\nNegrito:\nMani (Maniq): Far Southern Thailand\nSemang (a group of several peoples of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): Peninsular Malaysia\nBatek: Peninsular Malaysia\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nKarenic peoples\nKaren (Per Ploan Poe/Ploan/Pwa Ka Nyaw/Kanyaw): an alliance of hill tribes of Myanmar and Thailand\nLolo-Burmese peoples\nAkha a.k.a. Aini or Aini-Akha: One of the hill tribes of Thailand, Laos and Burma (They are also distributed in Yunnan Province, China in East Asia).\nLahu (Ladhulsi/Kawzhawd): One of the hill tribes of Thailand, Myanmar and Laos (They are also distributed in Yunnan, China).\nLisu: One of the hill tribes of Myanmar and Thailand (They are also distributed in Arunachal Pradesh, India in South Asia and Yunnan and Sichuan, China).\nRakhine (Rəkhàin lùmjó), Kaman and Marma: Arakan in Myanmar\nYi (Nuosu/Nisu/Sani/Axi/Lolo): a group of several related peoples mainly in Yunnan, China.\nTibeto-Burman peoples\nIntha: Inle Lake of Myanmar\nTai peoples: Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos and Thailand (They are also distributed in Yunnan, China).\nSouthwestern Tai peoples\nKhün (Thai Khün)\nPhu Thai \nTai Dam: Northwest Vietnam, Laos and Thailand (They are also distributed in Yunnan)\nTai Lu: Laos, Northern Thailand, Myanmar, and Lai Châu Province in Vietnam (They are also distributed in Xishuangbanna in Yunnan, China).\nTai Nüa\n\nMaritime Southeast Asia (Malay Archipelago) \n\nAustroasiatic peoples\nNicobarese people (Holchu): Nicobar Islands, India\nShompen people (Kalay-Keyet): Nicobar Islands, India\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nBarito peoples\nBajau (Sama/Samah/Samal): Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines)\nDayak: Borneo, (Malaysia and Indonesia)\nNorthwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands peoples\nMentawai peoples\nMentawai: Mentawai Islands, Indonesia\nSakuddei: Siberut Island and Mentawai Islands, Indonesia\nMalayic peoples\nOrang Laut and Orang Seletar: Malaysia and Singapore\nProto-Malay (Melayu asli/Melayu purba): Malaysia\nNorth Bornean peoples\nPenan: Sarawak, Malaysia\nLun Bawang: Sarawak, Malaysia\nPhilippine peoples\nIgorot (Ifugao: Ipugao; Benguet: Ibaloi, Kankanaey; Mountain Province: Bontoc; Kalinga: Kiangan; Abra: Itneg; Apayao: Isneg): Cordillera mountains in Luzon in the Philippines\nLumad (Katawhang Lumad): Mindanao in the Philippines\nMangyan: Mindoro in the Philippines\nMoro: Mindanao and Sulu archipelago in the Philippines\nTausug (Tausūg/Suluk/Sulug)\nMaguindanao\nMaranao (Iranon/Iranun)\nTribes of Palawan: Palawan, Philippines\nOrang Rimba (Orang Batin Sembilan/Orang Rimba/Anak Dalam/Kubu): Sumatra, Indonesia\nLubu: Sumatra, Indonesia\nNegrito:\nAndamanese, in the Andaman Islands, which include:\nGreat Andamanese: formerly at least 10 distinct groups living throughout Great Andaman, now confined to a single community on Strait Island, Andaman Is.\nJangil (Rutland Jarawa): now extinct, formerly of Rutland Island, Andamans\nJarawa: South Andaman and Middle Andaman\nOnge (Önge): Little Andaman, Andaman Islands\nSentinelese (?): North Sentinel Island, Andaman Islands\nAeta: Luzon, Philippines\nAti: Panay, Philippines\nBatak: Palawan, Philippines\nPribumi (Native Indonesians): of Indonesia\n\nEast Asia\n\nWestern China \nTurkic peoples\nÄynu peoples\nIli Turk peoples: Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture\nUyghur peoples\nTibetan peoples\n\nNorth China \nFuyu Kyrgyz: Fuyu County, Heilongjiang\nHui peoples\nTungusic peoples\nNorthern Tungusic peoples\nNanai (Hezhen/Nanai/Hezhe/Golds/Samagir): Heilongjiang in China, Khabarovsk Krai and Primorsky Krai in Russia\nOroqen: Far Northern China\nSouthern Tungusic peoples\nManchu (Manju/Manchu people): Manchuria, northeast China\n\nSouth China \n\nHmong-Mien peoples\nMiao: Southern China (provinces of Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong and Hainan), Myanmar, northern Vietnam, Laos and Thailand\nHmong: Southern China, Vietnam and Laos\nYao (Mien): Southern China (provinces Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan)\n\nTaiwan \n\nIndigenous peoples of the island of Taiwan\nAmis (Pangcah)\nSakizaya\nBunun\nKavalan (Kebalan; Kbaran)\nAtayal (Tayal; Tayan)\nSaisiyat (Say-Siyat)\nSeediq\nTruku (Taroko)\nThao (Ngan)\nPaiwan (Payuan)\nPuyuma (Pinuyumayan)\nRukai (Drekay)\nTsou (Cou)\nYami (Tao)\nHla'alua (Saaroa)\nKanakanavu\n\nJapan \nAinu (Aynu): Hokkaido, Japan and (until the end of World War II) on Sakhalin Island, Russia\nJaponic peoples\nRyukyuans (Ruuchuu Minzuku): Old Ryūkyū Kingdom, now Japan\n\nAmericas \n\nAmericas is the supercontinent comprising North and South America, and associated islands.\n\nList of peoples by geographical and ethnolinguistic grouping:\n\nNorth America \n\nNorth America includes all of the continent and islands east of the Bering Strait and north of the Isthmus of Panama; it includes Greenland, Canada, United States, Mexico, Central American and Caribbean countries. However a distinction can be made between a broader North America and a narrower Northern America and Middle America due to ethnic and cultural characteristics.\n\nIndigenous peoples in North America by Country\nAboriginal peoples in Canada\nFirst Nations\nInuit\nMétis\nIndigenous peoples in the United States\nAlaska Natives\nIndigenous peoples of Mexico\nIndigenous peoples in North America by native cultural regions\n\nArctic \n\nAncient Beringian - Siberia and Alaska\nEskimo–Aleut\nAleut (Unangax): Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo/Yupit-Inuit\nYupik: Alaska, United States\nAlutiiq (Sugpiat): Alaska, United States\nCentral Alaskan Yup'ik (Yupiat/Yupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ik (Cupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ig: Nunivak Island, Alaska, United States\nSiberian Yupik of St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, United States.\nInuit: Canadian Arctic - Northwest Territories, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, Nunavut; Greenland; Alaska, United States\nGreenlandic Inuit: Greenland\nInughuit: North Greenland\nKalaallit: West Greenland\nTunumiit: East Greenland\nInupiat (Iñupiat): Arctic Alaska, North Slope and boroughs and the Bering Strait\nNunamiut: Interior Alaska.\nInuit: Canadian Arctic\nEastern Canadian Inuit: East Canadian Arctic, East Nunavut, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut\nWestern Canadian Inuit (Inuvialuit): West Canadian Arctic, Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Arctic coast of Northwest Territories, West Nunavut\nMétis: a mixed First Nations (from several peoples) and European (from several peoples) people of Canada.\n\nSubarctic \n\nNa-Dené peoples\nAthabaskan peoples\nNorthern Athabaskan peoples\nDene of Yukon, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territory, and Alberta, Canada.\nAlaskan Athabaskans\nSouthern Alaskan peoples\nAhtna\nIngalik\nKoyukon of Interior Alaska.\nKutchin of Interior Alaska and the Yukon.\nTanana Athabaskans.\nKolchan of Interior Alaska.\nDeg Hit'an of Interior Alaska.\nDena'ina of Interior Alaska.\nHolikachuk\nHän of Yukon, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\nMétis: a mixed Native American (from several peoples) and European (from several peoples) people of Canada.\nAlgonquians\nCree of Montana, United States, and Manitoba, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\nInnu of Northeastern Quebec, and Western Labrador, Canada.\nAnnishinabe of Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, Canada, as well as Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin, United States.\nAlgonquin of Quebec, and Ontario, Canada.\nBeothuk of Newfoundland, Canada.\n\nPacific Northwest Coast \n\nMakah of Washington, United States.\nQuinault of Washington, United States.\nNootka of British Columbia, Canada.\nKwakiutl of British Columbia, Canada.\nEyak of Alaska, United States.\nHaida of British Columbia, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\nTlingit of Alaska, United States.\nTshimshian of British Columbia, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\n\nNorthwest Plateau-Great Basin-California\n\nNorthwest Plateau\n\nGreat Basin \n\nUte of Utah, United States.\nShoshone of Colorado, Nevada, and Utah, United States.\nMono of California, United States.\nBannock of Idaho, United States.\nWestern Shoshone of Nevada, United States.\nTimbisha of Nevada, United States.\nWashoe of Nevada, United States.\nPaiute of Colorado, California, Nevada, and Utah, United States.\nNorthern Paiute.\nSouthern Paiute.\nPais of Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, United States, as well as Baja California, Mexico.\nHualapai of Arizona, United States.\nWalapai of Arizona and Colorado, United States.\n\nCalifornia \n\nYuman-Cochimi peoples\nCochimí people: Baja California, Mexico\nCore Yuman peoples\nKiliwa (K'olew): Baja California, Mexico\nPaipai (Akwa'ala/Yakakwal): Baja California, Mexico\nDelta-Californian peoples\nCocopa (Cocopah/Xawiƚƚ Kwñchawaay): Baja California, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nKumeyaay (Ipai-Tipai/MuttTipi): Baja California, Mexico, and California, United States.\nMiwok of California, United States.\nMaidu of California, United States.\nWintu of California, United States.\nChumash of California, United States.\nTongva of California, United States.\nModoc of California, and Oregon, United States.\nAthabaskans\nAchumawi of California, and Oregon, United States.\nHupa of California and Oregon, United States.\nCahuilla of California, United States.\nMojave of California, and Nevada, United States.\nUto-Aztecans\nMono of California, and Nevada, United States.\nNorthern Paiute of California and Nevada, United States.\nOhlone of California, United States.\nKarok of California, United States.\n\nGreat Plains \n\nComanche of Texas and Oklahoma, United States.\nOsage of Kansas and Nebraska, United States.\nSioux of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota, United States, as well as Saskatchewan, and Alberta, Canada.\nLakota of South Dakota, United States.\nDakota people of Minnesota, United States, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\nKiowa of Texas, and Oklahoma.\nPlains Apache (see the Southwest section for another category this tribe belongs too) of Texas, and Oklahoma.\nCrow of Montana.\nOmaha of Nebraska.\nBlackfoot of Montana, United States, Alberta, Canada, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\n\nEastern Woodlands\n\nNortheastern Woodlands \n\nIroquoian peoples\nHaudenosaunee of New York, Wisconsin, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Quebec and Ontario, Canada.\nMohawk of Quebec, Canada, and New York, United States.\nSeneca of New York, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nCayuga of Oklahoma, and New York, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nOneida of Wisconsin and New York, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nTuscarora of New York, United States, and Ontario, Canada.\nOnondaga of New York, United States, and Ontario, Canada.\nWyandot of Kansas, Michigan, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nNation du chat of Upstate New York, Ohio, and Northwest Pennsylvania, United States.\nConestoga (Susquehannock) of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New York, and Maryland (United States).\nSt. Lawrence Iroquoians: St. Lawrence River, Quebec, Canada, and New York, United States.\nMonongahela: Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio, United States.\nNottoway of Virginia, United States.\nWesto of Virginia and South Carolina, United States.\nAlgic peoples\nAlgonquian peoples\nChowanoke of North Carolina.\nCarolina Algonquian\nRoanoke of North Carolina.\nCroatan of North Carolina.\nPowhatan Confederacy of Virginia.\nPamunkey of Virginia, United States.\nPowhatan people of Virginia, United States.\nWampanoag of Massachusetts.\nWabanaki of Maine, United States, and New Brunswick and Newfoundland, Canada.\nAbenaki of New Hampshire, Maine and Vermont.\nPenobscot of Maine.\nMiqmac of Maine, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland.\nPassamaquoddy of Maine, United States, and New Brunswick, Canada.\nMaliseet of New Brunswick and Quebec.\nShawnee of the Ohio River Valley, now Oklahoma.\nCentral Algonquian peoples\nKikapú (Kiikaapoa/Kiikaapoi): Indigenous peoples from southeast Michigan, United States, also in Coahuila, Mexico.\nPeoria (Illiniwek)\nAnnishinabe\nOjibwe of Minnesota, North Dakota, and Michigan, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nPotawatomi of Michigan and Indiana, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nOdawa of Oklahoma and Michigan, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nCree of Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories, Canada, as well as Montana, United States.\n\nSoutheastern Woodlands \n\nCherokee of North Carolina, Georgia, and Oklahoma.\nNatchez of Louisiana and Arkansas.\nMuskogeans\nMuskogee of Georgia, now Oklahoma.\nChoctaw of Louisiana, Alabama, and Oklahoma.\nChickasaw of Tennessee, now Oklahoma.\nIndigenous peoples of Florida\nIndigenous people of the Everglades region\nCalusa of South Florida.\nTequesta of South Florida.\nTimucua of Northern Florida and Southern Georgia.\nApalachee of the Florida Panhandle and Alabama.\nSeminole of Oklahoma, and Florida.\nSiouans\nHo-Chunk of Wisconsin and Michigan.\nCatawba of North Carolina.\nPee Dee of South Carolina.\nCaddoans\nCaddo of Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana.\nPawnee of Oklahoma, Nebraska and Kansas, United States.\nSouthern Plains villagers of Western Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, and Southeastern Colorado.\nArikara of North Dakota, United States.\nHidatsa of North Dakota, United States.\nWichita of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Texas, United States.\n\nSouthwest \n\nUto-Aztecan peoples\nAztecan (Nahuan) peoples\nMexicanero (Mēxihcah): Durango, Mexico\nCáhitan peoples\nYaqui (Hiaki/Yoeme): Sonora, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nMayo (Yoreme): Sonora, Mexico\nTarahumaran peoples\nGuarijío: Sonora, Mexico\nTarahumara (Rarámuri-Omugí): Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico\nTepiman peoples\nPima Bajo: Chihuahua, Mexico\nTepehuán (O'dam/Audam/Ódami): Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico\nSeri (Comcaac): Sonora, Mexico\nPuebloan peoples: Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Texas, United States\nHopi of New Mexico, United States.\nZuni of Arizona, United States.\nAnasazi of New Mexico and Colorado, United States.\nTiwa of New Mexico, United States.\nMogollon of New Mexico, Arizona, United States, and Sonora, Mexico.\nHohokam of Southern Arizona, United States.\nSouthern Athabascans\nApache of Chihuahua, Coahuilla, and Sonora, Mexico, as well as Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas, United States.\nChiricahua of Southern New Mexico, Northern Mexico, and Southeast Arizona.\nLipan Apache of Northern Texas, and Western Oklahoma.\nPlains Apache of Oklahoma.\nMescalero of Arizona, New Mexico, and Northern Chihuahua.\nWestern Apache of Western Arizona.\nNavajo of the Four Corners region.\nO'odham of Sonora, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nPima of Arizona, United States.\nPapago of far Northern Sonora, Mexico, and Southern Arizona, United States.\n\nMesoamerica \n\nHuave (Ikoots/Kunajts): Oaxaca, Mexico\nLenca: Honduras and El Salvador\nMaya peoples\nCh'olan peoples\nCh'ol: Chiapas, Mexico\nCh'orti': El Salvador\nChontal Maya (Yokot'anob/Yokot'an): Tabasco, Mexico\nTzeltal (Winik Atel/Batzilʼop): Chiapas, Mexico\nTzotzil (Bats'ik'op/Sotz'leb): Chiapas, Mexico\nHuastec (Téenek/Te' Inik): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nMamean peoples\nIxil: Guatemala\nMam: Guatemala\nQ'anjobalan peoples\nChuj: Guatemala\nJakaltek: Guatemala – also called Poptí\nQ'anjob'al: Guatemala\nTojolabal: Guatemala\nQichean peoples\nAchi': Guatemala\nKaqchikel: Guatemala\nK'iche': Guatemala\nPoqomchi': Guatemala\nPoqomam: Guatemala\nQ'eqchi': Guatemala\nTz'utujil: Guatemala\nYucatecan peoples\nItza: Guatemala\nLacandón (Hach Winik): Chiapas, Mexico\nMopan: Guatemala and Belize\nYucatec Maya (Maya proper) (Màaya): Yucatán, Quintana Roo and Campeche, Mexico\nMixe-Zoquean peoples\nMixe (Ayüükjä'äy): Oaxaca, Mexico\nZoque: Oaxaca and Chiapas Mexico\nOto-Manguean peoples\nAmuzgo (Tzjon Non/Tzo'tyio/Ñ'anncue): Oaxaca, Mexico\nChinantec: Oaxaca, Mexico\nManguean\nChorotega (Mangue/Mankeme): Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica\nMixtecan\nCuicatec:Oaxaca, Mexico\nMixtec (Ñuù Savi/Nayívi Savi/Ñuù Davi/Nayivi Davi): Oaxaca, Mexico\nTrique: Oaxaca, Mexico\nOto-Pamean peoples\nChichimeca Jonaz (Úza): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nMatlatzinca: Mexico (state), Mexico\nMazahua (Tetjo Ñaa Jñatjo): Mexico (state), Mexico\nOtomi (Hñähñu/Hñähño/Ñuhu/Ñhato/Ñuhmu): Central Mexico, Mexico\nPame (Xi'úi): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nPopolocan peoples\nChocho (Ngiwa): Oaxaca, Mexico\nIxcatec: Oaxaca, Mexico\nPopoloca: Oaxaca, and Puebla, Mexico\nMazatec (Ha Shuta Enima): Puebla and Oaxaca, Mexico\nTlapanec (Me'phaa): Guerrero, Mexico\nZapotecan peoples\nChatino (Kitse Cha'tño): Oaxaca, Mexico\nZapotec (Be'ena'a/Didxažon): Oaxaca, Mexico\nTarascan (P'urhépecha): Michoacán, Mexico\nTequistlatecan/Chontal de Oaxaca: Oaxaca, Mexico\nTotonacan peoples\nTotonac (Tutunacu): Veracruz and Puebla, Mexico\nUto-Aztecan peoples\nAztecan peoples\nNahua (Nāhuatlācah): Mexico\nCorachol peoples\nCora (Náayarite): Jalisco and Nayarit, Mexico\nHuichol (Wixáritari/Wixárita): Jalisco and Nayarit, Mexico\nXinca (Xinka): Guatemala\n\nCircum-Caribbean \n\nChibchan peoples\nBoruca: Costa Rica\nBribri: Costa Rica\nCabécar: Costa Rica\nNaso/Teribe/Tjër Di: Costa Rica, Panama\nGuaymi/Waimi peoples\nBokota: Panama\nNgäbe–Buglé: Panama, Costa Rica\nTalamanca peoplesl\nKuna (Dule/Tule): Panama\nPech: Honduras\nVotic peoples\nMaleku: Costa Rica\nRama: Nicaragua\nChocó/Embera-Wounaan peoples\nEmberá/Chocó proper (ɛ̃berá): Panama\nMisumalpan peoples\nMiskito (Miskitu): Honduras and Nicaragua\nTawira Miskito (Tawira Miskitu) \nSumalpan peoples\nSumo (Mayangna): Nicaragua\nTolupan/Jicaque: Honduras\nZambo/Cafuso peoples (mixed West African and Amerindian peoples)\nGarífuna: A mixed West African (from several peoples) and Amerindian people (mainly from the Island Caribs - Kalhíphona) that traditionally speaks an Arawakan language in Belize and Honduras.\nMiskito Sambu: A mixed West African (from several peoples) and Amerindian people (mainly from the original Miskito) that traditionally speaks Miskito, a Misumalpan language, and also Nicaragua Creole English in Nicaragua and Honduras.\nBlack Seminoles: Florida, The Bahamas, and Mexico. (Mixed Seminole and African).\n\nWest Indies \n\nThe West Indies, or the Caribbean, generally includes the island chains of the Caribbean Sea.\nArawakan peoples\nNorthern\nCircum-Caribbean/Ta-Arawakan peoples\nEyeri/Igneri: Lesser Antilles. An Arawak people, may have been the Kalinago/Island Caribs before caribbeanization. (The Island Caribs had the tradition that the Igneri were the older people of Lesser Antilles but they could have been ancestors of the majority of Island Caribs).\nIsland Caribs (Carib/Kalinago/Kalhíphona): Lesser Antilles. Often called \"Island Caribs\" (but may have been an older arawak people with a carib conquering warrior elite or influenced by Mainland Caribs. Apparently, the majority of the people spoke an arawakan language and not a carib one.)\nTaíno: Amerindians who originally inhabited the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean, they are of Arawakan descent.\nNeo-Taíno nations Some scholars distinguish between the Taíno and Neo-Taíno groups. Neo-Taíno groups were also native to the Antilles islands, but had distinctive languages and cultural practices that differed from the High Taíno. These groups include:\nCiboney: a term preferred in Cuban historical texts for the neo-Taino-Siboney nations of the island of Cuba.\nCiguayo: Eastern Hispaniola\nLucayans: Based in the Bahamas.\nMacorix: Hispaniola.\nGuanahatabey people: Western Cuba island, a Pre-Arawakan and Pre-Island Carib people of the Caribbean Islands.\n\nSouth America \n\nSouth America generally includes all of the continent and islands south of the Isthmus of Panama.\n\nIndigenous peoples in South America by Country:\nIndigenous peoples in Argentina\nList of indigenous peoples of Brazil\nIndigenous peoples in Chile\nIndigenous peoples in Colombia\nIndigenous peoples in Ecuador\nIndigenous peoples in Peru\nIndigenous peoples in South America by native cultural regions\n\nCircum-Caribbean (Chibcha) \n\nArawakan peoples\nNorthern\nTa-Arawakan\nWayuu: Venezuela/Colombia\nChibchan peoples\nChibcha–Motilon\nChibcha–Tunebo\nU'wa: Colombia\nKuna–Colombian\nKuna (Dule/Tule): Panama\nChocoan peoples\nEmbera (ɛ̃berá): Colombia/Panamá\nWarao: Venezuela's Orinoco River delta region.\n\nAmazon \n\nArawakan peoples\nSouthern\nCampa\nAsháninka: Peru\nBarbacoan peoples\nAwan\nAwá-Kwaiker: Northern Ecuador\nBora-Witoto peoples\nBora: Colombia/Peru\nCahuapanan peoples\nChayahuita: Loreto, Peru\nJivaroan (Shuar): Loreto and San Martín, Peru\nNukak: Colombia\nPanoan peoples\nMainline Panoan\nNawa\nChama\nShipibo-Conibo people: Ucayali, Peru\nShipibo: Ucayali, Peru\nHeadwaters\nYora: Amazon rainforest, southeast Peru\nMayoruna\nMayo\nKorubu (Dslala): Brazil\nMatis: Brazil/Peru\nMatsés: Brazil/Peru\nPirahã: Brazil\nTicuna-Yuri peoples\nTicuna (Tikuna): Brazil/Peru/Colombia\nTucanoan peoples\nEastern\nNorth\nTukano: Colombia\nWestern\nNapo\nSiona–Secoya\nSecoya: Loreto, Peru/Ecuador\nTupian peoples\nTupí-Guaraní\nTupi: Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Argentina\nCocama-Omagua\nCocama-Cocamilla (Kokáma): Loreto, Peru\nTapirape: Brazil\nWayampí\nGuajá\nAwá-Guajá: eastern Amazonian rainforest, Brazil\nUrarina (Kachá): Chambira Basin, Loreto Peru\nYanomami (Yanõmami/Yanõmami Thëpë): Venezuela/Brazil\n\nGuianas \n\nCariban peoples\nGalibi/Kalina (Mainland Caribs): Guianas, Venezuela (northern coast of South America)\nYekuana\nEñapa (Panare)\nPemóng\nPemóng\nMakuxi: Brazil, Guyana\nYanomami (Yanõmami/Yanõmami Thëpë): Venezuela/Brazil\nPiaroa (Wothïha): Venezuela/Colombia\n\nEastern Highlands (Brazilian Highlands) \n\nCharruan peoples\nCharrúa: Uruguay, Brazil and Argentina\nMacro-Gê peoples\nBororoan\nBororo: Mato Grosso, Brazil\nOfaie\nKarajá/Iny: Brazil\nTupian peoples\nTupí-Guaraní\nGuaraní (I)\nAche: Paraguay\nPai Tavytera: Paraguay\nGuaraní\nGuaraní (Abá/Avá): Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia and Argentina\nTupi: Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Argentina\nCocama-Omagua\nCocama-Cocamilla (Kokáma): Loreto, Peru\nTapirape: Brazil\nWayampí\nGuajá\nAwá-Guajá: eastern Amazonian rainforest, Brazil\n\nChaco \n\nMascoian peoples\nEnxet: Paraguay\nMatacoan peoples\nWichí: the Chaco, Argentina/Bolivia\nZamucoan peoples\nAyoreo: the Chaco, Paraguay/Bolivia\n\nCentral Andes \n\nAymaran peoples\nAymara: Peru/Bolivia/Chile\nNasa: Colombia\nQuechuan peoples\nQuechua (Nunakuna/Runakuna/Kichwa/Inga)\n\nSouthern Cone\n\nAraucania \nAraucanian peoples\nMapuche (Araucanians): Chile/Argentina\nMapuche-Huilliche\nPehuenche\n\nPatagonia \nChono: Chiloé, Guaitecas and Chonos\nTehuelche: Southern Chile/Argentina\n\nTierra del Fuego \nAlacalufe (Kawésqar): Far Southern Chile\nSelk'nam: Southern Argentina and Chile\nYaghan (Yámana): Far Southern Chile\nHaush: Far Southern Argentina\n\nOceania \nOceania includes most islands of the Pacific Ocean, New Guinea, New Zealand and the continent of Australia.\n\nList of peoples by geographical and ethnolinguistic grouping:\n\nAustralia \n\nIndigenous Australians include Aboriginal Australians on the mainland and Tiwi Islands as well as Torres Strait Islander peoples from the Torres Strait Islands.\nAboriginal Australians include hundreds of groupings of people, defined by various overlapping characteristics such as language, culture and geography, which may include sub-groups. The Indigenous peoples of the island state of Tasmania and the Tiwi people (of the Tiwi Islands off the Northern Territory) are also Aboriginal peoples, who are genetically and culturally distinct from Torres Strait Islander peoples.\nTorres Strait Islander peoples are culturally and linguistically Papuo-Austronesian, and the various peoples of the islands are of predominantly Melanesian descent. The Torres Strait Islands are part of the state of Queensland.\n\nWestern Desert \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nKunapa: Northern Territory, Australia\nPini: Western Australia, Australia\nSpinifex: Western Australia, Australia\nWangkatha: Western Australia, Australia\nWarumungu: Northern Territory, Australia\nWati peoples\nAntakirinja: South Australia, Australia\nKokatha: South Australia, Australia\nLuritja: Northern Territory, Australia\nMadoidja: Western Australia, Australia\nMaduwongga: Western Australia, Australia\nMartu peoples\nKartudjara: Western Australia, Australia\nKeiadjara: Western Australia, Australia\nMandjildjara: Western Australia, Australia\nPutidjara: Western Australia, Australia\nWanman: Western Australia, Australia\nMarrngu peoples\nKarajarri: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nMangarla: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nNyangumarta: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nNgaanyatjarra: Northern Territory, Australia\nNgaatjatjarra: Western Australia, Australia\nPintupi: Western Australia, Australia\nPitjantjatjara: Northern Territory, Australia\nWangkatjunga: Western Australia, Australia\nYankunytjatjara: South Australia, Australia\nYulparirra: Western Australia, Australia\nYumu: Northern Territory, Australia\nYankuntjatjarra: South Australia, Australia\nMirindi peoples\nNgurlun peoples\nNgarnka: Northern Territory, Australia\nWambaya: Northern Territory, Australia\n\nKimberley \n\nBunuban peoples\nBunuba: Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia, Australia\nGooniyandi: Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia, Australia\nJarrakan peoples\nGija: Halls Creek and Kununurra, Western Australia, Australia\nMiriwoongic peoples\nMiriwoong: Kunurra, Western Australia, Australia\nGajirrawoong: Eastern Kimberley and Northern Territory, Australia\nNyulnyulan peoples\nNyulnyulic peoples\nBardi: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nJabirr Jabirr: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nJawi: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNimanburru: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNyulnyul: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nDyukun peoples\nJugun: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNgombal: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNyigina: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nWarrwa: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nYawuru: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nWorrorran peoples\nNgarinyin: Western Australia, Australia\nWorrorra: Western Australia, Australia\nWunambal: Western Australia, Australia\n\nNorthwest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nNgayarda peoples\nBailgu: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nInawongga: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nJadira: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nKurrama: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nMardudunera: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNgarla: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNgarluma: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNiabali: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNhuwala: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNyamal: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nPanyjima: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nTjuroro: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nKanyara-Mantharta peoples\nKanyara peoples\nBaiyungu: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nBinigura: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nBuruna: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nThalanyji: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nYinikutira: Exmouth, Western Australia, Australia\nMantharta peoples\nDjiwali: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nTharrkari: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nTenma: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nWarriyangga: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nKartu peoples\nBadimaya: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nMaia: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nMalgana: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nNanda: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nNokaan: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nWajarri: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nWidi: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nYingkarta: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\n\nSouthwest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nNyungic peoples\nNoongar peoples\nAmangu: Geraldton Sandplains, Western Australia, Australia\nBallardong: Avon Wheatbelt, Western Australia, Australia\nYued: Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia, Australia\nKaneang: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nKoreng: Mallee, Western Australia, Australia\nMineng: Warren, Western Australia, Australia\nNjakinjaki: Avon Wheatbelt, Western Australia, Australia\nNjunga: Esperance Plains, Western Australia, Australia\nBibulman: Warren, Western Australia, Australia\nPindjarup: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nWarandi: Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia, Australia\nWhadjuk: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nWiilman: Western Australia, Australia\nWudjari: Mallee, Western Australia, Australia\nKalaako: Goldfields–Esperance region, Western Australia, Australia\nKalamaia: Western Australia, Australia\nMirning peoples\nMirning: Western Australia and South Australia, Australia\nNgadjumaya: Goldfields–Esperance region, Western Australia, Australia\nYingkarta: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\n\nFitzmaurice Basin \n\nYirram peoples\nNungali: Northern Territory, Australia\nJaminjung: Northern Territory, Australia\nMacro-Gunwinyguan peoples\nKungarakany: Northern Territory, Australia\nWarrayic peoples\nAwarai: Northern Territory, Australia\nAwinmul: Northern Territory, Australia\nWulwulam: Northern Territory, Australia\nDaly peoples\nWagaydic peoples\nWadjiginy: Anson Bay, Northern Territory, Australia\nMulluk-Mulluk: Northern Territory, Australia\nWestern Daly peoples\nEmmiyangal: Anson Bay, Northern Territory, Australia\nMarranunggu: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMenthe: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarrithiyal: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMaramanindji: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarridan: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Amu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Tjevin: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarijedi: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Ngarr: Moyle River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMati Ke: Wadeye, Northern Territory, Australia\nEastern Daly peoples\nMadngela: Northern Territory, Australia\nYunggor: Northern Territory, Australia\nSouthern Daly peoples\nMurrinh-Patha: Wadeye, Northern Territory, Australia\nMuringura people: Fitzmaurice River, Northern Territory, Australia\nNgan'gimerri: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nArnhem Land \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYolngu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMacro-Gunwinyguan peoples\nManingrida peoples\nBurarra: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nGadjalivia: Blyth River, Northern Territory, Australia\nGunavidji: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nGurr-Goni: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nNagara: Blyth River, Northern Territory, Australia\nEast Arnhem peoples\nAnindilyakwa: Northern Territory, Australia\nNgandi: Northern Territory, Australia\nNunggubuyu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarran peoples\nAlawa: Northern Territory, Australia\nMangarayi: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarra: Northern Territory, Australia\nWarndarrang: Northern Territory, Australia\nYukul: Northern Territory, Australia\nGaagudju: Northern Territory, Australia\nGunwinyguan peoples\nGunwinggic peoples\nBininj: Northern Territory, Australia\nGambalang: Northern Territory, Australia\nDalabon: Northern Territory, Australia\nJawoyn: Nitmiluk National Park, Northern Territory, Australia\nJala peoples\nNgalakgan: Northern Territory, Australia\nRembarrnga: Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidjan peoples\nAmurdak: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidjic peoples\nMaung: Goulburn Islands, Northern Territory, Australia\nWarrkbi\nGaari: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidja: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nMarrku-Wurrugu peoples\nWurango: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nYaako: Croker Island, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nTop End \n\nTiwi: Tiwi Islands, Northern Territory, Australia\nDarwin Region peoples\nLarrakia: Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia\nLimilngan\nPuneitja: Northern Territory, Australia\nBeriguruk: Northern Territory, Australia\nDjerimanga: Northern Territory, Australia\nUmbugarlic peoples\nNgomburr: Alligator Rivers, Northern Territory, Australia\nGiimbiyu: Alligator Rivers, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nGulf Country \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nMayabic peoples\nMayi-Kutuna: Queensland, Australia\nMarrago: Queensland, Australia\nMaikulan: Queensland, Australia\nMaithakari: Queensland, Australia\nMaijabi: Queensland, Australia\nNgaun: Queensland, Australia\nWanamara: Queensland, Australia\nPaman peoples\nSouthwestern Paman peoples\nAgwamin: Queensland, Australia\nKok-Nar: Queensland, Australia\nMbara: Queensland, Australia\nYanga: Queensland, Australia\nTankgkic peoples\nLardil: Mornington Island, Wellesley Islands, Queensland, Australia\nKaiadilt: Wellesley Islands, Queensland, Australia\nYukulta: Queensland, Australia\nNguburinji: Queensland, Australia\nMingin: Queensland, Australia\nGarawan peoples\nGarrwa: Northern Territory and Queensland, Australia\nWaanyi: Queensland, Australia\n\nCape York\n\nWest Cape \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nNorth Cape York Paman peoples\nDjagaraga: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTjungundji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nInjinoo: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nLuthigh: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nMbewum: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTjungundji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTotj: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nUnduyamo: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik peoples\nWik-Mungkan: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nKugu Nganhcara: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWiknatanja: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Me'anh: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Epa: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Elken: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Paach: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Ompom: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWimaranga: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWinduwinda: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nThaypan peoples\nTagalag: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\n\nEast Cape \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nNorth Cape York Paman peoples\nYadhaykenu: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWuthathi: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nKaantju, Coen, Queensland, Australia\nPakadji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nUutaalnganu: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nLamalamic peoples\nLama Lama: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nNortheast Paman peoples\nUmpila: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\n\nDaintree Rainforest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nDjabugay: Queensland, Australia\nYidiny: Queensland, Australia\nMbabaram: Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia\nDyirbalic peoples\nDyirbal: Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia\nWarrgamay: Queensland, Australia\nNyawigi: Halifax Bay, Queensland, Australia\n\nLake Eyre Basin \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nKalkatungic peoples\nKalkatungu: Queensland, Australia\nYalarnnga: Queensland, Australia\nKarnic peoples\nArabana: South Australia, Australia\nWangkangurru: Simpson Desert, South Australia, Australia\nPitapita: Queensland, Australia\nYandruwandha: South Australia, Australia\nYawarrawarrka: South Australia, Australia\nMitaka: Queensland, Australia\nWanggumara: Queensland, Australia\nYarli peoples\nKarenggapa: New South Wales, Australia\n\nSpencer Gulf \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nThura-Yura peoples\nWirangu: South Australia, Australia\nNauo: Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nBarngarla: Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nKuyani: South Australia, Australia\nAdnyamathanha: Flinders Ranges, South Australia, Australia\nMalyangapa: New South Wales, Australia\nNgadjuri: South Australia, Australia\nNukunu: South Australia, Australia\nNarungga: Yorke Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nKaurna: Adelaide Plains, South Australia, Australia\nPeramangk: Adelaide Plains, South Australia, Australia\n\nMurray-Darling Basin \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYotayotic peoples\nYorta Yorta: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nNgarrimouro: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nLower Murray peoples\nNgarrindjeri: South Australia, Australia\nNgaiawang: South Australia, Australia\nYuyu peoples\nNgawait: Murray River, South Australia, Australia\nErawirung: Riverland, South Australia, Australia\nNgintait: South Australia and Victoria, Australia\nNgarkat: South Australia, Australia\nKureinji: New South Wales, Australia\nJitajita: New South Wales, Australia\nTatitati: Murray River, Victoria, Australia\nWiradhuric peoples\nGamilaraay: New South Wales and Queensland, Australia\nWiradjuri: New South Wales, Australia\nNgiyampaa: New South Wales, Australia\nMuruwari: New South Wales and Queensland, Australia\n\nNortheast \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nLower Burdekin peoples\nJuru: Queensland, Australia\nBindal: Queensland, Australia\nMaric peoples\nBiri peoples\nGugu-Badhun: Burdekin River, Queensland, Australia\nYilba: Mackay, Queensland, Australia\nGia: Queensland, Australia\nBiria: Queensland, Australia\nYambina: Queensland, Australia\nGaraynbal: Queensland, Australia\nYangga: Queensland, Australia\nBaranha: Queensland, Australia\nMiyan: Queensland, Australia\nYuwibara: Queensland, Australia\nKingkel peoples\nDarumbal: Queensland, Australia\nGuwinmal: Queensland, Australia\nWaka-Kabic peoples\nGoreng Goreng: Queensland, Australia\nWulli Wulli: Queensland, Australia\nWakka Wakka: Queensland, Australia\nBaruŋgam: Queensland, Australia\nGubbi Gubbi: Queensland, Australia\nButchulla: Fraser Island, Queensland, Australia\nJagera: Queensland, Australia\n\nSoutheast \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYugambeh-Bundjalung peoples\nBundjalung: New South Wales, Australia\nNgarbal: New South Wales, Australia\nGumbaynggiric peoples\nGumbaynggirr: Mid North Coast, New South Wales, Australia\nYaygirr: Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia\nAnēwan: Northern Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia\nYuin-Kuric peoples\nDjangadi: Macleay Valley, New South Wales, Australia\nGeawegal: Hunter Valley, New South Wales, Australia\nWorimi: New South Wales, Australia\nWonnarua: New South Wales, Australia\nAwabakal: New South Wales, Australia\nEora: New South Wales, Australia\nDarug: New South Wales, Australia\nGandangara: New South Wales, Australia\nTharawal: Sydney, New South Wales, Australia\nNgarigo: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nKoori: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nGippsland peoples\nGunai: Gippsland, Victoria, Australia\nBidawal: Gippsland, Victoria, Australia\nDhudhuroa: Victoria, Australia\nKulinic peoples\nKulin peoples\nWurundjeri: Yarra River, Victoria, Australia\nBoonwurrung: Werribee River, Victoria, Australia\nWathaurong: Victoria, Australia\nTaungurung: Victoria, Australia\nDjadjawurrung: Victoria, Australia\nDrual peoples\nBungandidj: Mount Gambier, South Australia, Australia\nGunditjmara: Victoria, Australia\nGulidjan: Lake Colac, Victoria, Australia\n\nTasmania \n\nPalawa peoples\nWestern Tasmanian peoples\nPeerapper: Circular Head and Robbins Island, Tasmania, Australia\nToogee: Macquarie Harbour, Tasmania, Australia\nNorthern Tasmanian peoples\nTommeginne: Northern Tasmania, Australia\nNortheastern Tasmanian peoples\nPyemmairre: Northeastern Tasmania, Australia\nTyerrernotepanner: Northern Midlands and Ben Lomond, Tasmania, Australia\nEastern Tasmanian peoples\nParedarerme: Oyster Bay, Tasmania, Australia\nLairmairrener: Big River, Tasmania, Australia\nNuennone: Bruny Island, Tasmania, Australia\n\nTorres Strait Islands \n\nTorres Strait Islanders\nBadu: Badu Island, Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nKaurareg: Central Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nMabuiag: Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nMeriam: Eastern Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\n\nMelanesia \n\nMelanesia generally includes New Guinea and other (far-)western Pacific islands from the Arafura Sea out to Fiji. The region is mostly inhabited by the Melanesian peoples.\nMelanesians\nAustronesian speaking Melanesians\nFijians (iTaukei): Fiji\nKanak: New-Caledonia\nMalaitan people: Malaita, Solomon Islands\nNi-Vanuatu: Vanuatu\nPapuan speaking Melanesians\nBaining\nPapuans: more than 250 distinct tribes or clans, each with their own language and culture. The main island of New Guinea and surrounding islands (territory forming independent state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) and the Indonesian provinces of West Papua and Papua). Considered \"Indigenous\" these people are a subject to many debates.\nSepik peoples\nKwoma: Peilungua Mountains, Papua New Guinea.\nIatmul: Sepik, Papua New Guinea.\nSepik Hill\nSanio\nHewa: Southern Highlands, PNG\nTrans New-Guinean peoples\nHuli of the Southern Highlands, Papua New Guinea.\nAngu: Southwestern Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.\nBosavi\nKaluli-Kasua\nKaluli: Great Papuan Plateau, PNG\nOk\nMountain Ok\nWopkaimin: western PNG, Star Mountains.\nWest Trans New-Guinean peoples\nDani: Papua, Indonesia\nKorowai: West Papua, close to the Papua New Guinea border.\nAsmat: Asmat Regency, West Papua.\n\nMicronesia \nMicronesia generally includes the various small island chains of the western and central Pacific. The region is mostly inhabited by the Micronesian peoples.\nMicronesians\nChamorro people: Northern Marianas and Guam\nCarolinians: Northern Marianas\n Yapese, Kosraeans, Chuukese, Pohnpeians, Palauans, Kiribati's\n\nPolynesia \n\nPolynesia includes New Zealand and the islands of Oceania, and has various Indigenous populations.\n\nPolynesians\nNative Hawaiians\nTongans\nTuvaluan people\nMarquesas Islanders\nRapanui\nSamoans\nTokelau\nAustral Islanders\nCook Islanders\nMaohi, Tahiti\nMāori, New Zealand\nMoriori, Chatham Islands\nTahitians, French Polynesia\nTuamotus\nNiueans\n\nPolynesian outliers\nVanuatuans\nKapingamarangi and Nukuoro, The Federated States of Micronesia\nRennel, Tikopia and Vaeakau-Taumako, Solomon Islands\nNuguria, Papua New Guinea\nNukumanu, Papua New Guinea\nTakuu, Papua New Guinea\nOntong Java\nSikaiana\nAnuta, Solomon Islands\nFagauvea, Ouvéa, New Caledonia\nAniwa\nBellona\nRennel\n\nCircumpolar \nCircumpolar peoples is an umbrella term for the various Indigenous peoples of the Arctic.\nList of peoples by ethnolinguistic grouping: \n\"Paleosiberian\"\nChukotko-Kamchatkan\nChukchi (Lyg'oravetl'et/O'ravetl'et): Siberia, Russian Far East, Russia\nKoryaks (Nymylan-Chauchuven): Russian Far East\nTungusic\nEvenks (Evenkil): China, Mongolia, Russia\nEskimo–Aleut\nAleut (Unangax): Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo/Yupik-Inuit\nYupik: Alaska, United States and the Russian Far East, Siberia\nAlutiiq (Sugpiat): Alaska, United States\nYup'ik (Yupiat/Yupiit/Cup'ik/Cupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ig (Nunivak Cup'ig people): Nunivak Island (Alaska), United States\nSiberian Yupik (Yupighyt): Siberia, Russia\nInuit: Greenland, Northern Canada (Nunavut, Nunavik and Northwest Territories), Alaska, United States\nInupiat (Iñupiat): Alaska's Arctic and North Slope boroughs and the Bering Straits\nKalaallit (Kalaallit): Greenland\nTurkic\nNortheast Turks\nDolgans (Dolgan/Tya Kikhi): Siberia (Krasnoyarsk Krai), Russia\nYakuts (Sakha): Siberia (Sakha Republic), Russia\nUgrians, Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nKhanty (Kantek/Khanti): Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nMansi, formerly known as Voguls: Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nSami (Sámi/Saami/Lapp), formerly known by the exonym Lapps: Northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Kola Peninsula in Russia\nSamoyedic peoples\nNorthern Samoyedic peoples: West Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nEnets (Entsi): Far Northern Western Siberia, Russia\nNenets (Neney Neneche): Far Northern Western Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nNganasan (Ŋənəhsa(nəh)): Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia, Russia\nYukaghirs (Odul/Vadul/Detkil'): Far Northern East Siberia, Russia\n\nSee also \n\nCenter for World Indigenous Studies\nDeclaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples\nIndigenous peoples\nIndigenous archaeology\nIndigenous Dialogues\nIndigenous (ecology)\nIndigenous intellectual property\nIndigenous knowledge\nIndigenous language\nIndigenous medicine\nIndigenous music\nInternational Work Group for Indigenous Affairs\nUnited Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues\nWorld Council of Indigenous Peoples\nWorking Group on Indigenous Populations\nList of contemporary ethnic groups\nLists of people by nationality\nList of indigenous rights organizations\nSee all pages that start with indigenous people or indigenous\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nSources\n\n \n \n \n \n\nList\nIndigenous", "title": "List of Indigenous peoples" }, { "text": "Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups. Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region or location.\n\nHumans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.\n\nA cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.\nAccepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.\nThus in military culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group.\n\nCultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies.\n\nOrganizations like UNESCO attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage.\n\nDescription \n\nCulture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Cultural universals are found in all human societies. These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing. The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.\n\nIn the humanities, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture, or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification, clothing or jewelry. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the proletariat and create a false consciousness. Such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies. In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.\n\nWhen used as a count noun, a \"culture\" is the set of customs, traditions, and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes \"culture\" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture (e.g. \"bro culture\"), or a counterculture. Within cultural anthropology, the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism hold that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture.\n\nEtymology\nThe modern term \"culture\" is based on a term used by the ancient Roman orator Cicero in his Tusculanae Disputationes, where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or \"cultura animi,\" using an agricultural metaphor for the development of a philosophical soul, understood teleologically as the highest possible ideal for human development. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy was man's natural perfection. His use, and that of many writers after him, \"refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human.\"\n\nIn 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, \"The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.' To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensely to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, to attend to it caringly.\"\n\nCulture described by Richard Velkley: ... originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were on various levels developing Rousseau's criticism of \"modern liberalism and Enlightenment.\" Thus a contrast between \"culture\" and \"civilization\" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.\n\nIn the words of anthropologist E.B. Tylor, it is \"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.\" Alternatively, in a contemporary variant, \"Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common.\n\nThe Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is \"the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time.\" Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as \"person[s] of worth within the world of meaning\"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.\n\nThe word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans. However, some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complicated, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that are transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form.\n\nChange\n\nRaimon Panikkar identified 29 ways in which cultural change can be brought about, including growth, development, evolution, involution, renovation, reconception, reform, innovation, revivalism, revolution, mutation, progress, diffusion, osmosis, borrowing, eclecticism, syncretism, modernization, indigenization, and transformation. In this context, modernization could be viewed as adoption of Enlightenment era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.\n\nCultural invention has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global \"accelerating culture change period,\" driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the human population explosion, among other factors. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.\n\nCultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures, which themselves are subject to change.\n\nSocial conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change. For example, the U.S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last ice age, plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of agriculture, which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics.\n\nCultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In diffusion, the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. \"Stimulus diffusion\" (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. \"Direct borrowing,\" on the other hand, tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. Diffusion of innovations theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.\n\nAcculturation has different meanings. Still, in this context, it refers to the replacement of traits of one culture with another, such as what happened to certain Native American tribes and many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of colonization. Related processes on an individual level include assimilation (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and transculturation. The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different cultures and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs.\n\nEarly modern discourses\n\nGerman Romanticism\n\nImmanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of \"enlightenment\" similar to the concept of bildung: \"Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity.\" He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: \"\" (\"Dare to be wise!\"). In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of : \"For Herder, was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.\"\n\nIn 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a \"Germany\" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as \"worldview\" (). According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between \"civilized\" and \"primitive\" or \"tribal\" cultures.\n\nIn 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for \"the psychic unity of mankind.\" He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of \"elementary ideas\" (); different cultures, or different \"folk ideas\" (), are local modifications of the elementary ideas. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.\n\nEnglish Romanticism\n\nIn the 19th century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word \"culture\" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of \"the best that has been thought and said in the world.\" This concept of culture is also comparable to the German concept of : \"...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world.\"\n\nIn practice, culture referred to an elite ideal and was associated with such activities as art, classical music, and haute cuisine. As these forms were associated with urban life, \"culture\" was identified with \"civilization\" (from ). Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore, which led to identifying a \"culture\" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture, namely that of the ruling social group, and low culture. In other words, the idea of \"culture\" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.\n\nMatthew Arnold contrasted \"culture\" with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted \"culture\" with \"the state of nature.\" According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between \"civilized\" and \"uncivilized.\" According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects.\n\nOther 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by \"the folk,\" i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as \"noble savages\" living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified capitalist systems of the West.\n\nIn 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion. According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms. In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of religion.\n\nAnthropology\n\nAlthough anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture, in the 20th century \"culture\" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human experiences symbolically, and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially. American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and in the United States and Canada, archaeology. The term , or \"culture glasses,\" coined by German American anthropologist Franz Boas, refers to the \"lenses\" through which a person sees their own culture. Martin Lindstrom asserts that , which allow a person to make sense of the culture they inhabit, \"can blind us to things outsiders pick up immediately.\"\n\nSociology\n\nThe sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in society. For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to \"the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.\" As such, culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life. Culture can be either of two types, non-material culture or material culture. Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present.\n\nCultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term ('cultural sociology'). Cultural sociology was then reinvented in the English-speaking world as a product of the cultural turn of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols. Culture has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead, look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science.\n\nEarly researchers and development of cultural sociology\nThe sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like Marx, Durkheim, and Weber) with the growing discipline of anthropology, wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural, sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between popular culture, political control, and social class were early and lasting concerns in the field.\n\nCultural studies\n\nIn the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988) developed cultural studies. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified culture with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing). They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of popular culture; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS. It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director. Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as Western civilization or globalism.\n\nFrom the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed, it began to combine political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, museum studies, and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender. Cultural studies is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to \"fit in\" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.\n\nIn the context of cultural studies, a text includes not only written language, but also films, photographs, fashion or hairstyles: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture. Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of culture. Culture, for a cultural-studies researcher, not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies, based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies.\n\nScholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, E.P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham. This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as \"capitalist\" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the \"culture industry\" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy.\n\nIn the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, \"cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition.\" The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom. The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded. Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts. In a Marxist view, the mode and relations of production form the economic base of society, which constantly interacts and influences superstructures, such as culture. Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al.), which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis. The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism.\n\nPetrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups:\n\n The first group covers the variables that represent the \"efficiency orientation\" of the societies: performance orientation, future orientation, assertiveness, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.\n The second covers the variables that represent the \"social orientation\" of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of their members. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, and human orientation.\nIn 2016, a new approach to culture was suggested by Rein Raud, who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts (all reified meanings in circulation) and cultural practices (all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of purposes), thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory.\n\nPsychology \n\nStarting in the 1990s, psychological research on culture influence began to grow and challenge the universality assumed in general psychology. Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture. For example, people from collectivistic cultures, such as the Japanese, suppress their positive emotions more than their American counterparts. Culture may affect the way that people experience and express emotions. On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures. As different cultures dictate distinctive norms, culture shock is also studied to understand how people react when they are confronted with other cultures. Cognitive tools may not be accessible or they may function differently cross culture. For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style. Cultural lenses may also make people view the same outcome of events differently. Westerners are more motivated by their successes than their failures, while East Asians are better motivated by the avoidance of failure. Culture is important for psychologists to consider when understanding the human mental operation.\n\nProtection of culture \n\nThere are a number of international agreements and national laws relating to the protection of culture and cultural heritage. UNESCO and its partner organizations such as Blue Shield International coordinate international protection and local implementation. The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions deal with the protection of culture. Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights deals with cultural heritage in two ways: it gives people the right to participate in cultural life on the one hand and the right to the protection of their contributions to cultural life on the other.\n\nIn the 21st century, the protection of culture has been the focus of increasing activity by national and international organizations. The UN and UNESCO promote cultural preservation and cultural diversity through declarations and legally-binding conventions or treaties. The aim is not to protect a person's property, but rather to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the event of war and armed conflict. According to Karl von Habsburg, President of Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to affect the particularly sensitive cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, region or municipality.\n\nTourism is having an increasing impact on the various forms of culture. On the one hand, this can be physical impact on individual objects or the destruction caused by increasing environmental pollution and, on the other hand, socio-cultural effects on society.\n\nSee also \n\n Animal culture\n Anthropology\n Cultural area\n Cultural studies\n Cultural tourism\n Culture 21 – United Nations plan of action\n \n Outline of culture\n Recombinant culture\n Semiotics of culture\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nBooks\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Bastian, Adolf (2009), Encyclopædia Britannica Online\n \n Arnold, Matthew. 1869. Culture and Anarchy. New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.\n Bakhtin, M.M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Press. .\n Barzilai, Gad (2003). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities University of Michigan Press. \n \n Bourdieu, Pierre (1977). Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press. \n Carhart. Michael C. (2007). The Science of Culture in Enlightenment Germany, Cambridge, Harvard University press.\n Cohen, Anthony P. (1985). The Symbolic Construction of Community. New York: Routledge \n Dawkins, R. (1999) [1982]. The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene. Oxford Paperbacks. \n Findley & Rothney (1986). Twentieth-Century World, Houghton Mifflin \n Geertz, Clifford (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York. .\n \n Goodall, J. (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. \n Hoult, T.F., ed. (1969). Dictionary of Modern Sociology. Totowa, New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams & Co. \n Jary, D. and J. Jary (1991). The HarperCollins Dictionary of Sociology. New York: HarperCollins. \n Keiser, R. Lincoln (1969). The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. .\n Kroeber, A.L. and C. Kluckhohn (1952). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum \n Kim, Uichol (2001). \"Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis.\" In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook of culture and psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press \n McClenon, James. Tylor, Edward B(urnett) (1998) Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Ed. William Swatos and Peter Kivisto. Walnut Creek: AltaMira, pp. 528–529. \n Middleton, R. (1990). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. .\n O'Neil, D. (2006). Cultural Anthropology Tutorials , Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.\n Reagan, Ronald. \"Final Radio Address to the Nation\" , January 14, 1989. Retrieved June 3, 2006.\n Reese, W.L. (1980). Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. New Jersey US; Sussex, UK: Humanities Press. \n \n UNESCO (2002). Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, issued on International Mother Language Day, \n White, L. (1949). The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. \n Wilson, Edward O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Vintage. .\n Wolfram, Stephen (2002). A New Kind of Science. Wolfram Media, Inc. .\n\nArticles\n The Meaning of \"Culture\" (2014-12-27), Joshua Rothman, The New Yorker\n\nExternal links\n\n Cultura: International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology\n What is Culture?\n\n \nCategory:Social concepts\nCategory:Social constructionism\nCategory:Main topic articles", "title": "Culture" }, { "text": "Latin America is a cultural concept denoting the Americas where Romance languages—languages derived from Vulgar Latin —are predominantly spoken. The term was coined in the nineteenth century to refer to regions in the Americas that were ruled by the Spanish, Portuguese and French empires. The term does not have a precise definition, but it is \"commonly used to describe South America, Central America, Mexico, and the islands of the Caribbean.\" In a narrow sense, it refers to Hispanic America, Brazil, French West Indies and Antillean Creole French speaking Caribbean countries.\n\nThe term \"Latin America\" is broader than categories such as Hispanic America, which specifically refers to Spanish-speaking countries; and Ibero-America, a term not generally used that specifically refers to Spanish, French and French Creole-speaking countries and Portuguese-speaking countries sometimes leaving French and British excolonies aside.\n\nThe term Latin America was first used in an 1856 conference called \"Initiative of America: Idea for a Federal Congress of the Republics\" (Iniciativa de la América. Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas), by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao. The term was further popularized by French emperor Napoleon III's government in the 1860s as to justify France's military involvement in the Second Mexican Empire and to include French-speaking territories in the Americas such as French Canada, French Louisiana, French Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Haiti and the French Antillean Creole Caribbean islands Saint Lucia and Dominica, in the larger group of countries where Spanish and Portuguese languages prevailed.\n\nThe region covers an area that stretches from Mexico to Tierra del Fuego and includes much of the Caribbean. It has an area of approximately 19,197,000 km (7,412,000 sq mi), almost 13% of the Earth's land surface area. As of March 2, 2020, the population of Latin America and the Caribbean was estimated at more than 652 million, and in 2019, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of US$5,188,250 trillion and a GDP PPP of US$10,284,588 trillion.\n\nEtymology and definitions\n\nOrigins\n \nThere is no universal agreement on the origin of the term Latin America. The concept and term came into being in the nineteenth century, following the political independence of countries from the Spanish and Portuguese empires. It was also popularized in 1860s France during the reign of Napoleon III. The term Latin America was a part of its attempt to create a French empire in the Americas. Research has shown that the idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic and cultural affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that a part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a \"Latin race\", and that it could, therefore, ally itself with \"Latin Europe\", ultimately overlapping the Latin Church, in a struggle with \"Teutonic Europe,\" \"Anglo-Saxon America,\" and \"Slavic Europe.\"\n\nHistorian John Leddy Phelan located the origins of the term Latin America to be from the French occupation of Mexico. His argument is that French imperialists used the concept of \"Latin\" America as a way to counter British imperialism, as well as to challenge the German threat to France. The idea of a \"Latin race\" was then taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France. French ruler Napoleon III had a strong interest in extending French commercial and political power in the region. He and his business promoter Felix Belly called it \"Latin America\" to emphasize the shared Latin background of France with the former viceroyalties of Spain and colonies of Portugal. This led to Napoleon III's failed attempt to take military control of Mexico in the 1860s.\n\nHowever, though Phelan's thesis is still frequently cited in US academy, further scholarship has shown earlier usage of the term. Two Latin American historians, Uruguayan Arturo Ardao and Chilean Miguel Rojas Mix, found evidence that the term \"Latin America\" was used earlier than Phelan claimed, and the first use of the term was in fact in opposition to imperialist projects in the Americas. Ardao wrote about this subject in his book Génesis de la idea y el nombre de América latina (Genesis of the Idea and the Name of Latin America, 1980), and Miguel Rojas Mix in his article \"Bilbao y el hallazgo de América latina: Unión continental, socialista y libertaria\" (Bilbao and the Finding of Latin America: a Continental, Socialist and Libertarian Union, 1986). As Michel Gobat points out in his article \"The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race\", \"Arturo Ardao, Miguel Rojas Mix, and Aims McGuinness have revealed [that] the term 'Latin America' had already been used in 1856 by Central Americans and South Americans protesting US expansion into the Southern Hemisphere\". Edward Shawcross summarizes Ardao's and Rojas Mix's findings in the following way: \"Ardao identified the term in a poem by a Colombian diplomat and intellectual resident in France, José María Torres Caicedo, published on 15 February 1857 in a French based Spanish-language newspaper, while Rojas Mix located it in a speech delivered in France by the radical liberal Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in June 1856\".\n\nBy the late 1850s, the term was being used in California (which had become a part of the United States), in local newspapers such as El Clamor Público by Californios writing about and , and identifying as as the abbreviated term for their \"hemispheric membership in \".\n\nThe words \"Latin\" and \"America\" were first found to be combined in a printed work to produce the term \"Latin America\" in 1856 in a conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in Paris. The conference had the title \"Initiative of the America. Idea for a Federal Congress of Republics.\" The following year, Colombian writer José María Torres Caicedo also used the term in his poem \"The Two Americas\". Two events related with the United States played a central role in both works. The first event happened less than a decade before the publication of Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works: the Invasion of Mexico or, in USA, the Mexican–American War, after which Mexico lost a third of its territory. The second event, the Walker affair, which happened the same year that both works were written: the decision by US president Franklin Pierce to recognize the regime recently established in Nicaragua by American William Walker and his band of filibusters who ruled Nicaragua for nearly a year (1856–57) and attempted to reinstate slavery there, where it had been already abolished for three decades\n\nIn both Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works, the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and William Walker's expedition to Nicaragua are explicitly mentioned as examples of dangers for the region. For Bilbao, \"Latin America\" was not a geographical concept, as he excluded Brazil, Paraguay, and Mexico. Both authors also asked for the union of all Latin American countries as the only way to defend their territories against further foreign US interventions. Both also rejected European imperialism, claiming that the return of European countries to non-democratic forms of government was another danger for Latin American countries, and used the same word to describe the state of European politics at the time: \"despotism.\" Several years later, during the French invasion of Mexico, Bilbao wrote another work, \"Emancipation of the Spirit in America,\" where he asked all Latin American countries to support the Mexican cause against France, and rejected French imperialism in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. He asked Latin American intellectuals to search for their \"intellectual emancipation\" by abandoning all French ideas, claiming that France was: \"Hypocrite, because she [France] calls herself protector of the Latin race just to subject it to her exploitation regime; treacherous, because she speaks of freedom and nationality, when, unable to conquer freedom for herself, she enslaves others instead!\" Therefore, as Michel Gobat puts it, the term Latin America itself had an \"anti-imperial genesis,\" and their creators were far from supporting any form of imperialism in the region, or in any other place of the globe.\n\nIn France, the term Latin America was used with the opposite intention. It was employed by the French Empire of Napoleon III during the French invasion of Mexico as a way to include France among countries with influence in the Americas and to exclude Anglophone countries. It played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship of the region with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area, and install Maximilian of Habsburg as emperor of the Second Mexican Empire. The term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in La revue des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement.\n\nContemporary definitions \n\n Latin America is often used synonymously with Ibero-America (\"Iberian America\"), where the populations speak Spanish or Portuguese and the dominant religion is Roman Catholic. This definition excludes the predominantly Protestant English-speaking and Dutch-speaking regions, as well as French-speaking predominantly Catholic regions. This definition has come under scrutiny for its racist connotations intentionally excluding Haiti, a culturally parallel nation to the rest of Ibero-America which played a major role in Latin American liberation and falls under the semantic definition of the term, explained below. Belize, Guyana and Suriname, as well as several French overseas departments, are excluded from the definition. Puerto Rico, the Spanish-speaking Caribbean territory of the U.S., acquired from the Spanish Empire following its defeat in the 1898 Spanish American War, is then usually included. \n In another definition, which is close to the semantic origin, Latin America designates the set of countries in the Americas where a Romance language (a language derived from Latin) predominates: Spanish, Portuguese, French, or a creole language based upon the three. Thus, it includes Mexico; most of Central and South America; and in the Caribbean, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. Latin America then comprises all of the countries in the Americas that were once part of the Spanish, Portuguese, and French Empires. Puerto Rico, although not a sovereign nation, is often included.\n The term is sometimes used more broadly to refer to all of the Americas south of the United States, thus including the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname); the Anglophone Caribbean (and Belize); the Francophone Caribbean; and the Dutch Caribbean. This definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural aspects (see, for example, dependency theory). Some sources avoid this simplification by using the alternative phrase \"Latin America and the Caribbean\", as in the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas. A number of academic area-studies programs and centers of Latin American studies are titled \"Latin American and Caribbean\" studies, such as the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies, University of Michigan, New York University Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS), and University of Washington's Latin American and Caribbean Studies, The Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Although the U.S. acquired a large swath of territory from the Spanish Empire and called Spanish borderlands and nearly 20% of the U.S. population identifies as \"Hispanic\" (or \"Latinx\"), the U.S. is generally not classified as being part of Latin America. However, the significant demographic is sometimes brought under the umbrella of Latin American studies, such as at University of Albany.\n\nThe distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance language- and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Neither area is culturally or linguistically homogeneous; in substantial portions of Latin America (e.g., highland Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala), Native American cultures and, to a lesser extent, Amerindian languages, are predominant, and in other areas, the influence of African cultures is strong (e.g., the Caribbean basinincluding parts of Colombia and Venezuela).\n\nThe term's meaning is contested and not without controversy. Historian Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo explores at length the \"allure and power\" of the idea of Latin America. He remarks at the outset, \"The idea of 'Latin America' ought to have vanished with the obsolescence of racial theory... But it is not easy to declare something dead when it can hardly be said to have existed,\" going on to say, \"The term is here to stay, and it is important.\" Following in the tradition of Chilean writer Francisco Bilbao, who excluded Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay from his early conceptualization of Latin America, Chilean historian Jaime Eyzaguirre has criticized the term Latin America for \"disguising\" and \"diluting\" the Spanish character of a region (i.e. Hispanic America) with the inclusion of nations that, according to him, do not share the same pattern of conquest and colonization.\n\nThe Francophone part of North America which includes Quebec and Acadia is generally excluded from the definition of Latin America.\n\nSubregions and countries\n\nLatin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, demographics and culture. It is defined as all of the Americas south of the United States, the basic geographical subregions are North America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America; the latter contains further politico-geographical subdivisions such as the Southern Cone, The Guianas and the Andean states. It may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Spanish America, Portuguese America, and French America.\n\n*: Not a sovereign state\n\nHistory\n\nBefore European contact in 1492\n\n \n\nThe earliest known human settlement in the area was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is disputed evidence of even earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the North and South America and the Caribbean islands. Although the region now known as Latin America stretches from northern Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, the diversity of its geography, topography, climate, and cultivable land means that populations were not evenly distributed. Sedentary populations of fixed settlements supported by agriculture gave rise to complex civilizations in Mesoamerica (central and southern Mexico and Central America) and the highland Andes populations of Quechua and Aymara, as well as Chibcha.\n\nAgricultural surpluses from intensive cultivation of maize in Mesoamerica and potatoes and hardy grains in the Andes were able to support distant populations beyond farmers' households and communities. Surpluses allowed the creation of social, political, religious, and military hierarchies, urbanization with stable village settlements and major cities, specialization of craft work, and the transfer of products via tribute and trade. In the Andes, llamas were domesticated and used to transport goods; Mesoamerica had no large domesticated animals to aid human labor or provide meat. Mesoamerican civilizations developed systems of writing; in the Andes, knotted quipus emerged as a system of accounting.\n\nThe Caribbean region had sedentary populations settled by Arawak or Tainos and in what is now Brazil, many Tupian peoples lived in fixed settlements. Semi-sedentary populations had agriculture and settled villages, but soil exhaustion required relocation of settlements. Populations were less dense and social and political hierarchies less institutionalized. Non-sedentary peoples lived in small bands, with low population density and without agriculture. They lived in harsh environments. By the first millennium CE, the Western Hemisphere was the home of tens of millions of people; the exact numbers are a source of ongoing research and controversy.\n\nThe last two great civilizations, the Aztecs and Incas, emerged into prominence in the early fourteenth century and mid-fifteenth centuries. Although the Indigenous empires were conquered by Europeans, the sub-imperial organization of the densely populated regions remained in place. The presence or absence of Indigenous populations had an impact on how European imperialism played out in the Americas. The pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica and the highland Andes became sources of pride for American-born Spaniards in the late colonial era and for nationalists in the post-independence era. For some modern Latin American nation-states, the Indigenous roots of national identity are expressed in the ideology of indigenismo. These modern constructions of national identity usually critique their colonial past.\n\nColonial era, 1492-1825\n\nSpanish and Portuguese colonization of the Western Hemisphere laid the basis for societies now seen as characteristic of Latin America. In the fifteenth century, both Portugal and Spain embarked on voyages of overseas exploration, following the Christian Reconquista of Iberia from Muslims. Portugal sailed down the west coast of Africa and the Crown of Castile in central Spain authorized the voyage of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus. Portugal's maritime expansion into the Indian Ocean was initially its main interest; but the off-course voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 allowed Portugal to claim Brazil. The 1494 line of demarcation between Spain and Portugal gave Spain all areas to the west, and Portugal all areas to the east. For Portugal, the riches of Africa, India, and the Spice Islands were far more important initially than the unknown territory of Brazil. By contrast, having no better prospects, the Spanish crown directed its energies to its New World territories. Spanish colonists began founding permanent settlements in the circum-Caribbean region, starting in 1493. In these regions of early contact, Spaniards established patterns of interaction with Indigenous peoples that they transferred to the mainland. At the time of European contact, the area was densely populated by Indigenous peoples who had not organized as empires, nor created large physical complexes. With the expedition of Hernán Cortés from Cuba to Mexico in 1519, Spaniards encountered the Indigenous imperial civilization of the Aztecs. Using techniques of warfare honed in their early Caribbean settlements, Cortés sought Indigenous allies to topple the superstructure of the Aztec Empire after a two-year war of conquest. The Spanish recognized many Indigenous elites as nobles under Spanish rule with continued power and influence over commoners, and used them as intermediaries in the emerging Spanish imperial system.\n\nWith the example of the conquest of central Mexico, Spaniards sought similar great empires to conquer, and expanded into other regions of Mexico and Central America, and then the Inca empire, by Francisco Pizarro. By the end of the sixteenth century Spain and Portugal claimed territory extending from Alaska to the southern tip of Patagonia. They founded cities that remain important centers. In Spanish America, these include Panama City (1519), Mexico City (1521) Guadalajara (1531–42), Cartagena (1532), Cuzco (1534), Lima (1535), and Quito (1534). \nIn Brazil, coastal cities were founded: Olinda (1537), Salvador de Bahia (1549), São Paulo (1554), and Rio de Janeiro (1565). \n\nSpaniards explored extensively in the mainland territories they claimed, but they settled in great numbers in areas with dense and hierarchically organized Indigenous populations and exploitable resources, especially silver. Early Spanish conquerors saw the Indigenous themselves as an exploitable resource for tribute and labor, and individual Spaniards were awarded grants of encomienda forced labor as reward for participation in the conquest. Throughout most of Spanish America, Indigenous populations were the largest component, with some black slaves serving in auxiliary positions. The three main racial groups during the colonial era were European whites, black Africans, and Indigenous. Over time, these populations intermixed, resulting in castas. In most of Spanish America, the Indigenous were the majority population.\n\nBoth dense Indigenous populations and silver were found in New Spain (colonial Mexico) and Peru, and the now-countries became centers of the Spanish empire. The Viceroyalty of New Spain, centered in Mexico City, was established in 1535 and the Viceroyalty of Peru, centered in Lima, in 1542. The Viceroyalty of New Spain also had jurisdiction over the Spanish East Indies, once the Spanish established themselves there in the late sixteenth century. The viceroy was the direct representative of the king.\n\nThe Roman Catholic Church, as an institution, launched a \"spiritual conquest\" to convert Indigenous populations to Christianity, incorporating them into Christendom, with no other religion permitted. Pope Alexander VI in 1493 had bestowed on the Catholic Monarchs great power over ecclesiastical appointments and the functioning of the church in overseas possessions. The monarch was the patron of the institutional church. The state and the Catholic church were the institutional pillars of Spanish colonial rule. In the late eighteenth century, the crown also established a royal military to defend its possessions against foreign incursions, especially by the British. It also increased the number of viceroyalties in Spanish South America.\n\nPortugal did not establish firm institutional rule in Brazil until the 1530s, but it paralleled many patterns of colonization in Spanish America. The Brazilian Indigenous peoples were initially dense, but were semi-sedentary and lacked the organization that allowed Spaniards to more easily incorporate the Indigenous into the colonial order. The Portuguese used Indigenous laborers to extract the valuable commodity known as brazilwood, which gave its name to the colony. Portugal took greater control of the region to prevent other European powers, particularly France, from threatening its claims.\n\nEuropeans sought wealth in the form of high-value, low-bulk products exported to Europe. The Spanish Empire established institutions to secure wealth for itself and protect its empire in the Americas from rivals. In trade it followed principles of mercantilism, where its overseas possessions were to enrich the center of power in Iberia. Trade was regulated through the royal House of Trade in Seville, Spain, with the main export from Spanish America to Spain being silver, later followed by the red dye cochineal. Silver was found in the Andes, in particular the silver mountain of Potosí, (now in Bolivia) in the region where Indigenous men were forced to labor in the mines. In New Spain, rich deposits of silver were found in northern Mexico, in Zacatecas and Guanajuato, outside areas of dense Indigenous settlement. Labor was attracted from elsewhere for mining and landed estates were established to raise wheat, range cattle and sheep. Mules were bred for transportation and to replace of human labor in refining silver. \n\nIn Brazil and some Spanish Caribbean islands, plantations for sugar cultivation developed on a large scale for the export market. For Brazil, the development of the plantation complex transformed the colony from a backwater of the Portuguese empire to a major asset. The Portuguese transported enslaved laborers from their African territories and the seventeenth-century \"age of sugar\" was transformational, seeing Brazil becoming a major economic component of the Portuguese empire. The population increase exponentially, with the majority being enslaved Africans. Settlement and economic development was largely coastal, the goal of sugar export to European markets. With competition from other sugar producers, Brazil's fortunes based on sugar declined, but in the eighteenth century, diamonds and gold were found in the southern interior, fueling a new wave of economic activity. As the economic center of the colony shifted from the sugar-producing northeast to the southern region of gold and diamond mines, the capital was transferred from Salvador de Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in 1763. During the colonial era, Brazil was also the manufacturing center for Portugal's ships. As a global maritime empire, Portugal created a vital industry in Brazil. Once Brazil achieved its independence, this industry languished.\n\nIn Spanish America, manufactured and luxury goods were sent from Spain and entered Spanish America legally only through the Caribbean ports of Veracruz, Havana, and Cartagena, as well as the Pacific port of Callao, in Peru. Trans-Pacific trade was established in the late sixteenth century from Acapulco to the Philippines via the Manila Galleon, transporting silver from Mexico and Peru to Asia; Chinese silks and porcelains were sent first to Mexico and then re-exported to Spain. This system of commerce was in theory was tightly controlled, but was increasingly undermined by other European powers. The English, French, and Dutch seized Caribbean islands claimed by the Spanish and established their own sugar plantations. The islands also became hubs for contraband trade with Spanish America. Many regions of Spanish America that were not well supplied by Spanish merchants, such as Central America, participated in contraband trade with foreign merchants. The eighteenth-century Bourbon reforms sought to modernize the mercantile system to stimulate greater trade exchanges between Spain and Spanish America in a system known as comercio libre. It was not free trade in the modern sense, but rather free commerce within the Spanish empire. Liberalization of trade and limited deregulation sought to break the monopoly of merchants based in the Spanish port of Cádiz. Administrative reforms created the system of districts known as intendancies, modeled on those in France. Their creation was aimed at strengthening crown control over its possessions and sparking economic development.\n\nBoth Spain and Portugal restricted foreign powers from trading in their American colonies or entering coastal waters it had claimed. Other European powers challenged the exclusive rights claimed by the Iberian powers. The English, Dutch, and French permanently seized islands in the Caribbean and created sugar plantations on the model developed in Brazil. In Brazil, the Dutch seized the sugar-producing area of the northeast, but after 30 years they were expelled.\n\nColonial legacies\n\nMore than three centuries of direct Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule left lasting imprints on Latin America. Spanish and Portuguese are the dominant languages of the region, and Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. Diseases to which Indigenous peoples had no immunity devastated their populations, although populations still exist in many places. The forced transportation of African slaves transformed major regions where they labored to produce the export products, especially sugar. In regions with dense Indigenous populations, they remained the largest percentage of the population; sugar-producing regions had the largest percentage of blacks. European whites in both Spanish America and Brazil were a small percentage of the population, but they were also the wealthiest and most socially elite; and the racial hierarchies they established in the colonial era have persisted. Cities founded by Europeans in the colonial era remain major centers of power. In the modern era, Latin American governments have worked to designate many colonial cities as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Exports of metals and agricultural products to Europe dominate Latin American economies, with the manufacturing sector deliberately suppressed; the development of modern, industrial economies of Europe depended on the underdevelopment of Latin America.\n\nDespite the many commonalities of colonial Spanish America and Brazil, they did not think of themselves as being part of a particular region; that was a development of the post-independence period beginning in the nineteenth century. The imprint of Christopher Columbus and Iberian colonialism in Latin America began shifting in the twentieth century. \"Discovery\" by Europeans was reframed as \"encounter\" between the Old World and the New. An example of the new consciousness was the dismantling of the Christopher Columbus monument in Buenos Aires, one of many in the hemisphere, mandated by leftist President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. Its replacement was a statue to a mestiza fighter for independence, Juana Azurduy de Padilla, provoking a major controversy in Argentina over historical and national identity.\n\nIndependence era (1776–1825)\n\nIndependence in the Americas was not inevitable or uniform in the Americas. Events in Europe had a profound impact on the colonial empires of Spain, Portugal, and France in the Americas. France and Spain had supported the American Revolution that saw the independence of the Thirteen Colonies from Britain, which had defeated them in the Seven Years' War (1757–63). The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, a political and social uprising toppling the Bourbon monarchy and overturning the established order, precipitated events in France's rich Caribbean sugar colony of Saint-Domingue, whose black population rose up, led by Toussaint L'ouverture. The Haitian Revolution had far-reaching consequences. Britain declared war on France and attacked ports in Saint-Domingue. Haiti gained independence in 1804, led by ex-slave Jean-Jacques Dessalines following many years of violent struggle, with huge atrocities on both sides. Haitian independence affected colonial empires in the Americas, as well as the United States. Many white, slave-owning sugar planters of Saint-Domingue fled to the Spanish island of Cuba, where they established sugar plantations that became the basis of Cuba's economy. Uniquely in the hemisphere, the black victors in Haiti abolished slavery at independence. Many thousands of remaining whites were executed on the orders of Dessalines. For other regions with large enslaved populations, the Haitian Revolution was a cautionary tale for the white slave-owning planters. Despite Spain and Britain's satisfaction with France's defeat, they \"were obsessed by the possible impact of the slave uprising on Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Jamaica\", by then a British sugar colony. US President Thomas Jefferson, a wealthy slave owner, refused to recognize Haiti's independence. Recognition only came in 1862 from President Abraham Lincoln. Given France's failure to defeat the slave insurgency and since needing money for the war with Britain, Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining mainland holdings in North America to the United States in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase.\n\nNapoleon's invasion of the Iberian peninsula in 1807-1808 was a major change in the world order, with the stability of both the metropoles and their overseas possessions upended. It resulted in the movement, with British help, of the Portuguese royal court to Brazil, its richest colony. In Spain, France forced abdication of the Spanish Bourbon monarchs and their replacement with Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte as king. The period from 1808 to the restoration in 1814 of the Bourbon monarchy saw new political experiments. In Spanish America, the question of the legitimacy of the new foreign monarch's right to rule set off fierce debate and in many regions to wars of independence. The conflicts were regional and usually quite complex. Chronologically, the Spanish American independence wars were the conquest in reverse, with the areas most recently incorporated into the Spanish empire, such as Argentina and Chile, becoming the first to achieve independence, while the colonial strongholds of Mexico and Peru were the last to achieve independence in the early nineteenth century. Cuba and Puerto Rico, both old Caribbean sugar-producing areas, were not detached from Spain until the 1898 Spanish–American War, with US intervention. \n\nIn Spain, a bloody war against the French invaders broke out and regional juntas were established to rule in the name of the deposed Bourbon king, Ferdinand VII. In Spanish America, local juntas also rejected Napoleon's brother as their monarch. Spanish Liberals re-imagined the Spanish Empire as equally being Iberia and the overseas territories. Liberals sought a new model of government, a constitutional monarchy, with limits on the power of the king as well as on the Catholic Church. Ruling in the name of the deposed Bourbon monarch Ferdinand VII, representatives of the Spanish empire, both from the peninsula and Spanish America, convened a convention in the port of Cadiz. For Spanish American elites who had been shut out of official positions in the late eighteenth century in favor of peninsular-born appointees, this was a major recognition of their role in the empire. These empire-wide representatives drafted and ratified the Spanish Constitution of 1812, establishing a constitutional monarchy and set down other rules of governance, including citizenship and limitations on the Catholic Church. Constitutional rule was a break from absolutist monarchy and gave Spanish America a starting point for constitutional governance. So long as Napoleon controlled Spain, the liberal constitution was the governing document.\n\nWhen Napoleon was defeated and the Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1814, Ferdinand VII and his conservative supporters immediately reasserted absolutist monarchy, ending the liberal interregnum. In Spanish America, it set off a new wave of struggles for independence.\n \nIn South America, Simón Bolívar of Venezuela, José de San Martín of Argentina, and Bernardo O'Higgins in Chile led armies who fought for independence. In Mexico, which had seen the initial insurgency led by Hidalgo and José María Morelos, royalist forces maintained control. In 1820, when military officers in Spain restored the liberal Constitution of 1812, conservatives in Mexico saw independence as a better option. Royalist military officer Agustín de Iturbide changed sides and forged an alliance with insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero, and together they brought about Mexico's independence in 1821.\n\nFor Portugal and Brazil, Napoleon's defeat did not immediately result in the return of the Portuguese monarch to Portugal, as Brazil was the richest part of the Portuguese empire. As with Spain in 1820, Portuguese liberals threatened the power of the monarchy and compelled John VI to return in April 1821, leaving his son Pedro to rule Brazil as regent. In Brazil, Pedro contended with revolutionaries and insubordination by Portuguese troops, all of whom he subdued. The Portuguese government threatened to revoke the political autonomy that Brazil had enjoyed since 1808, provoking widespread opposition in Brazil. Pedro declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822 and became emperor. By March 1824 he had defeated all armies loyal to Portugal. Brazil's independence was achieved relatively peaceably, territorial integrity was maintained, and its ruler was from the Royal House of Braganza, whose successors ruled Brazil until their overthrow in 1889.\n\nEarly Post-Independence, ca. 1825–1879\n\nAfter independence Spanish America and Brazil differed in their forms of state rule, with most of Spanish America becoming federated republics (with the exceptions of Cuba and Puerto Rico, which remained Spanish colonies), and Brazil becoming a monarchy ruled by the Brazilian branch of the Portuguese royal family. Spanish America's fragmentation into republics with weakened state structures meant that political turmoil and violence on many levels was a characteristic of the era throughout the region. Brazil's monarchy was a stabilizing political force and the territorial integrity of the Portuguese colony carried over into the post-independence era.\n\nAlthough much of Latin America gained its independence in the early nineteenth century, formal recognition by their former metropolitan powers in Spain and Portugal did not come immediately. Portugal officially recognized Brazil on August 29, 1825. The Spanish crown did not recognize new Spanish American nations' independence and sent expeditions to Mexico in failed attempts to regain control over its valuable former territory. Spain finally recognized Mexico's independence in 1836, 15 years after it was achieved. Its recognition of Ecuador's independence came in 1840 and Paraguay's as late as 1880. The new independent territories exerted their rights to establish a government, control their national territory, establish trade relations with other nations, and levy taxes. Brazil and Mexico both established independent monarchies in 1822. Mexico's was short-lived (1822–23) under leader of the independence movement General Iturbide, who was elected constitutional emperor 19 May 1822 and forced to abdicate 19 March 1823. Iturbide had no royal pedigree, so as a commoner he had no prestige or permanent legitimacy as ruler. Brazil's monarchy, a branch of the House of Braganza, lasted until 1889. Spanish America fragmented into various regions.\n\nAs a consequence of the violent struggles for independence in most of Spanish America, the military grew in importance. In the post-independence period, it often played a key role in politics. Military leaders often became the initial heads of state, but regional strongmen, or caudillos, also emerged. The first half of the nineteenth century is sometimes characterized as the \"age of caudillos.\" In Argentina, Juan Manuel Rosas and in Mexico Antonio López de Santa Anna are exemplars of caudillos. Although most countries created written constitutions and created separate branches of government, the state and the rule of law were weak, and the military emerged as the dominant institution in the civil sphere. Constitutions were written laying out division of powers, but the rule of personalist strongmen dominated. Dictatorial powers were granted to some strongmen, nominally ruling as presidents under a constitution, as \"constitutional dictators.\" \n \nIn the religious sphere, the Roman Catholic Church, one of the pillars of colonial rule, remained a powerful institution and generally continued as the only permissible religion. With the Spanish monarch no longer the patron of the church, many national governments asserted their right to appoint clerics as a logical transfer of power to a sovereign state. The Catholic Church denied that this right had transferred to the new governments, and for a time the Vatican refused to appoint new bishops. In Brazil, because the ruler after independence was a member of the House of Braganza, and Portugal recognized political independence quite speedily, the Vatican appointed a papal nuncio to Brazil in 1830. This official had jurisdiction over not just Brazil, but also the new states in Spanish America. However, in Brazil, there were also conflicts between church and state. During the reign of Pedro II, Protestant missionaries were tolerated, and when the monarchy was overthrown in 1889, the Catholic Church was disestablished.\n\nIn the new nation-states, conservatives favored the old order of a powerful, centralized state and continuation of the Catholic Church as a key institution. In Mexico, following the abdication of Emperor Iturbide in 1823, Mexican political leaders wrote a constitution for its newly declared federated republic, the Constitution of 1824. Central America opted out of joining the new federated republic of Mexico, with no real conflict. Hero of the insurgency Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of Mexico in 1824. Conservatives pushed to take control of the government, favoring central rule of the nation, as opposed to liberals, who generally favored the power of states expressed in federalism. General Santa Anna was elected president in 1833 and was in and out of office until 1854. In South America, Gran Colombia came into being, spanning what are now the separate countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, and Peru, with independence leader Simón Bolívar as head of state (1819–30). Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831 due to conflicts similar to those elsewhere in Spanish America between centralist conservatives and pro-federalist liberals. In Argentina, the conflict resulted in a prolonged civil war between unitarianas (i.e. centralists) and federalists, which were in some aspects respectively analogous to liberals and conservatives in other countries. Adding to this dispute was the almost inherited colonial-era conflict over its borders with Brazil. The Cisplatine War erupted in 1814 and ended in 1828, resulting in occupation and further secession of Provincia Oriental which in 1830 became the modern Republic of Uruguay with a central government in Montevideo. Between 1832 and 1852, Argentina existed as a confederation, without a head of state, although the federalist governor of Buenos Aires province, Juan Manuel de Rosas, was given the power to pay debt and manage international relations, and exerted a growing hegemony over the country. A national constitution was not enacted until 1853, and reformed in 1860, and the country reorganized as a federal republic led by a liberal-conservative elite. Centralist Uruguay enacted its constitution on its first day of existence in 1830, but wasn't immune to a similar polarization of the new state that involved blancos and colorados, where the agrarian conservative interests of blancos were pitted against the liberal commercial interests of colorados based in Montevideo, and which eventually resulted in the Guerra Grande civil war (1839–1851). Both the blancos and colorados evolved into political parties of the same names that still exist in Uruguay today and are considered among the first and most longstanding political parties in the world.\n\nIn Brazil, Emperor Dom Pedro I, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissension with both the liberal and conservative sides of politics (including an attempt of republican secession), went to Portugal in 1831 to reclaim his daughter's crown, abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the title of Dom Pedro II). As a minor, the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of age, so a regency was set up by the National Assembly. In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, as the Cabanagem, the Malê Revolt, the Balaiada, the Sabinada, and the Ragamuffin War, which emerged from dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slave-holding and newly independent nation state. This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841. During the last phase of the monarchy, an internal political debate was centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850, as a result of the British Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution formally abolished. On 15 November 1889, worn out by years of economic stagnation, attrition of the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.\n\nForeign powers, particularly the Great Britain and the U.S., were keenly interested in the possibilities resulting from political independence. They quickly recognized the governments of newly independent countries in Latin America and established commercial relationships with them. The former imperial limits on trade with foreign powers ended with independence and foreign investors sought newly opened opportunities. With the 1803 Louisiana Purchase from France, the U.S. now bordered New Spain. Both the U.S. and Spain sought clarity about their borders, signing the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty ceding Florida to the U.S. and setting the northern border of Spain's claim in North America. When Mexico achieved independence in 1821 and briefly became a monarchy, the U.S. recognized the government under Agustín de Iturbide, sending diplomat Joel Poinsett as its representative 1822–23. Poinsett concluded an agreement with Mexico confirming the terms of the Adams-Onís Treaty. Previously Poinsett had traveled widely in Latin America and had concluded a trade agreement with independent Argentina. European and U.S. interests in the region fueled the demand for Latin American travelogues, an important source of information that described economic, political, and social conditions.\n\nThe U.S. saw itself as an important power in the Americas and had a foreign policy interest in the hemisphere to exclude former imperial powers from regaining their influence. The first major articulation of U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America as a region was the 1820 Monroe Doctrine. It warned foreign powers not to intervene in the Americas. The U.S. was relatively weak compared to the powerful British Empire, but it was a key policy that informed U.S. actions toward Latin America to the current day. The U.S. was concerned that foreign powers could support Spain in its attempts to reclaim its empire. The actions that the U.S. took against potential reclamation of foreign powers of their former colonies often included its own direct interventions in the region, justified by President Theodore Roosevelt in his 1904 Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.\n\nFor Britain, their commercial interests were eager to seize the opportunity to trade with newly independent Latin America. Britain and Portugal had long been allies against the Spanish and French, so British recognition of Brazil's 1822 independence followed quickly after Portugal's. As with many other Latin American countries, Brazil exported raw materials and imported manufactured goods, which for both Britain and Brazil suited their economic strengths. For Britain, asserting economic dominance in Latin America (what is now called neocolonialism) meant that nation-states were sovereign countries, but were dependent on other powers economically. British dominance hindered the development of Latin American industries and strengthened their dependence on the world trade network. Britain now replaced Spain as the region's largest trading partner. Great Britain invested significant capital in Latin America to develop the area as a market for processed goods. \n\nFrom the early 1820s to 1850, the post-independence economies of Latin American countries were lagging and stagnant. Over the nineteenth century, enhanced trade between Britain and Latin America led to development such as infrastructure improvements, including roads and railroads, which grew the trade between the countries and outside nations such as Great Britain. By 1870, exports dramatically increased, attracting capital from abroad (including Europe and USA). Until 1914 and the outbreak of World War I, Britain was a major economic power in Latin America, especially in South America.\n\nFor the U.S., its initial sphere of influence was in Mexico, but the drive for territorial expansion, particularly for Southern slave-owners seeking new territory for their enterprises, saw immigration of white slave-owners with their slaves to Texas, which ultimately precipitated conflict between the Mexican government and the Anglo-American settlers. The Texas Revolution of 1836-37 defeated Mexican forces, and in 1845, U.S. annexation of the Texas territory that Mexico still claimed set the stage for the Mexican–American War (1846–48). The war resulted in the resounding defeat of Mexico. U.S. troops occupied Mexico City. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo added a huge swath of what had been north and northwest Mexico to the U.S., territory that Spain and then Mexico had claimed, but had not succeeded in occupying effectively. Southern slave owners were also interested in the possibility of the U.S. acquiring Cuba from Spain, with the aim of expanding both slavery and U.S. territory. The 1854 leak of the Ostend Manifesto, offering $130 million to Spain, caused a scandal among abolitionists in the U.S., who sought to end the expansion of slavery. It was repudiated by U.S. President Franklin Pierce. The American Civil War (1861–1965) decided the question of slavery. Another episode in US–Latin American relations involved the filibuster William Walker. In 1855, he traveled to Nicaragua hoping to overthrow the government and take territory for the United States. With Only 56 followers, he was able to take over the city of Granada, declaring himself commander of the army and installing Patricio Rivas as a puppet president. However, Rivas' presidency ended when he fled Nicaragua; Walker rigged the ensuing election to ensure that he became the next president. His presidency did not last long, however, as he was met with much opposition in Nicaragua and from neighboring countries. On 1 May 1857, Walker was forced by a coalition of Central American armies to surrender himself to a United States Navy officer who repatriated him and his followers. When Walker subsequently returned to Central America in 1860, he was apprehended by the Honduran authorities and executed.\n\nBritain's nineteenth-century policy was to end slavery and the slave trade, including in Latin America. In Brazil, Britain made the end of the slave trade a condition for diplomatic recognition. The Brazilian economy was entirely dependent on slaves. Abolitionists in Brazil pressed for the end of slavery, which finally ended in 1888, followed the next year by the fall of the Brazilian monarchy.\n\nThe French also sought commercial ties to Latin America, to export luxury goods and establish financial ties, including extending foreign loans to governments, often in dire need of revenue. As Mexican conservatives and liberals fought the War of the Reform over La Reforma, Mexican conservatives, to bolster their side, sought a European monarch to put on the throne of Mexico. Napoleon III of France invaded Mexico in 1862 and facilitated the appointment of Maximilian von Hapsburg. Since the U.S. was embroiled in its own civil war, it could not hinder the French occupation, which it saw as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, but the government of Abraham Lincoln continued to recognize the Republic of Mexico as the nation's government under President Benito Juárez. The French were expelled in 1867 and Emperor Maximilian executed by the victorious Republican forces, setting the stage for an era of stability and foreign economic investment a few years later when Porfirio Díaz liberal hero of the war against the French, became president of Mexico for 30 years.\n\nExport boom and neocolonialism\n\nLatin American nations after about 1870 were stable enough politically and produced commodities in demand in Western Europe and the United States so that export economies tied producing countries to consuming countries. Rather than formally ruling countries in the region, investors and their government backers exercised power and influence over local elites seeking to maintain or enhance their own positions. Companies in Great Britain forged ties especially in Brazil and Argentina, with Brazilian coffee and Argentine beef and wheat becoming staples on European dining tables. Britain constructed infrastructure to enable the efficient movement of goods and people, building port facilities to accommodate transatlantic shipping, railroads to transport goods from interior regions of production to ports, and electricity enabling telegraphs, later telephones, and street lighting in urban areas. As technology became more sophisticated, bulky agricultural products like wheat could be shipped on large ships at relatively low cost. As refrigerated ships were developed, chilled beef and tropical bananas could be shipped efficiently enough that they would not spoil. The U.S. in particular imported bananas from Central and South America. The U.S. United Fruit Company and Cuyamel Fruit Company, both ancestors of Chiquita, and the Standard Fruit Company (now Dole), acquired large tracts of land in Central America, including Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica, as well as Ecuador. The companies gained leverage over governments and ruling elites in these countries by dominating their economies and paying kickbacks, and exploited local workers. Such countries came to be called banana republics.\n \nDemand for commodities fueled armed conflicts for territory with economic potential. One such conflict was the Spanish–American War in 1898, where the U.S. intervened in the long-standing independence war in Cuba against the Spanish crown, which had held onto it after the almost complete loss of is overseas territories in the early nineteenth century. Cuba produced sugar and tobacco, both in high demand in the U.S. In the treaty with Spain ending the war, the U.S. gain Puerto Rico, Spain's other remaining Caribbean colony, as well as the Philippine Islands. There were also conflicts between Latin American nations in the late nineteenth century, as well as protracted civil wars in Mexico and Colombia. One notable international conflict was the War of the Pacific from 1879 to 1884, in which Chile seized territory and resources from Peru and Bolivia, gaining valuable nitrate deposits and leaving Bolivia landlocked with no access to the sea. Another notable conflict was the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870) in which Paraguay under Francisco Solano López tried to assist Uruguay against the Brazil-backed rebels, which angered Brazil and led to a war against Paraguay. With Brazil allied to Argentina and Uruguay, the war escalated to total war and decimated Paraguay in what became one of the most horrendous chapters in the history of the continent, with huge loss of life, land, and the destruction of the modernized sector.\n\nThe export boom created a demand for labor, which many countries could not meet domestically. Countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Peru, sought laborers from abroad, some of whom immigrated permanently, while other workers developed a pattern of cyclical work, returning to their home countries at intervals. Workers came from poorer regions of Europe, such as Italy, but also China and Japan, with single men and few women making up the initial immigrant populations.\n\nWorld War I (1914–1918) \n\nIn general, Latin America stayed out of direct conflict in World War I, but the Great Powers were aware of the region's importance for the short and long term. Germany attempted to draw Mexico into supporting its side against the British, the French, and especially the U.S., by trying to leverage anti-Americanism to its advantage. The Great Powers had been actively working to affect the course of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920). Great Britain and the U.S. had huge investments in Mexico, with Germany close behind, so the outcome of the conflict would have consequences there. The U.S. directly intervened militarily, but not on a huge scale. A German diplomatic proposal, now known as the January 1917 Zimmermann Telegram, sought to entice Mexico to join an alliance with Germany in the event of the United States entering World War I against Germany by promising the return of territory Mexico had lost to the U.S. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. The revelation of the contents outraged the American public and swayed public opinion. The news helped to generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April 1917 as well as to calm U.S.-Mexico relations. Mexico, far weaker militarily, economically, and politically than the U.S., ignored the German proposal; after the U.S. entered the war, it officially rejected it.\n\nWhen the U.S. entered the conflict in 1917, it abandoned its hunt in Mexico for the revolutionary Pancho Villa who had attacked the U.S. in Columbus, New Mexico. The Mexican government was not pro-Villa, but was angered by U.S. violation of Mexico's sovereign territory with troops. The expeditionary force led by General John J. Pershing that had hopelessly chased him around northern Mexico was deployed to Europe. The U.S. then asked Latin American nations to join Britain, France, and the U.S. against Germany. They were not quick to join, as Germany was now a major financial lender to Latin America, and a number of nations were antipathetic to the traditional lenders in Britain and France. While Latin America did join the allies, it was not without cost. The U.S. sought hemispheric solidarity against Germany, and Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Haiti declared war. Others took the lesser step of breaking diplomatic relations. Argentina, Chile, Mexico and Uruguay remained neutral.\n \nMore important was the impact of the war on transatlantic shipping, the economic lifeline for their export economies. Export economies from the mining sector and especially nitrates for gunpowder did boom, but agricultural exports of sugar and coffee languished when European economies turned to war production. Britain was on the winning side of the war, but in the aftermath its economic power was fairly reduced. After 1914, the U.S. replaced Britain as the major foreign power in Latin America. Latin American nations gained standing internationally in the aftermath of the war, participating in the Versailles Conference, signing the Treaty of Versailles and joining the League of Nations. Latin America also played an important role in the International Court of Justice.\n\nInterwar and World War II, 1920s–1945\n\nThe Great Depression was a worldwide phenomenon and had an impact on Latin America. Exports largely fell and economies stagnated. For a number of Latin American countries, the Depression made them favor an internal economic development policy of import substitution industrialization.\n\nWorld War I and the League of Nations did not settle conflicts between European nations, but in the wake of World War I, Latin American nations gained success in pressing discussions of hemispheric importance. The Inter-American System was institutionally established with the First International Conference of American States of 1889–1890, where 17 Latin American nations sent delegates to Washington D.C. and formed the Pan American Union. Subsequent Pan-American Conferences saw the initial dominance of the U.S. in the hemisphere give way as Latin American nations asserted their priorities. The Havana Conference of 1928 was the high water mark of U.S. dominance and assertion of its right to intervene in Latin America, but with the election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt to the U.S. presidency in 1932, U.S. policy changed toward Latin America. He abandoned the routine U.S. interventions in Latin America that it had claimed as its right and initiated the Good Neighbor Policy in March 1933. He sought hemispheric cooperation rather than U.S. coercion in the region. At the Montevideo Convention in December 1933, the U.S. Secretary of State voted in favor of the Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, declaring \"no state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another.\" President Roosevelt himself attended the inaugural session of the hemispheric conference in Buenos Aires in 1936, where the U.S. reaffirmed the policy of non-intervention in Latin America and discussed the issue of neutrality for the hemisphere should war break out. With the Nazi invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the spread of war in Europe, foreign ministers of hemispheric nations met in Panama, at which the Declaration of Neutrality was signed, and the territorial waters bordering the hemisphere were expanded. The aim of these moves was to strengthen hemispheric solidarity and security. With the 7 December 1941 Japanese attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, hemispheric ministers met in January 1942 in Rio de Janeiro. Some nations had already declared war on the Axis powers, while others severed relations with the Axis. Chile did not do so until 1943, and Argentina, traditionally pro-German, not until 1945. The U.S. requested that Germans suspected of Nazi sympathies be deported from Latin America to the U.S.\n\nCold War era (1945–1992)\nMany Latin American economies continued to grow in the post-World War II era, but not as quickly as they had hoped. When the transatlantic trade re-opened following the peace, Europe looked as if it would need Latin American food exports and raw materials. The policies of import substitution industrialization adopted in Latin America when exports slowed due to the Great Depression and subsequent isolation in World War II were now subject to international competition. Those who supported a return to the export of commodities for which Latin America had a competitive advantage disagreed with advocates of an expanded industrial sector. The rebuilding of Europe, including Germany, with the aid of the U.S. after World War II did not bring stronger demand for Latin American exports. In Latin America, much of the hard currency earned by their participation in the war went to nationalize foreign-owned industries and pay down their debt. A number of governments set tariff and exchange rate policies that undermined the export sector and aided the urban working classes. Growth slowed in the post-war period and by the mid-1950s, the optimism of the postwar period was replaced by pessimism.\n\nFollowing World War II, the United States policy toward Latin America focused on what it perceived as the threat of communism and the Soviet Union to the interests of Western Europe and the United States. Although Latin American countries had been staunch allies in the war and reaped some benefits from it, in the post-war period the region did not prosper as it had expected. Latin America struggled in the post-war period without large-scale aid from the U.S., which devoted its resources to rebuilding Western Europe, including Germany. In Latin America there was increasing inequality, with political consequences in the individual countries. The U.S. returned to a policy of interventionism when it felt its political and economic interests were threatened. With the breakup of the Soviet bloc in the late 1980s and early 1990s, including the Soviet Union itself, Latin America sought to find new solutions to long-standing problems. With its Soviet alliance dissolved, Cuba entered a Special Period of severe economic disruption, high death rates, and food shortages.\n\nDeeply alarming for the U.S. were two revolutions that threaten, fed its dominance in the region. The Guatemalan Revolution (1944–54) saw the replacement of a U.S.-backed regime of Jorge Ubico in 1945 followed by elections. Reformist Juan José Arévalo (1945–51) was elected and began instituting populist reforms. Reforms included land laws that threatened the interests of large foreign-owned enterprises, a social security law, workmen's compensation, laws allowing labor to organize and strike, and universal suffrage except for illiterate women. His government established diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union in April 1945, when the Soviet Union and the U.S. were allied against the Axis powers. Communists entered leadership positions in the labor movement. At the end of his term, his hand-picked successor, the populist and nationalist Jacobo Arbenz, was elected. Arbenz proposed placing capital in the hands of Guatemalans, building new infrastructure, and significant land reform via Decree 900. With what the U.S. considered the prospect of even more radical changes in Guatemala, it backed a coup against Arbenz in 1954, overthrowing him. Argentine Che Guevara was in Guatemala during the Arbenz presidency; the coup ousting Arbenz was instructive for him and for Latin American nations seeking significant structural change. In 1954 the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency aided successful military coup against Arbenz.\n\n \nThe 1959 Cuban Revolution led by Cuban lawyer Fidel Castro overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista, with 1 January 1959 marking as the revolution's victory. The revolution was a huge event not only in Cuban history, but also the history of Latin America and the world. Almost the immediately, the U.S. reacted with hostility against the new regime. As the revolutionaries began consolidating power, many middle- and upper-class Cubans left for the U.S., likely not expecting the Castro regime to last long. Cuba became a poorer and blacker country, and the Cuba Revolution sought to transform the social and economic inequalities and political instability of the previous regimes into a more socially and economically equal one. The government put emphasis on literacy as a key to Cuba's overall betterment, essentially wiping out illiteracy after an early major literacy campaign. Schools became a means to instill in Cuban students messages of nationalism, solidarity with the Third World, and Marxism. Cuba also made a commitment to universal health care, so the education of doctors and construction of hospitals were top priorities. Cuba also sought to diversify its economy, until then based mainly on sugar, but also tobacco.\n\nThe U.S. attempted to overthrow Castro, using the template of the successful 1954 coup in Guatemala. In the April 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuba entered into a formal alliance with the Soviet Union. In February 1962, the U.S placed an embargo on trade with Cuba, which remains in force as of 2021. In February 1962, the U.S. pressured members of the Organization of American States to expel Cuba, attempting to isolate it. In response to the Bay of Pigs, Cuba called for revolution in the Americas. The efforts ultimately failed, most notably with Che Guevara in Bolivia, where he was isolated, captured, and executed.\n\nWhen the U.S. discovered that the Soviet Union had placed missiles in Cuba in 1962, they reacted swiftly with a showdown now called the Cuban Missile Crisis, which ended with an agreement between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, who did not consult Cuba about its terms. One term of the agreement was that the U.S. would cease efforts to invade Cuba, a guarantee of its sovereignty. However, the U.S. continued to attempt to remove Castro from power by assassination. The Soviet Union continued to materially support the Cuban regime, providing oil and other petrochemicals, technical support, and other aid, in exchange for Cuban sugar and tobacco.\n\nFrom 1959 to 1992, Fidel Castro ruled as a caudillo, or strong man, dominating politics and the international stage. His commitment to social and economic equality brought about positive changes in Cuba, including the improvement of the position of women, eliminating prostitution, reducing homelessness, and raising the standard of living for most Cubans. However, Cuba lacks freedom of expression; dissenters were monitored by the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, and travel was restricted. In 1980, Castro told Cubans who wanted to leave to do so, promising that the government would not stop them. The Mariel boatlift saw some 125,000 Cubans sail from the Cuban port of Mariel, across the straits to the U.S., where U.S. President Carter initially welcomed them.\n\nThe Cuban Revolution had a tremendous impact not just on Cuba, but on Latin America as a whole, and the world. The Cuban Revolution was for many countries an inspiration and a model, but for the U.S. it was a challenge to its power and influence in Latin America. After leftists took power in Chile (1970) and Nicaragua (1979), Fidel Castro visited them both, extending Cuban solidarity. In Chile, Salvador Allende and a coalition of leftists, Unidad Popular, won an electoral victory in 1970 and lasted until the violent military coup of 11 September 1973. In the Nicaragua leftists held power from 1979 to 1990. The U.S. was concerned with the spread of communism in Latin America, and U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower responded to the threat he saw in the Dominican Republic's dictator Rafael Trujillo, who voiced a desire to seek an alliance with the Soviet Union. In 1961, Trujillo was murdered with weapons supplied by the CIA. U.S. President John F. Kennedy initiated the Alliance for Progress in 1961, to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America and provide $20 billion for reform and counterinsurgency measures. The reform failed because of the simplistic theory that guided it and the lack of experienced American experts who understood Latin American customs.\n\nFrom 1966 to the late 1980s, the Soviet government upgraded Cuba's military capabilities, and Cuba was active in foreign interventions, assisting with movements in several countries in Latin America and elsewhere in the world. Most notable were the MPLA during the Angolan Civil War and the Derg during the Ogaden War. They also supported governments and rebel movements in Syria, Mozambique, Algeria, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Vietnam.\n\nIn Chile, the postwar period saw uneven economic development. The mining sector (copper, nitrates) continued to be important, but an industrial sector also emerged. The agricultural sector stagnated and Chile needed to import foodstuffs. After the 1958 election, Chile entered a period of reform. The secret ballot was introduced, the Communist Party was relegalized, and populism grew in the countryside. In 1970, democratic elections brought to power socialist Salvador Allende, who implemented many reforms begun in 1964 under Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei. The economy continued to depend on mineral exports and a large portion of the population reaped no benefits from the prosperity and modernity of some sectors. Chile had a long tradition of stable electoral democracy, In the 1970 election, a coalition of leftists, the Unidad Popular (\"popular unity\") candidate Allende was elected. Allende and his coalition held power for three years, with the increasing hostility of the U.S. The Chilean military staged a bloody coup with US support in 1973. The military under General Augusto Pinochet then held power until 1990.\n\nThe 1970s and 1980s saw a large and complex political conflict in Central America. The U.S. administration of Ronald Reagan funded right-wing governments and proxy fighters against left-wing challenges to the political order. Complicating matters were the liberation theology emerging in the Catholic Church and the rapid growth of evangelical Christianity, which were entwined with politics. The Nicaraguan Revolution revealed the country as a major proxy war battleground in the Cold War. Although the initial overthrow of the Somoza regime in 1978–79 was a bloody affair, the Contra War of the 1980s took the lives of tens of thousands of Nicaraguans and was the subject of fierce international debate. During the 1980s both the FSLN (a leftist collection of political parties) and the Contras (a rightist collection of counter-revolutionary groups) received considerable aid from the Cold War superpowers. The Sandinistas allowed free elections in 1990 and after years of war, lost the election. They became the opposition party, following a peaceful transfer of power. A civil war in El Salvador pitted leftist guerrillas against a repressive government. The bloody war there ended in a stalemate, and following the fall of the Soviet Union, a negotiated peace accord ended the conflict in 1992. In Guatemala, the civil war included genocide of Mayan peasants. A peace accord was reached in 1996 and the Catholic Church called for a truth and reconciliation commission.\n\nIn the religious sphere, the Roman Catholic Church continued to be a major institution in nineteenth-century Latin America. For a number of countries in the nineteenth century, especially Mexico, liberals viewed the Catholic Church as an intransigent obstacle to modernization, and when liberals gained power, anticlericalism was written into law, such as the Mexican liberal Constitution of 1857 and the Uruguayan Constitution of 1913 which secularized the state. Although secularism was an increasing trend in Europe and North America, most Latin Americans identified as Catholic, even if they did not attend church regularly. Many followed folk Catholicism, venerated saints, and celebrated religious festivals. Many communities did not have a resident priest or even visits by priests to keep contact between the institutional church and the people. In the 1950s, evangelical Protestants began proselytizing in Latin America. In Brazil, the Catholic bishops organized themselves into a national council, aimed at better meeting the competition not only of Protestants, but also of secular socialism and communism. Following Vatican II (1962–65) called by Pope John XXIII, the Catholic Church initiated a series of major reforms empowering the laity. Pope Paul VI actively implemented reforms and sought to align the Catholic Church on the side of the dispossessed, (\"preferential option for the poor\"), rather than remain a of conservative elites and right-wing repressive regimes. Colombian Catholic priest Camilo Torres took up arms with the Colombian guerrilla movement ELN, which modeled itself on Cuba but was killed in his first combat in 1966. In 1968, Pope Paul came to the meeting of Latin American bishops in Medellín, Colombia. Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutiérrez was one of the founders of liberation theology, a term he coined in 1968, sometimes described as linking Christianity and Marxism. Conservatives saw the church as politicized, and priests ask proselytizing leftist positions. Priests became targets as \"subversives,\" such as Salvadoran Jesuit Rutilio Grande. Archbishop of El Salvador Óscar Romero called for an end to persecution of the church, and took positions of social justice. He was assassinated on 24 March 1980 while saying mass. Liberation theology informed the struggle by Nicaraguan leftists against the Somoza dictatorship, and when they came to power in 1979, the ruling group included some priests.\n\nWhen a Polish cleric became Pope John Paul II following the death of Paul VI, and the brief papacy of John Paul I, he reversed the progressive position of the church, evident in the 1979 Puebla conference of Latin American bishops. On a papal visit to Nicaragua in 1983, he reprimanded Father Ernesto Cardenal, who was Minister of Culture, and called on priests to leave politics. Brazilian theologian Leonardo Boff was silenced by the Vatican. Despite the Vatican stance against liberation theology, articulated in 1984 by Cardinal Josef Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI, many Catholic clergy and laity worked against repressive military regimes. After a military coup ousted the democratically elected Salvador Allende, the Chilean Catholic Church was a force in opposition to the regime of Augusto Pinochet and for human rights. The Argentine Church did not follow the Chilean pattern of opposition however. When Jesuit Jorge Bergoglio was elected Pope Francis, his actions during the Dirty War were an issue, as portrayed in the film The Two Popes.\n\nAlthough most countries did not have Catholicism as the established religion, Protestantism made few inroads in the region until the late twentieth century. Evangelical Protestants, particularly Pentecostals, proselytized and gained adherents in Brazil, Central America, and elsewhere. In Brazil, Pentecostals had a long history. But in a number of countries ruled by military dictatorships many Catholics followed the social and political teachings of liberation theology and were seen as subversives. Under these conditions, the influence of religious non-Catholics grew. Evangelical churches often grew quickly in poor communities where small churches and members could participate in ecstatic worship, often many times a week. Pastors in these churches did attend a seminary nor were there other institutional requirements. In some cases, the first evangelical pastors came from the U.S., but these churches quickly became \"Latin Americanized,\" with local pastors building religious communities. In some countries, they gained a significant hold and were not persecuted by military dictators, since they were largely apolitical. In Guatemala under General Efraín Ríos Montt, an evangelical Christian, Catholic Maya peasants were targeted as subversives and slaughtered. Perpetrators were later put on trial in Guatemala, including Ríos Montt.\n\nPost-Cold War era\n\nAfter the fall of the Soviet Union, the Cold War which saw U.S. intervention in Latin America as preventing Soviet influence dissipating. The Central American wars ended, with a free and fair election in Nicaragua that voted out the leftist Sandinistas, a peace treaty was concluded between factions in El Salvador, and the Guatemalan civil war ended. Cuba had lost its political and economic patron, the Soviet Union, which could no longer provide support. Cuba entered what is known there are the Special Period, when the economy contracted severely, but the revolutionary government nonetheless retained power and the U.S. remained hostile to its revolution. U.S. policy-makers developed the Washington Consensus, a set of specific economic policy prescriptions considered the standard reform package for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the US Department of the Treasury during the 1980s and 1990s. The term has become associated with neoliberal policies in general and drawn into the broader debate over the expanding role of the free market, constraints upon the state, and US influence on other countries' national sovereignty. The politico-economical initiative was institutionalized in North America by the 1994 NAFTA, and elsewhere in the Americas through a series of similar agreements. The comprehensive Free Trade Area of the Americas project, however, was rejected by most South American countries at the 4th Summit of the Americas in 2005.\n\nA debt crisis ensured after 1982 when the price of oil crashed and Mexico announced that it could not meet its foreign debt payment obligations. Other Latin American economies followed suit, with hyperinflation and the inability of governments to meet their debt obligations and the era became known as the \"lost decade.\" The debt crisis would lead to neoliberal reforms that would instigate many social movements in the region. A \"reversal of development\" reigned over Latin America, seen through negative economic growth, declines in industrial production, and thus, falling living standards for the middle and lower classes. Governments made financial security their primary policy goal over social programs, enacting new neoliberal economic policies that implemented privatization of previously national industries and the informal sector of labor. In an effort to bring more investors to these industries, these governments also embraced globalization through more open interactions with the international economy.\n\nSignificantly, democratic governments began replacing military regimes across much of Latin America and the realm of the state became more inclusive (a trend that proved conducive to social movements), but economic ventures remained exclusive to a few elite groups within society. Neoliberal restructuring consistently redistributed income upward, while denying political responsibility to provide social welfare rights, and development projects throughout the region increased both inequality and poverty. Feeling excluded from the new projects, the lower classes took ownership of their own democracy through a revitalization of social movements in Latin America.\n\nBoth urban and rural populations had serious grievances as a result of economic and global trends and voiced them in mass demonstrations. Some of the largest and most violent have been protests against cuts in urban services to the poor, such as the Caracazo in Venezuela and the Argentinazo in Argentina. In 2000, the Cochabamba Water War in Bolivia saw major protests against a World Bank-funded project that would have brought potable water to the city, but at a price that no residents could afford. The title of the Oscar nominated film Even the Rain alludes to the fact that Cochabamba residents could no longer legally collect rainwater; the film depicts the protest movement.\n\nRural movements made demands related to unequal land distribution, displacement at the hands of development projects and dams, environmental and Indigenous concerns, neoliberal agricultural restructuring, and insufficient means of livelihood. In Bolivia, coca workers organized into a union, and Evo Morales, ethnically an Aymara, became its head. The cocaleros supported the struggles in the Cochabamba water war. The rural-urban coalition became a political party, Movement for Socialism (Bolivia) (MAS, \"more\"), which decisively won the 2005 presidential election, making Evo Morales the first Indigenous president of Bolivia. A documentary of the campaign, Cocalero, shows how they successfully organized.\n\nA number of movements have benefited considerably from transnational support from conservationists and INGOs. The Movement of Rural Landless Workers (MST) in Brazil for example is an important contemporary Latin American social movement.\n\nIndigenous movements account for a large portion of rural social movements, including, in Mexico, the Zapatista rebellion and the broad Indigenous movement in Guerrero, Also important are the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) and Indigenous organizations in the Amazon region of Ecuador and Bolivia, pan-Mayan communities in Guatemala, and mobilization by the Indigenous groups of Yanomami peoples in the Amazon, Kuna peoples in Panama, and Altiplano Aymara and Quechua peoples in Bolivia.\n\nAfter 2000\n\nIn many countries in the early 2000s, left-wing political parties rose to power, known as the Pink tide. The presidencies of Hugo Chávez (1999–2013) in Venezuela, Ricardo Lagos and Michelle Bachelet in Chile, Lula da Silva and Dilma Rousseff of the Workers Party (PT) in Brazil, Néstor Kirchner and his wife Cristina Fernández in Argentina, Tabaré Vázquez and José Mujica in Uruguay, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, Fernando Lugo in Paraguay, Manuel Zelaya in Honduras (removed from power by a coup d'état), Mauricio Funes and Salvador Sánchez Cerén in El Salvador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who often declare themselves socialists, Latin Americanists, or anti-imperialists, often implying opposition to US policies towards the region. An aspect of this has been the creation of the eight-member ALBA alliance, or \"The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America\" (Spanish: Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América) by some of these countries.\n\nFollowing the pink tide, there was a Conservative wave across Latin America. In Mexico, the rightwing National Action Party (PAN) won the presidential election of 2000 with its candidate Vicente Fox, ending the 71-year rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party. He was succeed six-years later by another conservative, Felipe Calderón (2006-2012), who attempted to crack down on the Mexican drug cartels and instigated the Mexican drug war . Several right-wing leaders rose to power, including Argentina's Mauricio Macri and Brazil's Michel Temer, following the impeachment of the country's first female president. In Chile, the conservative Sebastián Piñera succeeded the socialist Michelle Bachelet in 2017. In 2019, center-right Luis Lacalle Pou ended a 15-year leftist rule in Uruguay, after defeating the Broad Front candidate.\n\nEconomically, the 2000s commodities boom caused positive effects for many Latin American economies. Another trend was the rapidly increasing importance of their relations with China.\nHowever, with the Great Recession beginning in 2008, there was an end to the commodity boom, resulting in economic stagnation or recession resulted in some countries. A number of left-wing governments of the Pink tide lost support. The worst-hit was Venezuela, which is facing severe social and economic upheaval.\n\nCharges of against a major Brazilian conglomerate, Odebrecht, has raised allegations of corruption across the region's governments (see Operation Car Wash). This bribery ring has become the largest corruption scandal in Latin American history. As of July 2017, the highest ranking politicians charged were former Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who was arrested, and former Peruvian presidents Ollanta Humala, also arrested, and Alejandro Toledo, who fled to the United States and is now a fugitive.\n\nThe COVID-19 pandemic proved a political challenge for many unstable Latin American democracies, with scholars identifying a decline in civil liberties as a result of opportunistic emergency powers. This was especially true for countries with strong presidential regimes, such as Brazil.\n\nInequality\n\nWealth inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean remains a serious issue despite strong economic growth and improved social indicators. A report released in 2013 by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs entitled Inequality Matters: Report of the World Social Situation, observed that: 'Declines in the wage share have been attributed to the impact of labour-saving technological change and to a general weakening of labour market regulations and institutions.' Such declines are likely to disproportionately affect individuals in the middle and bottom of the income distribution, as they rely mostly on wages for income. In addition, the report noted that 'highly-unequal land distribution has created social and political tensions and is a source of economic inefficiency, as small landholders frequently lack access to credit and other resources to increase productivity, while big owners may not have had enough incentive to do so.\n\nAccording to the United Nations ECLAC, Latin America is the most unequal region in the world. Inequality in Latin America has deep historical roots in the Latin European racially based Casta system instituted in Latin America during colonial times that has been difficult to eradicate because of the differences between initial endowments and opportunities among social groups have constrained the poorest's social mobility, thus causing poverty to transmit from generation to generation, and become a vicious cycle. Inequality has been reproduced and transmitted through generations because Latin American political systems allow a differentiated access on the influence that social groups have in the decision-making process, and it responds in different ways to the least favored groups that have less political representation and capacity of pressure. Recent economic liberalisation also plays a role as not everyone is equally capable of taking advantage of its benefits. Differences in opportunities and endowments tend to be based on race, ethnicity, rurality, and gender. Because inequality in gender and location are near-universal, race and ethnicity play a larger, more integral role in discriminatory practices in Latin America. The differences have a strong impact on the distribution of income, capital and political standing.\n\nOne indicator of inequality is access to and quality of education. During the first phase of globalization in Latin America, educational inequality was on the rise, peaking around the end of the 19th century. In comparison with other developing regions, Latin America then had the highest level of educational inequality, which is certainly a contributing factor for its current general high inequality. During the 20th century, however, educational inequality started decreasing.\n\nStandard of living \nLatin America has the highest levels of income inequality in the world. The following table lists all the countries in Latin America indicating a valuation of the country's Human Development Index, GDP at purchasing power parity per capita, measurement of inequality through the Gini index, measurement of poverty through the Human Poverty Index, a measure of extreme poverty based on people living on less than 1.25 dollars a day, life expectancy, murder rates and a measurement of safety through the Global Peace Index. Green cells indicate the best performance in each category, and red the lowest.\n\nDemographics\n\nLargest cities\nUrbanization accelerated starting in the mid-twentieth century, especially in capital cities, or in the case of Brazil, traditional economic and political hubs founded in the colonial era. In Mexico, the rapid growth and modernization in country's north has seen the growth of Monterrey, in Nuevo León. The following is a list of the ten largest metropolitan areas in Latin America. Entries in \"bold\" indicate they are ranked the highest.\n\nRace and ethnicity\n\nLatin American populations are diverse, with descendants of the Indigenous peoples, European whites, Africans initially brought as slaves, and Asians, as well as new immigrants. Mixing of groups was a fact of life at contact of the Old World and the New, but colonial regimes established legal and social discrimination against non-white populations simply on the basis of perceived ethnicity and skin color. Social class was usually linked to a person's racial category, with whites on top. During the colonial era, with a dearth initially of European women, European men and Indigenous women and African women produced what were considered mixed-race children. In Spanish America, the so-called Sociedad de castas or Sistema de castas was constructed by white elites to try to rationalize the processes at work. In the sixteenth century the Spanish crown sought to protect Indigenous populations from exploitation by white elites for their labor and land. The crown created the to paternalistically govern and protect Indigenous peoples. It also created the República de Españoles, which included not only European whites, but all non-Indigenous peoples, such as blacks, mulattoes, and mixed-race castas who were not dwelling in Indigenous communities. In the religious sphere, the Indigenous were deemed perpetual neophytes in the Catholic faith, which meant Indigenous men were not eligible to be ordained as Catholic priests; however, Indigenous were also excluded from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. Catholics saw military conquest and religious conquest as two parts of the assimilation of Indigenous populations, suppressing Indigenous religious practices and eliminating the Indigenous priesthood. Some worship continued underground. Jews and other non-Catholics, such as Protestants (all called \"Lutherans\") were banned from settling and were subject to the Inquisition. Considerable mixing of populations occurred in cities, while the countryside was largely Indigenous. At independence in the early nineteenth century, in many places in Spanish America formal racial and legal distinctions disappeared, although black slavery was not uniformly abolished.\n\nSignificant black populations exist in Brazil and Spanish Caribbean islands such as Cuba and Puerto Rico and the circum-Caribbean mainland (Venezuela, Colombia, Panama), as long as in the southern part of South America and Central America (Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua Ecuador, and Peru) a legacy of their use in plantations. All these areas had small white populations. In Brazil, coastal Indigenous peoples largely died out in the early sixteenth century, with Indigenous populations surviving far from cities, sugar plantations, and other European enterprises.\n\nDominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Brazil have dominate Mulatto/Triracial populations (\"Pardo\" in Brazil), in Brazil and Cuba, there is equally large white populations and smaller black populations, while Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are more Mulatto/Triracial dominated, with significant black and white minorities. Parts of Central America and northern South America are more diverse in that they are dominated by Mestizos and whites but also have large numbers of Mulattos, blacks, and indigenous, especially Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama. The southern cone region, Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile are completely dominated by whites and mestizos. Haiti and other areas in the French Caribbean are dominated mostly by blacks. The rest of Latin America, including México, northern Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras), and central South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay), are dominated by mestizos but also have large white and indigenous minorities.\n\nIn the nineteenth century, a number of Latin American countries sought immigrants from Europe and Asia. With the abolition of black slavery in 1888, the Brazilian monarchy fell in 1889. By then, another source of cheap labor to work on coffee plantations was found in Japan. Chinese male immigrants arrived in Cuba, Mexico, Peru and elsewhere. With political turmoil in Europe during the mid-nineteenth century and widespread poverty, Germans, Spaniards, and Italians immigrated to Latin America in large numbers, welcomed by Latin American governments both as a source of labor as well as a way to increase the size of their white populations. In Argentina, many Afro-Argentines married Europeans, so that in modern Argentina there is no discernible black population.\n\nIn twentieth-century Brazil, sociologist Gilberto Freyre proposed that Brazil was a \"racial democracy,\" with less discrimination against blacks than in the U.S. Subsequent research has shown that Brazilians also discriminate against darker citizens, and that whites remain the elites in the country. In Mexico, the Afro-Mexican population was largely written out of the national narrative of indigenismo, and Indigenous and especially mestizo populations were considered the true embodiment of Mexicanness (mexicanidad), \"the cosmic race\", according to Mexican intellectual José Vasconcelos. In Mexico, there was considerable discrimination against Asians, with calls for the expulsion of Chinese in northern Mexico during the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and racially motivated massacres.\nIn a number of Latin American countries, Indigenous groups have organized explicitly as Indigenous, to claim human rights and influence political power. With the passage of anti-colonial resolutions in the United Nations General Assembly and the signing of resolutions for Indigenous rights, the Indigenous are able to act to guarantee their existence within nation-states with legal standing.\n\nLanguage\n\nSpanish is the predominant language of Latin America. It is spoken as first language by about 60% of the population. Portuguese is spoken by about 30%, and about 10% speak other languages such as Quechua, Mayan languages, Guaraní, Aymara, Nahuatl, English, French, Dutch and Italian. Portuguese is spoken mostly in Brazil, the largest and most populous country in the region. Spanish is the official language of most of the other countries and territories on the Latin American mainland, as well as in Cuba and Puerto Rico (where it is co-official with English), and the Dominican Republic. French is spoken in Haiti and in the French overseas departments of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Guiana. It is also spoken by some Panamanians of Afro-Antillean descent. Dutch is the official language in Suriname, Aruba, Curaçao, and the Netherlands Antilles. (As Dutch is a Germanic language, the territories are not necessarily considered part of Latin America.) However, the native language of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, is Papiamento, a creole language largely based on Portuguese and Spanish that has had a considerable influence from Dutch and the Portuguese-based creole languages.\n\nAmerindian languages are widely spoken in Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico, and to a lesser degree, in Panama, Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, and Chile. In other Latin American countries, the population of speakers of Indigenous languages tend to be very small or even non-existent, for example in Uruguay. Mexico is possibly contains more Indigenous languages than any other Latin American country, but the most-spoken Indigenous language there is Nahuatl.\n\nIn Peru, Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and other Indigenous languages in the areas where they predominate. In Ecuador, while Quichua holds no official status, it is a recognized language under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia, Aymara, Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish. Guaraní, like Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population, which is, for the most part, bilingual, and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes. In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, but on the country's Caribbean coast English and Indigenous languages such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all Indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages. Nahuatl is one of the 62 Native languages spoken by Indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as \"national languages\" along with Spanish.\n\nOther European languages spoken in Latin America include: English, by half of the current population in Puerto Rico, as well as in nearby countries that may or may not be considered Latin American, like Belize and Guyana, and spoken by descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile. German is spoken in southern Brazil, southern Chile, portions of Argentina, Venezuela and Paraguay; Italian in Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay; Ukrainian, Polish, and Russian in southern Brazil and Argentina; and Welsh, in southern Argentina. Yiddish and Hebrew are possible to be heard around Buenos Aires and São Paulo especially. Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay, Korean in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Chile, Arabic in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile, and Chinese throughout South America. Countries like Venezuela, Argentina and Brazil have their own dialects or variations of German and Italian.\n\nIn several nations, especially in the Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. The most widely-spoken creole language in Latin America and the Caribbean is Haitian Creole, the predominant language of Haiti, derived primarily from French and certain West African tongues, with Amerindian, English, Portuguese and Spanish influences as well. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues.\n\nThe Garifuna language is spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Belize, mostly by the Garifuna people, a mixed-race Zambo people who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves. Primarily an Arawakan language, it has influences from Caribbean and European languages.\n\nArchaeologists have deciphered over 15 pre-Columbian distinct writing systems from Mesoamerican societies. Ancient Maya had the most sophisticated textually written language, but since texts were largely confined to the religious and administrative elite, traditions were passed down orally. Oral traditions also prevailed in other major Indigenous groups including, but not limited to the Aztecs and other Nahuatl speakers, Quechua and Aymara of the Andean regions, the Quiché of Central America, the Tupi-Guaraní in today's Brazil, the Guaraní in Paraguay and the Mapuche in Chile.\n\nReligion\n\nThe vast majority of Latin Americans are Christians (90%), mostly Roman Catholics belonging to the Latin Church. About 70% of the Latin American population considers itself Catholic. In 2012 Latin America constitutes in absolute terms the second world's largest Christian population, after Europe.\n\nAccording to the detailed Pew multi-country survey in 2014, 69% of the Latin American population is Catholic and 19% is Protestant. Protestants are 26% in Brazil and over 40% in much of Central America. More than half of these are converts from Roman Catholicism.\n\nMigration\n\nThe entire hemisphere was settled by migrants from Asia, Europe, and Africa. Native American populations settled throughout the hemisphere before the arrival of Europeans in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the forced migration of slaves from Africa.\n\nIn the post-independence period, a number of Latin American countries sought to attract European immigrants as a source of labor as well as to deliberately change the proportions of racial and ethnic groups within their borders. Chile, Argentina, and Brazil actively recruited labor from Catholic southern Europe, where populations were poor and sought better economic opportunities. Many nineteenth-century immigrants went to the United States and Canada, but a significant number arrived in Latin America. Although Mexico tried to attract immigrants, it largely failed. As black slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, coffee growers recruited Japanese migrants to work in coffee plantations. There is a significant population of Japanese descent in Brazil. Cuba and Peru recruited Chinese labor in the late nineteenth century. Some Chinese immigrants who were excluded from immigrating to the U.S. settled in northern Mexico. When the U.S. acquired its southwest by conquest in the Mexican American War, Latin American populations did not cross the border to the U.S., the border crossed them.\n\nIn the twentieth century there have been several types of migration. One is the movement of rural populations within a given country to cities in search of work, causing many Latin American cities to grow significantly. Another is international movement of populations, often fleeing repression or war. Other international migration is for economic reasons, often unregulated or undocumented. Mexicans immigrated to the U.S. during the violence of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and the religious Cristero War (1926–29); during World War II, Mexican men worked in the U.S. in the bracero program. Economic migration from Mexico followed the crash of the Mexican economy in the 1980s.\nSpanish refugees fled to Mexico following the fascist victory in the Spanish Civil War (1936–38), with some 50,000 exiles finding refuge at the invitation of President Lázaro Cárdenas. Following World War II a larger wave of refugees to Latin America, many of them Jews, settled in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, and Venezuela. Some were only transiting through the region, but others stayed and created communities. A number of Nazis escaped to Latin America, living under assumed names, in an attempting to avoid attention and prosecution.\n\nIn the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution, middle class and elite Cubans moved to the U.S., particularly to Florida. Some fled Chile for the U.S. and Europe after the 1973 military coup. Colombians migrated to Spain and the United Kingdom during the region's political turmoil, compounded by the rise of narcotrafficking and guerrilla warfare. During the Central American wars of the 1970s to the 1990s, many Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans migrated to the U.S. to escape narcotrafficking, gangs, and poverty. As living conditions deteriorated in Venezuela under Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro, many left for neighboring Colombia and Ecuador. In the 1990s, economic stress in Ecuador during the La Década Perdida triggered considerable migration to Spain and to the U.S.\n\nSome Latin American countries seek to strengthen links between migrants and their states of origin, while promoting their integration in the receiving state. These emigrant policies focus on the rights, obligations and opportunities for participation of emigrated citizens who already live outside the borders of the country of origin. Research on Latin America shows that the extension of policies towards migrants is linked to a focus on civil rights and state benefits that can positively influence integration in recipient countries. In addition, the tolerance of dual citizenship has spread more in Latin America than in any other region of the world.\n\nEducation\n\nDespite significant progress, education access and school completion remains unequal in Latin America. The region has made great progress in educational coverage; almost all children attend primary school, and access to secondary education has increased considerably. Quality issues such as poor teaching methods, lack of appropriate equipment, and overcrowding exist throughout the region. These issues lead to adolescents dropping out of the educational system early. Most educational systems in the region have implemented various types of administrative and institutional reforms that have enabled reach for places and communities that had no access to education services in the early 1990s. School meal programs are also employed to expand access to education, and at least 23 countries in the Latin America and Caribbean region have large-scale school feeding activities, altogether reaching 88% of primary school-age children in the region. Compared to prior generations, Latin American youth have seen an increase in their levels of education. On average, they have completed two more years of school than their parents.\n\nHowever, there are still 23 million children in the region between the ages of 4 and 17 outside of the formal education system. Estimates indicate that 30% of preschool age children (ages 4–5) do not attend school, and for the most vulnerable populations, the poor and rural, this proportion exceeds 40 percent. Among primary school age children (ages 6 to 12), attendance is almost universal; however there is still a need to enroll five million more children in the primary education system. These children mostly live in remote areas, are Indigenous or Afro-descendants and live in extreme poverty.\n\nAmong people between the ages of 13 and 17 years, only 80% are full-time students, and only 66% of these advance to secondary school. These percentages are lower among vulnerable population groups: only 75% of the poorest youth between the ages of 13 and 17 years attend school. Tertiary education has the lowest coverage, with only 70% of people between the ages of 18 and 25 years outside of the education system. Currently, more than half of low income or rural children fail to complete nine years of education.\n\nCrime and violence\n\nLatin America and the Caribbean have been cited by numerous sources to be the most dangerous regions in the world. Studies have shown that Latin America contains the majority of the world's most dangerous cities. Many analysts attribute this to social and income inequality in the region. Many agree that the prison crisis will not be resolved until the gap between the rich and the poor is addressed.\n\nCrime and violence prevention and public security are now important issues for governments and citizens in Latin America and the Caribbean region. Homicide rates in Latin America are the highest in the world. From the early 1980s through the mid-1990s, homicide rates increased by 50 percent. Latin America and the Caribbean experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017. There were a total of 63,880 murders in Brazil in 2018.\n\nThe most frequent victims of such homicides are young men, 69 percent of them between the ages of 15 and 19. Countries with the highest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants in 2015 were: El Salvador 109, Honduras 64, Venezuela 57, Jamaica 43, Belize 34.4, St. Kitts and Nevis 34, Guatemala 34, Trinidad and Tobago 31, the Bahamas 30, Brazil 26.7, Colombia 26.5, the Dominican Republic 22, St. Lucia 22, Guyana 19, Mexico 16, Puerto Rico 16, Ecuador 13, Grenada 13, Costa Rica 12, Bolivia 12, Nicaragua 12, Panama 11, Antigua and Barbuda 11, and Haiti 10. Most of the countries with the highest homicide rates are in Africa and Latin America. Countries in Central America, like El Salvador and Honduras, top the list of homicides in the world.\n\nBrazil has more overall homicides than any country in the world, at 50,108, accounting for one in 10 globally. Crime-related violence is the biggest threat to public health in Latin America, striking more victims than HIV/AIDS or any other infectious disease. Countries with the lowest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants as of 2015 were: Chile 3, Peru 7, Argentina 7, Uruguay 8 and Paraguay 9.\n\nPublic health\n\nWater\n\nReproductive rights\n\nHIV/AIDS\n\nEconomy\n\nSize\n\nAccording to Goldman Sachs' BRICS review of emerging economies, by 2050 the largest economies in the world will be as follows: China, United States, India, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, Mexico and Brazil.\n\nAgriculture\n\nThe four countries with the strongest agricultural sector in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia. Currently:\n\n Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugarcane, soy, coffee, oranges, guaraná, açaí and Brazil nut; is one of the top five producers of maize, papaya, tobacco, pineapple, banana, cotton, beans, coconut, watermelon, lemon and yerba mate; is one of the top ten world producers of cocoa, cashew, avocado, tangerine, persimmon, mango, guava, rice, oat, sorghum and tomato; and is one of the top 15 world producers of grapes, apples, melons, peanuts, figs, peaches, onions, palm oil and natural rubber;\n Argentina is the world's largest producer of yerba mate; is one of the five largest producers in the world of soy, maize, sunflower seeds, lemons and pears, one of the 10 largest producers in the world of barley, grapes, artichokes, tobacco and cotton, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of wheat, oats, chickpeas, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit;\n Chile is one of the five largest world producers of cherries and cranberries, and one of the ten largest world producers of grapes, apples, kiwi, peaches, plums and hazelnuts, focusing on exporting high-value fruits;\n Colombia is one of the five largest producers in the world of coffee, avocados and palm oil, and one of the ten largest producers in the world of sugarcane, bananas, pineapples and cocoa;\n Peru is the world's largest producer of quinoa; is one of the five largest producers of avocados, blueberry, artichokes and asparagus; one of the ten largest producers in the world of coffee and cocoa; one of the 15 largest producers in the world of potatoes and pineapples, and also has a large production of grapes, sugarcane, rice, bananas, maize and cassava; its agriculture is considerably diversified;\n Paraguay is currently the 6th largest producer of soy in the world and entering the list of the 20 largest producers of maize and sugarcane.\n\nIn Central America, the following stand out:\n Guatemala is one of the ten largest producers in the world of coffee, sugar cane, melons and natural rubber, and one of the world's 15 largest producers of bananas and palm oil;\n Honduras is one of the five largest producers of coffee in the world, and one of the ten largest producers of palm oil;\n Costa Rica is the world's largest producer of pineapples;\n Dominican Republic is one of the world's top five producers of papayas and avocados, and one of the ten largest producers of cocoa.\n Mexico is the world's largest producer of avocados, one of the world's top five producers of Chile, lemons, oranges, mangos, papayas, strawberries, grapefruit, pumpkins and asparagus, and one of the world's 10 largest producers of sugar cane, maize, sorghum, beans, tomatoes, coconuts, pineapple, melons and blueberries.\n\nBrazil is the world's largest exporter of chicken meat: 3.77 million tons in 2019. The country had the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22.2% of the world herd. The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15.4% of global production. It was also the third largest world producer of milk in 2018. This year, the country produced 35.1 billion liters. In 2019, Brazil was the fourth largest pork producer in the world, with almost four million tons.\n\nIn 2018, Argentina was the fourth largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tons (behind only United States, Brazil and China). Uruguay is also a major meat producer. In 2018, it produced 589 thousand tons of beef.\n\nIn the production of chicken meat, Mexico is among the ten largest producers in the world, Argentina among the 15 largest and Peru and Colombia among the 20 largest. In beef production, Mexico is one of the ten largest producers in the world and Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers. In the production of pork, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world. In the production of honey, Argentina is among the five largest producers in the world, Mexico among the ten largest and Brazil among the 15 largest. In terms of cow's milk production, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world and Argentina among the 20 largest.\n\nMining and petroleum\n\nMining is one of the most important economic sectors in Latin America, especially for Chile, Peru and Bolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector. The continent has large productions of:\ngold (mainly in Peru, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina); \nsilver (mainly in Mexico, Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina); \ncopper (mainly in Chile, Peru, Mexico and Brazil); \niron ore (Brazil, Peru and Chile); \nzinc (Peru, Mexico, Bolivia and Brazil); \nmolybdenum (Chile, Peru and Mexico); \nlithium (Chile, Argentina and Brazil); \nlead (Peru, Mexico and Bolivia); \nbauxite (Brazil and Jamaica); \ntin (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil); \nmanganese (Brazil and Mexico); \nantimony (Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala and Ecuador); \nnickel (Brazil, Dominican Republic and Cuba); \nniobium (Brazil); \nrhenium (Chile); \niodine (Chile),\n\nBrazil stands out in the extraction of \niron ore (where it is the 2nd largest producer and exporter in the world—iron ore is usually one of the three export products that generate the greatest value in the country's trade balance)\ncopper\ngold\nbauxite (one of the five largest producers in the world)\nmanganese (one of the five largest producers in the world)\ntin (one of the largest producers in the world)\nniobium (98% of known world reserves) and \nnickel\n\nIn terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethysts, topaz, and agates and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emeralds, aquamarines, garnets and opals.\n\nChile contributes about a third of the world's copper production. In addition, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth-largest producer of sulfur and the thirteenth largest producer of iron ore in the world.\n\nIn 2019, Peru was the second largest world producer of copper and silver, 8th largest world producer of gold, third largest world producer of lead, second largest world producer of zinc, fourth largest world producer of tin, fifth largest world producer of boron, and fourth largest world producer of molybdenum.\n\nIn 2019, Bolivia was the eighth largest world producer of silver; fourth largest world producer of boron; fifth largest world producer of antimony; fifth largest world producer of tin; sixth largest world producer of tungsten; seventh largest producer of zinc, and the eighth largest producer of lead.\n\nIn 2019, Mexico was the world's largest producer of silver (representing almost 23% of world production, producing more than 200 million ounces in 2019); ninth largest producer of gold, the eighth largest producer of copper, the world's fifth largest producer of lead, the world's sixth largest producer of zinc, the world's fifth largest producer of molybdenum, the world's third largest producer of mercury, the world's fifth largest producer of bismuth, the world's 13th largest producer of manganese and the 23rd largest world producer of phosphate. It is also the eighth largest world producer of salt.\n\nIn 2019, Argentina was the fourth largest world producer of lithium, the ninth largest world producer of silver, the 17th largest world producer of gold and the seventh largest world producer of boron.\n\nColombia is the world's largest producer of emeralds. In the production of gold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons. The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world. In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15,5 tons.\n\nIn the production of oil, Brazil was the tenth largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels a day. Mexico was the twelfth largest, with 2.1 million barrels a day, Colombia in 20th place with 886 thousand barrels a day, Venezuela was the twenty-first place, with 877 thousand barrels a day, Ecuador in 28th with 531 thousand barrels a day and Argentina. 29th with 507 thousand barrels a day. Since Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part of OPEC. Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (when it produced 2.5 million barrels a day), falling in 2016 to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investment.\n\nIn the production of natural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1,524 bcf (billions of cubic feet), Mexico produced 999, Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379.\n\nIn the production of coal, the continent had three of the 30 largest world producers in 2018: Colombia (12th), Mexico (24th) and Brazil (27th).\n\nManufacturing\n\nThe World Bank annually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value. According to the 2019 list:\nMexico had the twelfth most valuable industry in the world (US$217.8 billion)\nBrazil the thirteenth largest (US$173.6 billion)\nVenezuela the thirtieth largest (US$58.2 billion, however, it depends on oil to reach this value)\nArgentina the 31st largest (US$57.7 billion)\nColombia the 46th largest (US$35.4 billion)\nPeru the 50th largest (US$28.7 billion) \nChile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion).\n\nIn Latin America, few countries stand out in industrial activity: Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and, less prominently, Chile. Begun late, the industrialization of these countries received a great boost from World War II: this prevented the countries at war from buying the products they were used to importing and exporting what they produced. At that time, benefiting from the abundant local raw material, the low wages paid to the labor force and a certain specialization brought by immigrants, countries such as Brazil, Mexico and Argentina, as well as Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and Peru, were able to implement important industrial parks. In general, in these countries there are industries that require little capital and simple technology for their installation, such as the food processing and textile industries. The basic industries (steel, etc.) also stand out, as well as the metallurgical and mechanical industries.\n\nThe industrial parks of Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and Chile, however, present much greater diversity and sophistication, producing advanced technology items. In the rest of Latin American countries, mainly in Central America, the processing industries of primary products for export predominate.\n\nIn the food industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world. In 2016, the country was the second largest producer of pulp in the world and the eighth largest producer of paper. In the footwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked fourth among world producers. In 2019, the country was the eighth largest producer of vehicles and the ninth largest producer of steel in the world. In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the eighth largest in the world. In the textile industry, Brazil, although it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated into world trade. In the aviation sector, Brazil has Embraer, the third largest aircraft manufacturer in the world, behind Boeing and Airbus.\n\nInfrastructure\n\nTransport in Latin America is basically carried out using the road mode, the most developed in the region. There is also a considerable infrastructure of ports and airports. The railway and fluvial sector, although it has potential, is usually treated in a secondary way.\n\nBrazil has more than 1.7 million km of roads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km are divided highways. The two most important highways in the country are BR-101 and BR-116. Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways. The three most important highways in the country are Route 9, Route 7 and Route 14. Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways. Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways. The most important highway in the country is the Route 5 (Pan-American Highway) These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways, in South America.\n\nThe roadway network in Mexico has an extent of , of which are paved, Of these, are multi-lane expressways: are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.\n\nDue to the Andes Mountains, Amazon River and Amazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing transcontinental or bioceanic highways. Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, in Argentina and later to Santiago, in Chile. However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor).\n\nThere are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil. The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States. São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world. Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those in Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, Florianópolis, Cuiabá, Salvador, Recife, Fortaleza, Belém and Manaus, among others. Argentina has important international airports such as Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Bariloche, Mendoza, Salta, Puerto Iguazú, Neuquén and Usuhaia, among others. Chile has important international airports such as Santiago, Antofagasta, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas and Iquique, among others. Colombia has important international airports such as Bogotá, Medellín, Cartagena, Cali and Barranquilla, among others. Peru has important international airports such as Lima, Cuzco and Arequipa. Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito). The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil).\n\nThere are 1,834 airports in Mexico, the third-largest number of airports by country in the world. The seven largest airports—which absorb 90% of air travel—are (in order of air traffic): Mexico City, Cancún, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Tijuana, Acapulco, and Puerto Vallarta. Considering all of Latin America, the 10 busiest airports in 2017 were: Mexico City (Mexico), São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), Cancún (Mexico), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago ( Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasilia (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and Tocumen (Panama).\n\nAbout ports, Brazil has some of the busiest ports in South America, such as Port of Santos, Port of Rio de Janeiro, Port of Paranaguá, Port of Itajaí, Port of Rio Grande, Port of São Francisco do Sul and Suape Port. Argentina has ports such as Port of Buenos Aires and Port of Rosario. Chile has important ports in Valparaíso, Caldera, Mejillones, Antofagasta, Iquique, Arica and Puerto Montt. Colombia has important ports such as Buenaventura, Cartagena Container Terminal and Puerto Bolivar. Peru has important ports in Callao, Ilo and Matarani. The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).\n\nThe four major seaports concentrating around 60% of the merchandise traffic in Mexico are Altamira and Veracruz in the Gulf of Mexico, and Manzanillo and Lázaro Cárdenas in the Pacific Ocean. Considering all of Latin America, the 10 largest ports in terms of movement are: Colon (Panama), Santos (Brazil), Manzanillo (Mexico), Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Pacifico (Panama), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil ( Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile) and Buenaventura (Colombia).\n\nThe Brazilian railway network has an extension of about 30,000 kilometers. It is basically used for transporting ores. The Argentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America. It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it. It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay. Chile has almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Colombia has only about 3,500 km of railways.\n\nAmong the main Brazilian waterways, two stand out: Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná (which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas General) and Hidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas (it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km. Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus). In Brazil, this transport is still underutilized: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country. Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration. In Argentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river ports are Zárate and Campana. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country.\n\nEnergy\n\nBrazil\n\nThe Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Production manages to supply the country's demand. In the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.\n\nBrazil is one of the main world producers of hydroelectric power. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation. In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric).\n\nIn 2013, the Southeast Region used about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country. The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity. The hydroelectric generation represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% corresponding basically to the thermoelectric generation. São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais by about 25%; Rio de Janeiro by 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest. The South Region owns the Itaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration of Three Gorges Dam in China. It remains the second largest operating hydroelectric in the world. Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant with Paraguay: the dam is located on the Paraná River, located on the border between countries. It has an installed generation capacity of 14 GW for 20 generating units of 700 MW each. North Region has large hydroelectric plants, such as Belo Monte Dam and Tucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy. Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory.\n\n according to ONS, total installed capacity of wind power was 22 GW, with average capacity factor of 58%. While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%; the average capacity factor in the Northeast Region is 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior. In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country. In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand. In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW), and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, USA and Germany.\n\nNuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity. The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced by two reactors at Angra. It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna in Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. It consists of two pressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished.\n\n according to ONS, total installed capacity of photovoltaic solar was 21 GW, with average capacity factor of 23%. Some of the most irradiated Brazilian States are MG (\"Minas Gerais\"), BA (\"Bahia\") and GO (Goiás), which have indeed world irradiation level records. In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country. In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW), and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh).\n\nIn 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy through biomass (energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed.\n\nOther countries\nAfter Brazil, Mexico is the country in Latin America that most stands out in energy production. In 2020, the country was the 14th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2018 it was the 12th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 21st largest producer in the world, and in 2007 it was the 29th largest exporter. Mexico was also the world's 24th largest producer of coal in 2018. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 14th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (8.1 GW), 20th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (5.6 GW) and 19th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). In third place, Colombia stands out: In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world. Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point. The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW). Argentina was, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW). The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region. Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region. Paraguay stands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant. Trinidad and Tobago and Bolivia stand out in the production of natural gas, where they were, respectively, the 20th and 31st largest in the world in 2015. Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014.\n\nTrade blocs\n\nThe major trade blocs (or agreements) in the region are the Pacific Alliance and Mercosur. Minor blocs or trade agreements are the G3 Free Trade Agreement, the Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Andean Community of Nations (CAN). However, major reconfigurations are taking place along opposing approaches to integration and trade; Venezuela has officially withdrawn from both the CAN and G3 and it has been formally admitted into the Mercosur (pending ratification from the Paraguayan legislature). The president-elect of Ecuador has manifested his intentions of following the same path. This bloc nominally opposes any Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States, although Uruguay has manifested its intention otherwise. Chile, Peru, Colombia and Mexico are the only four Latin American nations that have an FTA with the United States and Canada, both members of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).\n\nChina \nChina's economic influence in Latin America increased substantially in the 21st century. Imports from China valued $8.3B in 2000, but by 2019, its value was $184.2B and had grown to be the region's largest trading partner. In particular, many of the investments are related to the Belt and Road Initiative or energy. China has also provided loans to several Latin American countries; this has raised concerns about the possibility of \"debt traps.\" Specifically, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, and Argentina received the most loans from China during 2005-2016.\n\nTourism\n\nIncome from tourism is key to the economy of several Latin American countries. Mexico is the only Latin American country to be ranked in the top 10 worldwide in the number of tourist visits. It received by far the largest number of international tourists, with 39.3 million visitors in 2017, followed by Argentina, with 6.7 million; then Brazil, with 6.6 million; Chile, with 6.5 million; Dominican Republic, with 6.2 million; Cuba with 4.3 million; Peru and Colombia with 4.0 million. The World Tourism Organization reports the following destinations as the top six tourism earners for the year 2017: Mexico, with US$21,333 million; the Dominican Republic, with US$7,178 million; Brazil, with US$6,024 million; Colombia, with US$4,773 million; Argentina, with US$4,687 million; and Panama, with US$4,258 million.\n\nPlaces such as Cancún, Riviera Maya, Chichen Itza, Cabo San Lucas, Mexico City, Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Guanajuato City, San Miguel de Allende, Guadalajara in Mexico, Punta Cana, Santo Domingo in Dominican Republic, Punta del Este in Uruguay, Labadee in Haiti, San Juan, Ponce in Puerto Rico, Panama City in Panama, Poás Volcano National Park in Costa Rica, Viña del Mar in Chile, Rio de Janeiro, Florianópolis, Iguazu Falls, São Paulo, Armação dos Búzios, Salvador, Bombinhas, Angra dos Reis, Balneário Camboriú, Paraty, Ipojuca, Natal, Cairu, Fortaleza and Itapema in Brazil; Buenos Aires, Bariloche, Salta, Jujuy, Perito Moreno Glacier, Valdes Peninsula, Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes, Ischigualasto Provincial Park, Ushuaia and Patagonia in Argentina;\nIsla Margarita, Angel Falls, Los Roques archipelago, Gran Sabana in Venezuela; Machu Picchu, Lima, Nazca Lines, Cuzco in Peru; Lake Titicaca, Salar de Uyuni, La Paz, Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos in Bolivia; Tayrona National Natural Park, Santa Marta, Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, Cartagena, San Andrés in Colombia, and the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador. are popular among international visitors in the region.\n\n(*) Data for 2015 rather than 2017, as the newest data is currently unavailable.\n\nCulture\n\nLatin American culture is a mixture of many influences:\n\n Indigenous cultures of the people who inhabited the continent prior to European colonization. Ancient and advanced civilizations developed their own political, social and religious systems. The Maya, the Aztec and the Inca are examples of these. Indigenous legacies in music, dance, foods, arts and crafts, clothing, folk culture and traditions are strong in Latin America. Indigenous languages affected Spanish and Portuguese, giving rise to loanwords like pampa, taco, tamale, cacique.\n The culture of Europe was brought mainly by the colonial powersthe Spanish, Portuguese and Frenchbetween the 16th and 19th centuries. The most enduring European colonial influences are language and Catholicism. Additional cultural influences came from the United States and Europe during the 19th and 20th centuries, due to the growing influence of the former on the world stage and immigration from the latter. The influence of the United States is particularly strong in northern Latin America, especially Puerto Rico, which is an American territory. Prior to 1959, Cuba, which fought for its independence with American aid in the Spanish–American War, also had a close political and economic relationship with the United States. The United States also helped Panama become independent from Colombia and built the twenty-mile-long Panama Canal Zone in Panama, which it held from 1903 — the Panama Canal opened to transoceanic freight traffic in 1914 — to 1999, when the Torrijos-Carter Treaties restored Panamanian control of the Canal Zone. South America experienced waves of immigration of Europeans, especially Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Germans, Austrians, Poles, Ukrainians, French, Dutch, Russians, Croatians, Lithuanians, and Ashkenazi Jews. With the end of colonialism, French culture also exerted a direct influence in Latin America, especially in the realms of high culture, science and medicine. This can be seen in the region's artistic traditions, including painting, literature, and music, and in the realms of science and politics. \n Due to the impact of Enlightenment ideals after the French revolution, a certain number of Iberian American countries decriminalized homosexuality after France and French territories in the Americas did so in 1791. Some of the countries that abolished sodomy laws or banned state interference in consensual adult sexuality in the 19th century were Dominican Republic (1822), Brazil (1824), Peru (1836), Mexico (1871), Paraguay (1880), Argentina (1887), Honduras (1899), Guatemala, and El Salvador. Today same-sex marriage is legal in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Uruguay, and French overseas departments. Civil unions can be held in Chile.\n African cultures, whose presence stems from a long history of the Atlantic slave trade. People of African descent have influenced the ethno-scapes of Latin America and the Caribbean. This is manifested for instance in music, dance and religion, especially in countries like Brazil, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Haiti, Honduras, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, and Cuba.\n Asian cultures, whose part of the presence derives from the long history of the coolies who mostly arrived during the 19th and 20th centuries, most commonly Chinese workers in Peru and Venezuela, but also from Japanese and Korean immigration. especially headed to Brazil. This has greatly affected cuisine and other traditions including literature, art and lifestyles and politics. Asian influences have especially affected Brazil, Cuba, Panama and Peru.\n\nArt\n\nBeyond the tradition of Indigenous art, the development of Latin American visual art owed much to the influence of Spanish, Portuguese and French Baroque painting, which in turn often followed the trends of the Italians. In general, artistic Eurocentrism began to wane in the early twentieth century with the increased appreciation for indigenous forms of representation.\n\nFrom the early twentieth century, the art of Latin America was greatly inspired by the Constructivist Movement. The movement rapidly spread from Russia to Europe and then into Latin America. Joaquín Torres García and Manuel Rendón have been credited with bringing the Constructivist Movement into Latin America from Europe.\n\nAn important artistic movement generated in Latin America is muralism represented by Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco and Rufino Tamayo in Mexico, Santiago Martinez Delgado and Pedro Nel Gómez in Colombia and Antonio Berni in Argentina. Some of the most impressive Muralista works can be found in Mexico, Colombia, New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Philadelphia.\n\nPainter Frida Kahlo, one of the most famous Mexican artists, painted about her own life and the Mexican culture in a style combining Realism, Symbolism and Surrealism. Kahlo's work commands the highest selling price of all Latin American paintings.\n\nThe Venezuelan Armando Reverón, whose work begins to be recognized internationally, is one of the most important artists of the 20th century in South America; he is a precursor of Arte Povera and Happening. In the 60s kinetic art emerged in Venezuela. Its main representatives are Jesús Soto, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Alejandro Otero and Gego.\n\nColombian sculptor and painter Fernando Botero is also widely known for his works which, on first examination, are noted for their exaggerated proportions and the corpulence of the human and animal figures.\n\nThe Ecuadorian Oswaldo Guayasamín, considered one of the most important and seminal artists in Ecuador and South America. In his life, he made over 13,000 paintings and held more than 180 exhibitions all over the world, including Paris, Barcelona, New York, Buenos Aires, Moscow, Prague, and Rome. He brought his unique style of expressionism and cubism to the collection of Ecuador artwork during the Age of Anger which relates to the period of the Cold War when the United States opposed communist presence in South America. Social criticism of human and social inequality was central to his artwork.\n\nFilm\n\nLatin American film is both rich and diverse. Historically, the main centers of production have been Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Cuba. Latin American film flourished after sound was introduced in cinema, which added a linguistic barrier to the export of Hollywood film south of the border.\n\nMexican cinema began in the silent era from 1896 to 1929 and flourished in the Golden Era of the 1940s. It boasted a huge industry comparable to Hollywood at the time, with stars such as María Félix, Dolores del Río, and Pedro Infante. In the 1970s, Mexico was the location for many cult horror and action movies. More recently, films such as Amores Perros (2000) and Y tu mamá también (2001) enjoyed box office and critical acclaim and propelled Alfonso Cuarón and Alejandro González Iñárritu to the front rank of Hollywood directors. Iñárritu in 2010 directed Biutiful and Birdman (2014), Alfonso Cuarón directed Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban in 2004 and Gravity in 2013. A close friend of both, Guillermo del Toro, a top rank Hollywood director in Hollywood and Spain, directed Pan's Labyrinth (2006) and produced El Orfanato (2007). Carlos Carrera (The Crime of Father Amaro), and screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga are also some of the best known modern Mexican film makers. Rudo y Cursi released in December (2008) in Mexico, was directed by Carlos Cuarón.\n\nArgentine cinema has also been prominent since the first half of the 20th century and today averages over 60 full-length titles yearly. The industry suffered during the 1976–1983 military dictatorship; but re-emerged to produce the Academy Award winner The Official Story in 1985. A wave of imported US films again damaged the industry in the early 1990s, though it soon recovered, thriving even during the Argentine economic crisis around 2001. Many Argentine movies produced during recent years have been internationally acclaimed, including Nueve reinas (2000), Son of the Bride (2001), El abrazo partido (2004), El otro (2007), the 2010 Foreign Language Academy Award winner El secreto de sus ojos and Wild Tales (2014).\n\nIn Brazil, the Cinema Novo movement created a particular way of making movies with critical and intellectual screenplays, clearer photography related to the light of the outdoors in a tropical landscape, and a political message. The modern Brazilian film industry has become more profitable inside the country, and some of its productions have received prizes and recognition in Europe and the United States, with movies such as Central do Brasil (1999), Cidade de Deus (2002) and Tropa de Elite (2007).\n\nPuerto Rican cinema has produced some notable films, such as Una Aventura Llamada Menudo, Los Diaz de Doris and Casi Casi. An influx of Hollywood films affected the local film industry in Puerto Rico during the 1980s and 1990s, but several Puerto Rican films have been produced since and it has been recovering.\n\nCuban cinema has enjoyed much official support since the Cuban revolution and important film-makers include Tomás Gutiérrez Alea.\n\nVenezuelan television has also had a great impact in Latin America, is said that whilst \"Venezuelan cinema began sporadically in the 1950s[, it] only emerged as a national-cultural movement in the mid-1970s\" when it gained state support and auteurs could produce work. International co-productions with Latin America and Spain continued into this era and beyond, and Venezuelan films of this time were counted among the works of New Latin American Cinema. This period is known as Venezuela's Golden Age of cinema, having massive popularity even though it was a time of much social and political upheaval.\n\nOne of the most famous Venezuelan films, even to date, is the 1976 film Soy un delincuente by Clemente de la Cerda, which won the Special Jury Prize at the 1977 Locarno International Film Festival. Soy un delincuente was one of nine films for which the state gave substantial funding to produce, made in the year after the Venezuelan state began giving financial support to cinema in 1975. The support likely came from increased oil wealth in the early 1970s, and the subsequent 1973 credit incentive policy. At the time of its production the film was the most popular film in the country, and took a decade to be usurped from this position, even though it was only one in a string of films designed to tell social realist stories of struggle in the 1950s and '60s. Equally famous is the 1977 film El Pez que Fuma (Román Chalbaud). In 1981 FONCINE (the Venezuelan Film Fund) was founded, and this year it provided even more funding to produce seventeen feature films. A few years later in 1983 with Viernes Negro, oil prices dropped and Venezuela entered a depression which prevented such extravagant funding, but film production continued; more transnational productions occurred, many more with Spain due to Latin America's poor economic fortune in general, and there was some in new cinema, as well: Fina Torres' 1985 Oriana won the Caméra d'Or Prize at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival as the best first feature. Film production peaked in 1984–5,:37 with 1986 considered Venezuelan cinema's most successful year by the state, thanks to over 4 million admissions to national films, according to Venezuelanalysis. The Venezuelan capital of Caracas hosted the Ibero-American Forum on Cinematography Integration in 1989, from which the pan-continental IBERMEDIA was formed; a union which provides regional funding.\n\nLiterature\n\nPre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral, although the Aztecs and Maya, for instance, produced elaborate codices. Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with the Popol Vuh. Moreover, a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day, for instance among the Quechua-speaking population of Peru and the Quiché (K'iche') of Guatemala.\n\nFrom the very moment of Europe's discovery of the continents, early explorers and conquistadores produced written accounts and crónicas of their experiencesuch as Columbus's letters or Bernal Díaz del Castillo's description of the conquest of Mexico. During the colonial period, written culture was often in the hands of the church, within which context Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz wrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays. Towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, a distinctive criollo literary tradition emerged, including the first novels such as Lizardi's El Periquillo Sarniento (1816).\n\nThe 19th century was a period of \"foundational fictions\" in critic Doris Sommer's words, novels in the Romantic or Naturalist traditions that attempted to establish a sense of national identity, and which often focussed on the Indigenous question or the dichotomy of \"civilization or barbarism\" (for which see, say, Domingo Sarmiento's Facundo (1845), Juan León Mera's Cumandá (1879), or Euclides da Cunha's Os Sertões (1902)). The 19th century also witnessed the realist work of Machado de Assis, who made use of surreal devices of metaphor and playful narrative construction, much admired by critic Harold Bloom.\n\nAt the turn of the 20th century, modernismo emerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío's Azul (1888). This was the first Latin American literary movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer so much at issue. José Martí, for instance, though a Cuban patriot, also lived in Mexico and the United States and wrote for journals in Argentina and elsewhere.\n\nHowever, what really put Latin American literature on the global map was no doubt the literary boom of the 1960s and 1970s, distinguished by daring and experimental novels (such as Julio Cortázar's Rayuela (1963)) that were frequently published in Spain and quickly translated into English. The Boom's defining novel was Gabriel García Márquez's Cien años de soledad (1967), which led to the association of Latin American literature with magic realism, though other important writers of the period such as the Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa and Carlos Fuentes do not fit so easily within this framework. Arguably, the Boom's culmination was Augusto Roa Bastos's monumental Yo, el supremo (1974). In the wake of the Boom, influential precursors such as Juan Rulfo, Alejo Carpentier, and above all Jorge Luis Borges were also rediscovered.\n\nContemporary literature in the region is vibrant and varied, ranging from the best-selling Paulo Coelho and Isabel Allende to the more avant-garde and critically acclaimed work of writers such as Diamela Eltit, Giannina Braschi, Ricardo Piglia, or Roberto Bolaño. There has also been considerable attention paid to the genre of testimonio, texts produced in collaboration with subaltern subjects such as Rigoberta Menchú. Finally, a new breed of chroniclers is represented by the more journalistic Carlos Monsiváis and Pedro Lemebel.\n\nThe region boasts six Nobel Prize winners: in addition to the two Chilean poets Gabriela Mistral (1945) and Pablo Neruda (1971), there is also the Guatemalan novelist Miguel Ángel Asturias (1967), the Colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez (1982), the Mexican poet and essayist Octavio Paz (1990), and the Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa (2010).\n\nMusic and dance\n\nLatin America has produced many successful worldwide artists in terms of recorded global music sales. Among the most successful have been Juan Gabriel (Mexico) only Latin American musician to have sold over 200 million records worldwide, Gloria Estefan (Cuba), Carlos Santana, Luis Miguel (Mexico) of whom have sold over 90 million records, Shakira (Colombia) and Vicente Fernández (Mexico) with over 50 million records sold worldwide. Enrique Iglesias, although not a Latin American, has also contributed for the success of Latin music.\n\nOther notable successful mainstream acts through the years, include RBD, Celia Cruz, Soda Stereo, Thalía, Ricky Martin, Maná, Marc Anthony, Ricardo Arjona, Selena, and Menudo.\n\nLatin Caribbean music, such as merengue, bachata, salsa, and more recently reggaeton, from such countries as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Panama, has been strongly influenced by African rhythms and melodies. Haiti's compas is a genre of music that is influenced by its Latin Caribbean counterparts, along with elements of jazz and modern sounds. The French Antillean zouk (derived from Haitian compas) is a musical style originating from the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique and popularized by the French Antillean Creole band Kassav' in the early 1980s then became popular mainly in the Caribbean islands of Saint Lucia, Dominica, and Haiti, all in the French Antilles (French West Indies). \n\nAnother well-known Latin American musical genre includes the Argentine and Uruguayan tango (with Carlos Gardel as the greatest exponent), as well as the distinct nuevo tango, a fusion of tango, acoustic and electronic music popularized by bandoneón virtuoso Ástor Piazzolla. Samba, North American jazz, European classical music and choro combined to form bossa nova in Brazil, popularized by guitarist João Gilberto with singer Astrud Gilberto and pianist Antonio Carlos Jobim.\n\nOther influential Latin American sounds include the Antillean soca and calypso, Dennery segment which is a style of Soca music developed in Saint Lucia in the early 2010s which came from Kuduro music, Zouk influence and Lucian drums alongside lyrics usually sung in French Antillean Creole Kwéyòl , Bouyon music is a mixture of Soca, Zouk, and traditional genres native to Dominica which is sung in French Antillean Creole and is one of the most popular musical genres in Dominica, the Honduran (Garifuna) punta, the Colombian cumbia and vallenato, the Chilean cueca, the Ecuadorian boleros, and rockoleras, the Mexican ranchera and the mariachi which is the epitome of Mexican soul, the Nicaraguan palo de Mayo, the Peruvian marinera and tondero, the Uruguayan candombe and the various styles of music from pre-Columbian traditions that are widespread in the Andean region.\n\nThe classical composer Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) worked on the recording of Native musical traditions within his homeland of Brazil. The traditions of his homeland heavily influenced his classical works. Also notable is the recent work of the Cuban Leo Brouwer, Uruguayan-American Miguel del Águila, guitar works of the Venezuelan Antonio Lauro and the Paraguayan Agustín Barrios. Latin America has also produced world-class classical performers such as the Chilean pianist Claudio Arrau, Brazilian pianist Nelson Freire and the Argentine pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim. Brazilian opera soprano Bidu Sayão, one of Brazil's most famous musicians, was a leading artist of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City from 1937 to 1952.\n\nArguably, the main contribution to music entered through folklore, where the true soul of the Latin American and Caribbean countries is expressed. Musicians such as Yma Súmac, Chabuca Granda, Atahualpa Yupanqui, Violeta Parra, Víctor Jara, Jorge Cafrune, Facundo Cabral, Mercedes Sosa, Jorge Negrete, Luiz Gonzaga, Caetano Veloso, Susana Baca, Chavela Vargas, Simon Diaz, Julio Jaramillo, Toto la Momposina, Gilberto Gil, Maria Bethânia, Nana Caymmi, Nara Leão, Gal Costa, Ney Matogrosso as well as musical ensembles such as Inti Illimani and Los Kjarkas are magnificent examples of the heights that this soul can reach.\n\nLatin pop, including many forms of rock, is popular in Latin America today (see Spanish language rock and roll). A few examples are Café Tacuba, Soda Stereo, Maná, Los Fabulosos Cadillacs, Rita Lee, Mutantes, Secos e Molhados Legião Urbana, Titãs, Paralamas do Sucesso, Cazuza, Barão Vermelho, Skank, Miranda!, Cansei de Ser Sexy or CSS, and Bajo Fondo.\n\nMore recently, reggaeton, which blends Jamaican reggae and dancehall with Latin America genres such as bomba and plena, as well as hip hop, is becoming more popular, in spite of the controversy surrounding its lyrics, dance steps (Perreo) and music videos. It has become very popular among populations with a \"migrant culture\" influence – both Latino populations in the United States, such as southern Florida and New York City, and parts of Latin America where migration to the United States is common, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, and Mexico.\n\nWorld Heritage Sites\nThe following is a list of the ten countries with the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Latin America.\n\nSee also \n\nAmericas (terminology)\nAnglo-America\nEuro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly\nFrench America\nHispanic America\nHispanic and Latino Americans\nIbero-America\nIndigenous peoples of the Americas (Amerindians)\nInter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance\nLatin America and the Caribbean\nLatin America and the League of Nations\nLatin America–United States relations\nLatin American diaspora\nLatin American integration\nLatin American studies\nLatin American Studies Association\nLatin Americans\nList of Latin Americans\nMesoamerica\nOrganization of American States\nPan-American Conferences\nPan-Americanism\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n Alonso, Paul. Digital Humor as Cultural Globalization in Latin America. Internet, Humor, and Nation in Latin/x America, 2022.\n Ardao, Arturo. Génesis de la idea y nombre de América Latina. Caracas: Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos Rómulo Gallegos, 1980.\n Ayala Mora, Enrique. \"El origen del nombre América Latina y la tradición católica del siglo XIX.\" Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura 40, no. 1 (2013), 213–41.\n Berryman, Phillip. Latin America at 200. Austin: University of Texas Press 2016.\n Bethell, Leslie, The Cambridge History of Latin America. 12 volumes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1985–2008.\n Bomfim, Manoel. A América latina: Males de origem. Rio de Janeiro: H. Garnier 1905.\n Braudel, Fernand. \"Y a-t-il une Amérique latine?\" Annales ESC 3 (1948), 467–71.\n Calderón, Fernando and Manuel Castells. The New Latin America. Cambridge: Polity Press 2020.\n Coatsworth, John H., and Alan M. Taylor, eds. Latin America and the World Economy Since 1800. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press 1998.\n Edwards, Sebastián. Left Behind: Latin America and the False Promise of Populism. University of Chicago Press, 2010.\n \n Galeano, Eduardo. Open Veins of Latin America: Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent. 1973\n Gobat, Michel, \"The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race,\" American Historical Review Vol. 118, no. 3 (December 2013), pp. 1345–1375.\n Halperin Donghi, Tulio. The Contemporary History of Latin America. Durham: Duke University Press 1993. \n Lockhart, James and Stuart B. Schwartz. Early Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1982.\n Martínez Estrada, Ezequiel. Diferencias y semejanzas entre los países de América Latina. Mexico\" Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 1962.\n Maurer Queipo, Isabel (ed.): \"Directory of World Cinema: Latin America\", intellectbooks, Bristol 2013, \n Mazzuca, Sebastián, Latecomer State Formation: Political Geography and Capacity Failure in Latin America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2021.\n McGinnes, Aims. \"Searching for 'Latin America': Race and Sovereignty in the Americas in the 1850s.\" In Race and Nation in Modern Latin America, edited by Nancy P. Appelbaum, Anne S. Macpherson, and Karin alejandra Rosemblatt. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2003, pp, 87–107.\n Mignolo, Walter, The Idea of Latin America. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell 2005.\n Moraña, Mabel, Enrique Dussel, and Carlos A. Jáuregui, eds. Coloniality at Large: Latin America and the Postcolonial Debate. Durham: Duke University Press 2008.\n Phelan, John Leddy. (1968). Pan-latinisms, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autonónoma de México 1968.\n Tenenbaum, Barbara A. ed. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. 5 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996\n Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio. Latin America: The Allure and Power of an Idea. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2017. \n Vasconcelos, José. Indología: Una interpretación de la cultura ibero-americana. Barcelona: Agencia Mundial de Librería 1927.\n Zea, Leopoldo, ed. Fuentes de la cultura latinoamericana. 2 vols. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1993.\n\nExternal links \n\n IDB Education Initiative\n Latin American, Caribbean, U.S. Latinx, and Iberian Online Free E-Resources (LACLI). \n Latin American Network Information Center \n Latin America Data Base \n Washington Office on Latin America\n Council on Hemispheric Affairs\n Codigos De Barra\n \n Map of Land Cover: Latin America and Caribbean (FAO) \n Lessons From Latin America by Benjamin Dangl, The Nation, March 4, 2009\n \n \n Latin America Cold War Resources, Yale University\n Latin America Cold War, Harvard University\n Latin American Research Centre, University of Calgary\n The war on Democracy, by John Pilger\n\n \nCategory:Country classifications", "title": "Latin America" }, { "text": "The Caribbean ( , ; ; ; ; ) is a subregion of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea and its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean); the nearby coastal areas on the mainland may also be included. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, and north of South America.\n\nSituated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region has more than 700 islands, islets, reefs, and cays (see the list of Caribbean islands). Island arcs delineate the northern and eastern edges of the Caribbean Sea: the Greater Antilles in the north and the Lesser Antilles (which includes the Leeward Antilles) in the east and south. The nearby Lucayan Archipelago (comprising The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands) is considered to be a part of the Caribbean despite not bordering the Caribbean Sea. All the islands in the Antilles plus the Lucayan Archipelago form the West Indies, which is often interchangeable with the term Caribbean. On the mainland, Belize, Guyana, and Suriname are often included as parts of the Caribbean due to their political and cultural ties with the region.\n\nGeopolitically, the islands of the Caribbean are often regarded as a subregion of North America, though sometimes they are included in Middle America or left as a subregion of their own and are organized into 33 political entities, including 13 sovereign states, 12 dependencies, 1 disputed territory, and 7 other overseas territories. From December 15, 1954, to October 10, 2010, there was a territory known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five islands, all of which were Dutch dependencies. From January 3, 1958, to May 31, 1962, there was also a short-lived political union called the West Indies Federation composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories, all of which were then British dependencies. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations.\n\nEtymology and pronunciation\nThe region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Americas.\n\nThe two most prevalent pronunciations of \"Caribbean\" outside the Caribbean are (), with the primary stress on the third syllable, and (), with the stress on the second. Most authorities of the last century preferred the stress on the third syllable. This is the older of the two pronunciations, but the stressed-second-syllable variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer () while North American speakers more typically use (), but major American dictionaries and other sources list the stress on the third syllable as more common in American English too. According to the American version of Oxford Online Dictionaries, the stress on the second syllable is becoming more common in UK English and is increasingly considered \"by some\" to be more up to date and more \"correct\".\n\nThe Oxford Online Dictionaries claim that the stress on the second syllable is the most common pronunciation in the Caribbean itself, but according to the Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage, the most common pronunciation in Caribbean English stresses the first syllable instead, ().\n\nDefinition\n\nThe word \"Caribbean\" has multiple uses. Its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to Africa, slavery, European colonisation and the plantation system.\n The United Nations geoscheme for the Americas presents the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas.\n Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea. To the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America.\n\nCountries and territories list\n\nHistory\n\nThe oldest evidence of humans in the Caribbean is in southern Trinidad at Banwari Trace, where remains have been found from seven thousand years ago. These pre-ceramic sites, which belong to the Archaic (pre-ceramic) age, have been termed Ortoiroid. The earliest archaeological evidence of human settlement in Hispaniola dates to about 3600 BC, but the reliability of these finds is questioned. Consistent dates of 3100 BC appear in Cuba. The earliest dates in the Lesser Antilles are from 2000 BC in Antigua. A lack of pre-ceramic sites in the Windward Islands and differences in technology suggest that these Archaic settlers may have Central American origins. Whether an Ortoiroid colonization of the islands took place is uncertain, but there is little evidence of one.\n\nDNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to National Geographic, \"studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today's Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands.\"\n\nBetween 400 BC and 200 BC the first ceramic-using agriculturalists, the Saladoid culture, entered Trinidad from South America. They expanded up the Orinoco River to Trinidad, and then spread rapidly up the islands of the Caribbean. Some time after 250 AD another group, the Barancoid, entered Trinidad. The Barancoid society collapsed along the Orinoco around 650 AD and another group, the Arauquinoid, expanded into these areas and up the Caribbean chain. Around 1300 AD a new group, the Mayoid, entered Trinidad and remained the dominant culture until Spanish settlement.\n\nAt the time of the European discovery of most of the islands of the Caribbean, three major Amerindian indigenous peoples lived on the islands: the Taíno in the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas and the Leeward Islands, the Island Caribs and Galibi in the Windward Islands, and the Ciboney in western Cuba. The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos, who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, Western Taínos, who occupied Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamian archipelago, and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the Leeward Islands. Trinidad was inhabited by both Carib speaking and Arawak-speaking groups.\n\nEuropean Contact \n\nSoon after Christopher Columbus came to the Caribbean, both Portuguese and Spanish explorers began claiming territories in Central and South America. These early colonies brought gold to Europe; most specifically England, the Netherlands, and France. These nations hoped to establish profitable colonies in the Caribbean. Colonial rivalries made the Caribbean a cockpit for European wars for centuries.\n\nColumbus, and the early colonists of Hispaniola, treated the indigenous peoples brutally, even enslaving children. In 1512, after pressure from Dominican friars, the Laws of Burgos were introduced by the Spanish Crown to better protect the rights of the New World natives. The Spanish used a form of slavery called the Encomienda, where slaves would be awarded to the conquistadors, who were charged with protecting and converting their slaves. This had a devastating impact on the population, so starting in 1503, slaves from Africa were imported to the colony.\n\nWhile early slave traders were Portuguese and Spanish, known as the First Atlantic System, by the 17th century the trade became dominated by British, French, and Dutch merchants. This was known as the Second Atlantic System. 5 million African slaves would be taken to the Caribbean, and around half would be traded to the British Caribbean islands. Slavery was abolished first in the Dutch Empire in 1814. Spain abolished slavery in its empire in 1811, with the exceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo. Slavery was not abolished in Cuba until 1886. Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807, and slavery proper in 1833. France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848.\n\t\nThe Caribbean was known for pirates, especially between 1640 and 1680. The term \"buccaneer\" is often used to describe a pirate operating in this region. The Caribbean region was war-torn throughout much of its colonial history, but the wars were often based in Europe, with only minor battles fought in the Caribbean. Some wars, however, were born of political turmoil in the Caribbean itself.\n\nIn 1791, a slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint-Domingue led to the establishment in 1804 of Haiti, the first republic in the Caribbean. Cuba became independent in 1898 following American intervention in the War of Independence during the Spanish-American war. Following the war, Spain's last colony in the Americas, Puerto Rico, became an unincorporated territory of the United States.\n\nDecolonisation and Modern period \nBetween the 1960s and 80s, most of the British holdings in the Caribbean achieved political independence, starting with Jamaica in 1962, then Trinidad and Tobago (1962), British Guiana (1966), Barbados (1966), Bahamas (1973), Grenada (1974), Dominica (1978), St. Lucia (1979), St. Vincent (1979), Antigua and Barbuda (1981), St. Kitts and Nevis (1983). Presently, the United States, Britain, France and the Netherlands still have some Caribbean possessions.\n\nThe decline of the export industries meant a need to diversify the economies of the Caribbean territories. The tourism industry started developing in the early 20th century, rapidly developing in the 1960s when regular international flights made vacations affordable and is now a $50 billion industry. Another industry that developed in the early 20th century was offshore banking and financial services, particularly in The Bahamas and the Cayman Islands, as the proximity of the Caribbean islands to North America made them an attractive location for branches of foreign banks seeking to avail themselves of more complicated regulations and higher tax rates.\n\nUS interventions\n\nThe United States has conducted military operations in the Caribbean for at least 100 years.\n\nSince the Monroe Doctrine, the United States gained a major influence on most Caribbean nations. In the early part of the 20th century this influence was extended by participation in the Banana Wars. Victory in the Spanish–American War and the signing of the Platt Amendment in 1901 ensured that the United States would have the right to interfere in Cuban political and economic affairs, militarily if necessary. After the Cuban Revolution of 1959, relations deteriorated rapidly leading to the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and successive US attempts to destabilize the island, based upon Cold War fears of the Soviet threat. The US invaded and occupied Hispaniola for 19 years (1915–34), subsequently dominating the Haitian economy through aid and loan repayments. The US invaded Haiti again in 1994 and in 2004 were accused by CARICOM of arranging a coup d'état to remove elected Haitian leader Jean-Bertrand Aristide. In 1965, 23,000 US troops were sent to the Dominican Republic to quash a local uprising against military rule (see Dominican Civil War). President Lyndon Johnson had ordered the invasion to stem what he deemed to be a \"Communist threat.\" However, the mission appeared ambiguous and was roundly condemned throughout the hemisphere as a return to gunboat diplomacy. In 1983, the US invaded Grenada to remove populist left-wing leader Maurice Bishop. The US maintains a naval military base in Cuba at Guantanamo Bay. The base is one of five unified commands whose \"area of responsibility\" is Latin America and the Caribbean. The command is headquartered in Miami, Florida.\n\nGeography and geology\n\nThe geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies: Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin. These islands include Aruba (possessing only minor volcanic features), Curaçao, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua. Others possess rugged towering mountain-ranges like the islands of Saint Martin, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Dominica, Montserrat, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Thomas, Saint John, Tortola, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Trinidad and Tobago.\n\nDefinitions of the terms Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles often vary. The Virgin Islands as part of the Puerto Rican bank are sometimes included with the Greater Antilles. The term Lesser Antilles is often used to define an island arc that includes Grenada but excludes Trinidad and Tobago and the Leeward Antilles.\n\nThe waters of the Caribbean Sea host large, migratory schools of fish, turtles, and coral reef formations. The Puerto Rico Trench, located on the fringe of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea just to the north of the island of Puerto Rico, is the deepest point in all of the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nThe region sits in the line of several major shipping routes with the Panama Canal connecting the western Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of the area is tropical, varying from tropical rainforest in some areas to tropical monsoon and tropical savanna in others. There are also some locations that are arid climates with considerable drought in some years, and the peaks of mountains tend to have cooler temperate climates.\n\nRainfall varies with elevation, size and water currents, such as the cool upwellings that keep the ABC islands arid. Warm, moist trade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rain forest and semi arid climates across the region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from Costa Rica north to Belize, as well as the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in Cuba, northern Colombia and Venezuela, and southern Yucatán, Mexico. Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including Aruba and Curacao, as well as the northwestern tip of Yucatán.\n\nWhile the region generally is sunny much of the year, the wet season from May through November sees more frequent cloud cover (both broken and overcast), while the dry season from December through April is more often clear to mostly sunny. Seasonal rainfall is divided into 'dry' and 'wet' seasons, with the latter six months of the year being wetter than the first half. The air temperature is hot much of the year, varying from 25 to 33 C (77 F to 90 F) between the wet and dry seasons. Seasonally, monthly mean temperatures vary from only about 5 C (7 F) in the northern most regions, to less than 3 C in the southernmost areas of the Caribbean.\n\nHurricane season is from June to November, but they occur more frequently in August and September and more common in the northern islands of the Caribbean. Hurricanes that sometimes batter the region usually strike northwards of Grenada and to the west of Barbados. The principal hurricane belt arcs to northwest of the island of Barbados in the Eastern Caribbean. A great example being recent events of Hurricane Irma devastating the island of Saint Martin during the 2017 hurricane season.\n\nSea surface temperatures change little annually, normally running from 30 °C (87 °F) in the warmest months to 26 °C (76 °F) in the coolest months. The air temperature is warm year round, in the 70s, 80s and 90s, and only varies from winter to summer about 2–5 degrees on the southern islands and about a 10–20 degrees difference on the northern islands of the Caribbean. The northern islands, like the Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, may be influenced by continental masses during winter months, such as cold fronts.\n\nAruba: Latitude 12°N\n\nPuerto Rico: Latitude 18°N\n\nCuba: at Latitude 22°N\n\nIsland groups\nLucayan Archipelago\n \n (United Kingdom)\nGreater Antilles\n (United Kingdom)\n \n Hispaniola\n \n \n \n (U.S. Commonwealth)\n Spanish Virgin Islands\n Navassa Island \nLesser Antilles\n Leeward Islands\n (U.S.)\n Saint Croix\n Saint Thomas\n Saint John\n Water Island\n (United Kingdom)\n Tortola\n Virgin Gorda\n Anegada\n Jost Van Dyke\n (United Kingdom)\n \n Antigua\n Barbuda\n Redonda\n Saint Martin, politically divided between\n (France)\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n (French Antilles, France)\n \n Saint Kitts\n Nevis\n (United Kingdom)\n (French Antilles, France) including\n Les Saintes\n Marie-Galante\n La Désirade\n Windward Islands\n \n (French Antilles, France)\n \n \n Saint Vincent\n The Grenadines\n \n Grenada\n Carriacou and Petite Martinique\n \n\n Tobago\n Trinidad\n Leeward Antilles\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n\nHistorical groupings\n\nAll islands at some point were, and a few still are, colonies of European nations; a few are overseas or dependent territories:\n British West Indies/Anglophone Caribbean – Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Bay Islands, Guyana, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Croix (briefly), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago (from 1797) and the Turks and Caicos Islands\n Danish West Indies – Possession of Denmark-Norway before 1814, then Denmark, present-day United States Virgin Islands\n Dutch West Indies – Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten, Bay Islands (briefly), Saint Croix (briefly), Tobago, Surinam and Virgin Islands\n French West Indies – Anguilla (briefly), Antigua and Barbuda (briefly), Dominica, Dominican Republic (briefly), Grenada, Haiti (formerly Saint-Domingue), Montserrat (briefly), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Eustatius (briefly), Sint Maarten, St. Kitts (briefly), Tobago (briefly), Saint Croix, the current French overseas départements of French Guiana, Martinique and Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante, La Désirade and Les Saintes), the current French overseas collectivities of Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin\n Portuguese West Indies – present-day Barbados, known as in the 16th century when the Portuguese claimed the island en route to Brazil. The Portuguese left Barbados abandoned years before the British arrived.\n Spanish West Indies – Cuba, Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic), Haiti (until 1659, lost to France), Puerto Rico, Jamaica (until 1655, lost to Great Britain), the Cayman Islands (until 1670 to Great Britain) Trinidad (until 1797, lost to Great Britain) and Bay Islands (until 1643, lost to Great Britain), coastal islands of Central America (except Belize), and some Caribbean coastal islands of Panama, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela.\n Swedish West Indies – present-day French Saint-Barthélemy, Guadeloupe (briefly) and Tobago (briefly).\n Courlander West Indies – Tobago (until 1691)\n\nThe British West Indies were united by the United Kingdom into a West Indies Federation between 1958 and 1962. The independent countries formerly part of the B.W.I. still have a joint cricket team that competes in Test matches, One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. The West Indian cricket team includes the South American nation of Guyana, the only former British colony on the mainland of that continent.\n\nIn addition, these countries share the University of the West Indies as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in the Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories such as Trinidad.\n\nContinental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands\n\n \n Ambergris Caye\n Caye Caulker\n Glover's Reef\n Hick's Cayes\n Lighthouse Reef\n St. George's Caye\n Tobacco Caye\n Turneffe Atoll\n \n Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina\nBajo Nuevo Bank\nCrab Cay\nQuita Sueño Bank\nRoncador Bank\nRoncador Cay\nSan Andrés (island)\nSanta Catalina Island (Colombia)\nSerrana Bank\nSerranilla Bank\n Rosario Islands\n \nBrava Island, Costa Rica\nIsla Calero\nUvita Island\n \n \n \n \n Islas de la Bahía\n Cayos Cochinos\n Guanaja\n Roatán\n Swan Islands\n Útila\nCayos Cochinos\nCayo Gorda\nBobel Cay\n\n \n Corn Islands\n Miskito Cays\n Pearl Cays\nCalala Island\nRama Cay\n \n Archipelago off Guna Yala coast (including the San Blas Islands)\n Bocas del Toro Archipelago (approximately 300 islands)\n Galeta Island (Panama)\nIsla Grande\nSoledad Miria\nCayos Limones\n \n Quintana Roo\n Banco Chinchorro\n Cozumel\n Isla Blanca\n Isla Contoy\n Isla Holbox\n Isla Mujeres\n \n \n Blanquilla Island\n Coche Island\n Cubagua Island\n Isla Aves\n Islas Los Frailes\n Isla Margarita\n La Orchila\n La Sola Island\n La Tortuga Island\n Las Aves archipelago\n Los Hermanos Archipelago\n Los Monjes Archipelago\n Los Roques archipelago\n Los Testigos Islands\n Patos Island\n\nBiodiversity\nThe Caribbean islands have one of the most diverse eco systems in the world. The animals, fungi and plants, and have been classified as one of Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots because of their exceptionally diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems, ranging from montane cloud forests, to tropical rainforest, to cactus scrublands. The region also contains about 8% (by surface area) of the world's coral reefs along with extensive seagrass meadows, both of which are frequently found in the shallow marine waters bordering the island and continental coasts of the region.\n\nFor the fungi, there is a modern checklist based on nearly 90,000 records derived from specimens in reference collections, published accounts and field observations. That checklist includes more than 11,250 species of fungi recorded from the region. As its authors note, the work is far from exhaustive, and it is likely that the true total number of fungal species already known from the Caribbean is higher. The true total number of fungal species occurring in the Caribbean, including species not yet recorded, is likely far higher given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have been discovered. Though the amount of available information is still small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to some Caribbean islands. For Cuba, 2200 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the island; for Puerto Rico, the number is 789 species; for the Dominican Republic, the number is 699 species; for Trinidad and Tobago, the number is 407 species.\n\nMany of the ecosystems of the Caribbean islands have been devastated by deforestation, pollution, and human encroachment. The arrival of the first humans is correlated with extinction of giant owls and dwarf ground sloths. The hotspot contains dozens of highly threatened animals (ranging from birds, to mammals and reptiles), fungi and plants. Examples of threatened animals include the Puerto Rican amazon, two species of solenodon (giant shrews) in Cuba and the Hispaniola island, and the Cuban crocodile.\n\nThe region's coral reefs, which contain about 70 species of hard corals and from 500 to 700 species of reef-associated fishes have undergone rapid decline in ecosystem integrity in recent years, and are considered particularly vulnerable to global warming and ocean acidification. According to a UNEP report, the Caribbean coral reefs might get extinct in next 20 years due to population explosion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas and global warming.\n\nSome Caribbean islands have terrain that Europeans found suitable for cultivation for agriculture. Tobacco was an important early crop during the colonial era, but was eventually overtaken by sugarcane production as the region's staple crop. Sugar was produced from sugarcane for export to Europe. Cuba and Barbados were historically the largest producers of sugar. The tropical plantation system thus came to dominate Caribbean settlement. Other islands were found to have terrain unsuited for agriculture, for example Dominica, which remains heavily forested. The islands in the southern Lesser Antilles, Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, are extremely arid, making them unsuitable for agriculture. However, they have salt pans that were exploited by the Dutch. Sea water was pumped into shallow ponds, producing coarse salt when the water evaporated.\n\nThe natural environmental diversity of the Caribbean islands has led to recent growth in eco-tourism. This type of tourism is growing on islands lacking sandy beaches and dense human populations.\n\nPlants and animals\n\nDemographics\n\nIndigenous groups\n\n Arawak peoples\n Igneri\n Taíno\n Caquetio people\n Ciboney\n Ciguayo\n Garifuna\n Kalina\n Kalinago\n Lucayan\n Macorix\n Raizal\n\nAt the time of European contact, the dominant ethnic groups in the Caribbean included the Taíno of the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles, the Island Caribs of the southern Lesser Antilles, and smaller distinct groups such as the Guanajatabey of western Cuba and the Ciguayo of eastern Hispaniola. The population of the Caribbean is estimated to have been around 750,000 immediately before European contact, although lower and higher figures are given. After contact, social disruption and epidemic diseases such as smallpox and measles (to which they had no natural immunity) led to a decline in the Amerindian population. such as the Kongo, Igbo, Akan, Fon and Yoruba as well as military prisoners from Ireland, who were deported during the Cromwellian reign in England. Immigrants from Britain, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and Denmark also arrived, although the mortality rate was high for both groups.\n\nThe population is estimated to have reached 2.2 million by 1800. Immigrants from India, China, Indonesia, and other countries arrived in the mid-19th century as indentured servants. After the ending of the Atlantic slave trade, the population increased naturally. The total regional population was estimated at 37.5 million by 2000.\n\nIn Haiti and most of the French, Anglophone and Dutch Caribbean, the population is predominantly of African origin; on many islands there are also significant populations of mixed racial origin (including Mulatto-Creole, Dougla, Mestizo, Quadroon, Cholo, Castizo, Criollo, Zambo, Pardo, Asian Latin Americans, Chindian, Cocoa panyols, and Eurasian), as well as populations of European ancestry: Dutch, English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish ancestry. Asians, especially those of Chinese, Indian descent, and Javanese Indonesians, form a significant minority in parts of the region. Indians form a plurality of the population in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname. Most of their ancestors arrived in the 19th century as indentured laborers.\n\nThe Spanish-speaking Caribbean populations are primarily of European, African, or racially mixed origins. Puerto Rico has a European majority with a mixture of European-African-Native American (tri-racial), and a large Mulatto (European-West African) and West African minority. Cuba also has a European majority, along with a significant population of African ancestry. The Dominican Republic has the largest mixed-race population, primarily descended from Europeans, West Africans, and Amerindians.\n\nJamaica has a large African majority, in addition to a significant population of mixed racial background, and has minorities of Chinese, Europeans, Indians, Latinos, Jews, and Arabs. This is a result of years of importation of slaves and indentured laborers, and migration. Most multi-racial Jamaicans refer to themselves as either mixed race or brown. Similar populations can be found in the Caricom states of Belize, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago has a multi-racial cosmopolitan society due to the arrivals of Africans, Indians, Chinese, Arabs, Jews, Latinos, and Europeans along with the native indigenous Amerindians population. This multi-racial mix of the Caribbean has created sub-ethnicities that often straddle the boundaries of major ethnicities and include Mulatto-Creole, Mestizo, Pardo, Zambo, Dougla, Chindian, Afro-Asians, Eurasian, Cocoa panyols, and Asian Latinos.\n\nLanguage\n\nSpanish (64%), French (25%), English (14%), Dutch, Haitian Creole, and Papiamento are the predominant official languages of various countries in the region, although a handful of unique creole languages or dialects can also be found in virtually every Caribbean country. Other languages such as Caribbean Hindustani, Chinese, Javanese, Arabic, Hmong, Amerindian languages, other African languages, other European languages, and other Indian languages can also be found.\n\nReligion\n\nChristianity is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (84.7%). Other religions in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Rastafari, Buddhism, Chinese folk religion (incl. Taoism and Confucianism), Bahá'í, Jainism, Sikhism, Kebatinan, Traditional African religions, Yoruba (incl. Trinidad Orisha), Afro-American religions, (incl. Santería, Palo, Umbanda, Brujería, Hoodoo, Candomblé, Quimbanda, Orisha, Xangô de Recife, Xangô do Nordeste, Comfa, Espiritismo, Santo Daime, Obeah, Candomblé, Abakuá, Kumina, Winti, Sanse, Cuban Vodú, Dominican Vudú, Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, and Vodun).\n\nPolitics\n\nRegionalism\n\nCaribbean societies are very different from other Western societies in terms of size, culture, and degree of mobility of their citizens. The current economic and political problems the states face individually are common to all Caribbean states. Regional development has contributed to attempts to subdue current problems and avoid projected problems. From a political and economic perspective, regionalism serves to make Caribbean states active participants in current international affairs through collective coalitions. In 1973, the first political regionalism in the Caribbean Basin was created by advances of the English-speaking Caribbean nations through the institution known as the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM) which is located in Guyana.\n\nCertain scholars have argued both for and against generalizing the political structures of the Caribbean. On the one hand the Caribbean states are politically diverse, ranging from communist systems such as Cuba toward more capitalist Westminster-style parliamentary systems as in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Other scholars argue that these differences are superficial, and that they tend to undermine commonalities in the various Caribbean states. Contemporary Caribbean systems seem to reflect a \"blending of traditional and modern patterns, yielding hybrid systems that exhibit significant structural variations and divergent constitutional traditions yet ultimately appear to function in similar ways.\" The political systems of the Caribbean states share similar practices.\n\nThe influence of regionalism in the Caribbean is often marginalized. Some scholars believe that regionalism cannot exist in the Caribbean because each small state is unique. On the other hand, scholars also suggest that there are commonalities amongst the Caribbean nations that suggest regionalism exists. \"Proximity as well as historical ties among the Caribbean nations has led to cooperation as well as a desire for collective action.\" These attempts at regionalization reflect the nations' desires to compete in the international economic system.\n\nFurthermore, a lack of interest from other major states promoted regionalism in the region. In recent years the Caribbean has suffered from a lack of U.S. interest. \"With the end of the Cold War, U.S. security and economic interests have been focused on other areas. As a result there has been a significant reduction in U.S. aid and investment to the Caribbean.\" The lack of international support for these small, relatively poor states, helped regionalism prosper.\n\nFollowing the Cold War another issue of importance in the Caribbean has been the reduced economic growth of some Caribbean States due to the United States and European Union's allegations of special treatment toward the region by each other.\n\nUnited States–EU trade dispute\nThe United States under President Bill Clinton launched a challenge in the World Trade Organization against the EU over Europe's preferential program, known as the Lomé Convention, which allowed banana exports from the former colonies of the Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific states (ACP) to enter Europe cheaply. The World Trade Organization sided in the United States' favour and the beneficial elements of the convention to African, Caribbean and Pacific states has been partially dismantled and replaced by the Cotonou Agreement.\n\nDuring the US/EU dispute, the United States imposed large tariffs on European Union goods (up to 100%) to pressure Europe to change the agreement with the Caribbean nations in favour of the Cotonou Agreement.\n\nFarmers in the Caribbean have complained of falling profits and rising costs as the Lomé Convention weakens. Some farmers have faced increased pressure to turn towards the cultivation of illegal drugs, which has a higher profit margin and fills the sizable demand for these illegal drugs in North America and Europe.\n\nCaribbean Financial Action Task Force and Association of Caribbean States\nCaribbean nations have also started to more closely cooperate in the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and other instruments to add oversight of the offshore industry. One of the most important associations that deal with regionalism amongst the nations of the Caribbean Basin has been the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Proposed by CARICOM in 1992, the ACS soon won the support of the other countries of the region. It was founded in July 1994. The ACS maintains regionalism within the Caribbean on issues unique to the Caribbean Basin. Through coalition building, like the ACS and CARICOM, regionalism has become an undeniable part of the politics and economics of the Caribbean. The successes of region-building initiatives are still debated by scholars, yet regionalism remains prevalent throughout the Caribbean.\n\nBolivarian Alliance\nThe President of Venezuela, Hugo Chavez launched an economic group called the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA), which several eastern Caribbean islands joined. In 2012, the nation of Haiti, with 9 million people, became the largest CARICOM nation that sought to join the union.\n\nRegional institutions\nHere are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:\n\n African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States\n Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Association of National Telecommunication Organizations (CANTO), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Guyana\n Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Barbados\n Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDERA), Barbados\n Caribbean Educators Network\n Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation (CARILEC), Saint Lucia\n Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC), Barbados and Jamaica\n Caribbean Financial Action Task Force (CFATF), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Food Crops Society, Puerto Rico\n Caribbean Football Union (CFU), Jamaica\n Caribbean Hotel & Tourism Association (CHTA), Florida and Puerto Rico\n Caribbean Initiative (Initiative of the IUCN)\n Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness (CPEC), Saint Lucia\n Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme (CREP), Barbados\n Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM), Belize\n Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM), Barbados and Dominican Republic\n Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO), Barbados\n Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)\n Foundation for the Development of Caribbean Children, Barbados\n Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC), Brazil and Uruguay\n Latin American and the Caribbean Economic System, Venezuela\n Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), Saint Lucia\n United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Chile and Trinidad and Tobago\n University of the West Indies, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago. In addition, the fourth campus, the Open Campus was formed in June 2008 as a result of an amalgamation of the Board for Non-Campus Countries and Distance Education, Schools of Continuing Studies, the UWI Distance Education Centres and Tertiary Level Units. The Open Campus has 42 physical sites in 16 Anglophone caribbean countries.\n West Indies Cricket Board, Antigua and Barbuda\n\nCuisine\n\nFavourite or national dishes\n\n Anguilla – rice, peas and fish\n Antigua and Barbuda – fungee and pepperpot\n Bahamas – Guava duff, Conch Salad, Peas n' Rice, and Conch Fritters\n Barbados – cou-cou and flying fish\n Belize – rice and beans, stew chicken with potato salad; white rice, stew beans and fry fish with cole slaw\n British Virgin Islands – fish and fungee\n Cayman Islands – turtle stew, turtle steak, grouper\n Colombian Caribbean – rice with coconut milk, arroz con pollo, sancocho, Arab cuisine (due to the large Arab population)\n Cuba – platillo Moros y Cristianos, ropa vieja, lechon, maduros, ajiaco\n Dominica – mountain chicken, rice and peas, dumplings, saltfish, dashin, bakes (fried dumplings), coconut confiture, curry goat, cassava farine, oxtail\n Dominican Republic – arroz con pollo with stewed red kidney beans, pan fried or braised beef, salad/ ensalada de coditos, empanadas, mangú, sancocho\n Grenada – oil down, Roti and rice & chicken\n Guyana – roti and curry, pepperpot, cookup rice, methem, pholourie\n Haiti – griot (fried pork) served with du riz a pois or diri ak pwa (rice and beans)\n Jamaica – ackee and saltfish, callaloo, jerk chicken, curry chicken\n Montserrat – Goat water\n Puerto Rico – yellow rice with green pigeon peas, saltfish stew, roasted pork shoulder, chicken fricassée, mofongo, tripe soup, alcapurria, coconut custard, rice pudding, guava turnovers, Mallorca bread\n Saint Kitts and Nevis – goat water, coconut dumplings, spicy plantain, saltfish, breadfruit\n Saint Lucia – callaloo, dal roti, dried and salted cod, green bananas, rice and beans\n Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – roasted breadfruit and fried jackfish\n Suriname – brown beans and rice, roti and curry, peanut soup, battered fried plantain with peanut sauce, nasi goreng, moksie alesi, bara, pom\n Trinidad and Tobago – doubles, curry with roti or dal bhat, aloo pie, phulourie, callaloo, bake and shark, curry crab and dumpling\n United States Virgin Islands – stewed goat, oxtail or beef, seafood, callaloo, fungee\n Venezuela Caribbean – fried fish with salad and rise, tostones, sancocho, patacon, pabellon\n\nSee also \n\n African diaspora\n Anchor coinage\n British African-Caribbean people\n British Indo-Caribbean people\n Caribbean people\n Climate change in the Caribbean\n CONCACAF\n Council on Hemispheric Affairs\n Culture of the Caribbean\n Economy of the Caribbean\n Indian diaspora\n Indo-Caribbean\n Indo-Caribbean American\n List of Caribbean music genres\n List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Caribbean\n NECOBELAC Project\n Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin\n Piracy in the Caribbean\n Politics of the Caribbean\n Tourism in the Caribbean\n\nGeography:\n Americas (terminology)\n List of archipelagos by number of islands\n List of Caribbean islands\n List of indigenous names of Eastern Caribbean islands\n List of mountain peaks of the Caribbean\n List of Ultras of the Caribbean\n Middle America (Americas)\n Latin America and the Caribbean (region)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n Engerman, Stanley L. \"A Population History of the Caribbean\", pp. 483–528 in A Population History of North America Michael R. Haines and Richard Hall Steckel (Eds.), Cambridge University Press, 2000, .\n Hillman, Richard S., and Thomas J. D'agostino, eds. Understanding the Contemporary Caribbean, London: Lynne Rienner, 2003 .\n\nFurther reading \n Develtere, Patrick R. 1994. \"Co-operation and development: With special reference to the experience of the Commonwealth Caribbean\" ACCO, \n Gowricharn, Ruben. Caribbean Transnationalism: Migration, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006.\n Henke, Holger, and Fred Reno, eds. Modern Political Culture in the Caribbean. Kingston: University of West Indies Press, 2003.\n Heuman, Gad. The Caribbean: Brief Histories. London: A Hodder Arnold Publication, 2006.\n de Kadt, Emanuel, (editor). Patterns of foreign influence in the Caribbean, Oxford University Press, 1972.\n Knight, Franklin W. The Modern Caribbean (University of North Carolina Press, 1989).\n Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. \n Langley, Lester D. The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. London: University of Georgia Press, 1989.\n Maingot, Anthony P. The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship. Westview Press, 1994.\n Palmie, Stephan, and Francisco A. Scarano, eds. The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples (University of Chicago Press; 2011); 660 pp.; writings on the region since the pre-Columbia era.\n Ramnarine, Tina K. Beautiful Cosmos: Performance and Belonging in the Caribbean Diaspora. London, Pluto Press, 2007.\n Rowntree, Lester/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff. Diversity Amid Globalization: World Regions, Environment, Development, 4th edition, 2008.\n\nExternal links \n\n \n Digital Library of the Caribbean\n Latin American, Caribbean, U.S. Latinx, and Iberian Online Free E-Resources (LACLI). \n Manioc, open access digital Library, books, images, conferences, articles about the Caribbean \n Federal Research Division of the U.S. Library of Congress: Caribbean Islands (1987)\n LANIC Caribbean country pages", "title": "Caribbean" }, { "text": "At the time of first contact between Europe and the Americas, the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean included the Taíno of the northern Lesser Antilles, most of the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas, the Kalinago of the Lesser Antilles, the Ciguayo and Macorix of parts of Hispaniola, and the Guanahatabey of western Cuba. The Kalinago have maintained an identity as an indigenous people, with a reserved territory in Dominica.\n\nIntroduction\n\nSome scholars consider it important to distinguish the Taíno from the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola, and the Lucayan of the Bahamas and Jamaica. Linguistically or culturally these differences extended from various cognates or types of canoe: canoa, piragua, cayuco to distinct languages. Languages diverged even over short distances. Previously these groups often had distinctly non-Taíno deities such as the goddess Jagua, strangely enough the god Teju Jagua is a major demon of indigenous Paraguayan mythology. Still these groups plus the high Taíno are considered Island Arawak, part of a widely diffused assimilating culture, a circumstance witnessed even today by names of places in the New World; for example localities or rivers called Guamá are found in Cuba, Venezuela and Brazil. Guamá was the name of famous Taíno who fought the Spanish.\n\nThus, since the neo-Taíno had far more diverse cultural input and a greater societal and ethnic heterogeneity than the true high Taíno (Rouse, 1992) of Boriquen (Puerto Rico) a separate section is presented here. A broader language group is Arawakan languages. The term Arawak (Aruaco) is said to be derived from an insulting term meaning \"eaters of meal\" given to them by mainland Caribs. In turn the Arawak legend explains the origin of the Caribs as offspring of a putrid serpent.\n\nThe social classes of the neo-Taíno, generalized from Bartolomé de las Casas, appeared to have been loosely feudal with the following Taíno classes: naboría (common people), nitaíno' (sub-chiefs, or nobles), bohique, (shamans priests/healers), and the cacique (chieftains, or princes). However, the neo-Taíno seem to have been more relaxed in this respect.\n\nAdministrative and national units\nThe Spanish found that most Cuban peoples for the part living peacefully in tidy towns and villages grouped into numerous principalities called cacicazgos or principalities with an almost feudal social structure. They were ruled by leaders or princes, called Caciques. Cuba was then divided into Guanahatabey, Ciboney, and Classical Taíno. Then some of Western Cuba was Guanahatabey. and some Ciboney. Taíno-like cultures controlled most of Cuba dividing it into the cacicazgos. Granberry and Vescelius (2004) and other contemporary authors only consider the cazicazgo of Baracoa as classical or high Taíno. Cuban cacicazgos including Bayaquitiri, Macaca, Bayamo, Camagüey, Jagua, Habana y Haniguanica are treated here as \"neo-Taíno\". Hispaniolan principalities at about 1500 included Maguá (Cacique Guarionex); Xaraguá (Behecchio); Maguana (Caonabo); Higüey also called Iguayagua (Higüayo); Cigüayo (Mayobanex), and unnamed region under Cacique Guanacagarí (Wilson, 1990). These principalities are considered to have various affinities to the contemporary Taíno and neo-Taíno cultures from what is now known as Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic and Haiti, but are generally believed somewhat different.\n\nFarming and fishing\nThe adroit farming and fishing skills of the neo-Taíno nations should not be underestimated; the names of fauna and flora that survive today are testimony of their continued use. Neo-Taíno fishing technologies were most inventive, including harpoons and fishnets and traps. Neo-Taíno common names of fish are still used today (DeSola, 1932 ; Erdman, 1983; Florida Fish and Wild Life Commission (Division of Marine Fisheries) 2002; Puerto Rico, Commonwealth, 1998). Agriculture included a wide variety of germplasm, including maize, peanuts, tomato, squash, and beans plus a vast array of tree fruits. Tubers in most frequent use were yuca (Manihot esculenta) a crop with perhaps 10,000 years of development in the Americas; boniato (the \"sweet potato\" — Ipomoea batatas), and malanga (Xanthosoma sp.)\n\nTaíno pharmacopoeia\nAs with all Arawak (Schultes, Raffault. 1990) and similar cultures there was considerable use of natural pharmacopoeia (Robineau, 1991).\n\nTaíno studies\nTaíno studies are in a state of both vigorous revival and conflict (Haslip-Viera, 2001). In this conflict deeply embedded cultural mores, senses of nationality and ethnicity struggle with each other. The Syboneistas undertook studies and wrote of neo-Taínos as part and cover for independence struggles against Spain (Fajardo, 1829 - circa 1862; Gautier Benítez, 1873).\n\nNeo-Taíno and Taíno art\nTaíno and related art has been celebrated in several significant exhibitions (Alegria, and Arrom 1998; Bercht, et al. 1997; Bullen, Dacal et al.; Kerchache, 1994, most notably in Paris.\n\nNeo-Taíno music (areíto) survives as echoes in the rich traditions of the popular music of the Caribbean, but is believed to continue to exist in its purest form and associated spirituality among the Waroa of Venezuela.\n\nMetallurgy\nThe art of the neo-Taínos demonstrates that these nations had metallurgical skills, and it has been postulated by some e.g. Paul Sidney Martin, that the inhabitants of these islands mined and exported metals such as copper (Martin et al. 1947). The Cuban town of (San Ramón de) Guaninao means the place of copper and is surmised to have been a site of pre-Columbian mining.\n\nPeoples of the Caribbean\n\nArchaic Age people\n\nDNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to National Geographic, \"studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today’s Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands.\"\n\nTaíno\n\nThe Taíno, an Arawak people, were the major population group throughout most of the Caribbean. Their culture was divided into three main groups, the Western Taíno, the Classic Taíno, and the Eastern Taíno, with other variations within the islands.\n\nClassic Taíno\nThe Classic Taíno lived in eastern Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. They spoke a dialect called Classic Taíno. Compared to their neighbors, the Classic Taíno had substantially developed agricultural societies. Puerto Rico was divided into twenty chiefdoms which were organized into one united kingdom or confederation, Borinquen. Hispaniola was divided into roughly 45 chiefdoms, which were organized into five kingdoms under the leadership of the chief of each area's premier chiefdom. Beginning around 1450, Classic Taíno from Hispaniola began migrating to eastern Cuba; they are conventionally known as the Cuban Taíno. The Cuban Taíno gained power over some of Cuba's earlier Western Taíno inhabitants, the Ciboney, but no regional or island-wide political structure had developed on the island at the time of Spanish colonization of the Americas.\n\nEastern Taíno\nThe Eastern Taíno inhabited the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles, from the Virgin Islands to Montserrat. They had less sophisticated societies than the Classic Taíno.\n\nWestern Taíno\n\nThe Western Taíno lived in the Bahamas, central Cuba, westernmost Hispaniola, and Jamaica. They spoke a dialect known as Ciboney Taíno or Western Taíno. The Western Taíno of the Bahamas were known as the Lucayans, they were wiped out by Spanish slave raids by 1520. Western Taíno living in Cuba were known as the Ciboney. They had no chiefdoms or organized political structure beyond individual villages, but by the time of Spanish conquest many were under the control of the Cuban Taíno in eastern Cuba.\n\nIgneri\n\nAccording to oral history, the Igneri were the original Arawak inhabitants of the Windward Islands in the Lesser Antilles before being conquered by the Caribs who are thought to have arrived from South America. Contemporary sources like to suggest that the Caribs took Igneri women as their wives while killing the men, resulting in the two sexes speaking different languages. This is not proven, and there appears to be a confusion of the reality: despite the name, the Island Carib language was Arawakan, not Cariban. Irving Rouse suggests that small numbers of Caribs may have conquered the Igneri without displacing them, and could have gradually adopted their language while retaining the Carib identity, but there is no evidence to prove this. Though they were Arawaks, the Igneri language appears to be as distinct from the Taíno language as it was from the mainland Arawak language of South America.\n\nKalinago\n\nBy the contact period, the Kalinago, also known as Island Caribs, inhabited the Windward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. \"Caribbean\" derives from the name \"Carib\", by which the Kalinago were formerly known. They self-identified with the Kalina or mainland Carib people of South America. Contemporary accounts asserted that the Island Caribs had conquered the Windward Islands from their previous inhabitants, the Igneri. However, the Kalinago language was Arawakan, not Cariban. Irving Rouse suggests that small numbers of South American Caribs invaded the Windwards and conquered the Igneri without displacing them; they gradually adopted the local language while maintaining the Carib identity. The Kalinago outlasted their Taíno neighbors, and continue to live in the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Noteworthy Kalinago descendants live on within the Garifuna people, known as the Black Caribs who descend from St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles.\n\nGuanahatabey\n\nA separate ethnic identity from far western Cuba. They were an archaic hunter-gatherer people who spoke a language distinct from Taíno, and appear to have predated the agricultural, Taíno-speaking Ciboney.\n\nCiguayo\n\nA separate ethnic people that inhabited the Peninsula of Samaná and part of the northern coast toward Nagua in what today is the Dominican Republic, and, by most contemporary accounts, differed in language and customs from the classical or high Taíno who lived on the eastern part of the island of Hispaniola then known. According to Eustaquio Fernandez de Navarrete, they were “warriors and spirited people,” (“gente animosa y guerrera”). The Cronista de Indias, Pedro Martir accused them of cannibalism: “when they descend from the mountains to wage war on their neighbors, they kill and eat some of them” (“trae[n] origen de los caníbales, pues cuando de las montañas bajan a lo llano para hacer guerra á sus vecinos, si matan á algunos se los comen”). Fray Ramón Pané, often dubbed as the first anthropologist of the Caribbean, distinguished the Ciguayo language from the rest of those spoken on Hispaniola. Bartolomé de las Casas, who studied them and was one of the few who read Ramón Pané’s original work in Spanish, provided most of the documentation about this group. Linguists Granberry and Gary Vescelius believe that the Cigüayos emigrated from Central America. Wilson (1990) states that circa 1500 this was the kingdom Cacicazgo of Cacique Guacangarí.\n\nMacorix\n\nAnother separate ethnic group that lived on the eastern side of the island of Hispaniola. Their region today is in the Dominican Republic. According to las Casas, their language was unintelligible for the Taínos, but may have been similar to the Ciguayo language.(Wilson, 1990)\n\nRecent studies show that the Macorix people coexisted with the Tainos on Hispaniola. The names San Francisco de Macorix and San Pedro de Macorix in the Dominican Republic are indirect references to the political divisions of the cacicazgo. The Spaniards wrongly assumed that the names given to the different territories were a reference \"to what they called a Cacicazgo:\n\nFlorida tribes\n\nThe Tequesta of the southeast coast of the Florida peninsula were once considered to be related to the Taíno, but most anthropologists now doubt this. The Tequesta had been present in the area for at least 2,000 years at the time of first European contact, and are believed to have built the Miami Stone Circle. Carl O. Sauer called the Florida Straits \"one of the most strongly marked cultural boundaries in the New World\", noting that the Straits were also a boundary between agricultural systems, with Florida Indians growing seed crops that originated in Mexico, while the Lucayans of the Bahamas grew root crops that originated in South America.\n\nIt is possible that a few Lucayas reached Florida shortly before the first European contacts in the area, but the northwestern Bahamas had remained uninhabited until approximately 1200, and the long established presence of the existing tribes in Florida would have likely prevented any pioneering settlements by people who had only just reached the neighboring islands. Analysis of ocean currents and weather patterns indicates that people traveling by canoe from the Bahamas to Florida were likely to land in northern Florida rather than closer to the Bahamas. A single 'Antillean axe head' found near Gainesville, Florida may support some limited contacts. Due to the same ocean currents, direct travel in canoes from southern Florida to the Bahamas was unlikely.\n\nThe term and context of the Ciboney (Siboney)\nCiboney (also Siboney) is a term preferred in Cuban historic contexts for the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba.\n\nOur knowledge of the Cuban indigenous cultures which are often, but less precisely, lumped into a category called Taíno (Caribbean Island Arawak) comes from early Spanish sources, oral traditions and considerable archeological evidence. The Spanish found that most Cuban peoples were, for the most part, living peacefully in tidy towns and villages grouped into numerous principalities called Cacicazgos with an almost feudal social structure (see Bartolomé de las Casas). They were ruled by leaders called Caciques. Cuba was divided into Guanahatabey, Ciboney-Taíno (here neo-Taíno), and Classical (High) Taíno. Some of western Cuba was Guanahatabey and some Siboney (see below).\n\nTaíno-like cultures controlled most of Cuba, dividing it into cacicazgos or principalities. Granberry, Vescelius (2004), and other contemporary authors only consider the cacicazgo of Baracoa as Classical or High Taíno. Cuban cacicazgos including Bayaquitiri, Macaca, Bayamo, Camagüey, Jagua, Habana y Haniguanica are considered neo-Taíno. These principalities are considered to have various affinities to contemporary Taíno and neo-Taíno cultures from Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, but are generally believed to have been somewhat different.\n\nEthnic/cultural derivatives\n\nGuajiros and Jibaros\nThe common name given to the rural inhabitants of Cuba is guajiros. Del Campo implies that quajiros are \"native-born whites\" and states that in Puerto Rico \"the influence of the indigenous population is more marked than that of the native populations in Cuba\".\n\nIn Puerto Rico, the rural inhabitants are called Jibaros. The term jíbaro, according to the Catholic online encyclopedia, is also the name of a tribal group in South America, it meant \"mountain men.\" Jíbaro means \"People of the Forest\" in the Taíno language. So the term obviously came with them as they immigrated from South America. However \"jíbaro\" – as is used in Puerto Rico, is not used the same in Cuba or the Dominican Republic, which were populated with the very same Taíno people. In Cuba the word jibaro is used to denote something wild or untamed, such as \"perros jibaros\" or wild dogs.\n\nGuajiro nation\nThe term Guajira/Guajiro, also refers to indigenous Arawak nation of the Guajira Peninsula between Venezuela and Colombia. For a small compendium of myths of this Nation please see:\nde Cora, Maria Manuela 1972. Kuai-Mare. Mitos Aborígenes de Venezuela. Monte Avila Editores Caracas.\n\nLater nations in this general area\nThe Arawak, Carib, other Mesoamerican coast, and Amazonian cultures can be considered as part of a tenuous continuum of nations, linked by some shared vocabulary, ethnic links, agricultural practices, reinforced by bride abduction, and continuous exogamy. After the violence of the Spanish conquest, and subsequent events of African slavery and rebellion, nations and cultures with diverse amounts of Arawak ethnicity, culture, and/or traditions transmuted and arose. Some of these nations had mixed or even predominantly African roots, which include the Cimarrón of Cuba and the Maroons of Jamaica and Guyana.\n\nSee also\nIndigenous peoples of the Americas\nArawak\nArawakan languages\nCariban languages\nLanguages of the Caribbean\nPre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles\nGarifuna\nGenetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas\nIgneri\nIndigenous peoples of Florida\nIndigenous peoples in Venezuela\nIsland Caribs\nList of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin\nInflux of disease in the Caribbean\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nAlbury, Paul 1975 The Story of the Bahamas. MacMillan Education Limited, London and Basingstoke. p. 19 \"After the first screams of despair, terror took such sole possession of the Lucayan's mind and body that it robbed him of the ability to defend himself. He became a jellied mass of sweating, trembling, helpless flesh. Men, women, and children were bound with ropes, stacked in the cane and taken to Carib land. There the males were mutilated, tortured and finally eaten. The females were kept for breeding purposes. And, it is said, their male offspring, sired by Caribs, were also eaten.\"\nAlonso José Ramón 2004 (accessed 11/7/2005). Panorama histórico-crítico sobre el estudio del arte rupestre de Punta del Este, Cuba. http://rupestreweb.tripod.com/puntadeleste.html\nAlvarez Chanca, Diego. La Carta del Doctor Chanca, que escribió à la Ciudad de Sevilla. Collección de los viages y descubrimientos. Martin Fernández de Navarrete. Madrid, 1825 Atl atl? \"Los desta isla pelean con unas varas agudas, las cuales tiran con unas tiranderas como las que tiran los mochachos las varillas en Castilla, con las cuales tiran muy lejos asaz certero. \"\nÁlvarez Conde, José 1956. Arqueología Indocubana. Junta Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología Impresores Úcar, García, S. A. Havana.\nÁlvarez Nazario, Manuel 1996. Arqueología Lingüística. Estudios modernos dirigidos al rescate y reconstrucción del arahuaco taíno. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico.\nArciniegas, Germán (editor) 1999. Historiadores de las Indias. Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes. Editorial Océano de México S.A.\nArrom, Jose Juan 2000 Estudios de Lexicologia Antillana. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico\nAzcárate Rosell, Rafael 1937. Historia de los Indios de Cuba. Editorial Tropical, Havana.\n\nBarreiro, José 1990 A Note on Taínos: Whither Progress? Northeast Indian Quarterly Fall, 1990, pp. 66–77. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/41/013.html https://web.archive.org/web/20051125070332/http://www.uctp.org/ANoteonTainos.html\nBarreiro, José 2005 In Cuba the cry was for water. Indian Country Today part one October 13, part two October 20, 2005. (accessed October 25, 2005) https://web.archive.org/web/20071010125128/http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096411742 https://web.archive.org/web/20060114074516/http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096411782\nBeltran, Juan. 1924. \"Bojeo de Cuba por Sebastian de O’Campo\" El Universal, Havana p. 9 paragraph 3 \"Vista de los Azules y aun tal vez vagamente presentada al misterioso reflejo de los lambentes, que andando los días había de servir de base a la poética y sentimental Luz de Yara...\"\nBercht, Fatima Estrellita Brodsky, John Alan Farmer, Dicey Taylor, (eds) 1997. Taíno: Pre-Columbian Art and Culture from the Caribbean. Museo Del Barrio Monacelli Press, New York.\nBiarakú (a Taíno Cultural Interest Group) 1999. 2. Taíno Sun Symbols Taíno Forum #25 http://members.aol.com/STaino/forum_25.htm, [email protected] [email protected]\nBiarakú (a Taíno Cultural Interest Group) 2003 Taíno Short Dictionary\nBlack, Clinton V. 1965. History of Jamaica. 3rd edition Collins Clear Type Press, London and Glasgow.\nBreton, Raymond 1665. Dictionnaire caraïbe–français (El caribe insular del siglo XVII Tratado sobre la lengua y la cultura de los Callínago) Translated to Spanish by Duna Troiani CELIA-CNRS / París (Centro de estudios de las lenguas indígenas de América, Centre national de la recherche scientifique.) Link found at https://web.archive.org/web/20050414091620/http://www.centrelink.org/General.html\nBueno, Salvador (ed.) 2003. Cuban Leyends (SeigfriedKaden illustrator, Christine R. Ayorinde translator). Markus Weiner Publishers, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.\nCarrada, Alfred 2003 (Accessed 11/5/2005) Dictionary of the Taíno language\nDe las Casas, Bartolomé (circa 1474–1566, 1995 reprinting). Historia de las Indias, Cultura Economica, Mexico City (Casas vol. 2, p. 521-522).\nCastellanos Garcia, Gerardo 1927. Tierras y Glorias de Oriente (Calixto Garcia Iñiguez), Editorial Hermes Havana p. 155.\nCastellanos, Juan de. 1874 Elegia VI. Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias. Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, pp. 14–17.\nCienfuegos page (sampled September 9, 2004) Leyendas de Cienfuegos, Las Mulatas. http://www.cienfuegoscuba.galeon.com/lasmulatas.htm\nCohen, J. M (editor and translator) 1969. The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus. Being His Own Log-Book, Letters and Dispatches. Penguin Books, London, New York and Victoria Australia.\n \"He therefore went to the island of Guadalupe, anchored there and sent boats ashore well armed. But, before they arrived, a number of women came out of the woods carrying bows and arrows, and with feathers on their heads, apparently resolved to defend the island … to northern islands … When the ships came very close to shore, they saw many Indian men coming out on to the beach with bows and arrows, which they shot at our men with great daring and great shouts. But they shot in vain, for their arrows fell short … The houses were square not round like on the islands, and in one of them a human arm was found cooking in a stew pot.\" (pp. 195–196)\nColl y Toste, Cayetano 1972. \"Vocabulario indo-antillano.\" In: Clásicos de Puerto Rico second edition, Ediciones Latinoamericanas. Found at: http://www.angelfire.com/de2/bohemia/diccionario.html https://web.archive.org/web/20080430163856/http://members.dandy.net/~orocobix/terms1.htm\nDe Cora, Maria Manuela 1972. Kuai-Mare. Mitos Aborígenes de Venezuela. Monte Avila Editores Caracas.\nCrespo, George 1993. How the Sea Began. A Taíno Myth Retold and Illustrated. Clarion Books, New York.\n\nDacal Moure, Ramon, Manuel Rivero De La Calle, Daniel H. Sandweiss 1996 Art and Archaeology of Pre-Columbian Cuba (Pitt Latin American Series) University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburg.\n\nDrummond, Lee. 1981 \"The serpent's children: semiotics of cultural genesis in Arawak and Trobriand myth.\" – American ethnologist (Washington) 8 (3): 633-660. \"Drummond tells us in his study of Arawak myth (1981), the action of celebrating the myth of Arawak origins actually creates the distinction between the Arawak and the Carib. It renders the Arawak people real.\" https://web.archive.org/web/20051102230133/http://www.uwm.edu/~wash/mirror13.htm\nErdman, D.S. 1983. \"Nombres vulgares de peces de Puerto Rico. Common names of fishes in Puerto Rico CODREMAR\". Inf. Téc. 3(2): 1-44 (not yet obtained).\nEstefanía, Carlos Manuel 2005 Así nació Cuba In: Cuba Nuestra digital (accessed 11/5/2005) https://web.archive.org/web/20050507075517/http://www.cubanuestra.nu/web/article.asp?artID=2330\nD’ Estéfano Pisani, Miguel A. 1943. La Delincuencia de los Indios de Cuba. Jesus Montero (Editor), Havana. (Note: this book shows a strong biased against the Taínos, and yet it provides useful insights into Taíno word usage)\nFajardo, Juan Cristobal Nápoles (known as Cucalambé 1829–1862?). Cucalambé (Décimas Cubanas. Selección de Rumores del Hórmigo) Ediciones Universal Miami 2nd Edition 1999.\nFernández de Oviedo, Gonzalo (República Dominicana, Puerto Rico, Cuba, 1478–1557). Libro doceno. Primera Parte. Historia General y Natural de las Indias. Volume 2. Primera Parte. Historia General y Natural de las Indias.\nFergus, Claudius 2003. The 'Carib' Work Stones of Chateaubelair: curio or calendar system? St Vincent and the Grenadines Country Conference Pre-Prints University of the West Indies. St Vincent and the Grenadines. http://www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde/svg/conference/papers/fergus.html\nFigueroa, Ivonne 2004 Taínos El Boricua. Edited by Barbara Yañez, Assistant WebSite Editor http://www.elboricua.com/history.html accessed 2/15/04\nFlorida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (Division of Marine Fisheries) 2002 Land Crabs (Cardisoma guanhumi). September 2002 http://www.floridaconservation.org/commission/2002/sept/LANDCRABS.pdf\nGautier Benítez, José. \"Romance\". El Progreso (periodical), 24 August 1873. p. 3.\nGomez de la Maza y Jimenez, Manuel and Juan Tomas Roig y Mesa 1914. Flora de Cuba (Datos para su estudio) Rambla, Bouza y Cia, Havana.\nBobby Gonzalez. Taino Indian reading list\nGonzalez, Francisco J. 1996 Taíno-Maya Contacts. Taíno-L Taíno Forum The retrospective history of the Native Caribbean World History Archives Hartford Web Publishing http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/41/238.html\nGrondine, E.P. (accessed 11/5/2005) Going into the water: A survey of impact events and the coastal peoples of south-east North America, the Caribbean, and Central America http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ccc/ce010702.html\nTorres, Pedro. circa 1999. Taíno Words. The Taíno Tribal Council http://www.hartford-hwp.com/Taino/jatibonuco.html\nGuitar, Lynne (2002). Documentando el mito de la extinción de la cultura Taína. KACIKE: Revista de la historia y antropología de los indígenas del Caribe [Revista electrónica], special edition, Lynne Guitar, editor. Disponible en: https://web.archive.org/web/20051026125615/http://www.kacike.org/GuitarEspanol.html [Accessed 05/11/2005]\nGranberry, Julian, and Gary Vescelius 2004 Languages of the Pre-Columbian Antilles, University Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, \nGulf States Maine Fisheries Commission 2003 Cairina moschata Linnaeus,\nHaslip-Viera, Gabriel (Editor) 2001 Taíno Revival: Critical Perspectives on Puerto Rican Identity and Cultural Politics. Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton N.J. \nHerbold, Stacey. Jamaican Patois and the Power of Language in Reggae Music The only evidence of the Arawak dialect in Jamaica today is a few loan words, place names, food, natural objects, and events (hurricane) (Lalla and D’Costa, 1990). Xaymaca is actually an Arawak word meaning \"island of springs\", which is where the name Jamaica is derived from (Pryce, 1997). It is possible that the first contact of the Arawaks and the Spaniards may have led to an early pidgin or bilingualism among the first generation of mixed blood.\"\nHernández Aquino, Luis. 1993. Diccionario de voces indígenas de Puerto Rico. Tercera edición, Editorial Cultural, Esmaco, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico.\nHill, Jonathan D. and Fernando Santos-Granero (eds.). 2002. Comparative Arawakan Histories. Rethinking Language Family and Cultural Area in Amazonia. University of Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago. \nJiménez, Mariano II and Mariano G. Jiménez 2003 El Güije. Cuentos de Antaño http://www.guije.com/index.htm\nJohnson, Kim (accessed 5/3/2005) The story of the 'Caribs and Arawaks' http://www.raceandhistory.com/Taino/Caribs.htm\nLópez de Gómara, Francisco. Primera Parte. La historia general de las Indias. Historiadores primitivos de Indias. Enrique de Vedia, ed. Madrid: Imprenta de M. Ribadeneyra, 1877.\nMaciques Sánchez, Esteban 2004. El arte rupestre del Caribe insular: estilo y cronología in Rupestreweb, http://rupestreweb.tripod.com/maciques.html\nMartinez Arango, Felipe, 1997. \"Los Aborigines de la Cuenca de Santiago de Cuba.\" Ediciones Universal, Miami.\n\nMendez, Eugenio Fernandez 1981. Cronicas de Puerto Rico, Desde la Conquista Hasta Nuestros Dias (1493–1955) Editorial Universitaria, Universidad de Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras.\nMiner Solá, Edwin 2002 Diccionario Taíno Ilustrado. Ediciones Servilibros (Serie Puerto Rico Prehistórico, 1). San Juan, Indigenous language dictionary arranged thematically with numerous illustrations, many in color.\nNápoles Fajardo, Juan Cristobal (known as Cucalambé 1829–1862?). Cucalambé (Décimas Cubanas. Selección de Rumores del Hórmigo) Ediciones Universal Miami 2nd Edition1999.\nNicholson, Desmond V. 1983. The Story of the Arawaks in Antigua and Bermuda. Antigua Archeological Society. Antigua West Indies.\nOlsen, Fred 1974. On the Trail of the Arawaks. Civilization of the American Indian, v 129. University of Oklahoma Press. Norman. Oklahoma.\nPané, Fray Ramón (circa 1475-circa 1498) An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians: Chronicles of the New World Encounter (Latin America in Translation/En Traduccion/En Traducao) Jose Juan Arom (Editor), Susan C. Griswold (translator). Duke University Press, Durham and London. (1999 edition).\nPané, Fray Ramón. Relación de Fray Ramon de las antigüedades de los indios. Cuba primitiva. Habana: Miguel de Villa, 1883.\nPapá Lino 2002 \"¡Qué Te Parece, Boricua\" Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, 2nd ed. \"El dios taíno Yuquiyú es el mismo 'Loukuo' de la mitología escandinava.\" Cited from https://web.archive.org/web/20071112091459/http://groups.msn.com/CarlitosWay/triviadeborinquen.msnw\nPuerto Rico, Commonwealth. 1998 Reglamento de Pesca de Puerto Rico Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. Salvador Salas Quintana (Secretario). https://web.archive.org/web/20060227201150/http://www.drna.gobierno.pr/reglamentospdf/DRNA/Reglamento%20de%20Pesca.pdf\nRivas, Anthony T. 2000 Enigmas of Cuban Spanish Proteus, Newsletter of the National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators Vol. IX, No. 3 Summer 2000 https://web.archive.org/web/20051124160310/http://www.najit.org/proteus/v9n3/rivas_v9n3.htm \"While lacking conclusive proof, some linguists believe that the marked intonation pattern exhibited by some natives of the former Oriente province originates in Arawak, a language spoken by the indigenous Taíno people, who survived for a limited time just in this province.\"\nRobineau, Lionel (editor) 1991. Towards a Caribbean Pharmacopoeia. End-Caribe, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.\nRobiou La Marche, Sebastián 2003. Taínos and Caribes. Las culturas aborígenes antillanas. Editorial Punto y Coma, San Juan Puerto Rico.\n\nRouse, Irving 1992. The Taínos. Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus. Yale University Press. New Haven and London.\nSauer, Carl Otwin. 1966. (Fourth printing, 1992.) The Early Spanish Main. The University of California Press. \nde la Sagra, Ramón 1843. Historia física, política y natural de la Isla de Cuba, Libreria de Arthus Bertrand, Paris.\nSchwartz, Marion. 1997. A History of Dogs in the Early Americas. Yale University Press, New Haven pp. 76–78.\nSears, William H. 1977. Seaborne contacts between early cultures in the lower southeastern United States and Middle (-) through South America. In: The Sea in the pre-Columbian World. Elizabeth P. Benson, editor. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. pp. 1–15.\nSuarez, Constantino 1921 Vocabulario Cubano, Libreria Cervantes, Havana and Perlado, Páez y Cía, Madrid.\nSued Badillo, Jalil. 1985. Las Cacicas Indoantillanas, Revista del Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña 87, 1-26.\nUCTP (United Confederation of Taíno People) 2002. Diccionario de Voces Taína’ (Taíno Dictionary) https://web.archive.org/web/20071016055722/http://www.uctp.org/VocesIndigena.html \nVazquez Doris M. 1993 (accessed 11/7/2005) Puerto Rican Folktales\nhttp://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1993/2/93.02.12.x.html#top\nVela, Enrique (editor). 1988. La navegación entre los Mayas. Arqueología Mexicana 6 (number 33, September October 1988) 4-5.\nVespucio, Américo (circa 1454–1512), Fragments and Letters found at https://web.archive.org/web/20051210061617/http://www.e-libro.net/E-libro-viejo/gratis/nvomundo.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20051028185055/http://www.unsl.edu.ar/librosgratis/gratis/nvomundo.pdf \nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040818183442/http://www.banrep.gov.co/blaavirtual/credencial/hamerica.htm translated '.. the women go naked and are libidinous, lewd, and lustful but despite this their bodies are beautiful and clean....\"\nWilbert, Johannes1977. Navigators of the Winter Sun In: The Sea in the pre-Columbian World. Elizabeth P. Benson, editor. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. pp. 16–44.\nWilson, Samuel M. 1990 Hispaniola Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age of Columbus. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa and London. \nZayas y Alfonso, Alfredo 1914. \"Lexografía Antillana\" El Siglo XX Press, Havana.\nHill, Jonathan D. and Fernando Santos-Granero (eds.). 2002. Comparative Arawakan Histories. Rethinking Language Family and Cultural Area in Amazonia. University of Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago. \nHulme. Peter 2000 Remnants of Conquest. The Island Caribs and their Visitors, 1877–1898. Oxford University Press \nLa Rosa Corzo, Gabino (translated by Mary Todd) [1988] 2003 Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba: Resistance and Repression, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill \nDe la Riva Herrera, Martín 2003 La Conquista de los Motilones, Tabalosos, Maynas y Jíbaros. CETA Iquitos, Perú\n\nExternal links", "title": "Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean" }, { "text": "North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as a part of North America geographically.\n\nNorth America covers an area of about , about 16.5% of Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface area. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. In human geography and in the English-speaking world outside the United States, particularly in Canada, \"North America\" and \"North American\" can refer to just Canada and the United States together.\n\nNorth America was reached by its first human populations during the Last Glacial Period, via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 20,000 to 17,000 years ago. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago (the beginning of the Archaic or Meso-Indian period). The classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The first recorded Europeans to visit North America (other than Greenland) were the Norse around 1000 AD. Christopher Columbus's arrival in 1492 sparked a transatlantic exchange which included migrations of European settlers during the Age of Discovery and the early modern period. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves, immigrants from Europe, Asia, and the descendants of these groups.\n\nOwing to Europe's colonization of the Americas, most North Americans speak European languages such as English, Spanish or French, and their cultures commonly reflect Western traditions. However, in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Central America, there are indigenous populations continuing their cultural traditions and speaking native languages.\n\nName \n\nThe Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a world map, in which he placed the word \"America\" on the continent of South America. What was known about the continent was referred to as Parias above what is today Mexico. On a 1553 world map published by Petrus Apianus, North America was called Baccalearum, meaning \"realm of the Cod fish\", in reference to the abundance of Cod fish on the east coast.\n\nWaldseemüller used the Latinized version of Vespucci's name (Americus Vespucius), but in its feminine form \"America\", following the examples of \"Europa\", \"Asia\" and \"Africa\". Later mapmakers extended the name America to the northern continent. In 1538, Gerard Mercator used America on his map of the world for the entire Western Hemisphere.\n\nGerardus Mercator on his map called North America \"America or New India\" (America sive India Nova). The Spanish Empire called its territories in North and South America \"Las Indias\"; the state body overseeing them was the Council of the Indies.\n\nExtent \n\nThe United Nations formally recognizes \"North America\" as comprising three areas: Northern America, Central America, and the Caribbean. This has been formally defined by the UN Statistics Division.\n\n\"Northern America\", as a term distinct from \"North America\", excludes Central America, which itself may or may not include Mexico. In the limited context of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the term covers Canada, the United States, and Mexico, which are the three signatories of that treaty.\n\nFrance, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Greece, and the countries of Latin America use a six-continent model, with the Americas viewed as a single continent and North America designating a subcontinent comprising Canada, the U.S., Mexico, and Saint Pierre et Miquelon (politically part of France), and often Greenland, and Bermuda.\n\nNorth America has been historically referred to by other names. Spanish North America (New Spain) was often referred to as Northern America, and this was the first official name given to Mexico.\n\nRegions\n\nGeographically, the North American continent has many regions and subregions. These include cultural, economic, and geographic regions. Economic regions included those formed by trade blocs, such as those of the NAFTA and Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). Linguistically and culturally, the continent could be divided into Anglo-America and Latin America. Anglo-America includes most of Northern America, Belize, and Caribbean islands with English-speaking populations (though sub-national entities, such as Louisiana and Quebec, have large Francophone populations; in Quebec, French is the sole official language).\n\nThe southern part of the North American continent is composed of two regions. These are Central America and the Caribbean. The north of the continent maintains recognized regions as well. In contrast to the common definition of \"North America\", which encompasses the whole continent, the term \"North America\" is sometimes used to refer only to Mexico, Canada, the U.S., and Greenland.\n\nThe term Northern America refers to the northernmost countries and territories of North America: the U.S., Bermuda, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Canada, and Greenland. Although the term does not refer to a unified region, Middle America—not to be confused with the Midwestern U.S.—groups the regions of Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean.\n\nNorth America's largest countries by land area, Canada and the U.S., also have well-defined and recognized regions. In the case of Canada, these are (from east to west) Atlantic Canada, Central Canada, Canadian Prairies, the British Columbia Coast, and Northern Canada. These regions also contain many subregions. In the case of the U.S.—and in accordance with the U.S. Census Bureau definitions—these regions are: New England, Mid-Atlantic, South Atlantic states, East North Central states, West North Central states, East South Central states, West South Central states, Mountain states, and Pacific states. Regions shared between both nations include the Great Lakes region. Megalopolises have formed between both nations in the case of the Pacific Northwest and the Great Lakes Megaregion.\n\nCountries, dependencies, and other territories\n\nNatural characteristics\n\nGeography \n\nNorth America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America (which, in many countries is considered as a single continent with North America a subcontinent). North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa. North America's only land connection to South America is at the Isthmus of Darian/Isthmus of Panama. The continent is delimited on the southeast by most geographers at the Darién watershed along the Colombia-Panama border, placing almost all of Panama within North America. Alternatively, some geologists physiographically locate its southern limit at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, with Central America extending southeastward to South America from this point. The Caribbean islands, or West Indies, are considered part of North America. The continental coastline is long and irregular. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest body of water indenting the continent, followed by Hudson Bay. Others include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Gulf of California.\n\nBefore the Central American isthmus formed, the region had been underwater. The islands of the West Indies delineate a submerged former land bridge, which had connected North and South America via what are now Florida and Venezuela.\n\nThere are numerous islands off the continent's coasts; principally, the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, Turks & Caicos, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Aleutian Islands (some of which are in the Eastern Hemisphere proper), the Alexander Archipelago, the many thousand islands of the British Columbia Coast, and Newfoundland. Greenland, a self-governing Danish island, and the world's largest, is on the same tectonic plate (the North American Plate) and is part of North America geographically. In a geologic sense, Bermuda is not part of the Americas, but an oceanic island that was formed on the fissure of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over 100 million years ago (mya). The nearest landmass to it is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. However, Bermuda is often thought of as part of North America, especially given its historical, political and cultural ties to Virginia and other parts of the continent.\n\nThe vast majority of North America is on the North American Plate. Parts of western Mexico, including Baja California, and of California, including the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and Santa Cruz, lie on the eastern edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The southernmost portion of the continent and much of the West Indies lie on the Caribbean Plate, whereas the Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates border the North American Plate on its western frontier.\n\nThe continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many subregions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf.\n\nThe western mountains are split in the middle into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, with the Great Basin—a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts—in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska.\n\nThe U.S. Geographical Survey (USGS) states that the geographic center of North America is \"6 miles [10 km] west of Balta, Pierce County, North Dakota\" at about , about from Rugby, North Dakota. The USGS further states that \"No marked or monumented point has been established by any government agency as the geographic center of either the 50 states, the conterminous United States, or the North American continent.\" Nonetheless, there is a field stone obelisk in Rugby claiming to mark the center. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located from the nearest coastline, between Allen and Kyle, South Dakota at .\n\nGeology\n\nGeologic history \n\nLaurentia is an ancient craton which forms the geologic core of North America; it formed between 1.5 and 1.0 billion years ago during the Proterozoic eon. The Canadian Shield is the largest exposure of this craton. From the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic eras, North America was joined with the other modern-day continents as part of the supercontinent Pangaea, with Eurasia to its east. One of the results of the formation of Pangaea was the Appalachian Mountains, which formed some 480 mya, making it among the oldest mountain ranges in the world. When Pangaea began to rift around 200 mya, North America became part of Laurasia, before it separated from Eurasia as its own continent during the mid-Cretaceous period. The Rockies and other western mountain ranges began forming around this time from a period of mountain building called the Laramide orogeny, between 80 and 55 mya. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama that connected the continent to South America arguably occurred approximately 12 to 15 mya, and the Great Lakes (as well as many other northern freshwater lakes and rivers) were carved by receding glaciers about 10,000 years ago.\n\nNorth America is the source of much of what humanity knows about geologic time periods. The geographic area that would later become the United States has been the source of more varieties of dinosaurs than any other modern country. According to paleontologist Peter Dodson, this is primarily due to stratigraphy, climate and geography, human resources, and history. Much of the Mesozoic Era is represented by exposed outcrops in the many arid regions of the continent. The most significant Late Jurassic dinosaur-bearing fossil deposit in North America is the Morrison Formation of the western U.S.\n\nCanada \n\nGeologically, Canada is one of the oldest regions in the world, with more than half of the region consisting of Precambrian rocks that have been above sea level since the beginning of the Palaeozoic era. Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers. Throughout the Shield, there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater. The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.\n\nUnited States \nThe lower 48 U.S. states can be divided into roughly five physiographic provinces:\n The American cordillera\n The Canadian Shield Northern portion of the upper midwestern U.S.\n The stable platform\n The coastal plain\n The Appalachian orogenic belt\n\nThe geology of Alaska is typical of that of the cordillera, while the major islands of Hawaii consist of Neogene volcanics erupted over a hot spot.\n\nCentral America \n\nCentral America is geologically active with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. In 1976 Guatemala was hit by a major earthquake, killing 23,000 people; Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972, the last one killing about 5,000 people; three earthquakes devastated El Salvador, one in 1986 and two in 2001; one earthquake devastated northern and central Costa Rica in 2009, killing at least 34 people; in Honduras a powerful earthquake killed seven people in 2009.\n\nVolcanic eruptions are common in the region. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted and killed 87 people. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in agriculturally productive highland areas.\n\nCentral America has many mountain ranges; the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia, and the Cordillera de Talamanca. Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the people; in fact, most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala live in valleys. Valleys are also suitable for the production of coffee, beans, and other crops.\n\nClimate \n\nNorth America is a very large continent that extends from north of the Arctic Circle to south of the Tropic of Cancer. Greenland, along with the Canadian Shield, is tundra with average temperatures ranging from , but central Greenland is composed of a very large ice sheet. This tundra radiates throughout Canada, but its border ends near the Rocky Mountains (but still contains Alaska) and at the end of the Canadian Shield, near the Great Lakes.\nClimate west of the Cascade Range is described as being temperate weather with average precipitation .\nClimate in coastal California is described to be Mediterranean, with average temperatures in cities like San Francisco ranging from over the course of the year.\n\nStretching from the East Coast to eastern North Dakota, and stretching down to Kansas, is the humid continental climate featuring intense seasons, with a large amount of annual precipitation, with places like New York City averaging .\nStarting at the southern border of the humid continental climate and stretching to the Gulf of Mexico (whilst encompassing the eastern half of Texas) is the humid subtropical climate. This area has the wettest cities in the contiguous U.S., with annual precipitation reaching in Mobile, Alabama.\nStretching from the borders of the humid continental and subtropical climates, and going west to the Sierra Nevada, south to the southern tip of Durango, north to the border with tundra climate, the steppe/desert climates are the driest in the United States. Highland climates cut from north to south of the continent, where subtropical or temperate climates occur just below the tropics, as in central Mexico and Guatemala. Tropical climates appear in the island regions and in the subcontinent's bottleneck, found in countries and states bathed by the Caribbean Sea or to the south of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. Precipitation patterns vary across the region, and as such rainforest, monsoon, and savanna types can be found, with rains and high temperatures throughout the year.\n\nEcology \n\nNotable North American fauna include the bison, black bear, jaguar, cougar, prairie dog, turkey, pronghorn, raccoon, coyote and monarch butterfly.\n\nNotable plants that were domesticated in North America include tobacco, maize, squash, tomato, sunflower, blueberry, avocado, cotton, chile pepper\nand vanilla.\n\nHistory\n\nPre-Columbian \n\nThe indigenous peoples of the Americas have many creation myths by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its creation, but there is no evidence that humans evolved there. The specifics of the initial settlement of the Americas by ancient Asians are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that hunters entered the Bering Land Bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska from 27,000 to 14,000 years ago. A growing viewpoint is that the first American inhabitants sailed from Beringia some 13,000 years ago, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the Last Glacial Period, in what is known as the Late Glacial Maximum, around 12,500 years ago. The oldest petroglyphs in North America date from 15,000 to 10,000 years before present. Genetic research and anthropology indicate additional waves of migration from Asia via the Bering Strait during the Early-Middle Holocene.\n\nBefore contact with Europeans, the natives of North America were divided into many different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several \"culture areas\", which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones and give a good indication of the main way of life of the people who lived there (e.g., the bison hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native groups can also be classified by their language family (e.g., Athapascan or ). Peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies. Anthropologists think that the Inuit of the high Arctic came to North America much later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record, and their replacement by the Thule people.\n\nDuring the thousands of years of native habitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. One of the oldest yet discovered is the Clovis culture (c. 9550–9050 BCE) in modern New Mexico. Later groups include the Mississippian culture and related Mound building cultures, found in the Mississippi river valley and the Pueblo culture of what is now the Four Corners. The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes, squash, and maize. As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many other cultural advances were made there. The Mayans developed a writing system, built huge pyramids and temples, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero around 400 CE.\n\nThe first recorded European references to North America are in Norse sagas where it is referred to as Vinland. The earliest verifiable instance of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact by any European culture with the North America mainland has been dated to around 1000 CE. The site, situated at the northernmost extent of the island named Newfoundland, has provided unmistakable evidence of Norse settlement. Norse explorer Leif Erikson (c. 970–1020 CE) is thought to have visited the area. Erikson was the first European to make landfall on the continent (excluding Greenland).\n\nThe Mayan culture was still present in southern Mexico and Guatemala when the Spanish conquistadors arrived, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire, whose capital city Tenochtitlan was located further north in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs were conquered in 1521 by Hernán Cortés.\n\nPost-contact, 1492–1910 \n\nDuring the so-called Age of Discovery, Europeans explored overseas and staked claims to various parts of North America, much of which was already settled by indigenous peoples. Upon Europeans' arrival in the \"New World\", indigenous peoples had a variety of reactions, including curiosity, trading, cooperation, resignation, and resistance. The indigenous population declined substantially following European arrival, primarily due to the introduction of Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which the indigenous peoples lacked immunity, and because of violent conflicts with Europeans. Indigenous culture changed significantly and their affiliation with political and cultural groups also changed. Several linguistic groups died out, and others changed quite quickly.\n\nOn the southern east coast of North America, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, who had accompanied Columbus's second voyage, visited and named in 1513 La Florida. As the colonial period unfolded, Spain, England, and France appropriated and claimed extensive territories in North America eastern and southern coastlines. Spain established permanent settlements on the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola and Cuba in the 1490s, building cities, putting the resident indigenous populations to work, raising crops for Spanish settlers and panning gold to enrich the Spaniards. Much of the indigenous population died due to disease and overwork, spurring the Spaniards on to claim new lands and peoples. An expedition under the command of Spanish settler, Hernán Cortés, sailed westward in 1519 to what turned out to be the mainland in Mexico. With local indigenous allies, the Spanish conquered the Aztec empire in central Mexico in 1521. Spain then established permanent cities in Mexico, Central America, and Spanish South America in the sixteenth century. Once Spaniards conquered the high civilization of the Aztecs and Incas, the Caribbean was a backwater of the Spanish empire.\n\nOther European powers began to intrude on areas that Spain had claimed, including the Caribbean islands. France took the western half of Hispaniola and developed Saint-Domingue as a cane sugar producing colony worked by black slave labor. Britain took Barbados and Jamaica; the Dutch and Danes also took islands previously claimed by Spain. Britain did not begin settling on the North American mainland until a hundred years after the first Spanish settlements, since it sought first to control nearby Ireland. The first permanent English settlement was in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, and then further settler colonial establishments on the east coast of the continent from what is now Georgia up to Massachusetts, forming the Thirteen Colonies. The English did not establish settlements north, east of the St. Lawrence Valley in what would become Canada until well after the war of independence. English early permanent settlements were St. John's, Newfoundland in 1630 and Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1749. The first permanent French settlement was in Quebec City, Quebec in 1608. In the British victory the Seven Years' War, France ceded to Britain its claims east of the Mississippi River in 1763. Spain gained rights to the territories west of Mississippi now acting as a border. French so-called \"colonists\" that had first settled the Illinois Country after several generations of experience on the new continent migrated over the Mississippi in the absence of Spanish occupants while leveraging earlier Louisiana French settlements around the Gulf of Mexico. These early French settlers partnering with midwest indigenous tribes and their mixed ancestry descendants would precede the westward push and guide through waves of followers all the way to the Pacific.\n\nThe Thirteen Colonies on the North Atlantic coast declared independence in 1776, fighting a protracted war of independence with the aid of Britain's enemies France and Spain, becoming the United States of America. The new nation steadily attempted to increase its territory. By that time, the Russians were already well established on the Pacific Northwest northern coastline with maritime fur trade activities supported by active settlements. As a result, the Spanish were showing more interest in controlling the trade on the Pacific coast and mapped most of its coastline. The first Spanish settlements were attempted in Alta California during that period. Numerous overland explorations associated with voyageurs, fur trade, and U.S. led expeditions (e.g., Lewis and Clark, Fremont and Wilkes) were reaching the Pacific at various latitudes around the turn of the century. In 1803 Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining claims in North America, west of the Mississippi River, to the U.S., in a deal named the Louisiana Purchase. Spain and the U.S. settled their western boundary dispute in 1819 in the Adams–Onís Treaty. Mexico fought a lengthy war for independence from Spain, winning it for Mexico (which included Central America at the time) in 1821. The U.S. sought further westward expansion and fought the Mexican–American War, gaining a vast territory that first Spain and then Mexico claimed but which they did not effectively control. Much of the area was in fact dominated by indigenous peoples, which did not recognize the claims of Spain, France, or the U.S. Russia sold its North American claims, which included Alaska, to the U.S in 1867. Also in 1867, settler colonies in eastern North America were unified as the dominion of Canada. The U.S. sought to dig a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, a part of Colombia, and aided Panamanians in a war to separate it from Colombia. The U.S. carved out the Panama Canal Zone, over which it claimed sovereignty. After decades of work the Panama Canal was completed, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in 1913.\n\nDemographics\n\nEconomically, Canada and the U.S. are the wealthiest and most developed nations in the continent, followed by Mexico, a newly industrialized country. The countries of Central America and the Caribbean are at various levels of economic and human development. For example, small Caribbean island-nations, such as Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Antigua and Barbuda, have a higher GDP (PPP) per capita than Mexico due to their smaller populations. Panama and Costa Rica have a significantly higher Human Development Index and GDP than the rest of the Central American nations. Additionally, despite Greenland's vast resources in oil and minerals, much of them remain untapped, and the island is economically dependent on fishing, tourism, and subsidies from Denmark. Nevertheless, the island is highly developed.\n\nDemographically, North America is ethnically diverse. Its three main groups are Whites, Mestizos and Blacks. There is a significant minority of Indigenous Americans and Asians among other less numerous groups.\n\nLanguages \n\nThe dominant languages in North America are English, Spanish, and French. Danish is prevalent in Greenland alongside Greenlandic, and Dutch is spoken side by side local languages in the Dutch Caribbean. The term Anglo-America is used to refer to the anglophone countries of the Americas: namely Canada (where English and French are co-official) and the U.S., but also sometimes Belize and parts of the tropics, especially the Commonwealth Caribbean. Latin America refers to the other areas of the Americas (generally south of the U.S.) where the Romance languages, derived from Latin, of Spanish and Portuguese, (but French-speaking countries are not usually included) predominate: the other republics of Central America (but not always Belize), part of the Caribbean (not the Dutch-, English-, or French-speaking areas), Mexico, and most of South America (except Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana [France], and the Falkland Islands [UK]).\n\nThe French language has historically played a significant role in North America and now retains a distinctive presence in some regions. Canada is officially bilingual. French is the official language of the Province of Quebec, where 95% of the people speak it as either their first or second language, and it is co-official with English in the Province of New Brunswick. Other French-speaking locales include the Province of Ontario (the official language is English, but there are an estimated 600,000 Franco-Ontarians), the Province of Manitoba (co-official as de jure with English), the French West Indies and Saint-Pierre et Miquelon, as well as the U.S. state of Louisiana, where French is also an official language. Haiti is included with this group based on historical association but Haitians speak both Creole and French. Similarly, French and French Antillean Creole is spoken in Saint Lucia and the Commonwealth of Dominica alongside English.\n\nA significant number of Indigenous languages are spoken in North America, with 372,000 people in the U.S. speaking an indigenous language at home, about 225,000 in Canada and roughly 6 million in Mexico. In the U.S. and Canada, there are approximately 150 surviving indigenous languages of the 300 spoken prior to European contact.\n\nReligions \n\nChristianity is the largest religion in the U.S., Canada and Mexico. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, 77% of the population considered themselves Christians. Christianity also is the predominant religion in the 23 dependent territories in North America. The U.S. has the largest Christian population in the world, with nearly 247 million Christians (70%), although other countries have higher percentages of Christians among their populations. Mexico has the world's second largest number of Catholics, surpassed only by Brazil.\n\nAccording to the same study, the religiously unaffiliated (including agnostics and atheists) make up about 17% of the population of Canada and the U.S. Those with no religious affiliation make up about 24% of Canada's total population.\n\nCanada, the U.S. and Mexico host communities of Jews (6 million or about 1.8%), Buddhists (3.8 million or 1.1%) and Muslims (3.4 million or 1.0%). The largest number of Jews can be found in the U.S. (5.4 million), Canada (375,000) and Mexico (67,476). The U.S. hosts the largest Muslim population in North America with 2.7 million or 0.9%, while Canada hosts about one million Muslims or 3.2% of the population. In Mexico there were 3,700 Muslims in 2010. In 2012, U-T San Diego estimated U.S. practitioners of Buddhism at 1.2 million people, of whom 40% are living in Southern California.\n\nThe predominant religion in Mexico and Central America is Christianity (96%). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Mexico in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism was the only religion permitted by Spanish crown and Catholic church. A vast campaign of religious conversion, the so-called \"spiritual conquest\", was launched to bring the indigenous peoples into the Christian fold. The Inquisition was established to assure orthodox belief and practice. The Catholic Church remained an important institution, so that even after political independence, Roman Catholicism remained the dominant religion. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion. Christianity is also the predominant religion in the Caribbean (85%). Other religious groups in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Rastafari (in Jamaica), and Afro-American religions such as Santería and Vodou.\n\nPopulace \n\nNorth America is the fourth most populous continent after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Its most populous country is the U.S. with 329.7 million persons. The second largest country is Mexico with a population of 112.3 million. Canada is the third most populous country with 37.0 million. The majority of Caribbean island-nations have national populations under a million, though Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico (a territory of the U.S.), Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago each have populations higher than a million. Greenland has a small population of 55,984 for its massive size (2,166,000 km2 or 836,300 mi2), and therefore, it has the world's lowest population density at 0.026 pop./km2 (0.067 pop./mi2).\n\nWhile the U.S., Canada, and Mexico maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. There are also large cities in the Caribbean. The largest cities in North America, by far, are Mexico City and New York City. These cities are the only cities on the continent to exceed eight million, and two of three in the Americas. Next in size are Los Angeles, Toronto, Chicago, Havana, Santo Domingo, and Montreal. Cities in the Sun Belt regions of the U.S., such as those in Southern California and Houston, Phoenix, Miami, Atlanta, and Las Vegas, are experiencing rapid growth. These causes included warm temperatures, retirement of Baby Boomers, large industry, and the influx of immigrants. Cities near the U.S. border, particularly in Mexico, are also experiencing large amounts of growth. Most notable is Tijuana, a city bordering San Diego that receives immigrants from all over Latin America and parts of Europe and Asia. Yet as cities grow in these warmer regions of North America, they are increasingly forced to deal with the major issue of water shortages.\n\nEight of the top ten metropolitan areas are located in the U.S. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 5.5 million and include the New York City metropolitan area, Los Angeles metropolitan area, Chicago metropolitan area, and the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within the U.S., Mexico is host to the largest metropolitan area by population in North America: Greater Mexico City. Canada also breaks into the top ten largest metropolitan areas with the Toronto metropolitan area having six million people. The proximity of cities to each other on the Canada–U.S. border and Mexico–U.S. border has led to the rise of international metropolitan areas. These urban agglomerations are observed at their largest and most productive in Detroit–Windsor and San Diego–Tijuana and experience large commercial, economic, and cultural activity. The metropolitan areas are responsible for millions of dollars of trade dependent on international freight. In Detroit-Windsor the Border Transportation Partnership study in 2004 concluded US$13 billion was dependent on the Detroit–Windsor international border crossing while in San Diego-Tijuana freight at the Otay Mesa Port of Entry was valued at US$20 billion.\n\nNorth America has also been witness to the growth of megapolitan areas. In the U.S. exists eleven megaregions that transcend international borders and comprise Canadian and Mexican metropolitan regions. These are the Arizona Sun Corridor, Cascadia, Florida, Front Range, Great Lakes Megalopolis, Gulf Coast, Northeast, Northern California, Piedmont Atlantic, Southern California, and the Texas Triangle. Canada and Mexico are also the home of megaregions. These include the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, Golden Horseshoe—both of which are considered part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis—and the Central Mexico megalopolis. Traditionally the largest megaregion has been considered the Boston-Washington, DC Corridor, or the Northeast, as the region is one massive contiguous area. Yet megaregion criterion have allowed the Great Lakes Megalopolis to maintain status as the most populated region, being home to 53,768,125 people in 2000.\n\n†2011 Census figures\n\nEconomy \n\nNorth America's GDP per capita was evaluated in October 2016 by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to be $41,830, making it the richest continent in the world, followed by Oceania.\n\nCanada, Mexico, and the U.S. have significant and multifaceted economic systems. The U.S. has the largest economy of all three countries and in the world. In 2016, the U.S. had an estimated per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $57,466 according to the World Bank, and is the most technologically developed economy of the three. The U.S.'s services sector comprises 77% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 22% and agriculture comprises 1.2%. The U.S. economy is also the fastest growing economy in North America and the Americas as a whole, with the highest GDP per capita in the Americas as well.\n\nCanada shows significant growth in the sectors of services, mining and manufacturing. Canada's per capita GDP (PPP) was estimated at $44,656 and it had the 11th largest GDP (nominal) in 2014. Canada's services sector comprises 78% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 20% and agriculture comprises 2%. Mexico has a per capita GDP (PPP) of $16,111 and as of 2014 is the 15th largest GDP (nominal) in the world. Being a newly industrialized country, Mexico maintains both modern and outdated industrial and agricultural facilities and operations. Its main sources of income are oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and financial services.\n\nThe North American economy is well defined and structured in three main economic areas. These areas are those under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), and the Central American Common Market (CACM). Of these trade blocs, the U.S. takes part in two. In addition to the larger trade blocs there is the Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement among numerous other free-trade relations, often between the larger, more developed countries and Central American and Caribbean countries.\n\nThe NAFTA forms one of the four largest trade blocs in the world. Its implementation in 1994 was designed for economic homogenization with hopes of eliminating barriers of trade and foreign investment between Canada, the U.S. and Mexico. While Canada and the U.S. already conducted the largest bilateral trade relationship—and to present day still do—in the world and Canada–U.S. trade relations already allowed trade without national taxes and tariffs, NAFTA allowed Mexico to experience a similar duty-free trade. The free-trade agreement allowed for the elimination of tariffs that had previously been in place on U.S.–Mexico trade. Trade volume has steadily increased annually and in 2010, surface trade between the three NAFTA nations reached an all-time historical increase of 24.3% or US$791 billion. The NAFTA trade bloc GDP (PPP) is the world's largest with US$17.617 trillion. This is in part attributed to the fact that the economy of the U.S. is the world's largest national economy; the country had a nominal GDP of approximately $14.7 trillion in 2010. The countries of NAFTA are also some of each other's largest trade partners. The U.S. is the largest trade partner of Canada and Mexico, while Canada and Mexico are each other's third largest trade partners. In 2018, the NAFTA was replaced by the U.S.–Mexico–Canada Agreement.\n\nThe Caribbean trade bloc (CARICOM) came into agreement in 1973 when it was signed by 15 Caribbean nations. As of 2000, CARICOM trade volume was US$96 billion. CARICOM also allowed for the creation of a common passport for associated nations. In the past decade the trade bloc focused largely on free-trade agreements and under the CARICOM Office of Trade Negotiations free-trade agreements have been signed into effect.\n\nIntegration of Central American economies occurred under the signing of the Central American Common Market agreement in 1961; this was the first attempt to engage the nations of this area into stronger financial cooperation. The 2006 implementation of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) left the future of the CACM unclear. The Central American Free Trade Agreement was signed by five Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, and the U.S. The focal point of CAFTA is to create a free trade area similar to that of NAFTA. In addition to the U.S., Canada also has relations in Central American trade blocs.\n\nThese nations also take part in inter-continental trade blocs. Mexico takes a part in the G3 Free Trade Agreement with Colombia and Venezuela and has a trade agreement with the EU. The U.S. has proposed and maintained trade agreements under the Transatlantic Free Trade Area between itself and the European Union; the U.S.–Middle East Free Trade Area between numerous Middle Eastern nations and itself; and the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership between Southeast Asian nations, Australia, and New Zealand.\n\nTransport \n\nThe Pan-American Highway route in the Americas is the portion of a network of roads nearly in length which travels through the mainland nations. No definitive length of the Pan-American Highway exists because the U.S. and Canadian governments have never officially defined any specific routes as being part of the Pan-American Highway, and Mexico officially has many branches connecting to the U.S. border. However, the total length of the portion from Mexico to the northern extremity of the highway is roughly .\n\nThe first transcontinental railroad in the U.S. was built in the 1860s, linking the railroad network of the eastern U.S. with California on the Pacific coast. Finished on 10 May 1869 at the famous golden spike event at Promontory Summit, Utah, it created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the American West, catalyzing the transition from the wagon trains of previous decades to a modern transportation system. Although an accomplishment, it achieved the status of first transcontinental railroad by connecting myriad eastern U.S. railroads to the Pacific and was not the largest single railroad system in the world. The Canadian Grand Trunk Railway had, by 1867, already accumulated more than of track by connecting Ontario with the Canadian Atlantic provinces west as far as Port Huron, Michigan, through Sarnia, Ontario.\n\nCommunications \nA shared telephone system known as the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) is an integrated telephone numbering plan of 24 countries and territories: the U.S. and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and 17 Caribbean nations.\n\nCulture \n\nThe cultures of North America are diverse. The U.S. and English Canada have many cultural similarities, while French Canada has a distinct culture from Anglophone Canada, which is protected by law. Since the U.S. was formed from portions previously part of the Spanish Empire and then independent Mexico, and there has been considerable and continuing immigration of Spanish speakers from south of the U.S.–Mexico border. In the southwest of the U.S. there are many Hispanic cultural traditions and considerable bilingualism. Mexico and Central America are part of Latin America and are culturally distinct from anglophone and francophone North America. However, they share with the United States the establishment of post-independence governments that are federated representative republics with written constitutions dating from their founding as nations. Canada is a federated parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy.\n\nCanada's constitution dates to 1867, with confederation, in the British North America Act, but not until 1982 did Canada have the power to amend its own constitution. Canada's Francophone heritage has been enshrined in law since the British parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774. In contrast to largely Protestant Anglo settlers in North America, French-speaking Canadians were Catholic and with the Quebec Act were guaranteed freedom to practice their religion, restored the right of the Catholic Church to impose tithes for its support, and established French civil law in most circumstances.\n\nThe distinctiveness of French language and culture has been codified in Canadian law, so that both English and French are designated official languages. The U.S. has no official language, but its national language is English.\n\nThe Canadian government took action to protect Canadian culture by limiting non-Canadian content in broadcasting, creating the Canadian Radio and Telecommunications Commission to monitor Canadian content. In Quebec, the provincial government established the Quebec Office of the French Language, often called the \"language police\" by Anglophones, which mandates the use of French terminology and signage in French. Since 1968 the unicameral legislature has been called the Quebec National Assembly. Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day, 24 June, is the national holiday of Quebec and celebrated by francophone Canadians throughout Canada. In Quebec, the school system was divided into Catholic and Protestant, so-called confessional schools. Anglophone education in Quebec has been increasingly undermined.\n\nLatino culture is strong in the southwest of the U.S., as well as Florida, which draws Latin Americans from many countries in the hemisphere. Northern Mexico, particularly in the cities of Monterrey, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Mexicali, is strongly influenced by the culture and way of life of the U.S. Monterrey, a modern city with a significant industrial group, has been regarded as the most Americanized city in Mexico. Northern Mexico, the Western U.S. and Alberta, Canada share a cowboy culture.\n\nThe Anglophone Caribbean states have witnessed and participated in the decline of the British Empire and its influence on the region, and its replacement by the economic influence of Northern America in the Anglophone Caribbean. This is partly due to the relatively small populations of the English-speaking Caribbean countries, and also because many of them now have more people living abroad than those remaining at home.\n\nGreenland has experienced many immigration waves from Northern Canada, e.g. the Thule people. Therefore, Greenland shares some cultural ties with the indigenous peoples of Canada. Greenland is also considered Nordic and has strong Danish ties due to centuries of colonization by Denmark.\n\nPopular culture – sports \nThe U.S. and Canada have major sports teams that compete against each other, including baseball, basketball, hockey, and soccer/football.\nCanada, Mexico and the U.S. submitted a joint bid to host the 2026 FIFA World Cup.\nThe following table shows the most prominent sports leagues in North America, in order of average revenue. Canada has a separate Canadian Football League from the U.S. teams.\n\nThe Native American game of lacrosse is considered a national sport in Canada. Curling is an important winter sport in Canada, and the Winter Olympics includes it in the roster. The English sport of cricket is popular in parts of anglophone Canada and very popular in parts of the former British empire, but in Canada is considered a minor sport. Boxing is also a major sport in some countries, such as Mexico, Panama and Puerto Rico, and it is considered one of the main individual sports in the U.S.\n\nSee also \n Flags of North America\n List of cities in North America\n North American Union\n Outline of North America\n Table manners in North America\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nCitations\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n \n \n North America: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society \n European Colonization of North America at the National Geographic Society \n \n \n The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press \n \n \n\n \n\n \nCategory:Continents", "title": "North America" } ]

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[ "Who is indigenous to Guatemala?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Was there a particular tribe that takes up more?", "When did they settle there?", "Can you tell me more about the people of this region?", "What made up the other part?", "How long have the tribes been there?" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 0, 2, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 154 ], [ 1994 ], [ 1994 ], [ 404 ], [ 274 ], [ 1994 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Guatemala has one of the largest Indigenous populations in Central America, with approximately 39.3% of the population considering themselves Indigenous." ], [ "The Indigenous demographic portion of Guatemala's population consists of majority Mayan groups and one Non-Mayan group." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The Non-Mayan group consists of the Xinca who are another set of Indigenous people making up 0.5% of the population." ], [ "The Mayan portion, can be broken down into 23 groups namely K'iche 11.3%, Kaqchikel 7.4%, Mam 5.5%, Q'eqchi' 7.6% and Other 7.5%." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 154, 1994, 1994, 404, 274, 1994 ], "texts": [ "Guatemala has one of the largest Indigenous populations in Central America, with approximately 39.3% of the population considering themselves Indigenous.", "The Indigenous demographic portion of Guatemala's population consists of majority Mayan groups and one Non-Mayan group.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "The Non-Mayan group consists of the Xinca who are another set of Indigenous people making up 0.5% of the population.", "The Mayan portion, can be broken down into 23 groups namely K'iche 11.3%, Kaqchikel 7.4%, Mam 5.5%, Q'eqchi' 7.6% and Other 7.5%.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "\n\nDefinition \n\nIndigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those which have a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, and may consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system.\n\nThis historical continuity may consist of the continuation, for an extended period reaching into the present of one or more of the following factors:\n Occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them\n Common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands\n Culture in general, or in specific manifestations (such as religion, living under a tribal system, membership in an Indigenous community, dress, means of livelihood, lifestyle, etc.)\n Language (whether used as the only language, as mother-tongue, as the habitual means of communication at home or in the family, or as the main, preferred, habitual, general or normal language)\n Residence in certain parts of the country, or in certain regions of the world\n Other relevant factors.\n On an individual basis, an Indigenous person is one who belongs to these Indigenous populations through self-identification as Indigenous (group consciousness) and is recognized and accepted by these populations as one of its members (acceptance by the group). This preserves for these communities the sovereign right and power to decide who belongs to them, without external interference.\n\nAfrica\n\nAfrican Great Lakes \n\nAbagusii: Kenya\nHadza (Hadzabe): Tanzania, Singida region: southeast, south and northwest of Lake Eyashi.\nIraqw: Tanzania\nKalenjin: Kenya\nKikuyu: Kenya\nLuhya: Kenya\nMaasai: Kenya, Tanzania\nRendille: Kenya\nSamburu: Kenya, Tanzania\nSandawe: Tanzania, Dodoma region: Kondoa district, between Bubu and Mponde rivers, Singida region.\nPygmy peoples:\nTwa\nBangweulu Twa: Northern Zambia, Bangweulu Swamps,\nGreat Lakes Twa: Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo\nKafwe Twa: Southern Zambia, Kafue Flats\nLukanga Twa: Central Zambia, Lukanga Swamp\nNsua: Western Uganda\n\nCentral Africa \n\nPygmy peoples:\nBedzan: Northern Central Cameroon\nMbenga:\nAka (Bayaka)\nBaka (Bebayaka): Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville), Gabon, and Central African Republic\nBongo (Babongo):\nGyele (Bagyele):\nKola (Bakola):\nMbuti (Bambuti):\nAsua: Democratic Republic of the Congo\nEfé: Democratic Republic of the Congo\nKango/Sua:\nMbuti:\nWochua:\nTwa\nAngola Twa: Northeastern, Eastern and Southern Angola\nKasai Twa (Kuba Twa): Central Democratic Republic of Congo\nMbote Twa: Southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Northwest of Lake Tanganyika\nMongo Twa (Ntomba Twa): Western Democratic Republic of Congo, Lake Tumba, Lake Mai-Ndombe\nUpemba Twa (Luba Twa): Southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Upemba Depression\n\nHorn of Africa \nAfar people (Qafár/'Afár): the Afar Triangle of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia\nAmhara: Ethiopia\nBanna: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nBasketo: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nBerta (Funj): Western Ethiopia, Benishangul-Gumuz Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nBurji: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nGedeo: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nGumuz: Western Ethiopia, Benishangul-Gumuz Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nHamer: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nKaro: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nKunama: Western Eritrea, Gash-Barka Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nMaale: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nMursi (Mun): mainly in Debub Omo Zone, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region, Southwest Ethiopia\nNara: Western Eritrea, Gash-Barka Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nOromo people: Ethiopia, Kenya\nSaho: Central Eritrea, Southern part of Northern Red Sea Region\nShinasha (Shinasha): Northwestern Ethiopia\nSidama: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nSomalis: Somalia, Djibouti, eastern Ethiopia, northeastern Kenya\nSuri Baale: Ethiopia\nSuri Chai: Ethiopia\nSuri Timaga: Ethiopia\nWolayta: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nYem: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\n\nNorth Africa \n\nAfroasiatic languages\nBerbers (Imazighen): Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mediterranean Coast, Atlas Mountains (Idurar n Waṭlas), North and Western Sahara\nEastern Berbers\nNafusa people: Nafusa Mountains (Drar n infusen), Tripolitania, northwestern Libya\nZuwara Berbers: Zuwara, coast of western Tripolitania in northwestern Libya.\nMatmata Berbers: Matmâta, southern Tunisia\nDjerba Berbers: Djerba Island, southern Tunisia coast\nSokna Berbers: Sokna Oasis (Isuknan), Fezzan, north central Libya, Sahara\nAwjila: Awjila oasis, Cyrenaica, eastern Libya, Sahara\nGhadamès: Ghadamès Oasis, Western Libya, Sahara\nNorthern Berbers\nKabyles (Iqvayliyen): Kabylie (Tamurt n Iqvayliyen), Mediterranean coast of northern Algeria\nZenati (Iznaten/Iznasen) speakers: regions in Algeria and Morocco\nMozabites (At Mzab): Mzab region, northern Sahara, north central Algeria\nShawiya (Išawiyen): Aurès Mountains (Idurar n Awras), northeastern Algeria\nShenwa (Ichenwiyen): west-central mountains of northwestern Algeria\nRiffians (Irifiyen): Rif, Rif Mountains (Arrif), northern Morocco\nSanhaja (Iẓnagen/Iẓnajen) peoples: regions in Middle West Atlas mountains and Eastern Morocco\nMasmuda peoples: regions in Northern and Western Morocco\nGhomara: Far West Rif Mountains (Arrif), Northern Morocco\nShilha (Shlḥi): West Atlas mountains, Western Morocco\nHaratin: Indigenous population of the Maghreb and Sahara of uncertain origin; members now speak either Berber languages or Arabic; inhabit Morocco, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Algeria.\nSerer - current habit Senega, Gambia, Mauritania\nToubou: Chad\n\nNile Valley\n\nEgypt\nCopts (Rem en Khēmi/Rem en Kēme): Egypt, the majority of Egypt's population descended from Ancient Egyptians\nBeja: Northeastern Sudan, between Red Sea coast and almost to the Nile River (White Nile and Blue Nile) eastern banks, Far Northwest Eritrea, Sahara Eastern Desert, Far Southeast Egypt \nSiwi Berbers: Siwa Oasis (Isiwan), western Egypt, Sahara\n\nSudan\nNuba peoples: Sudan, Nuba Hills\n\nNubians: Far Northern North Sudan and Far Southern Egypt, along middle Nile river valley banks \nDinka (Jieng): mainly in Lakes, Warrap and Unity States, Upper Nile river course, Central and North South Sudan.\nNuer (Naadh): mainly in Jonglei State, East of Upper Nile river course, East Central South Sudan.\nAnuak (Anywaa): mainly East Jonglei State, East South Sudan, and also mainly in Gambela Region, Lowlands of Far Southwest Ethiopia (border areas between South Sudan and Ethiopia).\nShilluk (Chollo/Cøllø): mainly in North South Sudan, west of the Upper Nile river course, Upper Nile State, South Sudan (Kodok or Kothok, formerly known as Fashoda is in their territory).\nFur (Fòòrà): Darfur, Western Sudan\nMasalit: Darfur, Western Sudan\nKadu peoples: Sudan, Nuba Hills\n\nSouthern Africa \n\nSouthern Khoikhoi languages speaking peoples: Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Kalahari desert, Zimbabwe, west and southwestern South Africa.\nKhoikhoi\nNama (Namaqua)\nDamara \n\nHaiǁom\nGǀu and Gǁana\nNaro\nTsoa/Tshwa/Kua\nSouthern San languages speaking peoples: Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Kalahari desert, west and southwestern South Africa.\nKx'a/Ju–ǂHoan\nǃKung/Juu\nǂʼAmkoe\nǂKxʼao-ǁʼae (Auen)\nTuu\nǃKwi (!Ui)\nǀXam\nǂKhomani (Nǀu)\nKhwe (Khoi, Kxoe)\nTaa\nǃXooŋake/Nǀumde\n\nEurasia\n\nAsia\n\nWest Asia (Middle East) \n\nAfroasiatic languages\nSemitic peoples\nEast Semitic peoples\nAssyrians (Āṯūrāyē/Sūrāyē/Sūryāyē): A Christian Neo-Aramaic speaking people indigenous to Assyria, which is located in what is now northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria and northwestern Iran in Upper Mesopotamia. There is a testified historical continuity between ancient Assyrians and modern Assyrians, for the majority of Assyrians in the same land that they have lived in since antiquity: (Assyria, Athura, Roman Assyria, & Asoristan), before the Arabization of Upper Mesopotamia, that corresponds with old Assyria (originally speakers of the Akkadian language but in antiquity, by the end of the 1st millennium BC, Assyrians adopted the Aramaic language from Aramaeans as an official language of the Assyrian Empire and in present times speak Assyrian Neo-Aramaic. However, not all Assyrians identify as Assyrian, and several are from peoples that adopted an Assyrian ethnic identity (see terms for Syriac Christians).\nWest Semitic peoples\nCentral Semitic peoples\nArabic peoples\nBedouin (Badawī) of the interior deserts of Arabia and Syria.\nDruze (Al-Muwaḥḥidūn/Al-Muwaḥḥidīn/Ahl al-Tawḥīd): of Jabal al-Druze, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel. The faith of the Druze is a blend of Islam's Ismailism, Judaism, Christianity, Neoplatonism, Pythagoreanism, Gnosticism and Greek philosophy. The foundational text of the faith is the Epistles of Wisdom. Even though they have been a minority for their entire history, they have played a significant role in shaping the history of the Levant. Although the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, Druze are usually not considered Muslims. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon and in the south of Syria around Jabal al-Druze (literally the \"Mountain of the Druze\").\nMandaeans\nMarsh Dwellers/Marsh Arabs (Ma'dan/ʻArab al-Ahwār): An Arabic-speaking people living in the marshes of southern Iraq or on the Iranian side of the Shatt al-Arab.\nNorthwest Semitic peoples\nArameans (Āramayē): Central and Western Syria, ancient land of the Aramaeans (Aram) in the Levant, an Aramaic-speaking people that descends from ancient Aramaeans. In recent years, there has been an attempt to revive Western Aramaic among Aramean Christians living in the Israeli village of Jish.\nCanaanite peoples\nJews: along with Samaritans, descend from the Israelite nation of the southern Levant, who are believed by archaeologists and historians to have branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatrous—and later monotheistic—religion centered on El/Yahweh, one of the Ancient Canaanite deities. A Jewish diaspora existed for several centuries before the fall of the Second Temple, and their dwelling in other countries for the most part was not a result of compulsory dislocation. Following the Roman Siege of Jerusalem, destruction of Herod's Temple, and failed Jewish revolts, some Jews were either expelled, taken as slaves to Rome, or massacred, while other Jews continued to live in the region over the centuries, despite the conversion of many Jews to Christianity and Islam as well as persecution by the various conquerors of the region, including the Romans, Arabs, Ottomans, and the British. Additionally, a substantial number of diaspora Jews immigrated to Palestine during the 19th and 20th centuries (mainly under the Zionist movement), as well as after the modern State of Israel was established in 1948. This was coupled with the revival of Hebrew, the only Canaanite language still spoken today. DNA studies show that many major diaspora Jewish communities derive a substantial portion of their ancestry from ancient Israelites.\n\nThere are competing claims that Palestinian Arabs and Jews are indigenous to historic Palestine/the Land of Israel. The argument entered the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with Palestinians claiming Indigenous status as a pre-existing population displaced by Jewish settlement, and currently constituting a minority in the State of Israel. Israeli Jews have in turn claimed indigeneity based on historic ties to the region and disputed the authenticity of Palestinian claims. In 2007, the Negev Bedouin were officially recognised as Indigenous peoples of Israel by the United Nations. This has been criticised both by scholars associated with the Israeli state, who dispute the Bedouin's claim to indigeneity, and those who argue that recognising just one group of Palestinians as Indigenous risks undermining others' claims and \"fetishising\" nomadic cultures.\n\nSamaritans (Samerim): of Samaria. An ethno-religious group of the Levant, closely related genetically and culturally to the Jewish diaspora and are understood to have branched off from the latter around the time of the Assyrian exile. The Samaritans are adherents of Samaritanism, an Abrahamic religion closely related to Judaism. Their sole norm of religious observance is the Samaritan Pentateuch.\n\nBathari people: Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nHarasis: Jiddat al-Harasis, Central Oman. Descendants from the original people of South Arabia before Arabization.\nHobyót people: Dhofar, Southern Oman, Far Eastern Yemen. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nMehris: Al Mahrah, Eastern Yemen, Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nShehri people/Jibbali people: Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nSoqotri people: Soqotra island and group of islands, southeast of mainland Yemen, Indian Ocean. Descendants from the original natives of South Arabia before Arabization.\n\nArmenians (Hayer): The Christian Armenian people were the original inhabitants of what is now modern Eastern Turkey, specifically around Lake Van and the biblical mountain of Ararat and spoke the Western Armenian language. Since the Armenian genocide in which up to 1,500,000 people perished, the number of the original Armenian inhabitants is almost non-existent and they have since been replaced with ethnic Turks and Kurds.\nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nOssetians (Iræттæ): South Ossetia, Georgia, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nWest Iranian peoples\nCaspian/South Caspian peoples\nGilaks: Gilan, North Iran, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nMazanderanis/Mazanis/Tabaris: Mazanderan, Tabaristan, Northern Iran, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nNorthwest Iranian peoples\nNorthwestern I\nKurds (Kurd/Kurmandzh): Kurdistan, Northwestern and Western Iran, Northern Iraq, Northeast and Northern Syria, Southeast Turkey, Zagros and East Anatolian Plateau\nYazidis (Êzidî): Nineveh Governorate, Northern Iraq\nLak people (Iran): Southwestern Iran, Zagros Mountains\nZaza-Gorani peoples \nShabaks: Sinjar District of the Nineveh Governorate in northern Iraq.\nZazas: Southeastern Turkey, Upper Euphrates river, East Anatolian Plateau\nNorthwestern II\nBaluchis (Baloch/Baluch): Baluchistan, Southeastern Iran, Southwestern Pakistan, Extreme Southern Afghanistan\nTatic peoples\nTalysh (Talyshon): Northwestern Iran, Far South Azerbaijan, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nTats (Iran)/South Tats (Irünə Tâtün): Northwest Iran\nSouthwest Iranian peoples\nPersian: Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan\nLarestani–Gulf peoples\nKumzaris: Northern Musandam, Oman\nLurs and Bakhtiaris\nLurs (Lur): Luristan, Western and Southwestern Iran, Zagros Mountains\nBakhtiaris (Bakhtiar): Southwestern Iran, Zagros\nTats (Caucasus): Republic of Azerbaijan, Dagestan (Russia)\n\nCaucasus \n\nIndo-European peoples\nArmenians (Hayer): \nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nOssetians (Iræттæ): Ossetia (Iryston), North Ossetia (Cægat Iryston), a Republic of Russia, and South Ossetia (Khussar Iryston), a De Jure autonomous region of Georgia (Sakartvelo), self-proclaimed sovereign country, North and South slopes of Central Caucasus Mountains.\nWest Iranian peoples\nSouthwest Iranian peoples\nPersian peoples\nTats (Caucasus) (Tati/Parsi/Lohijon/Daghli): East Caucasus Mountains, Azerbaijan\nKartvelian peoples\nZan\nLazs (Lazepe): Southwestern Georgia, Far Northeastern Turkey\nNortheast Caucasian peoples\nAvar-Andic peoples\nAvar people (Caucasus) (Magharulal/Avaral): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nAndic peoples\nAkhvakh (Ashvado/Atluatii)\nAndis (Qhvannal/Khivannal)\nBagvalal (Bagval)\nBotlikhs (Buykhal'ida/Buykhalyi)\nChamalals (Chamalaldu)\nGodoberis (Giybdiridi)\nKaratas (Khkhiridi)\nTindis (Idarab)\nDargins (Darganti): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKhinalug (Kettiturdur/Kayttiodur/Ketid/Ketsh Khalkh)\nLak people (Dagestan): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nLezgic peoples\nAghul (Agular): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nArchins (Arshishttib)\nBudukh (Budad)\nJeks (Cekad/Dzhekad)\nKryts (Kh'rytsha'/Kyrtuar)\nLezgians (Lezgiyar/Leqer): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nRutul (Mykhabyr): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTabasarans: Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTsakhur (Yiqby): Azerbaijan, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nUdins (Udi/Uti): Northern Azerbaijan, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nNakh peoples\nBats (Batsbi)\nVainakh peoples\nChechens (Nokhchiy): Chechenia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nIngush (Ghalghay): Ingushetia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTsezic (Didoic) peoples\nBezhtas\nHinukh (Hinuqes)\nHunzibs (Hunzib)\nKhwarshi (Khuani)\nTsez/Dido people\nNorthwest Caucasian peoples\nAbkhaz-Abaza peoples\nAbazins (Abaza)\nAbkhazians (Aphsua): Abkhazia (Aphsny) - a De Jure autonomous region of Georgia (Sakartvelo), self-proclaimed sovereign country.\nCircassian peoples\nWest Circassian peoples\nAdyghe (Adyge): Adyghe Republic, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nEast Circassian peoples\nCherkess (Cherkes): Karachay-Cherkessia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKabardians (Qeberdeykher): Kabardino-Balkaria, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKarachays (Karachai): Karachay-Cherkessia, North Caucasian peoples, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nUbykh (Tʷaχ): were indigenous to the mountains of West Caucasus, Sochi area, Krasnodar Krai, Russia, later migrated to Turkey.\n\nSiberia (North Asia) \n\n \n\nOver 40 distinct peoples, each with their own language and culture in the Asiatic part of Russia (Siberia/North Asia).\nChukchi-Kamchatkan peoples\nChukotkan peoples\nChukchi (Lyg'oravetl'et/Chukchi people|O'ravetl'et/Ankalyn-Chavchu): Northeast Siberia, Russia\nKoryaks (Nymylan-Chauchuven): Russian Far East\nAlyutors: Russian Far East\nKereks: Russian Far East\nKamchatkan peoples\nItelmens: Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo-Aleut peoples\nYupik: Alaska and the Russian Far East\nSiberian Yupik (Yupighyt): Siberia, Russia, Alaska, United States.\nSirenik Eskimos, Russian Far East.\nNaukan, Russian Far East.\nMongolic peoples\nBuryats (Buryaad): Buryatia, Russia, and Mongolia\nHamnigans: Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia, Mongolia, and China\nTungusic peoples\nNorthern Tungusic peoples\nEvenks (Evenkil): Siberia (They are also distributed in China and Mongolia in East Asia).\nUdege (Udihe/Udekhe/Udeghe): Russian Far East, Ukraine\nTurkic peoples\nSiberian Turks\nAltaians (Altay-kizhi): titular nation of Altai Republic, Russia\nChelkans\nTelengits\nTubalars\nChulyms: Tomsk Oblast, Russia\nDolgans: Northern Siberia \nKhakas (Tadarlar): titular nation of Khakassia, Russia\nKumandins: Altai Krai, Russia\nShors: Southern Siberia\nSoyots: Buryatia, Russia\nTeleuts: Kemerovo Oblast, Russia\nTofalars: Southern Siberia \nTuvans (Tyvalar): titular nation of Tuva Republic, Russia\nTozhu Tuvans: Tuva Republic, Russia\nYakuts (Sakha): titular nation of Yakutia, Russia\nKipchak Turks\nSiberian Tatars\nBaraba Tatars\nUgric peoples\nUgrians: Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nKhanty (Hantõ-Kantõk/Kantek/Khanti): Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nMansi (Maan's'i/Maan's'i Maahum/Mansi), formerly known as Voguls: Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nSamoyedic peoples\nNorthern Samoyedic peoples: West Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nEnets (Entsi): Far Northern Western Siberia, Russia\nNenets (Neney Neneche): Far Northern Western Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nNganasan (Ŋənəhsa(nəh)): Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia, Russia\nYukaghirs (Odul/Vadul/Detkil'): Far Northern East Siberia, Russia\nYeniseian peoples\nKet (Deng): Along middle Yenisei river banks\nNivkh (Gilyak): Sakhalin, Russia\nOroks (Uilta): Sakhalin, Russia\n\nEurasian Steppe \n\nIndo-European peoples\nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nPamiris (Pomir): Badakhshan (Afghanistan, Tajikistan), Pamir Mountains, Tashkurgan (in Xinjiang)\nTajiks: Tajikistan\nYaghnobi (Yaγnōbī́t): Tajikistan\nMongolic peoples\nCentral Mongolic peoples\nKhoid: Mongolia\nMangud: Historically Mongolia\nMongols: Mongolia, China\nNaimans (Nayman): Inner Mongolia, China\nOirats (Oirad/Oird) (Dzungars and Torghuts): Dzungaria (Northern Xinjiang), China\nSartuul: Zavkhan, Mongolia\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nTibetans: Tibet, China and neighbouring regions\nTurkic peoples\nCommon Turks\nKarluk Turks (Southeastern Common Turkic peoples)\nUyghurs (Uyghur): Tarim Basin (Southern Xinjiang), China\nIli Turks: Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Northern Xinjiang, China\nYugur (Yogïr/Sarïg Yogïr): Sunan Yugur Autonomous County, Gansu province, China\nSalar (Salır): Xunhua Salar Autonomous County, Qinghai province, China\nDukha (Dukha/Dukhans/Duhalar/Tsaatan): Mongolia\nUriankhai (Wūliánghǎi/Uriankhan/урианхан/Uriankhat/урианхад): Mongolia\nKipchak Turks (Northwestern Common Turkic peoples)\nBashkirs (Başqorttar): Bashkir Republic, European Russia\nKazakhs: Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, Russia\nKyrgyzs: Kyrgyzstan, China\nKrymchaks (Qrymçaklar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nCrimean Karaites (Qrymqaraylar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nCrimean Tatars (Qırımtatarlar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nVolga Tatars (Tatarlar): Tatarstan, European Russia\nOghuz Turks (Southwestern Common Turkic peoples)\nGagauz (Gagauzlar): Gagauzia, Moldova\nOghur (tribe)\nChuvash (Chăvаsh): Chuvash Republic, Russia\n\nSouth Asia \n\nAdivasis: collective term for many Indigenous peoples in India (see also Scheduled Tribes in India)\nDravidian peoples\nBadaga: Tamil Nadu, South India\nGond: Gondwana Land, Central India\nIrula: Tamil Nadu, South India\nKisan: Indigenous peoples of the Odisha, East India\nKodava: Kodagu, Karnataka, South India\nKota (Kothar/Kov): Tamil Nadu, South India\nKuruba: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, South India\nTamil: Tamil Nadu, South India and Sri Lanka\nToda: Tamil Nadu, South India\nSouth Dravidian peoples\nGiraavaru: Maldives\nIndo-European peoples\nIranian peoples\nPashtuns: southern Afghanistan and Northwest Pakistan\nBaloch: southeastern Iran and southwest Pakistan\nIndo-Aryan peoples\nDard: Dardistan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nKalasha of Chitral (Kaĺaśa): Ancient pre-Muslim polytheistic pagan ethnic minority in Chitral District, Northern Pakistan\nShina: Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nKashmiri Hindus: India\nSindhi: Sindh, Pakistan, India\nBengali: Bangladesh, India\nGujarati: India \nBanjara: Rajasthan\nBhil people: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh\nJaunsari people: Uttarakhand\nDogras: Jammu\nTharu: Nepal, East India\nWarli\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nBodish peoples\nLadakhi: Ladakh, North India\nKonyak peoples\nIndigenous Assamese people\nTripuri (Borok): Tripura, North-East India\nKonyak peoples\nNocte: Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India\nKukish peoples\nKarbi: Karbi Anglong, Assam, North-East-India\nMizo (Mizo hnam): Mizoram, North-East India\nNaga: Nagaland, North-East India\nRaji-Raute peoples\nRaute: Nepal, North India\nDigaro peoples\nMishmi: Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India\nJumma people (a collective term for several peoples)\nChakma: Bangladesh, Arunachal Pradesh - North-East India\nIndigenous peoples of Sikkim: India\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nBodish peoples\nBhutia (Denzongpa)\nLepcha (Róng ʔágít/Róngkup/Mútuncí Róngkup Rumkup)\nMeitei: Manipur, North-East India\nBurusho: Hunza and Chitral districts, Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nLolo-Burmese peoples\nBurmish peoples\nMarma: Bangladesh\nMeitei people: Manipur and neighboring states of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar\nVedda (Wanniyala-Aetto): Sri Lanka\nSinhalese: Sri Lanka\nDhivehi: Maldives\n\nSoutheast Asia\n\nMainland Southeast Asia (Indochinese Peninsula) \n\nAustroasiatic peoples\nAslian peoples\nSenoi (Sengoi/Sng'oi) (a people of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): in Peninsular Malaysia)\nKhmer Krom: of Vietnam\nKhmuic groups:\nKhmu (Kmm̥uʔ/Kmmúʔ): Thailand and Laos\nMlabri: Northern Thailand and Laos\nPray: Thailand and Laos\nPalaungic peoples\nWa (Vāx): One of the hill tribes of Myanmar (They are also distributed in Yunnan Province, China in East Asia).\nZomi (Zo Pau): One of the Indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia. The word Zomi is the collective name given to many tribes who traced their descent from a common ancestor. Through history they have been known under various appellation, such as Chin, Kuki and Mizo, but the expression was disliked by them, and they insist that the term was a misnomer given by others and by which they have been recorded in certain documents designate their ancient origins as a separate ethnicity.\nVietic peoples\nMuong\nTho\nTuom\nLiha\nPhong\nThavueng\nAhoe (Phon Sung)\nAhao\nAhlao\nChuet\nRục\nMày\nArem\nMã Liềng\nSách\nSalang\nMaleng–Pakatan\nBo\nArao\nAtel\nAtop\nKaleun\nMaleng\nPakatan\nThemarou\nKri–Phoóng\nKrii\nPhoóng\nMlengbrou\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nChamic peoples\nCham (Chams/Urang Campa): of Vietnam and Cambodia\nProto-Malay (a people of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): in Peninsular Malaysia\nMoken: in Myanmar, and Thailand\nHmong-Mien peoples\nHmong: subgroups of Thailand, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam (They are also distributed in China in East Asia). \nMontagnards (Degar): an umbrella term for several Pre-Vietnamese peoples that dwell in the plateaus and mountains of the southern regions of Vietnam\nAustroasiatic peoples\nBahnaric peoples\nNorth Bahnaric peoples\nSedang, Halang and Kayong: Vietnam\nH're people: Quảng Ngãi Province, Central Vietnam\nCentral Bahnaric peoples\nBahnar: Central Highland provinces of Gia Lai and Kon Tum, as well as the coastal provinces of Bình Định and Phú Yên (Vietnam)\nJeh-Tariang people: Kon Tum, Vietnam\nSouthern Bahnaric peoples\nMạ people: Central Highlands, Vietnam\nMnong: Cambodia and Vietnam\nStieng: Cambodia and Vietnam\nKoho: Di Linh Highland of Vietnam \nEastern Bahnaric:\nCor people \nKatuic peoples\nKatu\nKatu: Vietnam and Laos\nWest\nBru (Bruu): Thailand, Laos, India and Vietnam\nTa Oi people: Laos, Vietnam\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nChamic peoples\nHighlands Chamic peoples\nRade-Jarai\nJarai: Central Highlands of Vietnam, as well as in the Northeast Province of Ratanakiri (Cambodia)\nRhade: Southern Vietnam\nChru–Northern\nNorthern Cham\nRaglai: in Khánh Hòa Province of South Central Coast, and Ninh Thuận Province in the Southeast region of Vietnam\nNegrito:\nMani (Maniq): Far Southern Thailand\nSemang (a group of several peoples of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): Peninsular Malaysia\nBatek: Peninsular Malaysia\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nKarenic peoples\nKaren (Per Ploan Poe/Ploan/Pwa Ka Nyaw/Kanyaw): an alliance of hill tribes of Myanmar and Thailand\nLolo-Burmese peoples\nAkha a.k.a. Aini or Aini-Akha: One of the hill tribes of Thailand, Laos and Burma (They are also distributed in Yunnan Province, China in East Asia).\nLahu (Ladhulsi/Kawzhawd): One of the hill tribes of Thailand, Myanmar and Laos (They are also distributed in Yunnan, China).\nLisu: One of the hill tribes of Myanmar and Thailand (They are also distributed in Arunachal Pradesh, India in South Asia and Yunnan and Sichuan, China).\nRakhine (Rəkhàin lùmjó), Kaman and Marma: Arakan in Myanmar\nYi (Nuosu/Nisu/Sani/Axi/Lolo): a group of several related peoples mainly in Yunnan, China.\nTibeto-Burman peoples\nIntha: Inle Lake of Myanmar\nTai peoples: Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos and Thailand (They are also distributed in Yunnan, China).\nSouthwestern Tai peoples\nKhün (Thai Khün)\nPhu Thai \nTai Dam: Northwest Vietnam, Laos and Thailand (They are also distributed in Yunnan)\nTai Lu: Laos, Northern Thailand, Myanmar, and Lai Châu Province in Vietnam (They are also distributed in Xishuangbanna in Yunnan, China).\nTai Nüa\n\nMaritime Southeast Asia (Malay Archipelago) \n\nAustroasiatic peoples\nNicobarese people (Holchu): Nicobar Islands, India\nShompen people (Kalay-Keyet): Nicobar Islands, India\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nBarito peoples\nBajau (Sama/Samah/Samal): Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines)\nDayak: Borneo, (Malaysia and Indonesia)\nNorthwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands peoples\nMentawai peoples\nMentawai: Mentawai Islands, Indonesia\nSakuddei: Siberut Island and Mentawai Islands, Indonesia\nMalayic peoples\nOrang Laut and Orang Seletar: Malaysia and Singapore\nProto-Malay (Melayu asli/Melayu purba): Malaysia\nNorth Bornean peoples\nPenan: Sarawak, Malaysia\nLun Bawang: Sarawak, Malaysia\nPhilippine peoples\nIgorot (Ifugao: Ipugao; Benguet: Ibaloi, Kankanaey; Mountain Province: Bontoc; Kalinga: Kiangan; Abra: Itneg; Apayao: Isneg): Cordillera mountains in Luzon in the Philippines\nLumad (Katawhang Lumad): Mindanao in the Philippines\nMangyan: Mindoro in the Philippines\nMoro: Mindanao and Sulu archipelago in the Philippines\nTausug (Tausūg/Suluk/Sulug)\nMaguindanao\nMaranao (Iranon/Iranun)\nTribes of Palawan: Palawan, Philippines\nOrang Rimba (Orang Batin Sembilan/Orang Rimba/Anak Dalam/Kubu): Sumatra, Indonesia\nLubu: Sumatra, Indonesia\nNegrito:\nAndamanese, in the Andaman Islands, which include:\nGreat Andamanese: formerly at least 10 distinct groups living throughout Great Andaman, now confined to a single community on Strait Island, Andaman Is.\nJangil (Rutland Jarawa): now extinct, formerly of Rutland Island, Andamans\nJarawa: South Andaman and Middle Andaman\nOnge (Önge): Little Andaman, Andaman Islands\nSentinelese (?): North Sentinel Island, Andaman Islands\nAeta: Luzon, Philippines\nAti: Panay, Philippines\nBatak: Palawan, Philippines\nPribumi (Native Indonesians): of Indonesia\n\nEast Asia\n\nWestern China \nTurkic peoples\nÄynu peoples\nIli Turk peoples: Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture\nUyghur peoples\nTibetan peoples\n\nNorth China \nFuyu Kyrgyz: Fuyu County, Heilongjiang\nHui peoples\nTungusic peoples\nNorthern Tungusic peoples\nNanai (Hezhen/Nanai/Hezhe/Golds/Samagir): Heilongjiang in China, Khabarovsk Krai and Primorsky Krai in Russia\nOroqen: Far Northern China\nSouthern Tungusic peoples\nManchu (Manju/Manchu people): Manchuria, northeast China\n\nSouth China \n\nHmong-Mien peoples\nMiao: Southern China (provinces of Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong and Hainan), Myanmar, northern Vietnam, Laos and Thailand\nHmong: Southern China, Vietnam and Laos\nYao (Mien): Southern China (provinces Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan)\n\nTaiwan \n\nIndigenous peoples of the island of Taiwan\nAmis (Pangcah)\nSakizaya\nBunun\nKavalan (Kebalan; Kbaran)\nAtayal (Tayal; Tayan)\nSaisiyat (Say-Siyat)\nSeediq\nTruku (Taroko)\nThao (Ngan)\nPaiwan (Payuan)\nPuyuma (Pinuyumayan)\nRukai (Drekay)\nTsou (Cou)\nYami (Tao)\nHla'alua (Saaroa)\nKanakanavu\n\nJapan \nAinu (Aynu): Hokkaido, Japan and (until the end of World War II) on Sakhalin Island, Russia\nJaponic peoples\nRyukyuans (Ruuchuu Minzuku): Old Ryūkyū Kingdom, now Japan\n\nAmericas \n\nAmericas is the supercontinent comprising North and South America, and associated islands.\n\nList of peoples by geographical and ethnolinguistic grouping:\n\nNorth America \n\nNorth America includes all of the continent and islands east of the Bering Strait and north of the Isthmus of Panama; it includes Greenland, Canada, United States, Mexico, Central American and Caribbean countries. However a distinction can be made between a broader North America and a narrower Northern America and Middle America due to ethnic and cultural characteristics.\n\nIndigenous peoples in North America by Country\nAboriginal peoples in Canada\nFirst Nations\nInuit\nMétis\nIndigenous peoples in the United States\nAlaska Natives\nIndigenous peoples of Mexico\nIndigenous peoples in North America by native cultural regions\n\nArctic \n\nAncient Beringian - Siberia and Alaska\nEskimo–Aleut\nAleut (Unangax): Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo/Yupit-Inuit\nYupik: Alaska, United States\nAlutiiq (Sugpiat): Alaska, United States\nCentral Alaskan Yup'ik (Yupiat/Yupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ik (Cupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ig: Nunivak Island, Alaska, United States\nSiberian Yupik of St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, United States.\nInuit: Canadian Arctic - Northwest Territories, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, Nunavut; Greenland; Alaska, United States\nGreenlandic Inuit: Greenland\nInughuit: North Greenland\nKalaallit: West Greenland\nTunumiit: East Greenland\nInupiat (Iñupiat): Arctic Alaska, North Slope and boroughs and the Bering Strait\nNunamiut: Interior Alaska.\nInuit: Canadian Arctic\nEastern Canadian Inuit: East Canadian Arctic, East Nunavut, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut\nWestern Canadian Inuit (Inuvialuit): West Canadian Arctic, Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Arctic coast of Northwest Territories, West Nunavut\nMétis: a mixed First Nations (from several peoples) and European (from several peoples) people of Canada.\n\nSubarctic \n\nNa-Dené peoples\nAthabaskan peoples\nNorthern Athabaskan peoples\nDene of Yukon, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territory, and Alberta, Canada.\nAlaskan Athabaskans\nSouthern Alaskan peoples\nAhtna\nIngalik\nKoyukon of Interior Alaska.\nKutchin of Interior Alaska and the Yukon.\nTanana Athabaskans.\nKolchan of Interior Alaska.\nDeg Hit'an of Interior Alaska.\nDena'ina of Interior Alaska.\nHolikachuk\nHän of Yukon, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\nMétis: a mixed Native American (from several peoples) and European (from several peoples) people of Canada.\nAlgonquians\nCree of Montana, United States, and Manitoba, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\nInnu of Northeastern Quebec, and Western Labrador, Canada.\nAnnishinabe of Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, Canada, as well as Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin, United States.\nAlgonquin of Quebec, and Ontario, Canada.\nBeothuk of Newfoundland, Canada.\n\nPacific Northwest Coast \n\nMakah of Washington, United States.\nQuinault of Washington, United States.\nNootka of British Columbia, Canada.\nKwakiutl of British Columbia, Canada.\nEyak of Alaska, United States.\nHaida of British Columbia, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\nTlingit of Alaska, United States.\nTshimshian of British Columbia, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\n\nNorthwest Plateau-Great Basin-California\n\nNorthwest Plateau\n\nGreat Basin \n\nUte of Utah, United States.\nShoshone of Colorado, Nevada, and Utah, United States.\nMono of California, United States.\nBannock of Idaho, United States.\nWestern Shoshone of Nevada, United States.\nTimbisha of Nevada, United States.\nWashoe of Nevada, United States.\nPaiute of Colorado, California, Nevada, and Utah, United States.\nNorthern Paiute.\nSouthern Paiute.\nPais of Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, United States, as well as Baja California, Mexico.\nHualapai of Arizona, United States.\nWalapai of Arizona and Colorado, United States.\n\nCalifornia \n\nYuman-Cochimi peoples\nCochimí people: Baja California, Mexico\nCore Yuman peoples\nKiliwa (K'olew): Baja California, Mexico\nPaipai (Akwa'ala/Yakakwal): Baja California, Mexico\nDelta-Californian peoples\nCocopa (Cocopah/Xawiƚƚ Kwñchawaay): Baja California, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nKumeyaay (Ipai-Tipai/MuttTipi): Baja California, Mexico, and California, United States.\nMiwok of California, United States.\nMaidu of California, United States.\nWintu of California, United States.\nChumash of California, United States.\nTongva of California, United States.\nModoc of California, and Oregon, United States.\nAthabaskans\nAchumawi of California, and Oregon, United States.\nHupa of California and Oregon, United States.\nCahuilla of California, United States.\nMojave of California, and Nevada, United States.\nUto-Aztecans\nMono of California, and Nevada, United States.\nNorthern Paiute of California and Nevada, United States.\nOhlone of California, United States.\nKarok of California, United States.\n\nGreat Plains \n\nComanche of Texas and Oklahoma, United States.\nOsage of Kansas and Nebraska, United States.\nSioux of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota, United States, as well as Saskatchewan, and Alberta, Canada.\nLakota of South Dakota, United States.\nDakota people of Minnesota, United States, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\nKiowa of Texas, and Oklahoma.\nPlains Apache (see the Southwest section for another category this tribe belongs too) of Texas, and Oklahoma.\nCrow of Montana.\nOmaha of Nebraska.\nBlackfoot of Montana, United States, Alberta, Canada, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\n\nEastern Woodlands\n\nNortheastern Woodlands \n\nIroquoian peoples\nHaudenosaunee of New York, Wisconsin, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Quebec and Ontario, Canada.\nMohawk of Quebec, Canada, and New York, United States.\nSeneca of New York, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nCayuga of Oklahoma, and New York, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nOneida of Wisconsin and New York, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nTuscarora of New York, United States, and Ontario, Canada.\nOnondaga of New York, United States, and Ontario, Canada.\nWyandot of Kansas, Michigan, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nNation du chat of Upstate New York, Ohio, and Northwest Pennsylvania, United States.\nConestoga (Susquehannock) of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New York, and Maryland (United States).\nSt. Lawrence Iroquoians: St. Lawrence River, Quebec, Canada, and New York, United States.\nMonongahela: Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio, United States.\nNottoway of Virginia, United States.\nWesto of Virginia and South Carolina, United States.\nAlgic peoples\nAlgonquian peoples\nChowanoke of North Carolina.\nCarolina Algonquian\nRoanoke of North Carolina.\nCroatan of North Carolina.\nPowhatan Confederacy of Virginia.\nPamunkey of Virginia, United States.\nPowhatan people of Virginia, United States.\nWampanoag of Massachusetts.\nWabanaki of Maine, United States, and New Brunswick and Newfoundland, Canada.\nAbenaki of New Hampshire, Maine and Vermont.\nPenobscot of Maine.\nMiqmac of Maine, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland.\nPassamaquoddy of Maine, United States, and New Brunswick, Canada.\nMaliseet of New Brunswick and Quebec.\nShawnee of the Ohio River Valley, now Oklahoma.\nCentral Algonquian peoples\nKikapú (Kiikaapoa/Kiikaapoi): Indigenous peoples from southeast Michigan, United States, also in Coahuila, Mexico.\nPeoria (Illiniwek)\nAnnishinabe\nOjibwe of Minnesota, North Dakota, and Michigan, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nPotawatomi of Michigan and Indiana, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nOdawa of Oklahoma and Michigan, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nCree of Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories, Canada, as well as Montana, United States.\n\nSoutheastern Woodlands \n\nCherokee of North Carolina, Georgia, and Oklahoma.\nNatchez of Louisiana and Arkansas.\nMuskogeans\nMuskogee of Georgia, now Oklahoma.\nChoctaw of Louisiana, Alabama, and Oklahoma.\nChickasaw of Tennessee, now Oklahoma.\nIndigenous peoples of Florida\nIndigenous people of the Everglades region\nCalusa of South Florida.\nTequesta of South Florida.\nTimucua of Northern Florida and Southern Georgia.\nApalachee of the Florida Panhandle and Alabama.\nSeminole of Oklahoma, and Florida.\nSiouans\nHo-Chunk of Wisconsin and Michigan.\nCatawba of North Carolina.\nPee Dee of South Carolina.\nCaddoans\nCaddo of Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana.\nPawnee of Oklahoma, Nebraska and Kansas, United States.\nSouthern Plains villagers of Western Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, and Southeastern Colorado.\nArikara of North Dakota, United States.\nHidatsa of North Dakota, United States.\nWichita of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Texas, United States.\n\nSouthwest \n\nUto-Aztecan peoples\nAztecan (Nahuan) peoples\nMexicanero (Mēxihcah): Durango, Mexico\nCáhitan peoples\nYaqui (Hiaki/Yoeme): Sonora, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nMayo (Yoreme): Sonora, Mexico\nTarahumaran peoples\nGuarijío: Sonora, Mexico\nTarahumara (Rarámuri-Omugí): Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico\nTepiman peoples\nPima Bajo: Chihuahua, Mexico\nTepehuán (O'dam/Audam/Ódami): Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico\nSeri (Comcaac): Sonora, Mexico\nPuebloan peoples: Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Texas, United States\nHopi of New Mexico, United States.\nZuni of Arizona, United States.\nAnasazi of New Mexico and Colorado, United States.\nTiwa of New Mexico, United States.\nMogollon of New Mexico, Arizona, United States, and Sonora, Mexico.\nHohokam of Southern Arizona, United States.\nSouthern Athabascans\nApache of Chihuahua, Coahuilla, and Sonora, Mexico, as well as Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas, United States.\nChiricahua of Southern New Mexico, Northern Mexico, and Southeast Arizona.\nLipan Apache of Northern Texas, and Western Oklahoma.\nPlains Apache of Oklahoma.\nMescalero of Arizona, New Mexico, and Northern Chihuahua.\nWestern Apache of Western Arizona.\nNavajo of the Four Corners region.\nO'odham of Sonora, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nPima of Arizona, United States.\nPapago of far Northern Sonora, Mexico, and Southern Arizona, United States.\n\nMesoamerica \n\nHuave (Ikoots/Kunajts): Oaxaca, Mexico\nLenca: Honduras and El Salvador\nMaya peoples\nCh'olan peoples\nCh'ol: Chiapas, Mexico\nCh'orti': El Salvador\nChontal Maya (Yokot'anob/Yokot'an): Tabasco, Mexico\nTzeltal (Winik Atel/Batzilʼop): Chiapas, Mexico\nTzotzil (Bats'ik'op/Sotz'leb): Chiapas, Mexico\nHuastec (Téenek/Te' Inik): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nMamean peoples\nIxil: Guatemala\nMam: Guatemala\nQ'anjobalan peoples\nChuj: Guatemala\nJakaltek: Guatemala – also called Poptí\nQ'anjob'al: Guatemala\nTojolabal: Guatemala\nQichean peoples\nAchi': Guatemala\nKaqchikel: Guatemala\nK'iche': Guatemala\nPoqomchi': Guatemala\nPoqomam: Guatemala\nQ'eqchi': Guatemala\nTz'utujil: Guatemala\nYucatecan peoples\nItza: Guatemala\nLacandón (Hach Winik): Chiapas, Mexico\nMopan: Guatemala and Belize\nYucatec Maya (Maya proper) (Màaya): Yucatán, Quintana Roo and Campeche, Mexico\nMixe-Zoquean peoples\nMixe (Ayüükjä'äy): Oaxaca, Mexico\nZoque: Oaxaca and Chiapas Mexico\nOto-Manguean peoples\nAmuzgo (Tzjon Non/Tzo'tyio/Ñ'anncue): Oaxaca, Mexico\nChinantec: Oaxaca, Mexico\nManguean\nChorotega (Mangue/Mankeme): Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica\nMixtecan\nCuicatec:Oaxaca, Mexico\nMixtec (Ñuù Savi/Nayívi Savi/Ñuù Davi/Nayivi Davi): Oaxaca, Mexico\nTrique: Oaxaca, Mexico\nOto-Pamean peoples\nChichimeca Jonaz (Úza): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nMatlatzinca: Mexico (state), Mexico\nMazahua (Tetjo Ñaa Jñatjo): Mexico (state), Mexico\nOtomi (Hñähñu/Hñähño/Ñuhu/Ñhato/Ñuhmu): Central Mexico, Mexico\nPame (Xi'úi): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nPopolocan peoples\nChocho (Ngiwa): Oaxaca, Mexico\nIxcatec: Oaxaca, Mexico\nPopoloca: Oaxaca, and Puebla, Mexico\nMazatec (Ha Shuta Enima): Puebla and Oaxaca, Mexico\nTlapanec (Me'phaa): Guerrero, Mexico\nZapotecan peoples\nChatino (Kitse Cha'tño): Oaxaca, Mexico\nZapotec (Be'ena'a/Didxažon): Oaxaca, Mexico\nTarascan (P'urhépecha): Michoacán, Mexico\nTequistlatecan/Chontal de Oaxaca: Oaxaca, Mexico\nTotonacan peoples\nTotonac (Tutunacu): Veracruz and Puebla, Mexico\nUto-Aztecan peoples\nAztecan peoples\nNahua (Nāhuatlācah): Mexico\nCorachol peoples\nCora (Náayarite): Jalisco and Nayarit, Mexico\nHuichol (Wixáritari/Wixárita): Jalisco and Nayarit, Mexico\nXinca (Xinka): Guatemala\n\nCircum-Caribbean \n\nChibchan peoples\nBoruca: Costa Rica\nBribri: Costa Rica\nCabécar: Costa Rica\nNaso/Teribe/Tjër Di: Costa Rica, Panama\nGuaymi/Waimi peoples\nBokota: Panama\nNgäbe–Buglé: Panama, Costa Rica\nTalamanca peoplesl\nKuna (Dule/Tule): Panama\nPech: Honduras\nVotic peoples\nMaleku: Costa Rica\nRama: Nicaragua\nChocó/Embera-Wounaan peoples\nEmberá/Chocó proper (ɛ̃berá): Panama\nMisumalpan peoples\nMiskito (Miskitu): Honduras and Nicaragua\nTawira Miskito (Tawira Miskitu) \nSumalpan peoples\nSumo (Mayangna): Nicaragua\nTolupan/Jicaque: Honduras\nZambo/Cafuso peoples (mixed West African and Amerindian peoples)\nGarífuna: A mixed West African (from several peoples) and Amerindian people (mainly from the Island Caribs - Kalhíphona) that traditionally speaks an Arawakan language in Belize and Honduras.\nMiskito Sambu: A mixed West African (from several peoples) and Amerindian people (mainly from the original Miskito) that traditionally speaks Miskito, a Misumalpan language, and also Nicaragua Creole English in Nicaragua and Honduras.\nBlack Seminoles: Florida, The Bahamas, and Mexico. (Mixed Seminole and African).\n\nWest Indies \n\nThe West Indies, or the Caribbean, generally includes the island chains of the Caribbean Sea.\nArawakan peoples\nNorthern\nCircum-Caribbean/Ta-Arawakan peoples\nEyeri/Igneri: Lesser Antilles. An Arawak people, may have been the Kalinago/Island Caribs before caribbeanization. (The Island Caribs had the tradition that the Igneri were the older people of Lesser Antilles but they could have been ancestors of the majority of Island Caribs).\nIsland Caribs (Carib/Kalinago/Kalhíphona): Lesser Antilles. Often called \"Island Caribs\" (but may have been an older arawak people with a carib conquering warrior elite or influenced by Mainland Caribs. Apparently, the majority of the people spoke an arawakan language and not a carib one.)\nTaíno: Amerindians who originally inhabited the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean, they are of Arawakan descent.\nNeo-Taíno nations Some scholars distinguish between the Taíno and Neo-Taíno groups. Neo-Taíno groups were also native to the Antilles islands, but had distinctive languages and cultural practices that differed from the High Taíno. These groups include:\nCiboney: a term preferred in Cuban historical texts for the neo-Taino-Siboney nations of the island of Cuba.\nCiguayo: Eastern Hispaniola\nLucayans: Based in the Bahamas.\nMacorix: Hispaniola.\nGuanahatabey people: Western Cuba island, a Pre-Arawakan and Pre-Island Carib people of the Caribbean Islands.\n\nSouth America \n\nSouth America generally includes all of the continent and islands south of the Isthmus of Panama.\n\nIndigenous peoples in South America by Country:\nIndigenous peoples in Argentina\nList of indigenous peoples of Brazil\nIndigenous peoples in Chile\nIndigenous peoples in Colombia\nIndigenous peoples in Ecuador\nIndigenous peoples in Peru\nIndigenous peoples in South America by native cultural regions\n\nCircum-Caribbean (Chibcha) \n\nArawakan peoples\nNorthern\nTa-Arawakan\nWayuu: Venezuela/Colombia\nChibchan peoples\nChibcha–Motilon\nChibcha–Tunebo\nU'wa: Colombia\nKuna–Colombian\nKuna (Dule/Tule): Panama\nChocoan peoples\nEmbera (ɛ̃berá): Colombia/Panamá\nWarao: Venezuela's Orinoco River delta region.\n\nAmazon \n\nArawakan peoples\nSouthern\nCampa\nAsháninka: Peru\nBarbacoan peoples\nAwan\nAwá-Kwaiker: Northern Ecuador\nBora-Witoto peoples\nBora: Colombia/Peru\nCahuapanan peoples\nChayahuita: Loreto, Peru\nJivaroan (Shuar): Loreto and San Martín, Peru\nNukak: Colombia\nPanoan peoples\nMainline Panoan\nNawa\nChama\nShipibo-Conibo people: Ucayali, Peru\nShipibo: Ucayali, Peru\nHeadwaters\nYora: Amazon rainforest, southeast Peru\nMayoruna\nMayo\nKorubu (Dslala): Brazil\nMatis: Brazil/Peru\nMatsés: Brazil/Peru\nPirahã: Brazil\nTicuna-Yuri peoples\nTicuna (Tikuna): Brazil/Peru/Colombia\nTucanoan peoples\nEastern\nNorth\nTukano: Colombia\nWestern\nNapo\nSiona–Secoya\nSecoya: Loreto, Peru/Ecuador\nTupian peoples\nTupí-Guaraní\nTupi: Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Argentina\nCocama-Omagua\nCocama-Cocamilla (Kokáma): Loreto, Peru\nTapirape: Brazil\nWayampí\nGuajá\nAwá-Guajá: eastern Amazonian rainforest, Brazil\nUrarina (Kachá): Chambira Basin, Loreto Peru\nYanomami (Yanõmami/Yanõmami Thëpë): Venezuela/Brazil\n\nGuianas \n\nCariban peoples\nGalibi/Kalina (Mainland Caribs): Guianas, Venezuela (northern coast of South America)\nYekuana\nEñapa (Panare)\nPemóng\nPemóng\nMakuxi: Brazil, Guyana\nYanomami (Yanõmami/Yanõmami Thëpë): Venezuela/Brazil\nPiaroa (Wothïha): Venezuela/Colombia\n\nEastern Highlands (Brazilian Highlands) \n\nCharruan peoples\nCharrúa: Uruguay, Brazil and Argentina\nMacro-Gê peoples\nBororoan\nBororo: Mato Grosso, Brazil\nOfaie\nKarajá/Iny: Brazil\nTupian peoples\nTupí-Guaraní\nGuaraní (I)\nAche: Paraguay\nPai Tavytera: Paraguay\nGuaraní\nGuaraní (Abá/Avá): Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia and Argentina\nTupi: Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Argentina\nCocama-Omagua\nCocama-Cocamilla (Kokáma): Loreto, Peru\nTapirape: Brazil\nWayampí\nGuajá\nAwá-Guajá: eastern Amazonian rainforest, Brazil\n\nChaco \n\nMascoian peoples\nEnxet: Paraguay\nMatacoan peoples\nWichí: the Chaco, Argentina/Bolivia\nZamucoan peoples\nAyoreo: the Chaco, Paraguay/Bolivia\n\nCentral Andes \n\nAymaran peoples\nAymara: Peru/Bolivia/Chile\nNasa: Colombia\nQuechuan peoples\nQuechua (Nunakuna/Runakuna/Kichwa/Inga)\n\nSouthern Cone\n\nAraucania \nAraucanian peoples\nMapuche (Araucanians): Chile/Argentina\nMapuche-Huilliche\nPehuenche\n\nPatagonia \nChono: Chiloé, Guaitecas and Chonos\nTehuelche: Southern Chile/Argentina\n\nTierra del Fuego \nAlacalufe (Kawésqar): Far Southern Chile\nSelk'nam: Southern Argentina and Chile\nYaghan (Yámana): Far Southern Chile\nHaush: Far Southern Argentina\n\nOceania \nOceania includes most islands of the Pacific Ocean, New Guinea, New Zealand and the continent of Australia.\n\nList of peoples by geographical and ethnolinguistic grouping:\n\nAustralia \n\nIndigenous Australians include Aboriginal Australians on the mainland and Tiwi Islands as well as Torres Strait Islander peoples from the Torres Strait Islands.\nAboriginal Australians include hundreds of groupings of people, defined by various overlapping characteristics such as language, culture and geography, which may include sub-groups. The Indigenous peoples of the island state of Tasmania and the Tiwi people (of the Tiwi Islands off the Northern Territory) are also Aboriginal peoples, who are genetically and culturally distinct from Torres Strait Islander peoples.\nTorres Strait Islander peoples are culturally and linguistically Papuo-Austronesian, and the various peoples of the islands are of predominantly Melanesian descent. The Torres Strait Islands are part of the state of Queensland.\n\nWestern Desert \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nKunapa: Northern Territory, Australia\nPini: Western Australia, Australia\nSpinifex: Western Australia, Australia\nWangkatha: Western Australia, Australia\nWarumungu: Northern Territory, Australia\nWati peoples\nAntakirinja: South Australia, Australia\nKokatha: South Australia, Australia\nLuritja: Northern Territory, Australia\nMadoidja: Western Australia, Australia\nMaduwongga: Western Australia, Australia\nMartu peoples\nKartudjara: Western Australia, Australia\nKeiadjara: Western Australia, Australia\nMandjildjara: Western Australia, Australia\nPutidjara: Western Australia, Australia\nWanman: Western Australia, Australia\nMarrngu peoples\nKarajarri: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nMangarla: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nNyangumarta: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nNgaanyatjarra: Northern Territory, Australia\nNgaatjatjarra: Western Australia, Australia\nPintupi: Western Australia, Australia\nPitjantjatjara: Northern Territory, Australia\nWangkatjunga: Western Australia, Australia\nYankunytjatjara: South Australia, Australia\nYulparirra: Western Australia, Australia\nYumu: Northern Territory, Australia\nYankuntjatjarra: South Australia, Australia\nMirindi peoples\nNgurlun peoples\nNgarnka: Northern Territory, Australia\nWambaya: Northern Territory, Australia\n\nKimberley \n\nBunuban peoples\nBunuba: Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia, Australia\nGooniyandi: Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia, Australia\nJarrakan peoples\nGija: Halls Creek and Kununurra, Western Australia, Australia\nMiriwoongic peoples\nMiriwoong: Kunurra, Western Australia, Australia\nGajirrawoong: Eastern Kimberley and Northern Territory, Australia\nNyulnyulan peoples\nNyulnyulic peoples\nBardi: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nJabirr Jabirr: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nJawi: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNimanburru: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNyulnyul: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nDyukun peoples\nJugun: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNgombal: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNyigina: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nWarrwa: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nYawuru: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nWorrorran peoples\nNgarinyin: Western Australia, Australia\nWorrorra: Western Australia, Australia\nWunambal: Western Australia, Australia\n\nNorthwest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nNgayarda peoples\nBailgu: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nInawongga: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nJadira: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nKurrama: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nMardudunera: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNgarla: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNgarluma: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNiabali: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNhuwala: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNyamal: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nPanyjima: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nTjuroro: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nKanyara-Mantharta peoples\nKanyara peoples\nBaiyungu: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nBinigura: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nBuruna: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nThalanyji: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nYinikutira: Exmouth, Western Australia, Australia\nMantharta peoples\nDjiwali: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nTharrkari: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nTenma: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nWarriyangga: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nKartu peoples\nBadimaya: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nMaia: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nMalgana: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nNanda: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nNokaan: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nWajarri: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nWidi: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nYingkarta: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\n\nSouthwest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nNyungic peoples\nNoongar peoples\nAmangu: Geraldton Sandplains, Western Australia, Australia\nBallardong: Avon Wheatbelt, Western Australia, Australia\nYued: Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia, Australia\nKaneang: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nKoreng: Mallee, Western Australia, Australia\nMineng: Warren, Western Australia, Australia\nNjakinjaki: Avon Wheatbelt, Western Australia, Australia\nNjunga: Esperance Plains, Western Australia, Australia\nBibulman: Warren, Western Australia, Australia\nPindjarup: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nWarandi: Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia, Australia\nWhadjuk: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nWiilman: Western Australia, Australia\nWudjari: Mallee, Western Australia, Australia\nKalaako: Goldfields–Esperance region, Western Australia, Australia\nKalamaia: Western Australia, Australia\nMirning peoples\nMirning: Western Australia and South Australia, Australia\nNgadjumaya: Goldfields–Esperance region, Western Australia, Australia\nYingkarta: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\n\nFitzmaurice Basin \n\nYirram peoples\nNungali: Northern Territory, Australia\nJaminjung: Northern Territory, Australia\nMacro-Gunwinyguan peoples\nKungarakany: Northern Territory, Australia\nWarrayic peoples\nAwarai: Northern Territory, Australia\nAwinmul: Northern Territory, Australia\nWulwulam: Northern Territory, Australia\nDaly peoples\nWagaydic peoples\nWadjiginy: Anson Bay, Northern Territory, Australia\nMulluk-Mulluk: Northern Territory, Australia\nWestern Daly peoples\nEmmiyangal: Anson Bay, Northern Territory, Australia\nMarranunggu: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMenthe: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarrithiyal: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMaramanindji: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarridan: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Amu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Tjevin: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarijedi: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Ngarr: Moyle River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMati Ke: Wadeye, Northern Territory, Australia\nEastern Daly peoples\nMadngela: Northern Territory, Australia\nYunggor: Northern Territory, Australia\nSouthern Daly peoples\nMurrinh-Patha: Wadeye, Northern Territory, Australia\nMuringura people: Fitzmaurice River, Northern Territory, Australia\nNgan'gimerri: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nArnhem Land \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYolngu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMacro-Gunwinyguan peoples\nManingrida peoples\nBurarra: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nGadjalivia: Blyth River, Northern Territory, Australia\nGunavidji: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nGurr-Goni: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nNagara: Blyth River, Northern Territory, Australia\nEast Arnhem peoples\nAnindilyakwa: Northern Territory, Australia\nNgandi: Northern Territory, Australia\nNunggubuyu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarran peoples\nAlawa: Northern Territory, Australia\nMangarayi: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarra: Northern Territory, Australia\nWarndarrang: Northern Territory, Australia\nYukul: Northern Territory, Australia\nGaagudju: Northern Territory, Australia\nGunwinyguan peoples\nGunwinggic peoples\nBininj: Northern Territory, Australia\nGambalang: Northern Territory, Australia\nDalabon: Northern Territory, Australia\nJawoyn: Nitmiluk National Park, Northern Territory, Australia\nJala peoples\nNgalakgan: Northern Territory, Australia\nRembarrnga: Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidjan peoples\nAmurdak: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidjic peoples\nMaung: Goulburn Islands, Northern Territory, Australia\nWarrkbi\nGaari: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidja: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nMarrku-Wurrugu peoples\nWurango: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nYaako: Croker Island, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nTop End \n\nTiwi: Tiwi Islands, Northern Territory, Australia\nDarwin Region peoples\nLarrakia: Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia\nLimilngan\nPuneitja: Northern Territory, Australia\nBeriguruk: Northern Territory, Australia\nDjerimanga: Northern Territory, Australia\nUmbugarlic peoples\nNgomburr: Alligator Rivers, Northern Territory, Australia\nGiimbiyu: Alligator Rivers, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nGulf Country \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nMayabic peoples\nMayi-Kutuna: Queensland, Australia\nMarrago: Queensland, Australia\nMaikulan: Queensland, Australia\nMaithakari: Queensland, Australia\nMaijabi: Queensland, Australia\nNgaun: Queensland, Australia\nWanamara: Queensland, Australia\nPaman peoples\nSouthwestern Paman peoples\nAgwamin: Queensland, Australia\nKok-Nar: Queensland, Australia\nMbara: Queensland, Australia\nYanga: Queensland, Australia\nTankgkic peoples\nLardil: Mornington Island, Wellesley Islands, Queensland, Australia\nKaiadilt: Wellesley Islands, Queensland, Australia\nYukulta: Queensland, Australia\nNguburinji: Queensland, Australia\nMingin: Queensland, Australia\nGarawan peoples\nGarrwa: Northern Territory and Queensland, Australia\nWaanyi: Queensland, Australia\n\nCape York\n\nWest Cape \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nNorth Cape York Paman peoples\nDjagaraga: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTjungundji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nInjinoo: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nLuthigh: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nMbewum: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTjungundji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTotj: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nUnduyamo: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik peoples\nWik-Mungkan: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nKugu Nganhcara: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWiknatanja: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Me'anh: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Epa: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Elken: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Paach: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Ompom: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWimaranga: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWinduwinda: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nThaypan peoples\nTagalag: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\n\nEast Cape \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nNorth Cape York Paman peoples\nYadhaykenu: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWuthathi: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nKaantju, Coen, Queensland, Australia\nPakadji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nUutaalnganu: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nLamalamic peoples\nLama Lama: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nNortheast Paman peoples\nUmpila: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\n\nDaintree Rainforest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nDjabugay: Queensland, Australia\nYidiny: Queensland, Australia\nMbabaram: Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia\nDyirbalic peoples\nDyirbal: Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia\nWarrgamay: Queensland, Australia\nNyawigi: Halifax Bay, Queensland, Australia\n\nLake Eyre Basin \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nKalkatungic peoples\nKalkatungu: Queensland, Australia\nYalarnnga: Queensland, Australia\nKarnic peoples\nArabana: South Australia, Australia\nWangkangurru: Simpson Desert, South Australia, Australia\nPitapita: Queensland, Australia\nYandruwandha: South Australia, Australia\nYawarrawarrka: South Australia, Australia\nMitaka: Queensland, Australia\nWanggumara: Queensland, Australia\nYarli peoples\nKarenggapa: New South Wales, Australia\n\nSpencer Gulf \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nThura-Yura peoples\nWirangu: South Australia, Australia\nNauo: Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nBarngarla: Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nKuyani: South Australia, Australia\nAdnyamathanha: Flinders Ranges, South Australia, Australia\nMalyangapa: New South Wales, Australia\nNgadjuri: South Australia, Australia\nNukunu: South Australia, Australia\nNarungga: Yorke Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nKaurna: Adelaide Plains, South Australia, Australia\nPeramangk: Adelaide Plains, South Australia, Australia\n\nMurray-Darling Basin \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYotayotic peoples\nYorta Yorta: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nNgarrimouro: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nLower Murray peoples\nNgarrindjeri: South Australia, Australia\nNgaiawang: South Australia, Australia\nYuyu peoples\nNgawait: Murray River, South Australia, Australia\nErawirung: Riverland, South Australia, Australia\nNgintait: South Australia and Victoria, Australia\nNgarkat: South Australia, Australia\nKureinji: New South Wales, Australia\nJitajita: New South Wales, Australia\nTatitati: Murray River, Victoria, Australia\nWiradhuric peoples\nGamilaraay: New South Wales and Queensland, Australia\nWiradjuri: New South Wales, Australia\nNgiyampaa: New South Wales, Australia\nMuruwari: New South Wales and Queensland, Australia\n\nNortheast \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nLower Burdekin peoples\nJuru: Queensland, Australia\nBindal: Queensland, Australia\nMaric peoples\nBiri peoples\nGugu-Badhun: Burdekin River, Queensland, Australia\nYilba: Mackay, Queensland, Australia\nGia: Queensland, Australia\nBiria: Queensland, Australia\nYambina: Queensland, Australia\nGaraynbal: Queensland, Australia\nYangga: Queensland, Australia\nBaranha: Queensland, Australia\nMiyan: Queensland, Australia\nYuwibara: Queensland, Australia\nKingkel peoples\nDarumbal: Queensland, Australia\nGuwinmal: Queensland, Australia\nWaka-Kabic peoples\nGoreng Goreng: Queensland, Australia\nWulli Wulli: Queensland, Australia\nWakka Wakka: Queensland, Australia\nBaruŋgam: Queensland, Australia\nGubbi Gubbi: Queensland, Australia\nButchulla: Fraser Island, Queensland, Australia\nJagera: Queensland, Australia\n\nSoutheast \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYugambeh-Bundjalung peoples\nBundjalung: New South Wales, Australia\nNgarbal: New South Wales, Australia\nGumbaynggiric peoples\nGumbaynggirr: Mid North Coast, New South Wales, Australia\nYaygirr: Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia\nAnēwan: Northern Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia\nYuin-Kuric peoples\nDjangadi: Macleay Valley, New South Wales, Australia\nGeawegal: Hunter Valley, New South Wales, Australia\nWorimi: New South Wales, Australia\nWonnarua: New South Wales, Australia\nAwabakal: New South Wales, Australia\nEora: New South Wales, Australia\nDarug: New South Wales, Australia\nGandangara: New South Wales, Australia\nTharawal: Sydney, New South Wales, Australia\nNgarigo: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nKoori: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nGippsland peoples\nGunai: Gippsland, Victoria, Australia\nBidawal: Gippsland, Victoria, Australia\nDhudhuroa: Victoria, Australia\nKulinic peoples\nKulin peoples\nWurundjeri: Yarra River, Victoria, Australia\nBoonwurrung: Werribee River, Victoria, Australia\nWathaurong: Victoria, Australia\nTaungurung: Victoria, Australia\nDjadjawurrung: Victoria, Australia\nDrual peoples\nBungandidj: Mount Gambier, South Australia, Australia\nGunditjmara: Victoria, Australia\nGulidjan: Lake Colac, Victoria, Australia\n\nTasmania \n\nPalawa peoples\nWestern Tasmanian peoples\nPeerapper: Circular Head and Robbins Island, Tasmania, Australia\nToogee: Macquarie Harbour, Tasmania, Australia\nNorthern Tasmanian peoples\nTommeginne: Northern Tasmania, Australia\nNortheastern Tasmanian peoples\nPyemmairre: Northeastern Tasmania, Australia\nTyerrernotepanner: Northern Midlands and Ben Lomond, Tasmania, Australia\nEastern Tasmanian peoples\nParedarerme: Oyster Bay, Tasmania, Australia\nLairmairrener: Big River, Tasmania, Australia\nNuennone: Bruny Island, Tasmania, Australia\n\nTorres Strait Islands \n\nTorres Strait Islanders\nBadu: Badu Island, Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nKaurareg: Central Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nMabuiag: Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nMeriam: Eastern Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\n\nMelanesia \n\nMelanesia generally includes New Guinea and other (far-)western Pacific islands from the Arafura Sea out to Fiji. The region is mostly inhabited by the Melanesian peoples.\nMelanesians\nAustronesian speaking Melanesians\nFijians (iTaukei): Fiji\nKanak: New-Caledonia\nMalaitan people: Malaita, Solomon Islands\nNi-Vanuatu: Vanuatu\nPapuan speaking Melanesians\nBaining\nPapuans: more than 250 distinct tribes or clans, each with their own language and culture. The main island of New Guinea and surrounding islands (territory forming independent state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) and the Indonesian provinces of West Papua and Papua). Considered \"Indigenous\" these people are a subject to many debates.\nSepik peoples\nKwoma: Peilungua Mountains, Papua New Guinea.\nIatmul: Sepik, Papua New Guinea.\nSepik Hill\nSanio\nHewa: Southern Highlands, PNG\nTrans New-Guinean peoples\nHuli of the Southern Highlands, Papua New Guinea.\nAngu: Southwestern Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.\nBosavi\nKaluli-Kasua\nKaluli: Great Papuan Plateau, PNG\nOk\nMountain Ok\nWopkaimin: western PNG, Star Mountains.\nWest Trans New-Guinean peoples\nDani: Papua, Indonesia\nKorowai: West Papua, close to the Papua New Guinea border.\nAsmat: Asmat Regency, West Papua.\n\nMicronesia \nMicronesia generally includes the various small island chains of the western and central Pacific. The region is mostly inhabited by the Micronesian peoples.\nMicronesians\nChamorro people: Northern Marianas and Guam\nCarolinians: Northern Marianas\n Yapese, Kosraeans, Chuukese, Pohnpeians, Palauans, Kiribati's\n\nPolynesia \n\nPolynesia includes New Zealand and the islands of Oceania, and has various Indigenous populations.\n\nPolynesians\nNative Hawaiians\nTongans\nTuvaluan people\nMarquesas Islanders\nRapanui\nSamoans\nTokelau\nAustral Islanders\nCook Islanders\nMaohi, Tahiti\nMāori, New Zealand\nMoriori, Chatham Islands\nTahitians, French Polynesia\nTuamotus\nNiueans\n\nPolynesian outliers\nVanuatuans\nKapingamarangi and Nukuoro, The Federated States of Micronesia\nRennel, Tikopia and Vaeakau-Taumako, Solomon Islands\nNuguria, Papua New Guinea\nNukumanu, Papua New Guinea\nTakuu, Papua New Guinea\nOntong Java\nSikaiana\nAnuta, Solomon Islands\nFagauvea, Ouvéa, New Caledonia\nAniwa\nBellona\nRennel\n\nCircumpolar \nCircumpolar peoples is an umbrella term for the various Indigenous peoples of the Arctic.\nList of peoples by ethnolinguistic grouping: \n\"Paleosiberian\"\nChukotko-Kamchatkan\nChukchi (Lyg'oravetl'et/O'ravetl'et): Siberia, Russian Far East, Russia\nKoryaks (Nymylan-Chauchuven): Russian Far East\nTungusic\nEvenks (Evenkil): China, Mongolia, Russia\nEskimo–Aleut\nAleut (Unangax): Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo/Yupik-Inuit\nYupik: Alaska, United States and the Russian Far East, Siberia\nAlutiiq (Sugpiat): Alaska, United States\nYup'ik (Yupiat/Yupiit/Cup'ik/Cupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ig (Nunivak Cup'ig people): Nunivak Island (Alaska), United States\nSiberian Yupik (Yupighyt): Siberia, Russia\nInuit: Greenland, Northern Canada (Nunavut, Nunavik and Northwest Territories), Alaska, United States\nInupiat (Iñupiat): Alaska's Arctic and North Slope boroughs and the Bering Straits\nKalaallit (Kalaallit): Greenland\nTurkic\nNortheast Turks\nDolgans (Dolgan/Tya Kikhi): Siberia (Krasnoyarsk Krai), Russia\nYakuts (Sakha): Siberia (Sakha Republic), Russia\nUgrians, Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nKhanty (Kantek/Khanti): Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nMansi, formerly known as Voguls: Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nSami (Sámi/Saami/Lapp), formerly known by the exonym Lapps: Northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Kola Peninsula in Russia\nSamoyedic peoples\nNorthern Samoyedic peoples: West Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nEnets (Entsi): Far Northern Western Siberia, Russia\nNenets (Neney Neneche): Far Northern Western Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nNganasan (Ŋənəhsa(nəh)): Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia, Russia\nYukaghirs (Odul/Vadul/Detkil'): Far Northern East Siberia, Russia\n\nSee also \n\nCenter for World Indigenous Studies\nDeclaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples\nIndigenous peoples\nIndigenous archaeology\nIndigenous Dialogues\nIndigenous (ecology)\nIndigenous intellectual property\nIndigenous knowledge\nIndigenous language\nIndigenous medicine\nIndigenous music\nInternational Work Group for Indigenous Affairs\nUnited Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues\nWorld Council of Indigenous Peoples\nWorking Group on Indigenous Populations\nList of contemporary ethnic groups\nLists of people by nationality\nList of indigenous rights organizations\nSee all pages that start with indigenous people or indigenous\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nSources\n\n \n \n \n \n\nList\nIndigenous", "title": "List of Indigenous peoples" }, { "text": "Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups. Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region or location.\n\nHumans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.\n\nA cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.\nAccepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.\nThus in military culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group.\n\nCultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies.\n\nOrganizations like UNESCO attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage.\n\nDescription \n\nCulture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Cultural universals are found in all human societies. These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing. The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.\n\nIn the humanities, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture, or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification, clothing or jewelry. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the proletariat and create a false consciousness. Such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies. In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.\n\nWhen used as a count noun, a \"culture\" is the set of customs, traditions, and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes \"culture\" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture (e.g. \"bro culture\"), or a counterculture. Within cultural anthropology, the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism hold that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture.\n\nEtymology\nThe modern term \"culture\" is based on a term used by the ancient Roman orator Cicero in his Tusculanae Disputationes, where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or \"cultura animi,\" using an agricultural metaphor for the development of a philosophical soul, understood teleologically as the highest possible ideal for human development. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy was man's natural perfection. His use, and that of many writers after him, \"refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human.\"\n\nIn 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, \"The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.' To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensely to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, to attend to it caringly.\"\n\nCulture described by Richard Velkley: ... originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were on various levels developing Rousseau's criticism of \"modern liberalism and Enlightenment.\" Thus a contrast between \"culture\" and \"civilization\" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.\n\nIn the words of anthropologist E.B. Tylor, it is \"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.\" Alternatively, in a contemporary variant, \"Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common.\n\nThe Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is \"the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time.\" Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as \"person[s] of worth within the world of meaning\"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.\n\nThe word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans. However, some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complicated, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that are transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form.\n\nChange\n\nRaimon Panikkar identified 29 ways in which cultural change can be brought about, including growth, development, evolution, involution, renovation, reconception, reform, innovation, revivalism, revolution, mutation, progress, diffusion, osmosis, borrowing, eclecticism, syncretism, modernization, indigenization, and transformation. In this context, modernization could be viewed as adoption of Enlightenment era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.\n\nCultural invention has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global \"accelerating culture change period,\" driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the human population explosion, among other factors. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.\n\nCultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures, which themselves are subject to change.\n\nSocial conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change. For example, the U.S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last ice age, plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of agriculture, which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics.\n\nCultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In diffusion, the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. \"Stimulus diffusion\" (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. \"Direct borrowing,\" on the other hand, tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. Diffusion of innovations theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.\n\nAcculturation has different meanings. Still, in this context, it refers to the replacement of traits of one culture with another, such as what happened to certain Native American tribes and many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of colonization. Related processes on an individual level include assimilation (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and transculturation. The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different cultures and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs.\n\nEarly modern discourses\n\nGerman Romanticism\n\nImmanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of \"enlightenment\" similar to the concept of bildung: \"Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity.\" He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: \"\" (\"Dare to be wise!\"). In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of : \"For Herder, was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.\"\n\nIn 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a \"Germany\" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as \"worldview\" (). According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between \"civilized\" and \"primitive\" or \"tribal\" cultures.\n\nIn 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for \"the psychic unity of mankind.\" He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of \"elementary ideas\" (); different cultures, or different \"folk ideas\" (), are local modifications of the elementary ideas. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.\n\nEnglish Romanticism\n\nIn the 19th century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word \"culture\" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of \"the best that has been thought and said in the world.\" This concept of culture is also comparable to the German concept of : \"...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world.\"\n\nIn practice, culture referred to an elite ideal and was associated with such activities as art, classical music, and haute cuisine. As these forms were associated with urban life, \"culture\" was identified with \"civilization\" (from ). Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore, which led to identifying a \"culture\" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture, namely that of the ruling social group, and low culture. In other words, the idea of \"culture\" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.\n\nMatthew Arnold contrasted \"culture\" with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted \"culture\" with \"the state of nature.\" According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between \"civilized\" and \"uncivilized.\" According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects.\n\nOther 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by \"the folk,\" i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as \"noble savages\" living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified capitalist systems of the West.\n\nIn 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion. According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms. In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of religion.\n\nAnthropology\n\nAlthough anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture, in the 20th century \"culture\" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human experiences symbolically, and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially. American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and in the United States and Canada, archaeology. The term , or \"culture glasses,\" coined by German American anthropologist Franz Boas, refers to the \"lenses\" through which a person sees their own culture. Martin Lindstrom asserts that , which allow a person to make sense of the culture they inhabit, \"can blind us to things outsiders pick up immediately.\"\n\nSociology\n\nThe sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in society. For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to \"the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.\" As such, culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life. Culture can be either of two types, non-material culture or material culture. Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present.\n\nCultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term ('cultural sociology'). Cultural sociology was then reinvented in the English-speaking world as a product of the cultural turn of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols. Culture has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead, look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science.\n\nEarly researchers and development of cultural sociology\nThe sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like Marx, Durkheim, and Weber) with the growing discipline of anthropology, wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural, sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between popular culture, political control, and social class were early and lasting concerns in the field.\n\nCultural studies\n\nIn the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988) developed cultural studies. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified culture with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing). They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of popular culture; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS. It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director. Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as Western civilization or globalism.\n\nFrom the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed, it began to combine political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, museum studies, and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender. Cultural studies is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to \"fit in\" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.\n\nIn the context of cultural studies, a text includes not only written language, but also films, photographs, fashion or hairstyles: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture. Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of culture. Culture, for a cultural-studies researcher, not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies, based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies.\n\nScholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, E.P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham. This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as \"capitalist\" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the \"culture industry\" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy.\n\nIn the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, \"cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition.\" The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom. The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded. Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts. In a Marxist view, the mode and relations of production form the economic base of society, which constantly interacts and influences superstructures, such as culture. Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al.), which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis. The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism.\n\nPetrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups:\n\n The first group covers the variables that represent the \"efficiency orientation\" of the societies: performance orientation, future orientation, assertiveness, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.\n The second covers the variables that represent the \"social orientation\" of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of their members. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, and human orientation.\nIn 2016, a new approach to culture was suggested by Rein Raud, who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts (all reified meanings in circulation) and cultural practices (all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of purposes), thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory.\n\nPsychology \n\nStarting in the 1990s, psychological research on culture influence began to grow and challenge the universality assumed in general psychology. Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture. For example, people from collectivistic cultures, such as the Japanese, suppress their positive emotions more than their American counterparts. Culture may affect the way that people experience and express emotions. On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures. As different cultures dictate distinctive norms, culture shock is also studied to understand how people react when they are confronted with other cultures. Cognitive tools may not be accessible or they may function differently cross culture. For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style. Cultural lenses may also make people view the same outcome of events differently. Westerners are more motivated by their successes than their failures, while East Asians are better motivated by the avoidance of failure. Culture is important for psychologists to consider when understanding the human mental operation.\n\nProtection of culture \n\nThere are a number of international agreements and national laws relating to the protection of culture and cultural heritage. UNESCO and its partner organizations such as Blue Shield International coordinate international protection and local implementation. The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions deal with the protection of culture. Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights deals with cultural heritage in two ways: it gives people the right to participate in cultural life on the one hand and the right to the protection of their contributions to cultural life on the other.\n\nIn the 21st century, the protection of culture has been the focus of increasing activity by national and international organizations. The UN and UNESCO promote cultural preservation and cultural diversity through declarations and legally-binding conventions or treaties. The aim is not to protect a person's property, but rather to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the event of war and armed conflict. According to Karl von Habsburg, President of Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to affect the particularly sensitive cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, region or municipality.\n\nTourism is having an increasing impact on the various forms of culture. On the one hand, this can be physical impact on individual objects or the destruction caused by increasing environmental pollution and, on the other hand, socio-cultural effects on society.\n\nSee also \n\n Animal culture\n Anthropology\n Cultural area\n Cultural studies\n Cultural tourism\n Culture 21 – United Nations plan of action\n \n Outline of culture\n Recombinant culture\n Semiotics of culture\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nBooks\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Bastian, Adolf (2009), Encyclopædia Britannica Online\n \n Arnold, Matthew. 1869. Culture and Anarchy. New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.\n Bakhtin, M.M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Press. .\n Barzilai, Gad (2003). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities University of Michigan Press. \n \n Bourdieu, Pierre (1977). Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press. \n Carhart. Michael C. (2007). The Science of Culture in Enlightenment Germany, Cambridge, Harvard University press.\n Cohen, Anthony P. (1985). The Symbolic Construction of Community. New York: Routledge \n Dawkins, R. (1999) [1982]. The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene. Oxford Paperbacks. \n Findley & Rothney (1986). Twentieth-Century World, Houghton Mifflin \n Geertz, Clifford (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York. .\n \n Goodall, J. (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. \n Hoult, T.F., ed. (1969). Dictionary of Modern Sociology. Totowa, New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams & Co. \n Jary, D. and J. Jary (1991). The HarperCollins Dictionary of Sociology. New York: HarperCollins. \n Keiser, R. Lincoln (1969). The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. .\n Kroeber, A.L. and C. Kluckhohn (1952). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum \n Kim, Uichol (2001). \"Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis.\" In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook of culture and psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press \n McClenon, James. Tylor, Edward B(urnett) (1998) Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Ed. William Swatos and Peter Kivisto. Walnut Creek: AltaMira, pp. 528–529. \n Middleton, R. (1990). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. .\n O'Neil, D. (2006). Cultural Anthropology Tutorials , Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.\n Reagan, Ronald. \"Final Radio Address to the Nation\" , January 14, 1989. Retrieved June 3, 2006.\n Reese, W.L. (1980). Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. New Jersey US; Sussex, UK: Humanities Press. \n \n UNESCO (2002). Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, issued on International Mother Language Day, \n White, L. (1949). The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. \n Wilson, Edward O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Vintage. .\n Wolfram, Stephen (2002). A New Kind of Science. Wolfram Media, Inc. .\n\nArticles\n The Meaning of \"Culture\" (2014-12-27), Joshua Rothman, The New Yorker\n\nExternal links\n\n Cultura: International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology\n What is Culture?\n\n \nCategory:Social concepts\nCategory:Social constructionism\nCategory:Main topic articles", "title": "Culture" }, { "text": "Latin America is a cultural concept denoting the Americas where Romance languages—languages derived from Vulgar Latin —are predominantly spoken. The term was coined in the nineteenth century to refer to regions in the Americas that were ruled by the Spanish, Portuguese and French empires. The term does not have a precise definition, but it is \"commonly used to describe South America, Central America, Mexico, and the islands of the Caribbean.\" In a narrow sense, it refers to Hispanic America, Brazil, French West Indies and Antillean Creole French speaking Caribbean countries.\n\nThe term \"Latin America\" is broader than categories such as Hispanic America, which specifically refers to Spanish-speaking countries; and Ibero-America, a term not generally used that specifically refers to Spanish, French and French Creole-speaking countries and Portuguese-speaking countries sometimes leaving French and British excolonies aside.\n\nThe term Latin America was first used in an 1856 conference called \"Initiative of America: Idea for a Federal Congress of the Republics\" (Iniciativa de la América. Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas), by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao. The term was further popularized by French emperor Napoleon III's government in the 1860s as to justify France's military involvement in the Second Mexican Empire and to include French-speaking territories in the Americas such as French Canada, French Louisiana, French Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Haiti and the French Antillean Creole Caribbean islands Saint Lucia and Dominica, in the larger group of countries where Spanish and Portuguese languages prevailed.\n\nThe region covers an area that stretches from Mexico to Tierra del Fuego and includes much of the Caribbean. It has an area of approximately 19,197,000 km (7,412,000 sq mi), almost 13% of the Earth's land surface area. As of March 2, 2020, the population of Latin America and the Caribbean was estimated at more than 652 million, and in 2019, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of US$5,188,250 trillion and a GDP PPP of US$10,284,588 trillion.\n\nEtymology and definitions\n\nOrigins\n \nThere is no universal agreement on the origin of the term Latin America. The concept and term came into being in the nineteenth century, following the political independence of countries from the Spanish and Portuguese empires. It was also popularized in 1860s France during the reign of Napoleon III. The term Latin America was a part of its attempt to create a French empire in the Americas. Research has shown that the idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic and cultural affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that a part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a \"Latin race\", and that it could, therefore, ally itself with \"Latin Europe\", ultimately overlapping the Latin Church, in a struggle with \"Teutonic Europe,\" \"Anglo-Saxon America,\" and \"Slavic Europe.\"\n\nHistorian John Leddy Phelan located the origins of the term Latin America to be from the French occupation of Mexico. His argument is that French imperialists used the concept of \"Latin\" America as a way to counter British imperialism, as well as to challenge the German threat to France. The idea of a \"Latin race\" was then taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France. French ruler Napoleon III had a strong interest in extending French commercial and political power in the region. He and his business promoter Felix Belly called it \"Latin America\" to emphasize the shared Latin background of France with the former viceroyalties of Spain and colonies of Portugal. This led to Napoleon III's failed attempt to take military control of Mexico in the 1860s.\n\nHowever, though Phelan's thesis is still frequently cited in US academy, further scholarship has shown earlier usage of the term. Two Latin American historians, Uruguayan Arturo Ardao and Chilean Miguel Rojas Mix, found evidence that the term \"Latin America\" was used earlier than Phelan claimed, and the first use of the term was in fact in opposition to imperialist projects in the Americas. Ardao wrote about this subject in his book Génesis de la idea y el nombre de América latina (Genesis of the Idea and the Name of Latin America, 1980), and Miguel Rojas Mix in his article \"Bilbao y el hallazgo de América latina: Unión continental, socialista y libertaria\" (Bilbao and the Finding of Latin America: a Continental, Socialist and Libertarian Union, 1986). As Michel Gobat points out in his article \"The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race\", \"Arturo Ardao, Miguel Rojas Mix, and Aims McGuinness have revealed [that] the term 'Latin America' had already been used in 1856 by Central Americans and South Americans protesting US expansion into the Southern Hemisphere\". Edward Shawcross summarizes Ardao's and Rojas Mix's findings in the following way: \"Ardao identified the term in a poem by a Colombian diplomat and intellectual resident in France, José María Torres Caicedo, published on 15 February 1857 in a French based Spanish-language newspaper, while Rojas Mix located it in a speech delivered in France by the radical liberal Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in June 1856\".\n\nBy the late 1850s, the term was being used in California (which had become a part of the United States), in local newspapers such as El Clamor Público by Californios writing about and , and identifying as as the abbreviated term for their \"hemispheric membership in \".\n\nThe words \"Latin\" and \"America\" were first found to be combined in a printed work to produce the term \"Latin America\" in 1856 in a conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in Paris. The conference had the title \"Initiative of the America. Idea for a Federal Congress of Republics.\" The following year, Colombian writer José María Torres Caicedo also used the term in his poem \"The Two Americas\". Two events related with the United States played a central role in both works. The first event happened less than a decade before the publication of Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works: the Invasion of Mexico or, in USA, the Mexican–American War, after which Mexico lost a third of its territory. The second event, the Walker affair, which happened the same year that both works were written: the decision by US president Franklin Pierce to recognize the regime recently established in Nicaragua by American William Walker and his band of filibusters who ruled Nicaragua for nearly a year (1856–57) and attempted to reinstate slavery there, where it had been already abolished for three decades\n\nIn both Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works, the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and William Walker's expedition to Nicaragua are explicitly mentioned as examples of dangers for the region. For Bilbao, \"Latin America\" was not a geographical concept, as he excluded Brazil, Paraguay, and Mexico. Both authors also asked for the union of all Latin American countries as the only way to defend their territories against further foreign US interventions. Both also rejected European imperialism, claiming that the return of European countries to non-democratic forms of government was another danger for Latin American countries, and used the same word to describe the state of European politics at the time: \"despotism.\" Several years later, during the French invasion of Mexico, Bilbao wrote another work, \"Emancipation of the Spirit in America,\" where he asked all Latin American countries to support the Mexican cause against France, and rejected French imperialism in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. He asked Latin American intellectuals to search for their \"intellectual emancipation\" by abandoning all French ideas, claiming that France was: \"Hypocrite, because she [France] calls herself protector of the Latin race just to subject it to her exploitation regime; treacherous, because she speaks of freedom and nationality, when, unable to conquer freedom for herself, she enslaves others instead!\" Therefore, as Michel Gobat puts it, the term Latin America itself had an \"anti-imperial genesis,\" and their creators were far from supporting any form of imperialism in the region, or in any other place of the globe.\n\nIn France, the term Latin America was used with the opposite intention. It was employed by the French Empire of Napoleon III during the French invasion of Mexico as a way to include France among countries with influence in the Americas and to exclude Anglophone countries. It played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship of the region with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area, and install Maximilian of Habsburg as emperor of the Second Mexican Empire. The term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in La revue des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement.\n\nContemporary definitions \n\n Latin America is often used synonymously with Ibero-America (\"Iberian America\"), where the populations speak Spanish or Portuguese and the dominant religion is Roman Catholic. This definition excludes the predominantly Protestant English-speaking and Dutch-speaking regions, as well as French-speaking predominantly Catholic regions. This definition has come under scrutiny for its racist connotations intentionally excluding Haiti, a culturally parallel nation to the rest of Ibero-America which played a major role in Latin American liberation and falls under the semantic definition of the term, explained below. Belize, Guyana and Suriname, as well as several French overseas departments, are excluded from the definition. Puerto Rico, the Spanish-speaking Caribbean territory of the U.S., acquired from the Spanish Empire following its defeat in the 1898 Spanish American War, is then usually included. \n In another definition, which is close to the semantic origin, Latin America designates the set of countries in the Americas where a Romance language (a language derived from Latin) predominates: Spanish, Portuguese, French, or a creole language based upon the three. Thus, it includes Mexico; most of Central and South America; and in the Caribbean, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. Latin America then comprises all of the countries in the Americas that were once part of the Spanish, Portuguese, and French Empires. Puerto Rico, although not a sovereign nation, is often included.\n The term is sometimes used more broadly to refer to all of the Americas south of the United States, thus including the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname); the Anglophone Caribbean (and Belize); the Francophone Caribbean; and the Dutch Caribbean. This definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural aspects (see, for example, dependency theory). Some sources avoid this simplification by using the alternative phrase \"Latin America and the Caribbean\", as in the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas. A number of academic area-studies programs and centers of Latin American studies are titled \"Latin American and Caribbean\" studies, such as the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies, University of Michigan, New York University Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS), and University of Washington's Latin American and Caribbean Studies, The Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Although the U.S. acquired a large swath of territory from the Spanish Empire and called Spanish borderlands and nearly 20% of the U.S. population identifies as \"Hispanic\" (or \"Latinx\"), the U.S. is generally not classified as being part of Latin America. However, the significant demographic is sometimes brought under the umbrella of Latin American studies, such as at University of Albany.\n\nThe distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance language- and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Neither area is culturally or linguistically homogeneous; in substantial portions of Latin America (e.g., highland Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala), Native American cultures and, to a lesser extent, Amerindian languages, are predominant, and in other areas, the influence of African cultures is strong (e.g., the Caribbean basinincluding parts of Colombia and Venezuela).\n\nThe term's meaning is contested and not without controversy. Historian Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo explores at length the \"allure and power\" of the idea of Latin America. He remarks at the outset, \"The idea of 'Latin America' ought to have vanished with the obsolescence of racial theory... But it is not easy to declare something dead when it can hardly be said to have existed,\" going on to say, \"The term is here to stay, and it is important.\" Following in the tradition of Chilean writer Francisco Bilbao, who excluded Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay from his early conceptualization of Latin America, Chilean historian Jaime Eyzaguirre has criticized the term Latin America for \"disguising\" and \"diluting\" the Spanish character of a region (i.e. Hispanic America) with the inclusion of nations that, according to him, do not share the same pattern of conquest and colonization.\n\nThe Francophone part of North America which includes Quebec and Acadia is generally excluded from the definition of Latin America.\n\nSubregions and countries\n\nLatin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, demographics and culture. It is defined as all of the Americas south of the United States, the basic geographical subregions are North America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America; the latter contains further politico-geographical subdivisions such as the Southern Cone, The Guianas and the Andean states. It may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Spanish America, Portuguese America, and French America.\n\n*: Not a sovereign state\n\nHistory\n\nBefore European contact in 1492\n\n \n\nThe earliest known human settlement in the area was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is disputed evidence of even earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the North and South America and the Caribbean islands. Although the region now known as Latin America stretches from northern Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, the diversity of its geography, topography, climate, and cultivable land means that populations were not evenly distributed. Sedentary populations of fixed settlements supported by agriculture gave rise to complex civilizations in Mesoamerica (central and southern Mexico and Central America) and the highland Andes populations of Quechua and Aymara, as well as Chibcha.\n\nAgricultural surpluses from intensive cultivation of maize in Mesoamerica and potatoes and hardy grains in the Andes were able to support distant populations beyond farmers' households and communities. Surpluses allowed the creation of social, political, religious, and military hierarchies, urbanization with stable village settlements and major cities, specialization of craft work, and the transfer of products via tribute and trade. In the Andes, llamas were domesticated and used to transport goods; Mesoamerica had no large domesticated animals to aid human labor or provide meat. Mesoamerican civilizations developed systems of writing; in the Andes, knotted quipus emerged as a system of accounting.\n\nThe Caribbean region had sedentary populations settled by Arawak or Tainos and in what is now Brazil, many Tupian peoples lived in fixed settlements. Semi-sedentary populations had agriculture and settled villages, but soil exhaustion required relocation of settlements. Populations were less dense and social and political hierarchies less institutionalized. Non-sedentary peoples lived in small bands, with low population density and without agriculture. They lived in harsh environments. By the first millennium CE, the Western Hemisphere was the home of tens of millions of people; the exact numbers are a source of ongoing research and controversy.\n\nThe last two great civilizations, the Aztecs and Incas, emerged into prominence in the early fourteenth century and mid-fifteenth centuries. Although the Indigenous empires were conquered by Europeans, the sub-imperial organization of the densely populated regions remained in place. The presence or absence of Indigenous populations had an impact on how European imperialism played out in the Americas. The pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica and the highland Andes became sources of pride for American-born Spaniards in the late colonial era and for nationalists in the post-independence era. For some modern Latin American nation-states, the Indigenous roots of national identity are expressed in the ideology of indigenismo. These modern constructions of national identity usually critique their colonial past.\n\nColonial era, 1492-1825\n\nSpanish and Portuguese colonization of the Western Hemisphere laid the basis for societies now seen as characteristic of Latin America. In the fifteenth century, both Portugal and Spain embarked on voyages of overseas exploration, following the Christian Reconquista of Iberia from Muslims. Portugal sailed down the west coast of Africa and the Crown of Castile in central Spain authorized the voyage of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus. Portugal's maritime expansion into the Indian Ocean was initially its main interest; but the off-course voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 allowed Portugal to claim Brazil. The 1494 line of demarcation between Spain and Portugal gave Spain all areas to the west, and Portugal all areas to the east. For Portugal, the riches of Africa, India, and the Spice Islands were far more important initially than the unknown territory of Brazil. By contrast, having no better prospects, the Spanish crown directed its energies to its New World territories. Spanish colonists began founding permanent settlements in the circum-Caribbean region, starting in 1493. In these regions of early contact, Spaniards established patterns of interaction with Indigenous peoples that they transferred to the mainland. At the time of European contact, the area was densely populated by Indigenous peoples who had not organized as empires, nor created large physical complexes. With the expedition of Hernán Cortés from Cuba to Mexico in 1519, Spaniards encountered the Indigenous imperial civilization of the Aztecs. Using techniques of warfare honed in their early Caribbean settlements, Cortés sought Indigenous allies to topple the superstructure of the Aztec Empire after a two-year war of conquest. The Spanish recognized many Indigenous elites as nobles under Spanish rule with continued power and influence over commoners, and used them as intermediaries in the emerging Spanish imperial system.\n\nWith the example of the conquest of central Mexico, Spaniards sought similar great empires to conquer, and expanded into other regions of Mexico and Central America, and then the Inca empire, by Francisco Pizarro. By the end of the sixteenth century Spain and Portugal claimed territory extending from Alaska to the southern tip of Patagonia. They founded cities that remain important centers. In Spanish America, these include Panama City (1519), Mexico City (1521) Guadalajara (1531–42), Cartagena (1532), Cuzco (1534), Lima (1535), and Quito (1534). \nIn Brazil, coastal cities were founded: Olinda (1537), Salvador de Bahia (1549), São Paulo (1554), and Rio de Janeiro (1565). \n\nSpaniards explored extensively in the mainland territories they claimed, but they settled in great numbers in areas with dense and hierarchically organized Indigenous populations and exploitable resources, especially silver. Early Spanish conquerors saw the Indigenous themselves as an exploitable resource for tribute and labor, and individual Spaniards were awarded grants of encomienda forced labor as reward for participation in the conquest. Throughout most of Spanish America, Indigenous populations were the largest component, with some black slaves serving in auxiliary positions. The three main racial groups during the colonial era were European whites, black Africans, and Indigenous. Over time, these populations intermixed, resulting in castas. In most of Spanish America, the Indigenous were the majority population.\n\nBoth dense Indigenous populations and silver were found in New Spain (colonial Mexico) and Peru, and the now-countries became centers of the Spanish empire. The Viceroyalty of New Spain, centered in Mexico City, was established in 1535 and the Viceroyalty of Peru, centered in Lima, in 1542. The Viceroyalty of New Spain also had jurisdiction over the Spanish East Indies, once the Spanish established themselves there in the late sixteenth century. The viceroy was the direct representative of the king.\n\nThe Roman Catholic Church, as an institution, launched a \"spiritual conquest\" to convert Indigenous populations to Christianity, incorporating them into Christendom, with no other religion permitted. Pope Alexander VI in 1493 had bestowed on the Catholic Monarchs great power over ecclesiastical appointments and the functioning of the church in overseas possessions. The monarch was the patron of the institutional church. The state and the Catholic church were the institutional pillars of Spanish colonial rule. In the late eighteenth century, the crown also established a royal military to defend its possessions against foreign incursions, especially by the British. It also increased the number of viceroyalties in Spanish South America.\n\nPortugal did not establish firm institutional rule in Brazil until the 1530s, but it paralleled many patterns of colonization in Spanish America. The Brazilian Indigenous peoples were initially dense, but were semi-sedentary and lacked the organization that allowed Spaniards to more easily incorporate the Indigenous into the colonial order. The Portuguese used Indigenous laborers to extract the valuable commodity known as brazilwood, which gave its name to the colony. Portugal took greater control of the region to prevent other European powers, particularly France, from threatening its claims.\n\nEuropeans sought wealth in the form of high-value, low-bulk products exported to Europe. The Spanish Empire established institutions to secure wealth for itself and protect its empire in the Americas from rivals. In trade it followed principles of mercantilism, where its overseas possessions were to enrich the center of power in Iberia. Trade was regulated through the royal House of Trade in Seville, Spain, with the main export from Spanish America to Spain being silver, later followed by the red dye cochineal. Silver was found in the Andes, in particular the silver mountain of Potosí, (now in Bolivia) in the region where Indigenous men were forced to labor in the mines. In New Spain, rich deposits of silver were found in northern Mexico, in Zacatecas and Guanajuato, outside areas of dense Indigenous settlement. Labor was attracted from elsewhere for mining and landed estates were established to raise wheat, range cattle and sheep. Mules were bred for transportation and to replace of human labor in refining silver. \n\nIn Brazil and some Spanish Caribbean islands, plantations for sugar cultivation developed on a large scale for the export market. For Brazil, the development of the plantation complex transformed the colony from a backwater of the Portuguese empire to a major asset. The Portuguese transported enslaved laborers from their African territories and the seventeenth-century \"age of sugar\" was transformational, seeing Brazil becoming a major economic component of the Portuguese empire. The population increase exponentially, with the majority being enslaved Africans. Settlement and economic development was largely coastal, the goal of sugar export to European markets. With competition from other sugar producers, Brazil's fortunes based on sugar declined, but in the eighteenth century, diamonds and gold were found in the southern interior, fueling a new wave of economic activity. As the economic center of the colony shifted from the sugar-producing northeast to the southern region of gold and diamond mines, the capital was transferred from Salvador de Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in 1763. During the colonial era, Brazil was also the manufacturing center for Portugal's ships. As a global maritime empire, Portugal created a vital industry in Brazil. Once Brazil achieved its independence, this industry languished.\n\nIn Spanish America, manufactured and luxury goods were sent from Spain and entered Spanish America legally only through the Caribbean ports of Veracruz, Havana, and Cartagena, as well as the Pacific port of Callao, in Peru. Trans-Pacific trade was established in the late sixteenth century from Acapulco to the Philippines via the Manila Galleon, transporting silver from Mexico and Peru to Asia; Chinese silks and porcelains were sent first to Mexico and then re-exported to Spain. This system of commerce was in theory was tightly controlled, but was increasingly undermined by other European powers. The English, French, and Dutch seized Caribbean islands claimed by the Spanish and established their own sugar plantations. The islands also became hubs for contraband trade with Spanish America. Many regions of Spanish America that were not well supplied by Spanish merchants, such as Central America, participated in contraband trade with foreign merchants. The eighteenth-century Bourbon reforms sought to modernize the mercantile system to stimulate greater trade exchanges between Spain and Spanish America in a system known as comercio libre. It was not free trade in the modern sense, but rather free commerce within the Spanish empire. Liberalization of trade and limited deregulation sought to break the monopoly of merchants based in the Spanish port of Cádiz. Administrative reforms created the system of districts known as intendancies, modeled on those in France. Their creation was aimed at strengthening crown control over its possessions and sparking economic development.\n\nBoth Spain and Portugal restricted foreign powers from trading in their American colonies or entering coastal waters it had claimed. Other European powers challenged the exclusive rights claimed by the Iberian powers. The English, Dutch, and French permanently seized islands in the Caribbean and created sugar plantations on the model developed in Brazil. In Brazil, the Dutch seized the sugar-producing area of the northeast, but after 30 years they were expelled.\n\nColonial legacies\n\nMore than three centuries of direct Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule left lasting imprints on Latin America. Spanish and Portuguese are the dominant languages of the region, and Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. Diseases to which Indigenous peoples had no immunity devastated their populations, although populations still exist in many places. The forced transportation of African slaves transformed major regions where they labored to produce the export products, especially sugar. In regions with dense Indigenous populations, they remained the largest percentage of the population; sugar-producing regions had the largest percentage of blacks. European whites in both Spanish America and Brazil were a small percentage of the population, but they were also the wealthiest and most socially elite; and the racial hierarchies they established in the colonial era have persisted. Cities founded by Europeans in the colonial era remain major centers of power. In the modern era, Latin American governments have worked to designate many colonial cities as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Exports of metals and agricultural products to Europe dominate Latin American economies, with the manufacturing sector deliberately suppressed; the development of modern, industrial economies of Europe depended on the underdevelopment of Latin America.\n\nDespite the many commonalities of colonial Spanish America and Brazil, they did not think of themselves as being part of a particular region; that was a development of the post-independence period beginning in the nineteenth century. The imprint of Christopher Columbus and Iberian colonialism in Latin America began shifting in the twentieth century. \"Discovery\" by Europeans was reframed as \"encounter\" between the Old World and the New. An example of the new consciousness was the dismantling of the Christopher Columbus monument in Buenos Aires, one of many in the hemisphere, mandated by leftist President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. Its replacement was a statue to a mestiza fighter for independence, Juana Azurduy de Padilla, provoking a major controversy in Argentina over historical and national identity.\n\nIndependence era (1776–1825)\n\nIndependence in the Americas was not inevitable or uniform in the Americas. Events in Europe had a profound impact on the colonial empires of Spain, Portugal, and France in the Americas. France and Spain had supported the American Revolution that saw the independence of the Thirteen Colonies from Britain, which had defeated them in the Seven Years' War (1757–63). The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, a political and social uprising toppling the Bourbon monarchy and overturning the established order, precipitated events in France's rich Caribbean sugar colony of Saint-Domingue, whose black population rose up, led by Toussaint L'ouverture. The Haitian Revolution had far-reaching consequences. Britain declared war on France and attacked ports in Saint-Domingue. Haiti gained independence in 1804, led by ex-slave Jean-Jacques Dessalines following many years of violent struggle, with huge atrocities on both sides. Haitian independence affected colonial empires in the Americas, as well as the United States. Many white, slave-owning sugar planters of Saint-Domingue fled to the Spanish island of Cuba, where they established sugar plantations that became the basis of Cuba's economy. Uniquely in the hemisphere, the black victors in Haiti abolished slavery at independence. Many thousands of remaining whites were executed on the orders of Dessalines. For other regions with large enslaved populations, the Haitian Revolution was a cautionary tale for the white slave-owning planters. Despite Spain and Britain's satisfaction with France's defeat, they \"were obsessed by the possible impact of the slave uprising on Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Jamaica\", by then a British sugar colony. US President Thomas Jefferson, a wealthy slave owner, refused to recognize Haiti's independence. Recognition only came in 1862 from President Abraham Lincoln. Given France's failure to defeat the slave insurgency and since needing money for the war with Britain, Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining mainland holdings in North America to the United States in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase.\n\nNapoleon's invasion of the Iberian peninsula in 1807-1808 was a major change in the world order, with the stability of both the metropoles and their overseas possessions upended. It resulted in the movement, with British help, of the Portuguese royal court to Brazil, its richest colony. In Spain, France forced abdication of the Spanish Bourbon monarchs and their replacement with Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte as king. The period from 1808 to the restoration in 1814 of the Bourbon monarchy saw new political experiments. In Spanish America, the question of the legitimacy of the new foreign monarch's right to rule set off fierce debate and in many regions to wars of independence. The conflicts were regional and usually quite complex. Chronologically, the Spanish American independence wars were the conquest in reverse, with the areas most recently incorporated into the Spanish empire, such as Argentina and Chile, becoming the first to achieve independence, while the colonial strongholds of Mexico and Peru were the last to achieve independence in the early nineteenth century. Cuba and Puerto Rico, both old Caribbean sugar-producing areas, were not detached from Spain until the 1898 Spanish–American War, with US intervention. \n\nIn Spain, a bloody war against the French invaders broke out and regional juntas were established to rule in the name of the deposed Bourbon king, Ferdinand VII. In Spanish America, local juntas also rejected Napoleon's brother as their monarch. Spanish Liberals re-imagined the Spanish Empire as equally being Iberia and the overseas territories. Liberals sought a new model of government, a constitutional monarchy, with limits on the power of the king as well as on the Catholic Church. Ruling in the name of the deposed Bourbon monarch Ferdinand VII, representatives of the Spanish empire, both from the peninsula and Spanish America, convened a convention in the port of Cadiz. For Spanish American elites who had been shut out of official positions in the late eighteenth century in favor of peninsular-born appointees, this was a major recognition of their role in the empire. These empire-wide representatives drafted and ratified the Spanish Constitution of 1812, establishing a constitutional monarchy and set down other rules of governance, including citizenship and limitations on the Catholic Church. Constitutional rule was a break from absolutist monarchy and gave Spanish America a starting point for constitutional governance. So long as Napoleon controlled Spain, the liberal constitution was the governing document.\n\nWhen Napoleon was defeated and the Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1814, Ferdinand VII and his conservative supporters immediately reasserted absolutist monarchy, ending the liberal interregnum. In Spanish America, it set off a new wave of struggles for independence.\n \nIn South America, Simón Bolívar of Venezuela, José de San Martín of Argentina, and Bernardo O'Higgins in Chile led armies who fought for independence. In Mexico, which had seen the initial insurgency led by Hidalgo and José María Morelos, royalist forces maintained control. In 1820, when military officers in Spain restored the liberal Constitution of 1812, conservatives in Mexico saw independence as a better option. Royalist military officer Agustín de Iturbide changed sides and forged an alliance with insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero, and together they brought about Mexico's independence in 1821.\n\nFor Portugal and Brazil, Napoleon's defeat did not immediately result in the return of the Portuguese monarch to Portugal, as Brazil was the richest part of the Portuguese empire. As with Spain in 1820, Portuguese liberals threatened the power of the monarchy and compelled John VI to return in April 1821, leaving his son Pedro to rule Brazil as regent. In Brazil, Pedro contended with revolutionaries and insubordination by Portuguese troops, all of whom he subdued. The Portuguese government threatened to revoke the political autonomy that Brazil had enjoyed since 1808, provoking widespread opposition in Brazil. Pedro declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822 and became emperor. By March 1824 he had defeated all armies loyal to Portugal. Brazil's independence was achieved relatively peaceably, territorial integrity was maintained, and its ruler was from the Royal House of Braganza, whose successors ruled Brazil until their overthrow in 1889.\n\nEarly Post-Independence, ca. 1825–1879\n\nAfter independence Spanish America and Brazil differed in their forms of state rule, with most of Spanish America becoming federated republics (with the exceptions of Cuba and Puerto Rico, which remained Spanish colonies), and Brazil becoming a monarchy ruled by the Brazilian branch of the Portuguese royal family. Spanish America's fragmentation into republics with weakened state structures meant that political turmoil and violence on many levels was a characteristic of the era throughout the region. Brazil's monarchy was a stabilizing political force and the territorial integrity of the Portuguese colony carried over into the post-independence era.\n\nAlthough much of Latin America gained its independence in the early nineteenth century, formal recognition by their former metropolitan powers in Spain and Portugal did not come immediately. Portugal officially recognized Brazil on August 29, 1825. The Spanish crown did not recognize new Spanish American nations' independence and sent expeditions to Mexico in failed attempts to regain control over its valuable former territory. Spain finally recognized Mexico's independence in 1836, 15 years after it was achieved. Its recognition of Ecuador's independence came in 1840 and Paraguay's as late as 1880. The new independent territories exerted their rights to establish a government, control their national territory, establish trade relations with other nations, and levy taxes. Brazil and Mexico both established independent monarchies in 1822. Mexico's was short-lived (1822–23) under leader of the independence movement General Iturbide, who was elected constitutional emperor 19 May 1822 and forced to abdicate 19 March 1823. Iturbide had no royal pedigree, so as a commoner he had no prestige or permanent legitimacy as ruler. Brazil's monarchy, a branch of the House of Braganza, lasted until 1889. Spanish America fragmented into various regions.\n\nAs a consequence of the violent struggles for independence in most of Spanish America, the military grew in importance. In the post-independence period, it often played a key role in politics. Military leaders often became the initial heads of state, but regional strongmen, or caudillos, also emerged. The first half of the nineteenth century is sometimes characterized as the \"age of caudillos.\" In Argentina, Juan Manuel Rosas and in Mexico Antonio López de Santa Anna are exemplars of caudillos. Although most countries created written constitutions and created separate branches of government, the state and the rule of law were weak, and the military emerged as the dominant institution in the civil sphere. Constitutions were written laying out division of powers, but the rule of personalist strongmen dominated. Dictatorial powers were granted to some strongmen, nominally ruling as presidents under a constitution, as \"constitutional dictators.\" \n \nIn the religious sphere, the Roman Catholic Church, one of the pillars of colonial rule, remained a powerful institution and generally continued as the only permissible religion. With the Spanish monarch no longer the patron of the church, many national governments asserted their right to appoint clerics as a logical transfer of power to a sovereign state. The Catholic Church denied that this right had transferred to the new governments, and for a time the Vatican refused to appoint new bishops. In Brazil, because the ruler after independence was a member of the House of Braganza, and Portugal recognized political independence quite speedily, the Vatican appointed a papal nuncio to Brazil in 1830. This official had jurisdiction over not just Brazil, but also the new states in Spanish America. However, in Brazil, there were also conflicts between church and state. During the reign of Pedro II, Protestant missionaries were tolerated, and when the monarchy was overthrown in 1889, the Catholic Church was disestablished.\n\nIn the new nation-states, conservatives favored the old order of a powerful, centralized state and continuation of the Catholic Church as a key institution. In Mexico, following the abdication of Emperor Iturbide in 1823, Mexican political leaders wrote a constitution for its newly declared federated republic, the Constitution of 1824. Central America opted out of joining the new federated republic of Mexico, with no real conflict. Hero of the insurgency Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of Mexico in 1824. Conservatives pushed to take control of the government, favoring central rule of the nation, as opposed to liberals, who generally favored the power of states expressed in federalism. General Santa Anna was elected president in 1833 and was in and out of office until 1854. In South America, Gran Colombia came into being, spanning what are now the separate countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, and Peru, with independence leader Simón Bolívar as head of state (1819–30). Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831 due to conflicts similar to those elsewhere in Spanish America between centralist conservatives and pro-federalist liberals. In Argentina, the conflict resulted in a prolonged civil war between unitarianas (i.e. centralists) and federalists, which were in some aspects respectively analogous to liberals and conservatives in other countries. Adding to this dispute was the almost inherited colonial-era conflict over its borders with Brazil. The Cisplatine War erupted in 1814 and ended in 1828, resulting in occupation and further secession of Provincia Oriental which in 1830 became the modern Republic of Uruguay with a central government in Montevideo. Between 1832 and 1852, Argentina existed as a confederation, without a head of state, although the federalist governor of Buenos Aires province, Juan Manuel de Rosas, was given the power to pay debt and manage international relations, and exerted a growing hegemony over the country. A national constitution was not enacted until 1853, and reformed in 1860, and the country reorganized as a federal republic led by a liberal-conservative elite. Centralist Uruguay enacted its constitution on its first day of existence in 1830, but wasn't immune to a similar polarization of the new state that involved blancos and colorados, where the agrarian conservative interests of blancos were pitted against the liberal commercial interests of colorados based in Montevideo, and which eventually resulted in the Guerra Grande civil war (1839–1851). Both the blancos and colorados evolved into political parties of the same names that still exist in Uruguay today and are considered among the first and most longstanding political parties in the world.\n\nIn Brazil, Emperor Dom Pedro I, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissension with both the liberal and conservative sides of politics (including an attempt of republican secession), went to Portugal in 1831 to reclaim his daughter's crown, abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the title of Dom Pedro II). As a minor, the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of age, so a regency was set up by the National Assembly. In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, as the Cabanagem, the Malê Revolt, the Balaiada, the Sabinada, and the Ragamuffin War, which emerged from dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slave-holding and newly independent nation state. This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841. During the last phase of the monarchy, an internal political debate was centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850, as a result of the British Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution formally abolished. On 15 November 1889, worn out by years of economic stagnation, attrition of the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.\n\nForeign powers, particularly the Great Britain and the U.S., were keenly interested in the possibilities resulting from political independence. They quickly recognized the governments of newly independent countries in Latin America and established commercial relationships with them. The former imperial limits on trade with foreign powers ended with independence and foreign investors sought newly opened opportunities. With the 1803 Louisiana Purchase from France, the U.S. now bordered New Spain. Both the U.S. and Spain sought clarity about their borders, signing the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty ceding Florida to the U.S. and setting the northern border of Spain's claim in North America. When Mexico achieved independence in 1821 and briefly became a monarchy, the U.S. recognized the government under Agustín de Iturbide, sending diplomat Joel Poinsett as its representative 1822–23. Poinsett concluded an agreement with Mexico confirming the terms of the Adams-Onís Treaty. Previously Poinsett had traveled widely in Latin America and had concluded a trade agreement with independent Argentina. European and U.S. interests in the region fueled the demand for Latin American travelogues, an important source of information that described economic, political, and social conditions.\n\nThe U.S. saw itself as an important power in the Americas and had a foreign policy interest in the hemisphere to exclude former imperial powers from regaining their influence. The first major articulation of U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America as a region was the 1820 Monroe Doctrine. It warned foreign powers not to intervene in the Americas. The U.S. was relatively weak compared to the powerful British Empire, but it was a key policy that informed U.S. actions toward Latin America to the current day. The U.S. was concerned that foreign powers could support Spain in its attempts to reclaim its empire. The actions that the U.S. took against potential reclamation of foreign powers of their former colonies often included its own direct interventions in the region, justified by President Theodore Roosevelt in his 1904 Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.\n\nFor Britain, their commercial interests were eager to seize the opportunity to trade with newly independent Latin America. Britain and Portugal had long been allies against the Spanish and French, so British recognition of Brazil's 1822 independence followed quickly after Portugal's. As with many other Latin American countries, Brazil exported raw materials and imported manufactured goods, which for both Britain and Brazil suited their economic strengths. For Britain, asserting economic dominance in Latin America (what is now called neocolonialism) meant that nation-states were sovereign countries, but were dependent on other powers economically. British dominance hindered the development of Latin American industries and strengthened their dependence on the world trade network. Britain now replaced Spain as the region's largest trading partner. Great Britain invested significant capital in Latin America to develop the area as a market for processed goods. \n\nFrom the early 1820s to 1850, the post-independence economies of Latin American countries were lagging and stagnant. Over the nineteenth century, enhanced trade between Britain and Latin America led to development such as infrastructure improvements, including roads and railroads, which grew the trade between the countries and outside nations such as Great Britain. By 1870, exports dramatically increased, attracting capital from abroad (including Europe and USA). Until 1914 and the outbreak of World War I, Britain was a major economic power in Latin America, especially in South America.\n\nFor the U.S., its initial sphere of influence was in Mexico, but the drive for territorial expansion, particularly for Southern slave-owners seeking new territory for their enterprises, saw immigration of white slave-owners with their slaves to Texas, which ultimately precipitated conflict between the Mexican government and the Anglo-American settlers. The Texas Revolution of 1836-37 defeated Mexican forces, and in 1845, U.S. annexation of the Texas territory that Mexico still claimed set the stage for the Mexican–American War (1846–48). The war resulted in the resounding defeat of Mexico. U.S. troops occupied Mexico City. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo added a huge swath of what had been north and northwest Mexico to the U.S., territory that Spain and then Mexico had claimed, but had not succeeded in occupying effectively. Southern slave owners were also interested in the possibility of the U.S. acquiring Cuba from Spain, with the aim of expanding both slavery and U.S. territory. The 1854 leak of the Ostend Manifesto, offering $130 million to Spain, caused a scandal among abolitionists in the U.S., who sought to end the expansion of slavery. It was repudiated by U.S. President Franklin Pierce. The American Civil War (1861–1965) decided the question of slavery. Another episode in US–Latin American relations involved the filibuster William Walker. In 1855, he traveled to Nicaragua hoping to overthrow the government and take territory for the United States. With Only 56 followers, he was able to take over the city of Granada, declaring himself commander of the army and installing Patricio Rivas as a puppet president. However, Rivas' presidency ended when he fled Nicaragua; Walker rigged the ensuing election to ensure that he became the next president. His presidency did not last long, however, as he was met with much opposition in Nicaragua and from neighboring countries. On 1 May 1857, Walker was forced by a coalition of Central American armies to surrender himself to a United States Navy officer who repatriated him and his followers. When Walker subsequently returned to Central America in 1860, he was apprehended by the Honduran authorities and executed.\n\nBritain's nineteenth-century policy was to end slavery and the slave trade, including in Latin America. In Brazil, Britain made the end of the slave trade a condition for diplomatic recognition. The Brazilian economy was entirely dependent on slaves. Abolitionists in Brazil pressed for the end of slavery, which finally ended in 1888, followed the next year by the fall of the Brazilian monarchy.\n\nThe French also sought commercial ties to Latin America, to export luxury goods and establish financial ties, including extending foreign loans to governments, often in dire need of revenue. As Mexican conservatives and liberals fought the War of the Reform over La Reforma, Mexican conservatives, to bolster their side, sought a European monarch to put on the throne of Mexico. Napoleon III of France invaded Mexico in 1862 and facilitated the appointment of Maximilian von Hapsburg. Since the U.S. was embroiled in its own civil war, it could not hinder the French occupation, which it saw as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, but the government of Abraham Lincoln continued to recognize the Republic of Mexico as the nation's government under President Benito Juárez. The French were expelled in 1867 and Emperor Maximilian executed by the victorious Republican forces, setting the stage for an era of stability and foreign economic investment a few years later when Porfirio Díaz liberal hero of the war against the French, became president of Mexico for 30 years.\n\nExport boom and neocolonialism\n\nLatin American nations after about 1870 were stable enough politically and produced commodities in demand in Western Europe and the United States so that export economies tied producing countries to consuming countries. Rather than formally ruling countries in the region, investors and their government backers exercised power and influence over local elites seeking to maintain or enhance their own positions. Companies in Great Britain forged ties especially in Brazil and Argentina, with Brazilian coffee and Argentine beef and wheat becoming staples on European dining tables. Britain constructed infrastructure to enable the efficient movement of goods and people, building port facilities to accommodate transatlantic shipping, railroads to transport goods from interior regions of production to ports, and electricity enabling telegraphs, later telephones, and street lighting in urban areas. As technology became more sophisticated, bulky agricultural products like wheat could be shipped on large ships at relatively low cost. As refrigerated ships were developed, chilled beef and tropical bananas could be shipped efficiently enough that they would not spoil. The U.S. in particular imported bananas from Central and South America. The U.S. United Fruit Company and Cuyamel Fruit Company, both ancestors of Chiquita, and the Standard Fruit Company (now Dole), acquired large tracts of land in Central America, including Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica, as well as Ecuador. The companies gained leverage over governments and ruling elites in these countries by dominating their economies and paying kickbacks, and exploited local workers. Such countries came to be called banana republics.\n \nDemand for commodities fueled armed conflicts for territory with economic potential. One such conflict was the Spanish–American War in 1898, where the U.S. intervened in the long-standing independence war in Cuba against the Spanish crown, which had held onto it after the almost complete loss of is overseas territories in the early nineteenth century. Cuba produced sugar and tobacco, both in high demand in the U.S. In the treaty with Spain ending the war, the U.S. gain Puerto Rico, Spain's other remaining Caribbean colony, as well as the Philippine Islands. There were also conflicts between Latin American nations in the late nineteenth century, as well as protracted civil wars in Mexico and Colombia. One notable international conflict was the War of the Pacific from 1879 to 1884, in which Chile seized territory and resources from Peru and Bolivia, gaining valuable nitrate deposits and leaving Bolivia landlocked with no access to the sea. Another notable conflict was the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870) in which Paraguay under Francisco Solano López tried to assist Uruguay against the Brazil-backed rebels, which angered Brazil and led to a war against Paraguay. With Brazil allied to Argentina and Uruguay, the war escalated to total war and decimated Paraguay in what became one of the most horrendous chapters in the history of the continent, with huge loss of life, land, and the destruction of the modernized sector.\n\nThe export boom created a demand for labor, which many countries could not meet domestically. Countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Peru, sought laborers from abroad, some of whom immigrated permanently, while other workers developed a pattern of cyclical work, returning to their home countries at intervals. Workers came from poorer regions of Europe, such as Italy, but also China and Japan, with single men and few women making up the initial immigrant populations.\n\nWorld War I (1914–1918) \n\nIn general, Latin America stayed out of direct conflict in World War I, but the Great Powers were aware of the region's importance for the short and long term. Germany attempted to draw Mexico into supporting its side against the British, the French, and especially the U.S., by trying to leverage anti-Americanism to its advantage. The Great Powers had been actively working to affect the course of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920). Great Britain and the U.S. had huge investments in Mexico, with Germany close behind, so the outcome of the conflict would have consequences there. The U.S. directly intervened militarily, but not on a huge scale. A German diplomatic proposal, now known as the January 1917 Zimmermann Telegram, sought to entice Mexico to join an alliance with Germany in the event of the United States entering World War I against Germany by promising the return of territory Mexico had lost to the U.S. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. The revelation of the contents outraged the American public and swayed public opinion. The news helped to generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April 1917 as well as to calm U.S.-Mexico relations. Mexico, far weaker militarily, economically, and politically than the U.S., ignored the German proposal; after the U.S. entered the war, it officially rejected it.\n\nWhen the U.S. entered the conflict in 1917, it abandoned its hunt in Mexico for the revolutionary Pancho Villa who had attacked the U.S. in Columbus, New Mexico. The Mexican government was not pro-Villa, but was angered by U.S. violation of Mexico's sovereign territory with troops. The expeditionary force led by General John J. Pershing that had hopelessly chased him around northern Mexico was deployed to Europe. The U.S. then asked Latin American nations to join Britain, France, and the U.S. against Germany. They were not quick to join, as Germany was now a major financial lender to Latin America, and a number of nations were antipathetic to the traditional lenders in Britain and France. While Latin America did join the allies, it was not without cost. The U.S. sought hemispheric solidarity against Germany, and Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Haiti declared war. Others took the lesser step of breaking diplomatic relations. Argentina, Chile, Mexico and Uruguay remained neutral.\n \nMore important was the impact of the war on transatlantic shipping, the economic lifeline for their export economies. Export economies from the mining sector and especially nitrates for gunpowder did boom, but agricultural exports of sugar and coffee languished when European economies turned to war production. Britain was on the winning side of the war, but in the aftermath its economic power was fairly reduced. After 1914, the U.S. replaced Britain as the major foreign power in Latin America. Latin American nations gained standing internationally in the aftermath of the war, participating in the Versailles Conference, signing the Treaty of Versailles and joining the League of Nations. Latin America also played an important role in the International Court of Justice.\n\nInterwar and World War II, 1920s–1945\n\nThe Great Depression was a worldwide phenomenon and had an impact on Latin America. Exports largely fell and economies stagnated. For a number of Latin American countries, the Depression made them favor an internal economic development policy of import substitution industrialization.\n\nWorld War I and the League of Nations did not settle conflicts between European nations, but in the wake of World War I, Latin American nations gained success in pressing discussions of hemispheric importance. The Inter-American System was institutionally established with the First International Conference of American States of 1889–1890, where 17 Latin American nations sent delegates to Washington D.C. and formed the Pan American Union. Subsequent Pan-American Conferences saw the initial dominance of the U.S. in the hemisphere give way as Latin American nations asserted their priorities. The Havana Conference of 1928 was the high water mark of U.S. dominance and assertion of its right to intervene in Latin America, but with the election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt to the U.S. presidency in 1932, U.S. policy changed toward Latin America. He abandoned the routine U.S. interventions in Latin America that it had claimed as its right and initiated the Good Neighbor Policy in March 1933. He sought hemispheric cooperation rather than U.S. coercion in the region. At the Montevideo Convention in December 1933, the U.S. Secretary of State voted in favor of the Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, declaring \"no state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another.\" President Roosevelt himself attended the inaugural session of the hemispheric conference in Buenos Aires in 1936, where the U.S. reaffirmed the policy of non-intervention in Latin America and discussed the issue of neutrality for the hemisphere should war break out. With the Nazi invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the spread of war in Europe, foreign ministers of hemispheric nations met in Panama, at which the Declaration of Neutrality was signed, and the territorial waters bordering the hemisphere were expanded. The aim of these moves was to strengthen hemispheric solidarity and security. With the 7 December 1941 Japanese attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, hemispheric ministers met in January 1942 in Rio de Janeiro. Some nations had already declared war on the Axis powers, while others severed relations with the Axis. Chile did not do so until 1943, and Argentina, traditionally pro-German, not until 1945. The U.S. requested that Germans suspected of Nazi sympathies be deported from Latin America to the U.S.\n\nCold War era (1945–1992)\nMany Latin American economies continued to grow in the post-World War II era, but not as quickly as they had hoped. When the transatlantic trade re-opened following the peace, Europe looked as if it would need Latin American food exports and raw materials. The policies of import substitution industrialization adopted in Latin America when exports slowed due to the Great Depression and subsequent isolation in World War II were now subject to international competition. Those who supported a return to the export of commodities for which Latin America had a competitive advantage disagreed with advocates of an expanded industrial sector. The rebuilding of Europe, including Germany, with the aid of the U.S. after World War II did not bring stronger demand for Latin American exports. In Latin America, much of the hard currency earned by their participation in the war went to nationalize foreign-owned industries and pay down their debt. A number of governments set tariff and exchange rate policies that undermined the export sector and aided the urban working classes. Growth slowed in the post-war period and by the mid-1950s, the optimism of the postwar period was replaced by pessimism.\n\nFollowing World War II, the United States policy toward Latin America focused on what it perceived as the threat of communism and the Soviet Union to the interests of Western Europe and the United States. Although Latin American countries had been staunch allies in the war and reaped some benefits from it, in the post-war period the region did not prosper as it had expected. Latin America struggled in the post-war period without large-scale aid from the U.S., which devoted its resources to rebuilding Western Europe, including Germany. In Latin America there was increasing inequality, with political consequences in the individual countries. The U.S. returned to a policy of interventionism when it felt its political and economic interests were threatened. With the breakup of the Soviet bloc in the late 1980s and early 1990s, including the Soviet Union itself, Latin America sought to find new solutions to long-standing problems. With its Soviet alliance dissolved, Cuba entered a Special Period of severe economic disruption, high death rates, and food shortages.\n\nDeeply alarming for the U.S. were two revolutions that threaten, fed its dominance in the region. The Guatemalan Revolution (1944–54) saw the replacement of a U.S.-backed regime of Jorge Ubico in 1945 followed by elections. Reformist Juan José Arévalo (1945–51) was elected and began instituting populist reforms. Reforms included land laws that threatened the interests of large foreign-owned enterprises, a social security law, workmen's compensation, laws allowing labor to organize and strike, and universal suffrage except for illiterate women. His government established diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union in April 1945, when the Soviet Union and the U.S. were allied against the Axis powers. Communists entered leadership positions in the labor movement. At the end of his term, his hand-picked successor, the populist and nationalist Jacobo Arbenz, was elected. Arbenz proposed placing capital in the hands of Guatemalans, building new infrastructure, and significant land reform via Decree 900. With what the U.S. considered the prospect of even more radical changes in Guatemala, it backed a coup against Arbenz in 1954, overthrowing him. Argentine Che Guevara was in Guatemala during the Arbenz presidency; the coup ousting Arbenz was instructive for him and for Latin American nations seeking significant structural change. In 1954 the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency aided successful military coup against Arbenz.\n\n \nThe 1959 Cuban Revolution led by Cuban lawyer Fidel Castro overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista, with 1 January 1959 marking as the revolution's victory. The revolution was a huge event not only in Cuban history, but also the history of Latin America and the world. Almost the immediately, the U.S. reacted with hostility against the new regime. As the revolutionaries began consolidating power, many middle- and upper-class Cubans left for the U.S., likely not expecting the Castro regime to last long. Cuba became a poorer and blacker country, and the Cuba Revolution sought to transform the social and economic inequalities and political instability of the previous regimes into a more socially and economically equal one. The government put emphasis on literacy as a key to Cuba's overall betterment, essentially wiping out illiteracy after an early major literacy campaign. Schools became a means to instill in Cuban students messages of nationalism, solidarity with the Third World, and Marxism. Cuba also made a commitment to universal health care, so the education of doctors and construction of hospitals were top priorities. Cuba also sought to diversify its economy, until then based mainly on sugar, but also tobacco.\n\nThe U.S. attempted to overthrow Castro, using the template of the successful 1954 coup in Guatemala. In the April 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuba entered into a formal alliance with the Soviet Union. In February 1962, the U.S placed an embargo on trade with Cuba, which remains in force as of 2021. In February 1962, the U.S. pressured members of the Organization of American States to expel Cuba, attempting to isolate it. In response to the Bay of Pigs, Cuba called for revolution in the Americas. The efforts ultimately failed, most notably with Che Guevara in Bolivia, where he was isolated, captured, and executed.\n\nWhen the U.S. discovered that the Soviet Union had placed missiles in Cuba in 1962, they reacted swiftly with a showdown now called the Cuban Missile Crisis, which ended with an agreement between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, who did not consult Cuba about its terms. One term of the agreement was that the U.S. would cease efforts to invade Cuba, a guarantee of its sovereignty. However, the U.S. continued to attempt to remove Castro from power by assassination. The Soviet Union continued to materially support the Cuban regime, providing oil and other petrochemicals, technical support, and other aid, in exchange for Cuban sugar and tobacco.\n\nFrom 1959 to 1992, Fidel Castro ruled as a caudillo, or strong man, dominating politics and the international stage. His commitment to social and economic equality brought about positive changes in Cuba, including the improvement of the position of women, eliminating prostitution, reducing homelessness, and raising the standard of living for most Cubans. However, Cuba lacks freedom of expression; dissenters were monitored by the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, and travel was restricted. In 1980, Castro told Cubans who wanted to leave to do so, promising that the government would not stop them. The Mariel boatlift saw some 125,000 Cubans sail from the Cuban port of Mariel, across the straits to the U.S., where U.S. President Carter initially welcomed them.\n\nThe Cuban Revolution had a tremendous impact not just on Cuba, but on Latin America as a whole, and the world. The Cuban Revolution was for many countries an inspiration and a model, but for the U.S. it was a challenge to its power and influence in Latin America. After leftists took power in Chile (1970) and Nicaragua (1979), Fidel Castro visited them both, extending Cuban solidarity. In Chile, Salvador Allende and a coalition of leftists, Unidad Popular, won an electoral victory in 1970 and lasted until the violent military coup of 11 September 1973. In the Nicaragua leftists held power from 1979 to 1990. The U.S. was concerned with the spread of communism in Latin America, and U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower responded to the threat he saw in the Dominican Republic's dictator Rafael Trujillo, who voiced a desire to seek an alliance with the Soviet Union. In 1961, Trujillo was murdered with weapons supplied by the CIA. U.S. President John F. Kennedy initiated the Alliance for Progress in 1961, to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America and provide $20 billion for reform and counterinsurgency measures. The reform failed because of the simplistic theory that guided it and the lack of experienced American experts who understood Latin American customs.\n\nFrom 1966 to the late 1980s, the Soviet government upgraded Cuba's military capabilities, and Cuba was active in foreign interventions, assisting with movements in several countries in Latin America and elsewhere in the world. Most notable were the MPLA during the Angolan Civil War and the Derg during the Ogaden War. They also supported governments and rebel movements in Syria, Mozambique, Algeria, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Vietnam.\n\nIn Chile, the postwar period saw uneven economic development. The mining sector (copper, nitrates) continued to be important, but an industrial sector also emerged. The agricultural sector stagnated and Chile needed to import foodstuffs. After the 1958 election, Chile entered a period of reform. The secret ballot was introduced, the Communist Party was relegalized, and populism grew in the countryside. In 1970, democratic elections brought to power socialist Salvador Allende, who implemented many reforms begun in 1964 under Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei. The economy continued to depend on mineral exports and a large portion of the population reaped no benefits from the prosperity and modernity of some sectors. Chile had a long tradition of stable electoral democracy, In the 1970 election, a coalition of leftists, the Unidad Popular (\"popular unity\") candidate Allende was elected. Allende and his coalition held power for three years, with the increasing hostility of the U.S. The Chilean military staged a bloody coup with US support in 1973. The military under General Augusto Pinochet then held power until 1990.\n\nThe 1970s and 1980s saw a large and complex political conflict in Central America. The U.S. administration of Ronald Reagan funded right-wing governments and proxy fighters against left-wing challenges to the political order. Complicating matters were the liberation theology emerging in the Catholic Church and the rapid growth of evangelical Christianity, which were entwined with politics. The Nicaraguan Revolution revealed the country as a major proxy war battleground in the Cold War. Although the initial overthrow of the Somoza regime in 1978–79 was a bloody affair, the Contra War of the 1980s took the lives of tens of thousands of Nicaraguans and was the subject of fierce international debate. During the 1980s both the FSLN (a leftist collection of political parties) and the Contras (a rightist collection of counter-revolutionary groups) received considerable aid from the Cold War superpowers. The Sandinistas allowed free elections in 1990 and after years of war, lost the election. They became the opposition party, following a peaceful transfer of power. A civil war in El Salvador pitted leftist guerrillas against a repressive government. The bloody war there ended in a stalemate, and following the fall of the Soviet Union, a negotiated peace accord ended the conflict in 1992. In Guatemala, the civil war included genocide of Mayan peasants. A peace accord was reached in 1996 and the Catholic Church called for a truth and reconciliation commission.\n\nIn the religious sphere, the Roman Catholic Church continued to be a major institution in nineteenth-century Latin America. For a number of countries in the nineteenth century, especially Mexico, liberals viewed the Catholic Church as an intransigent obstacle to modernization, and when liberals gained power, anticlericalism was written into law, such as the Mexican liberal Constitution of 1857 and the Uruguayan Constitution of 1913 which secularized the state. Although secularism was an increasing trend in Europe and North America, most Latin Americans identified as Catholic, even if they did not attend church regularly. Many followed folk Catholicism, venerated saints, and celebrated religious festivals. Many communities did not have a resident priest or even visits by priests to keep contact between the institutional church and the people. In the 1950s, evangelical Protestants began proselytizing in Latin America. In Brazil, the Catholic bishops organized themselves into a national council, aimed at better meeting the competition not only of Protestants, but also of secular socialism and communism. Following Vatican II (1962–65) called by Pope John XXIII, the Catholic Church initiated a series of major reforms empowering the laity. Pope Paul VI actively implemented reforms and sought to align the Catholic Church on the side of the dispossessed, (\"preferential option for the poor\"), rather than remain a of conservative elites and right-wing repressive regimes. Colombian Catholic priest Camilo Torres took up arms with the Colombian guerrilla movement ELN, which modeled itself on Cuba but was killed in his first combat in 1966. In 1968, Pope Paul came to the meeting of Latin American bishops in Medellín, Colombia. Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutiérrez was one of the founders of liberation theology, a term he coined in 1968, sometimes described as linking Christianity and Marxism. Conservatives saw the church as politicized, and priests ask proselytizing leftist positions. Priests became targets as \"subversives,\" such as Salvadoran Jesuit Rutilio Grande. Archbishop of El Salvador Óscar Romero called for an end to persecution of the church, and took positions of social justice. He was assassinated on 24 March 1980 while saying mass. Liberation theology informed the struggle by Nicaraguan leftists against the Somoza dictatorship, and when they came to power in 1979, the ruling group included some priests.\n\nWhen a Polish cleric became Pope John Paul II following the death of Paul VI, and the brief papacy of John Paul I, he reversed the progressive position of the church, evident in the 1979 Puebla conference of Latin American bishops. On a papal visit to Nicaragua in 1983, he reprimanded Father Ernesto Cardenal, who was Minister of Culture, and called on priests to leave politics. Brazilian theologian Leonardo Boff was silenced by the Vatican. Despite the Vatican stance against liberation theology, articulated in 1984 by Cardinal Josef Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI, many Catholic clergy and laity worked against repressive military regimes. After a military coup ousted the democratically elected Salvador Allende, the Chilean Catholic Church was a force in opposition to the regime of Augusto Pinochet and for human rights. The Argentine Church did not follow the Chilean pattern of opposition however. When Jesuit Jorge Bergoglio was elected Pope Francis, his actions during the Dirty War were an issue, as portrayed in the film The Two Popes.\n\nAlthough most countries did not have Catholicism as the established religion, Protestantism made few inroads in the region until the late twentieth century. Evangelical Protestants, particularly Pentecostals, proselytized and gained adherents in Brazil, Central America, and elsewhere. In Brazil, Pentecostals had a long history. But in a number of countries ruled by military dictatorships many Catholics followed the social and political teachings of liberation theology and were seen as subversives. Under these conditions, the influence of religious non-Catholics grew. Evangelical churches often grew quickly in poor communities where small churches and members could participate in ecstatic worship, often many times a week. Pastors in these churches did attend a seminary nor were there other institutional requirements. In some cases, the first evangelical pastors came from the U.S., but these churches quickly became \"Latin Americanized,\" with local pastors building religious communities. In some countries, they gained a significant hold and were not persecuted by military dictators, since they were largely apolitical. In Guatemala under General Efraín Ríos Montt, an evangelical Christian, Catholic Maya peasants were targeted as subversives and slaughtered. Perpetrators were later put on trial in Guatemala, including Ríos Montt.\n\nPost-Cold War era\n\nAfter the fall of the Soviet Union, the Cold War which saw U.S. intervention in Latin America as preventing Soviet influence dissipating. The Central American wars ended, with a free and fair election in Nicaragua that voted out the leftist Sandinistas, a peace treaty was concluded between factions in El Salvador, and the Guatemalan civil war ended. Cuba had lost its political and economic patron, the Soviet Union, which could no longer provide support. Cuba entered what is known there are the Special Period, when the economy contracted severely, but the revolutionary government nonetheless retained power and the U.S. remained hostile to its revolution. U.S. policy-makers developed the Washington Consensus, a set of specific economic policy prescriptions considered the standard reform package for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the US Department of the Treasury during the 1980s and 1990s. The term has become associated with neoliberal policies in general and drawn into the broader debate over the expanding role of the free market, constraints upon the state, and US influence on other countries' national sovereignty. The politico-economical initiative was institutionalized in North America by the 1994 NAFTA, and elsewhere in the Americas through a series of similar agreements. The comprehensive Free Trade Area of the Americas project, however, was rejected by most South American countries at the 4th Summit of the Americas in 2005.\n\nA debt crisis ensured after 1982 when the price of oil crashed and Mexico announced that it could not meet its foreign debt payment obligations. Other Latin American economies followed suit, with hyperinflation and the inability of governments to meet their debt obligations and the era became known as the \"lost decade.\" The debt crisis would lead to neoliberal reforms that would instigate many social movements in the region. A \"reversal of development\" reigned over Latin America, seen through negative economic growth, declines in industrial production, and thus, falling living standards for the middle and lower classes. Governments made financial security their primary policy goal over social programs, enacting new neoliberal economic policies that implemented privatization of previously national industries and the informal sector of labor. In an effort to bring more investors to these industries, these governments also embraced globalization through more open interactions with the international economy.\n\nSignificantly, democratic governments began replacing military regimes across much of Latin America and the realm of the state became more inclusive (a trend that proved conducive to social movements), but economic ventures remained exclusive to a few elite groups within society. Neoliberal restructuring consistently redistributed income upward, while denying political responsibility to provide social welfare rights, and development projects throughout the region increased both inequality and poverty. Feeling excluded from the new projects, the lower classes took ownership of their own democracy through a revitalization of social movements in Latin America.\n\nBoth urban and rural populations had serious grievances as a result of economic and global trends and voiced them in mass demonstrations. Some of the largest and most violent have been protests against cuts in urban services to the poor, such as the Caracazo in Venezuela and the Argentinazo in Argentina. In 2000, the Cochabamba Water War in Bolivia saw major protests against a World Bank-funded project that would have brought potable water to the city, but at a price that no residents could afford. The title of the Oscar nominated film Even the Rain alludes to the fact that Cochabamba residents could no longer legally collect rainwater; the film depicts the protest movement.\n\nRural movements made demands related to unequal land distribution, displacement at the hands of development projects and dams, environmental and Indigenous concerns, neoliberal agricultural restructuring, and insufficient means of livelihood. In Bolivia, coca workers organized into a union, and Evo Morales, ethnically an Aymara, became its head. The cocaleros supported the struggles in the Cochabamba water war. The rural-urban coalition became a political party, Movement for Socialism (Bolivia) (MAS, \"more\"), which decisively won the 2005 presidential election, making Evo Morales the first Indigenous president of Bolivia. A documentary of the campaign, Cocalero, shows how they successfully organized.\n\nA number of movements have benefited considerably from transnational support from conservationists and INGOs. The Movement of Rural Landless Workers (MST) in Brazil for example is an important contemporary Latin American social movement.\n\nIndigenous movements account for a large portion of rural social movements, including, in Mexico, the Zapatista rebellion and the broad Indigenous movement in Guerrero, Also important are the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) and Indigenous organizations in the Amazon region of Ecuador and Bolivia, pan-Mayan communities in Guatemala, and mobilization by the Indigenous groups of Yanomami peoples in the Amazon, Kuna peoples in Panama, and Altiplano Aymara and Quechua peoples in Bolivia.\n\nAfter 2000\n\nIn many countries in the early 2000s, left-wing political parties rose to power, known as the Pink tide. The presidencies of Hugo Chávez (1999–2013) in Venezuela, Ricardo Lagos and Michelle Bachelet in Chile, Lula da Silva and Dilma Rousseff of the Workers Party (PT) in Brazil, Néstor Kirchner and his wife Cristina Fernández in Argentina, Tabaré Vázquez and José Mujica in Uruguay, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, Fernando Lugo in Paraguay, Manuel Zelaya in Honduras (removed from power by a coup d'état), Mauricio Funes and Salvador Sánchez Cerén in El Salvador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who often declare themselves socialists, Latin Americanists, or anti-imperialists, often implying opposition to US policies towards the region. An aspect of this has been the creation of the eight-member ALBA alliance, or \"The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America\" (Spanish: Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América) by some of these countries.\n\nFollowing the pink tide, there was a Conservative wave across Latin America. In Mexico, the rightwing National Action Party (PAN) won the presidential election of 2000 with its candidate Vicente Fox, ending the 71-year rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party. He was succeed six-years later by another conservative, Felipe Calderón (2006-2012), who attempted to crack down on the Mexican drug cartels and instigated the Mexican drug war . Several right-wing leaders rose to power, including Argentina's Mauricio Macri and Brazil's Michel Temer, following the impeachment of the country's first female president. In Chile, the conservative Sebastián Piñera succeeded the socialist Michelle Bachelet in 2017. In 2019, center-right Luis Lacalle Pou ended a 15-year leftist rule in Uruguay, after defeating the Broad Front candidate.\n\nEconomically, the 2000s commodities boom caused positive effects for many Latin American economies. Another trend was the rapidly increasing importance of their relations with China.\nHowever, with the Great Recession beginning in 2008, there was an end to the commodity boom, resulting in economic stagnation or recession resulted in some countries. A number of left-wing governments of the Pink tide lost support. The worst-hit was Venezuela, which is facing severe social and economic upheaval.\n\nCharges of against a major Brazilian conglomerate, Odebrecht, has raised allegations of corruption across the region's governments (see Operation Car Wash). This bribery ring has become the largest corruption scandal in Latin American history. As of July 2017, the highest ranking politicians charged were former Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who was arrested, and former Peruvian presidents Ollanta Humala, also arrested, and Alejandro Toledo, who fled to the United States and is now a fugitive.\n\nThe COVID-19 pandemic proved a political challenge for many unstable Latin American democracies, with scholars identifying a decline in civil liberties as a result of opportunistic emergency powers. This was especially true for countries with strong presidential regimes, such as Brazil.\n\nInequality\n\nWealth inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean remains a serious issue despite strong economic growth and improved social indicators. A report released in 2013 by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs entitled Inequality Matters: Report of the World Social Situation, observed that: 'Declines in the wage share have been attributed to the impact of labour-saving technological change and to a general weakening of labour market regulations and institutions.' Such declines are likely to disproportionately affect individuals in the middle and bottom of the income distribution, as they rely mostly on wages for income. In addition, the report noted that 'highly-unequal land distribution has created social and political tensions and is a source of economic inefficiency, as small landholders frequently lack access to credit and other resources to increase productivity, while big owners may not have had enough incentive to do so.\n\nAccording to the United Nations ECLAC, Latin America is the most unequal region in the world. Inequality in Latin America has deep historical roots in the Latin European racially based Casta system instituted in Latin America during colonial times that has been difficult to eradicate because of the differences between initial endowments and opportunities among social groups have constrained the poorest's social mobility, thus causing poverty to transmit from generation to generation, and become a vicious cycle. Inequality has been reproduced and transmitted through generations because Latin American political systems allow a differentiated access on the influence that social groups have in the decision-making process, and it responds in different ways to the least favored groups that have less political representation and capacity of pressure. Recent economic liberalisation also plays a role as not everyone is equally capable of taking advantage of its benefits. Differences in opportunities and endowments tend to be based on race, ethnicity, rurality, and gender. Because inequality in gender and location are near-universal, race and ethnicity play a larger, more integral role in discriminatory practices in Latin America. The differences have a strong impact on the distribution of income, capital and political standing.\n\nOne indicator of inequality is access to and quality of education. During the first phase of globalization in Latin America, educational inequality was on the rise, peaking around the end of the 19th century. In comparison with other developing regions, Latin America then had the highest level of educational inequality, which is certainly a contributing factor for its current general high inequality. During the 20th century, however, educational inequality started decreasing.\n\nStandard of living \nLatin America has the highest levels of income inequality in the world. The following table lists all the countries in Latin America indicating a valuation of the country's Human Development Index, GDP at purchasing power parity per capita, measurement of inequality through the Gini index, measurement of poverty through the Human Poverty Index, a measure of extreme poverty based on people living on less than 1.25 dollars a day, life expectancy, murder rates and a measurement of safety through the Global Peace Index. Green cells indicate the best performance in each category, and red the lowest.\n\nDemographics\n\nLargest cities\nUrbanization accelerated starting in the mid-twentieth century, especially in capital cities, or in the case of Brazil, traditional economic and political hubs founded in the colonial era. In Mexico, the rapid growth and modernization in country's north has seen the growth of Monterrey, in Nuevo León. The following is a list of the ten largest metropolitan areas in Latin America. Entries in \"bold\" indicate they are ranked the highest.\n\nRace and ethnicity\n\nLatin American populations are diverse, with descendants of the Indigenous peoples, European whites, Africans initially brought as slaves, and Asians, as well as new immigrants. Mixing of groups was a fact of life at contact of the Old World and the New, but colonial regimes established legal and social discrimination against non-white populations simply on the basis of perceived ethnicity and skin color. Social class was usually linked to a person's racial category, with whites on top. During the colonial era, with a dearth initially of European women, European men and Indigenous women and African women produced what were considered mixed-race children. In Spanish America, the so-called Sociedad de castas or Sistema de castas was constructed by white elites to try to rationalize the processes at work. In the sixteenth century the Spanish crown sought to protect Indigenous populations from exploitation by white elites for their labor and land. The crown created the to paternalistically govern and protect Indigenous peoples. It also created the República de Españoles, which included not only European whites, but all non-Indigenous peoples, such as blacks, mulattoes, and mixed-race castas who were not dwelling in Indigenous communities. In the religious sphere, the Indigenous were deemed perpetual neophytes in the Catholic faith, which meant Indigenous men were not eligible to be ordained as Catholic priests; however, Indigenous were also excluded from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. Catholics saw military conquest and religious conquest as two parts of the assimilation of Indigenous populations, suppressing Indigenous religious practices and eliminating the Indigenous priesthood. Some worship continued underground. Jews and other non-Catholics, such as Protestants (all called \"Lutherans\") were banned from settling and were subject to the Inquisition. Considerable mixing of populations occurred in cities, while the countryside was largely Indigenous. At independence in the early nineteenth century, in many places in Spanish America formal racial and legal distinctions disappeared, although black slavery was not uniformly abolished.\n\nSignificant black populations exist in Brazil and Spanish Caribbean islands such as Cuba and Puerto Rico and the circum-Caribbean mainland (Venezuela, Colombia, Panama), as long as in the southern part of South America and Central America (Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua Ecuador, and Peru) a legacy of their use in plantations. All these areas had small white populations. In Brazil, coastal Indigenous peoples largely died out in the early sixteenth century, with Indigenous populations surviving far from cities, sugar plantations, and other European enterprises.\n\nDominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Brazil have dominate Mulatto/Triracial populations (\"Pardo\" in Brazil), in Brazil and Cuba, there is equally large white populations and smaller black populations, while Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are more Mulatto/Triracial dominated, with significant black and white minorities. Parts of Central America and northern South America are more diverse in that they are dominated by Mestizos and whites but also have large numbers of Mulattos, blacks, and indigenous, especially Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama. The southern cone region, Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile are completely dominated by whites and mestizos. Haiti and other areas in the French Caribbean are dominated mostly by blacks. The rest of Latin America, including México, northern Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras), and central South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay), are dominated by mestizos but also have large white and indigenous minorities.\n\nIn the nineteenth century, a number of Latin American countries sought immigrants from Europe and Asia. With the abolition of black slavery in 1888, the Brazilian monarchy fell in 1889. By then, another source of cheap labor to work on coffee plantations was found in Japan. Chinese male immigrants arrived in Cuba, Mexico, Peru and elsewhere. With political turmoil in Europe during the mid-nineteenth century and widespread poverty, Germans, Spaniards, and Italians immigrated to Latin America in large numbers, welcomed by Latin American governments both as a source of labor as well as a way to increase the size of their white populations. In Argentina, many Afro-Argentines married Europeans, so that in modern Argentina there is no discernible black population.\n\nIn twentieth-century Brazil, sociologist Gilberto Freyre proposed that Brazil was a \"racial democracy,\" with less discrimination against blacks than in the U.S. Subsequent research has shown that Brazilians also discriminate against darker citizens, and that whites remain the elites in the country. In Mexico, the Afro-Mexican population was largely written out of the national narrative of indigenismo, and Indigenous and especially mestizo populations were considered the true embodiment of Mexicanness (mexicanidad), \"the cosmic race\", according to Mexican intellectual José Vasconcelos. In Mexico, there was considerable discrimination against Asians, with calls for the expulsion of Chinese in northern Mexico during the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and racially motivated massacres.\nIn a number of Latin American countries, Indigenous groups have organized explicitly as Indigenous, to claim human rights and influence political power. With the passage of anti-colonial resolutions in the United Nations General Assembly and the signing of resolutions for Indigenous rights, the Indigenous are able to act to guarantee their existence within nation-states with legal standing.\n\nLanguage\n\nSpanish is the predominant language of Latin America. It is spoken as first language by about 60% of the population. Portuguese is spoken by about 30%, and about 10% speak other languages such as Quechua, Mayan languages, Guaraní, Aymara, Nahuatl, English, French, Dutch and Italian. Portuguese is spoken mostly in Brazil, the largest and most populous country in the region. Spanish is the official language of most of the other countries and territories on the Latin American mainland, as well as in Cuba and Puerto Rico (where it is co-official with English), and the Dominican Republic. French is spoken in Haiti and in the French overseas departments of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Guiana. It is also spoken by some Panamanians of Afro-Antillean descent. Dutch is the official language in Suriname, Aruba, Curaçao, and the Netherlands Antilles. (As Dutch is a Germanic language, the territories are not necessarily considered part of Latin America.) However, the native language of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, is Papiamento, a creole language largely based on Portuguese and Spanish that has had a considerable influence from Dutch and the Portuguese-based creole languages.\n\nAmerindian languages are widely spoken in Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico, and to a lesser degree, in Panama, Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, and Chile. In other Latin American countries, the population of speakers of Indigenous languages tend to be very small or even non-existent, for example in Uruguay. Mexico is possibly contains more Indigenous languages than any other Latin American country, but the most-spoken Indigenous language there is Nahuatl.\n\nIn Peru, Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and other Indigenous languages in the areas where they predominate. In Ecuador, while Quichua holds no official status, it is a recognized language under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia, Aymara, Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish. Guaraní, like Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population, which is, for the most part, bilingual, and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes. In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, but on the country's Caribbean coast English and Indigenous languages such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all Indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages. Nahuatl is one of the 62 Native languages spoken by Indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as \"national languages\" along with Spanish.\n\nOther European languages spoken in Latin America include: English, by half of the current population in Puerto Rico, as well as in nearby countries that may or may not be considered Latin American, like Belize and Guyana, and spoken by descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile. German is spoken in southern Brazil, southern Chile, portions of Argentina, Venezuela and Paraguay; Italian in Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay; Ukrainian, Polish, and Russian in southern Brazil and Argentina; and Welsh, in southern Argentina. Yiddish and Hebrew are possible to be heard around Buenos Aires and São Paulo especially. Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay, Korean in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Chile, Arabic in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile, and Chinese throughout South America. Countries like Venezuela, Argentina and Brazil have their own dialects or variations of German and Italian.\n\nIn several nations, especially in the Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. The most widely-spoken creole language in Latin America and the Caribbean is Haitian Creole, the predominant language of Haiti, derived primarily from French and certain West African tongues, with Amerindian, English, Portuguese and Spanish influences as well. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues.\n\nThe Garifuna language is spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Belize, mostly by the Garifuna people, a mixed-race Zambo people who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves. Primarily an Arawakan language, it has influences from Caribbean and European languages.\n\nArchaeologists have deciphered over 15 pre-Columbian distinct writing systems from Mesoamerican societies. Ancient Maya had the most sophisticated textually written language, but since texts were largely confined to the religious and administrative elite, traditions were passed down orally. Oral traditions also prevailed in other major Indigenous groups including, but not limited to the Aztecs and other Nahuatl speakers, Quechua and Aymara of the Andean regions, the Quiché of Central America, the Tupi-Guaraní in today's Brazil, the Guaraní in Paraguay and the Mapuche in Chile.\n\nReligion\n\nThe vast majority of Latin Americans are Christians (90%), mostly Roman Catholics belonging to the Latin Church. About 70% of the Latin American population considers itself Catholic. In 2012 Latin America constitutes in absolute terms the second world's largest Christian population, after Europe.\n\nAccording to the detailed Pew multi-country survey in 2014, 69% of the Latin American population is Catholic and 19% is Protestant. Protestants are 26% in Brazil and over 40% in much of Central America. More than half of these are converts from Roman Catholicism.\n\nMigration\n\nThe entire hemisphere was settled by migrants from Asia, Europe, and Africa. Native American populations settled throughout the hemisphere before the arrival of Europeans in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the forced migration of slaves from Africa.\n\nIn the post-independence period, a number of Latin American countries sought to attract European immigrants as a source of labor as well as to deliberately change the proportions of racial and ethnic groups within their borders. Chile, Argentina, and Brazil actively recruited labor from Catholic southern Europe, where populations were poor and sought better economic opportunities. Many nineteenth-century immigrants went to the United States and Canada, but a significant number arrived in Latin America. Although Mexico tried to attract immigrants, it largely failed. As black slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, coffee growers recruited Japanese migrants to work in coffee plantations. There is a significant population of Japanese descent in Brazil. Cuba and Peru recruited Chinese labor in the late nineteenth century. Some Chinese immigrants who were excluded from immigrating to the U.S. settled in northern Mexico. When the U.S. acquired its southwest by conquest in the Mexican American War, Latin American populations did not cross the border to the U.S., the border crossed them.\n\nIn the twentieth century there have been several types of migration. One is the movement of rural populations within a given country to cities in search of work, causing many Latin American cities to grow significantly. Another is international movement of populations, often fleeing repression or war. Other international migration is for economic reasons, often unregulated or undocumented. Mexicans immigrated to the U.S. during the violence of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and the religious Cristero War (1926–29); during World War II, Mexican men worked in the U.S. in the bracero program. Economic migration from Mexico followed the crash of the Mexican economy in the 1980s.\nSpanish refugees fled to Mexico following the fascist victory in the Spanish Civil War (1936–38), with some 50,000 exiles finding refuge at the invitation of President Lázaro Cárdenas. Following World War II a larger wave of refugees to Latin America, many of them Jews, settled in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, and Venezuela. Some were only transiting through the region, but others stayed and created communities. A number of Nazis escaped to Latin America, living under assumed names, in an attempting to avoid attention and prosecution.\n\nIn the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution, middle class and elite Cubans moved to the U.S., particularly to Florida. Some fled Chile for the U.S. and Europe after the 1973 military coup. Colombians migrated to Spain and the United Kingdom during the region's political turmoil, compounded by the rise of narcotrafficking and guerrilla warfare. During the Central American wars of the 1970s to the 1990s, many Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans migrated to the U.S. to escape narcotrafficking, gangs, and poverty. As living conditions deteriorated in Venezuela under Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro, many left for neighboring Colombia and Ecuador. In the 1990s, economic stress in Ecuador during the La Década Perdida triggered considerable migration to Spain and to the U.S.\n\nSome Latin American countries seek to strengthen links between migrants and their states of origin, while promoting their integration in the receiving state. These emigrant policies focus on the rights, obligations and opportunities for participation of emigrated citizens who already live outside the borders of the country of origin. Research on Latin America shows that the extension of policies towards migrants is linked to a focus on civil rights and state benefits that can positively influence integration in recipient countries. In addition, the tolerance of dual citizenship has spread more in Latin America than in any other region of the world.\n\nEducation\n\nDespite significant progress, education access and school completion remains unequal in Latin America. The region has made great progress in educational coverage; almost all children attend primary school, and access to secondary education has increased considerably. Quality issues such as poor teaching methods, lack of appropriate equipment, and overcrowding exist throughout the region. These issues lead to adolescents dropping out of the educational system early. Most educational systems in the region have implemented various types of administrative and institutional reforms that have enabled reach for places and communities that had no access to education services in the early 1990s. School meal programs are also employed to expand access to education, and at least 23 countries in the Latin America and Caribbean region have large-scale school feeding activities, altogether reaching 88% of primary school-age children in the region. Compared to prior generations, Latin American youth have seen an increase in their levels of education. On average, they have completed two more years of school than their parents.\n\nHowever, there are still 23 million children in the region between the ages of 4 and 17 outside of the formal education system. Estimates indicate that 30% of preschool age children (ages 4–5) do not attend school, and for the most vulnerable populations, the poor and rural, this proportion exceeds 40 percent. Among primary school age children (ages 6 to 12), attendance is almost universal; however there is still a need to enroll five million more children in the primary education system. These children mostly live in remote areas, are Indigenous or Afro-descendants and live in extreme poverty.\n\nAmong people between the ages of 13 and 17 years, only 80% are full-time students, and only 66% of these advance to secondary school. These percentages are lower among vulnerable population groups: only 75% of the poorest youth between the ages of 13 and 17 years attend school. Tertiary education has the lowest coverage, with only 70% of people between the ages of 18 and 25 years outside of the education system. Currently, more than half of low income or rural children fail to complete nine years of education.\n\nCrime and violence\n\nLatin America and the Caribbean have been cited by numerous sources to be the most dangerous regions in the world. Studies have shown that Latin America contains the majority of the world's most dangerous cities. Many analysts attribute this to social and income inequality in the region. Many agree that the prison crisis will not be resolved until the gap between the rich and the poor is addressed.\n\nCrime and violence prevention and public security are now important issues for governments and citizens in Latin America and the Caribbean region. Homicide rates in Latin America are the highest in the world. From the early 1980s through the mid-1990s, homicide rates increased by 50 percent. Latin America and the Caribbean experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017. There were a total of 63,880 murders in Brazil in 2018.\n\nThe most frequent victims of such homicides are young men, 69 percent of them between the ages of 15 and 19. Countries with the highest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants in 2015 were: El Salvador 109, Honduras 64, Venezuela 57, Jamaica 43, Belize 34.4, St. Kitts and Nevis 34, Guatemala 34, Trinidad and Tobago 31, the Bahamas 30, Brazil 26.7, Colombia 26.5, the Dominican Republic 22, St. Lucia 22, Guyana 19, Mexico 16, Puerto Rico 16, Ecuador 13, Grenada 13, Costa Rica 12, Bolivia 12, Nicaragua 12, Panama 11, Antigua and Barbuda 11, and Haiti 10. Most of the countries with the highest homicide rates are in Africa and Latin America. Countries in Central America, like El Salvador and Honduras, top the list of homicides in the world.\n\nBrazil has more overall homicides than any country in the world, at 50,108, accounting for one in 10 globally. Crime-related violence is the biggest threat to public health in Latin America, striking more victims than HIV/AIDS or any other infectious disease. Countries with the lowest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants as of 2015 were: Chile 3, Peru 7, Argentina 7, Uruguay 8 and Paraguay 9.\n\nPublic health\n\nWater\n\nReproductive rights\n\nHIV/AIDS\n\nEconomy\n\nSize\n\nAccording to Goldman Sachs' BRICS review of emerging economies, by 2050 the largest economies in the world will be as follows: China, United States, India, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, Mexico and Brazil.\n\nAgriculture\n\nThe four countries with the strongest agricultural sector in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia. Currently:\n\n Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugarcane, soy, coffee, oranges, guaraná, açaí and Brazil nut; is one of the top five producers of maize, papaya, tobacco, pineapple, banana, cotton, beans, coconut, watermelon, lemon and yerba mate; is one of the top ten world producers of cocoa, cashew, avocado, tangerine, persimmon, mango, guava, rice, oat, sorghum and tomato; and is one of the top 15 world producers of grapes, apples, melons, peanuts, figs, peaches, onions, palm oil and natural rubber;\n Argentina is the world's largest producer of yerba mate; is one of the five largest producers in the world of soy, maize, sunflower seeds, lemons and pears, one of the 10 largest producers in the world of barley, grapes, artichokes, tobacco and cotton, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of wheat, oats, chickpeas, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit;\n Chile is one of the five largest world producers of cherries and cranberries, and one of the ten largest world producers of grapes, apples, kiwi, peaches, plums and hazelnuts, focusing on exporting high-value fruits;\n Colombia is one of the five largest producers in the world of coffee, avocados and palm oil, and one of the ten largest producers in the world of sugarcane, bananas, pineapples and cocoa;\n Peru is the world's largest producer of quinoa; is one of the five largest producers of avocados, blueberry, artichokes and asparagus; one of the ten largest producers in the world of coffee and cocoa; one of the 15 largest producers in the world of potatoes and pineapples, and also has a large production of grapes, sugarcane, rice, bananas, maize and cassava; its agriculture is considerably diversified;\n Paraguay is currently the 6th largest producer of soy in the world and entering the list of the 20 largest producers of maize and sugarcane.\n\nIn Central America, the following stand out:\n Guatemala is one of the ten largest producers in the world of coffee, sugar cane, melons and natural rubber, and one of the world's 15 largest producers of bananas and palm oil;\n Honduras is one of the five largest producers of coffee in the world, and one of the ten largest producers of palm oil;\n Costa Rica is the world's largest producer of pineapples;\n Dominican Republic is one of the world's top five producers of papayas and avocados, and one of the ten largest producers of cocoa.\n Mexico is the world's largest producer of avocados, one of the world's top five producers of Chile, lemons, oranges, mangos, papayas, strawberries, grapefruit, pumpkins and asparagus, and one of the world's 10 largest producers of sugar cane, maize, sorghum, beans, tomatoes, coconuts, pineapple, melons and blueberries.\n\nBrazil is the world's largest exporter of chicken meat: 3.77 million tons in 2019. The country had the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22.2% of the world herd. The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15.4% of global production. It was also the third largest world producer of milk in 2018. This year, the country produced 35.1 billion liters. In 2019, Brazil was the fourth largest pork producer in the world, with almost four million tons.\n\nIn 2018, Argentina was the fourth largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tons (behind only United States, Brazil and China). Uruguay is also a major meat producer. In 2018, it produced 589 thousand tons of beef.\n\nIn the production of chicken meat, Mexico is among the ten largest producers in the world, Argentina among the 15 largest and Peru and Colombia among the 20 largest. In beef production, Mexico is one of the ten largest producers in the world and Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers. In the production of pork, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world. In the production of honey, Argentina is among the five largest producers in the world, Mexico among the ten largest and Brazil among the 15 largest. In terms of cow's milk production, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world and Argentina among the 20 largest.\n\nMining and petroleum\n\nMining is one of the most important economic sectors in Latin America, especially for Chile, Peru and Bolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector. The continent has large productions of:\ngold (mainly in Peru, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina); \nsilver (mainly in Mexico, Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina); \ncopper (mainly in Chile, Peru, Mexico and Brazil); \niron ore (Brazil, Peru and Chile); \nzinc (Peru, Mexico, Bolivia and Brazil); \nmolybdenum (Chile, Peru and Mexico); \nlithium (Chile, Argentina and Brazil); \nlead (Peru, Mexico and Bolivia); \nbauxite (Brazil and Jamaica); \ntin (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil); \nmanganese (Brazil and Mexico); \nantimony (Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala and Ecuador); \nnickel (Brazil, Dominican Republic and Cuba); \nniobium (Brazil); \nrhenium (Chile); \niodine (Chile),\n\nBrazil stands out in the extraction of \niron ore (where it is the 2nd largest producer and exporter in the world—iron ore is usually one of the three export products that generate the greatest value in the country's trade balance)\ncopper\ngold\nbauxite (one of the five largest producers in the world)\nmanganese (one of the five largest producers in the world)\ntin (one of the largest producers in the world)\nniobium (98% of known world reserves) and \nnickel\n\nIn terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethysts, topaz, and agates and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emeralds, aquamarines, garnets and opals.\n\nChile contributes about a third of the world's copper production. In addition, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth-largest producer of sulfur and the thirteenth largest producer of iron ore in the world.\n\nIn 2019, Peru was the second largest world producer of copper and silver, 8th largest world producer of gold, third largest world producer of lead, second largest world producer of zinc, fourth largest world producer of tin, fifth largest world producer of boron, and fourth largest world producer of molybdenum.\n\nIn 2019, Bolivia was the eighth largest world producer of silver; fourth largest world producer of boron; fifth largest world producer of antimony; fifth largest world producer of tin; sixth largest world producer of tungsten; seventh largest producer of zinc, and the eighth largest producer of lead.\n\nIn 2019, Mexico was the world's largest producer of silver (representing almost 23% of world production, producing more than 200 million ounces in 2019); ninth largest producer of gold, the eighth largest producer of copper, the world's fifth largest producer of lead, the world's sixth largest producer of zinc, the world's fifth largest producer of molybdenum, the world's third largest producer of mercury, the world's fifth largest producer of bismuth, the world's 13th largest producer of manganese and the 23rd largest world producer of phosphate. It is also the eighth largest world producer of salt.\n\nIn 2019, Argentina was the fourth largest world producer of lithium, the ninth largest world producer of silver, the 17th largest world producer of gold and the seventh largest world producer of boron.\n\nColombia is the world's largest producer of emeralds. In the production of gold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons. The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world. In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15,5 tons.\n\nIn the production of oil, Brazil was the tenth largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels a day. Mexico was the twelfth largest, with 2.1 million barrels a day, Colombia in 20th place with 886 thousand barrels a day, Venezuela was the twenty-first place, with 877 thousand barrels a day, Ecuador in 28th with 531 thousand barrels a day and Argentina. 29th with 507 thousand barrels a day. Since Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part of OPEC. Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (when it produced 2.5 million barrels a day), falling in 2016 to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investment.\n\nIn the production of natural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1,524 bcf (billions of cubic feet), Mexico produced 999, Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379.\n\nIn the production of coal, the continent had three of the 30 largest world producers in 2018: Colombia (12th), Mexico (24th) and Brazil (27th).\n\nManufacturing\n\nThe World Bank annually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value. According to the 2019 list:\nMexico had the twelfth most valuable industry in the world (US$217.8 billion)\nBrazil the thirteenth largest (US$173.6 billion)\nVenezuela the thirtieth largest (US$58.2 billion, however, it depends on oil to reach this value)\nArgentina the 31st largest (US$57.7 billion)\nColombia the 46th largest (US$35.4 billion)\nPeru the 50th largest (US$28.7 billion) \nChile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion).\n\nIn Latin America, few countries stand out in industrial activity: Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and, less prominently, Chile. Begun late, the industrialization of these countries received a great boost from World War II: this prevented the countries at war from buying the products they were used to importing and exporting what they produced. At that time, benefiting from the abundant local raw material, the low wages paid to the labor force and a certain specialization brought by immigrants, countries such as Brazil, Mexico and Argentina, as well as Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and Peru, were able to implement important industrial parks. In general, in these countries there are industries that require little capital and simple technology for their installation, such as the food processing and textile industries. The basic industries (steel, etc.) also stand out, as well as the metallurgical and mechanical industries.\n\nThe industrial parks of Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and Chile, however, present much greater diversity and sophistication, producing advanced technology items. In the rest of Latin American countries, mainly in Central America, the processing industries of primary products for export predominate.\n\nIn the food industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world. In 2016, the country was the second largest producer of pulp in the world and the eighth largest producer of paper. In the footwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked fourth among world producers. In 2019, the country was the eighth largest producer of vehicles and the ninth largest producer of steel in the world. In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the eighth largest in the world. In the textile industry, Brazil, although it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated into world trade. In the aviation sector, Brazil has Embraer, the third largest aircraft manufacturer in the world, behind Boeing and Airbus.\n\nInfrastructure\n\nTransport in Latin America is basically carried out using the road mode, the most developed in the region. There is also a considerable infrastructure of ports and airports. The railway and fluvial sector, although it has potential, is usually treated in a secondary way.\n\nBrazil has more than 1.7 million km of roads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km are divided highways. The two most important highways in the country are BR-101 and BR-116. Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways. The three most important highways in the country are Route 9, Route 7 and Route 14. Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways. Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways. The most important highway in the country is the Route 5 (Pan-American Highway) These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways, in South America.\n\nThe roadway network in Mexico has an extent of , of which are paved, Of these, are multi-lane expressways: are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.\n\nDue to the Andes Mountains, Amazon River and Amazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing transcontinental or bioceanic highways. Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, in Argentina and later to Santiago, in Chile. However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor).\n\nThere are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil. The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States. São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world. Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those in Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, Florianópolis, Cuiabá, Salvador, Recife, Fortaleza, Belém and Manaus, among others. Argentina has important international airports such as Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Bariloche, Mendoza, Salta, Puerto Iguazú, Neuquén and Usuhaia, among others. Chile has important international airports such as Santiago, Antofagasta, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas and Iquique, among others. Colombia has important international airports such as Bogotá, Medellín, Cartagena, Cali and Barranquilla, among others. Peru has important international airports such as Lima, Cuzco and Arequipa. Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito). The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil).\n\nThere are 1,834 airports in Mexico, the third-largest number of airports by country in the world. The seven largest airports—which absorb 90% of air travel—are (in order of air traffic): Mexico City, Cancún, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Tijuana, Acapulco, and Puerto Vallarta. Considering all of Latin America, the 10 busiest airports in 2017 were: Mexico City (Mexico), São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), Cancún (Mexico), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago ( Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasilia (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and Tocumen (Panama).\n\nAbout ports, Brazil has some of the busiest ports in South America, such as Port of Santos, Port of Rio de Janeiro, Port of Paranaguá, Port of Itajaí, Port of Rio Grande, Port of São Francisco do Sul and Suape Port. Argentina has ports such as Port of Buenos Aires and Port of Rosario. Chile has important ports in Valparaíso, Caldera, Mejillones, Antofagasta, Iquique, Arica and Puerto Montt. Colombia has important ports such as Buenaventura, Cartagena Container Terminal and Puerto Bolivar. Peru has important ports in Callao, Ilo and Matarani. The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).\n\nThe four major seaports concentrating around 60% of the merchandise traffic in Mexico are Altamira and Veracruz in the Gulf of Mexico, and Manzanillo and Lázaro Cárdenas in the Pacific Ocean. Considering all of Latin America, the 10 largest ports in terms of movement are: Colon (Panama), Santos (Brazil), Manzanillo (Mexico), Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Pacifico (Panama), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil ( Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile) and Buenaventura (Colombia).\n\nThe Brazilian railway network has an extension of about 30,000 kilometers. It is basically used for transporting ores. The Argentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America. It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it. It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay. Chile has almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Colombia has only about 3,500 km of railways.\n\nAmong the main Brazilian waterways, two stand out: Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná (which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas General) and Hidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas (it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km. Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus). In Brazil, this transport is still underutilized: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country. Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration. In Argentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river ports are Zárate and Campana. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country.\n\nEnergy\n\nBrazil\n\nThe Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Production manages to supply the country's demand. In the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.\n\nBrazil is one of the main world producers of hydroelectric power. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation. In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric).\n\nIn 2013, the Southeast Region used about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country. The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity. The hydroelectric generation represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% corresponding basically to the thermoelectric generation. São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais by about 25%; Rio de Janeiro by 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest. The South Region owns the Itaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration of Three Gorges Dam in China. It remains the second largest operating hydroelectric in the world. Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant with Paraguay: the dam is located on the Paraná River, located on the border between countries. It has an installed generation capacity of 14 GW for 20 generating units of 700 MW each. North Region has large hydroelectric plants, such as Belo Monte Dam and Tucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy. Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory.\n\n according to ONS, total installed capacity of wind power was 22 GW, with average capacity factor of 58%. While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%; the average capacity factor in the Northeast Region is 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior. In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country. In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand. In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW), and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, USA and Germany.\n\nNuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity. The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced by two reactors at Angra. It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna in Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. It consists of two pressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished.\n\n according to ONS, total installed capacity of photovoltaic solar was 21 GW, with average capacity factor of 23%. Some of the most irradiated Brazilian States are MG (\"Minas Gerais\"), BA (\"Bahia\") and GO (Goiás), which have indeed world irradiation level records. In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country. In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW), and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh).\n\nIn 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy through biomass (energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed.\n\nOther countries\nAfter Brazil, Mexico is the country in Latin America that most stands out in energy production. In 2020, the country was the 14th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2018 it was the 12th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 21st largest producer in the world, and in 2007 it was the 29th largest exporter. Mexico was also the world's 24th largest producer of coal in 2018. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 14th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (8.1 GW), 20th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (5.6 GW) and 19th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). In third place, Colombia stands out: In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world. Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point. The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW). Argentina was, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW). The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region. Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region. Paraguay stands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant. Trinidad and Tobago and Bolivia stand out in the production of natural gas, where they were, respectively, the 20th and 31st largest in the world in 2015. Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014.\n\nTrade blocs\n\nThe major trade blocs (or agreements) in the region are the Pacific Alliance and Mercosur. Minor blocs or trade agreements are the G3 Free Trade Agreement, the Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Andean Community of Nations (CAN). However, major reconfigurations are taking place along opposing approaches to integration and trade; Venezuela has officially withdrawn from both the CAN and G3 and it has been formally admitted into the Mercosur (pending ratification from the Paraguayan legislature). The president-elect of Ecuador has manifested his intentions of following the same path. This bloc nominally opposes any Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States, although Uruguay has manifested its intention otherwise. Chile, Peru, Colombia and Mexico are the only four Latin American nations that have an FTA with the United States and Canada, both members of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).\n\nChina \nChina's economic influence in Latin America increased substantially in the 21st century. Imports from China valued $8.3B in 2000, but by 2019, its value was $184.2B and had grown to be the region's largest trading partner. In particular, many of the investments are related to the Belt and Road Initiative or energy. China has also provided loans to several Latin American countries; this has raised concerns about the possibility of \"debt traps.\" Specifically, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, and Argentina received the most loans from China during 2005-2016.\n\nTourism\n\nIncome from tourism is key to the economy of several Latin American countries. Mexico is the only Latin American country to be ranked in the top 10 worldwide in the number of tourist visits. It received by far the largest number of international tourists, with 39.3 million visitors in 2017, followed by Argentina, with 6.7 million; then Brazil, with 6.6 million; Chile, with 6.5 million; Dominican Republic, with 6.2 million; Cuba with 4.3 million; Peru and Colombia with 4.0 million. The World Tourism Organization reports the following destinations as the top six tourism earners for the year 2017: Mexico, with US$21,333 million; the Dominican Republic, with US$7,178 million; Brazil, with US$6,024 million; Colombia, with US$4,773 million; Argentina, with US$4,687 million; and Panama, with US$4,258 million.\n\nPlaces such as Cancún, Riviera Maya, Chichen Itza, Cabo San Lucas, Mexico City, Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Guanajuato City, San Miguel de Allende, Guadalajara in Mexico, Punta Cana, Santo Domingo in Dominican Republic, Punta del Este in Uruguay, Labadee in Haiti, San Juan, Ponce in Puerto Rico, Panama City in Panama, Poás Volcano National Park in Costa Rica, Viña del Mar in Chile, Rio de Janeiro, Florianópolis, Iguazu Falls, São Paulo, Armação dos Búzios, Salvador, Bombinhas, Angra dos Reis, Balneário Camboriú, Paraty, Ipojuca, Natal, Cairu, Fortaleza and Itapema in Brazil; Buenos Aires, Bariloche, Salta, Jujuy, Perito Moreno Glacier, Valdes Peninsula, Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes, Ischigualasto Provincial Park, Ushuaia and Patagonia in Argentina;\nIsla Margarita, Angel Falls, Los Roques archipelago, Gran Sabana in Venezuela; Machu Picchu, Lima, Nazca Lines, Cuzco in Peru; Lake Titicaca, Salar de Uyuni, La Paz, Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos in Bolivia; Tayrona National Natural Park, Santa Marta, Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, Cartagena, San Andrés in Colombia, and the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador. are popular among international visitors in the region.\n\n(*) Data for 2015 rather than 2017, as the newest data is currently unavailable.\n\nCulture\n\nLatin American culture is a mixture of many influences:\n\n Indigenous cultures of the people who inhabited the continent prior to European colonization. Ancient and advanced civilizations developed their own political, social and religious systems. The Maya, the Aztec and the Inca are examples of these. Indigenous legacies in music, dance, foods, arts and crafts, clothing, folk culture and traditions are strong in Latin America. Indigenous languages affected Spanish and Portuguese, giving rise to loanwords like pampa, taco, tamale, cacique.\n The culture of Europe was brought mainly by the colonial powersthe Spanish, Portuguese and Frenchbetween the 16th and 19th centuries. The most enduring European colonial influences are language and Catholicism. Additional cultural influences came from the United States and Europe during the 19th and 20th centuries, due to the growing influence of the former on the world stage and immigration from the latter. The influence of the United States is particularly strong in northern Latin America, especially Puerto Rico, which is an American territory. Prior to 1959, Cuba, which fought for its independence with American aid in the Spanish–American War, also had a close political and economic relationship with the United States. The United States also helped Panama become independent from Colombia and built the twenty-mile-long Panama Canal Zone in Panama, which it held from 1903 — the Panama Canal opened to transoceanic freight traffic in 1914 — to 1999, when the Torrijos-Carter Treaties restored Panamanian control of the Canal Zone. South America experienced waves of immigration of Europeans, especially Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Germans, Austrians, Poles, Ukrainians, French, Dutch, Russians, Croatians, Lithuanians, and Ashkenazi Jews. With the end of colonialism, French culture also exerted a direct influence in Latin America, especially in the realms of high culture, science and medicine. This can be seen in the region's artistic traditions, including painting, literature, and music, and in the realms of science and politics. \n Due to the impact of Enlightenment ideals after the French revolution, a certain number of Iberian American countries decriminalized homosexuality after France and French territories in the Americas did so in 1791. Some of the countries that abolished sodomy laws or banned state interference in consensual adult sexuality in the 19th century were Dominican Republic (1822), Brazil (1824), Peru (1836), Mexico (1871), Paraguay (1880), Argentina (1887), Honduras (1899), Guatemala, and El Salvador. Today same-sex marriage is legal in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Uruguay, and French overseas departments. Civil unions can be held in Chile.\n African cultures, whose presence stems from a long history of the Atlantic slave trade. People of African descent have influenced the ethno-scapes of Latin America and the Caribbean. This is manifested for instance in music, dance and religion, especially in countries like Brazil, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Haiti, Honduras, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, and Cuba.\n Asian cultures, whose part of the presence derives from the long history of the coolies who mostly arrived during the 19th and 20th centuries, most commonly Chinese workers in Peru and Venezuela, but also from Japanese and Korean immigration. especially headed to Brazil. This has greatly affected cuisine and other traditions including literature, art and lifestyles and politics. Asian influences have especially affected Brazil, Cuba, Panama and Peru.\n\nArt\n\nBeyond the tradition of Indigenous art, the development of Latin American visual art owed much to the influence of Spanish, Portuguese and French Baroque painting, which in turn often followed the trends of the Italians. In general, artistic Eurocentrism began to wane in the early twentieth century with the increased appreciation for indigenous forms of representation.\n\nFrom the early twentieth century, the art of Latin America was greatly inspired by the Constructivist Movement. The movement rapidly spread from Russia to Europe and then into Latin America. Joaquín Torres García and Manuel Rendón have been credited with bringing the Constructivist Movement into Latin America from Europe.\n\nAn important artistic movement generated in Latin America is muralism represented by Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco and Rufino Tamayo in Mexico, Santiago Martinez Delgado and Pedro Nel Gómez in Colombia and Antonio Berni in Argentina. Some of the most impressive Muralista works can be found in Mexico, Colombia, New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Philadelphia.\n\nPainter Frida Kahlo, one of the most famous Mexican artists, painted about her own life and the Mexican culture in a style combining Realism, Symbolism and Surrealism. Kahlo's work commands the highest selling price of all Latin American paintings.\n\nThe Venezuelan Armando Reverón, whose work begins to be recognized internationally, is one of the most important artists of the 20th century in South America; he is a precursor of Arte Povera and Happening. In the 60s kinetic art emerged in Venezuela. Its main representatives are Jesús Soto, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Alejandro Otero and Gego.\n\nColombian sculptor and painter Fernando Botero is also widely known for his works which, on first examination, are noted for their exaggerated proportions and the corpulence of the human and animal figures.\n\nThe Ecuadorian Oswaldo Guayasamín, considered one of the most important and seminal artists in Ecuador and South America. In his life, he made over 13,000 paintings and held more than 180 exhibitions all over the world, including Paris, Barcelona, New York, Buenos Aires, Moscow, Prague, and Rome. He brought his unique style of expressionism and cubism to the collection of Ecuador artwork during the Age of Anger which relates to the period of the Cold War when the United States opposed communist presence in South America. Social criticism of human and social inequality was central to his artwork.\n\nFilm\n\nLatin American film is both rich and diverse. Historically, the main centers of production have been Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Cuba. Latin American film flourished after sound was introduced in cinema, which added a linguistic barrier to the export of Hollywood film south of the border.\n\nMexican cinema began in the silent era from 1896 to 1929 and flourished in the Golden Era of the 1940s. It boasted a huge industry comparable to Hollywood at the time, with stars such as María Félix, Dolores del Río, and Pedro Infante. In the 1970s, Mexico was the location for many cult horror and action movies. More recently, films such as Amores Perros (2000) and Y tu mamá también (2001) enjoyed box office and critical acclaim and propelled Alfonso Cuarón and Alejandro González Iñárritu to the front rank of Hollywood directors. Iñárritu in 2010 directed Biutiful and Birdman (2014), Alfonso Cuarón directed Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban in 2004 and Gravity in 2013. A close friend of both, Guillermo del Toro, a top rank Hollywood director in Hollywood and Spain, directed Pan's Labyrinth (2006) and produced El Orfanato (2007). Carlos Carrera (The Crime of Father Amaro), and screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga are also some of the best known modern Mexican film makers. Rudo y Cursi released in December (2008) in Mexico, was directed by Carlos Cuarón.\n\nArgentine cinema has also been prominent since the first half of the 20th century and today averages over 60 full-length titles yearly. The industry suffered during the 1976–1983 military dictatorship; but re-emerged to produce the Academy Award winner The Official Story in 1985. A wave of imported US films again damaged the industry in the early 1990s, though it soon recovered, thriving even during the Argentine economic crisis around 2001. Many Argentine movies produced during recent years have been internationally acclaimed, including Nueve reinas (2000), Son of the Bride (2001), El abrazo partido (2004), El otro (2007), the 2010 Foreign Language Academy Award winner El secreto de sus ojos and Wild Tales (2014).\n\nIn Brazil, the Cinema Novo movement created a particular way of making movies with critical and intellectual screenplays, clearer photography related to the light of the outdoors in a tropical landscape, and a political message. The modern Brazilian film industry has become more profitable inside the country, and some of its productions have received prizes and recognition in Europe and the United States, with movies such as Central do Brasil (1999), Cidade de Deus (2002) and Tropa de Elite (2007).\n\nPuerto Rican cinema has produced some notable films, such as Una Aventura Llamada Menudo, Los Diaz de Doris and Casi Casi. An influx of Hollywood films affected the local film industry in Puerto Rico during the 1980s and 1990s, but several Puerto Rican films have been produced since and it has been recovering.\n\nCuban cinema has enjoyed much official support since the Cuban revolution and important film-makers include Tomás Gutiérrez Alea.\n\nVenezuelan television has also had a great impact in Latin America, is said that whilst \"Venezuelan cinema began sporadically in the 1950s[, it] only emerged as a national-cultural movement in the mid-1970s\" when it gained state support and auteurs could produce work. International co-productions with Latin America and Spain continued into this era and beyond, and Venezuelan films of this time were counted among the works of New Latin American Cinema. This period is known as Venezuela's Golden Age of cinema, having massive popularity even though it was a time of much social and political upheaval.\n\nOne of the most famous Venezuelan films, even to date, is the 1976 film Soy un delincuente by Clemente de la Cerda, which won the Special Jury Prize at the 1977 Locarno International Film Festival. Soy un delincuente was one of nine films for which the state gave substantial funding to produce, made in the year after the Venezuelan state began giving financial support to cinema in 1975. The support likely came from increased oil wealth in the early 1970s, and the subsequent 1973 credit incentive policy. At the time of its production the film was the most popular film in the country, and took a decade to be usurped from this position, even though it was only one in a string of films designed to tell social realist stories of struggle in the 1950s and '60s. Equally famous is the 1977 film El Pez que Fuma (Román Chalbaud). In 1981 FONCINE (the Venezuelan Film Fund) was founded, and this year it provided even more funding to produce seventeen feature films. A few years later in 1983 with Viernes Negro, oil prices dropped and Venezuela entered a depression which prevented such extravagant funding, but film production continued; more transnational productions occurred, many more with Spain due to Latin America's poor economic fortune in general, and there was some in new cinema, as well: Fina Torres' 1985 Oriana won the Caméra d'Or Prize at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival as the best first feature. Film production peaked in 1984–5,:37 with 1986 considered Venezuelan cinema's most successful year by the state, thanks to over 4 million admissions to national films, according to Venezuelanalysis. The Venezuelan capital of Caracas hosted the Ibero-American Forum on Cinematography Integration in 1989, from which the pan-continental IBERMEDIA was formed; a union which provides regional funding.\n\nLiterature\n\nPre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral, although the Aztecs and Maya, for instance, produced elaborate codices. Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with the Popol Vuh. Moreover, a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day, for instance among the Quechua-speaking population of Peru and the Quiché (K'iche') of Guatemala.\n\nFrom the very moment of Europe's discovery of the continents, early explorers and conquistadores produced written accounts and crónicas of their experiencesuch as Columbus's letters or Bernal Díaz del Castillo's description of the conquest of Mexico. During the colonial period, written culture was often in the hands of the church, within which context Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz wrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays. Towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, a distinctive criollo literary tradition emerged, including the first novels such as Lizardi's El Periquillo Sarniento (1816).\n\nThe 19th century was a period of \"foundational fictions\" in critic Doris Sommer's words, novels in the Romantic or Naturalist traditions that attempted to establish a sense of national identity, and which often focussed on the Indigenous question or the dichotomy of \"civilization or barbarism\" (for which see, say, Domingo Sarmiento's Facundo (1845), Juan León Mera's Cumandá (1879), or Euclides da Cunha's Os Sertões (1902)). The 19th century also witnessed the realist work of Machado de Assis, who made use of surreal devices of metaphor and playful narrative construction, much admired by critic Harold Bloom.\n\nAt the turn of the 20th century, modernismo emerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío's Azul (1888). This was the first Latin American literary movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer so much at issue. José Martí, for instance, though a Cuban patriot, also lived in Mexico and the United States and wrote for journals in Argentina and elsewhere.\n\nHowever, what really put Latin American literature on the global map was no doubt the literary boom of the 1960s and 1970s, distinguished by daring and experimental novels (such as Julio Cortázar's Rayuela (1963)) that were frequently published in Spain and quickly translated into English. The Boom's defining novel was Gabriel García Márquez's Cien años de soledad (1967), which led to the association of Latin American literature with magic realism, though other important writers of the period such as the Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa and Carlos Fuentes do not fit so easily within this framework. Arguably, the Boom's culmination was Augusto Roa Bastos's monumental Yo, el supremo (1974). In the wake of the Boom, influential precursors such as Juan Rulfo, Alejo Carpentier, and above all Jorge Luis Borges were also rediscovered.\n\nContemporary literature in the region is vibrant and varied, ranging from the best-selling Paulo Coelho and Isabel Allende to the more avant-garde and critically acclaimed work of writers such as Diamela Eltit, Giannina Braschi, Ricardo Piglia, or Roberto Bolaño. There has also been considerable attention paid to the genre of testimonio, texts produced in collaboration with subaltern subjects such as Rigoberta Menchú. Finally, a new breed of chroniclers is represented by the more journalistic Carlos Monsiváis and Pedro Lemebel.\n\nThe region boasts six Nobel Prize winners: in addition to the two Chilean poets Gabriela Mistral (1945) and Pablo Neruda (1971), there is also the Guatemalan novelist Miguel Ángel Asturias (1967), the Colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez (1982), the Mexican poet and essayist Octavio Paz (1990), and the Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa (2010).\n\nMusic and dance\n\nLatin America has produced many successful worldwide artists in terms of recorded global music sales. Among the most successful have been Juan Gabriel (Mexico) only Latin American musician to have sold over 200 million records worldwide, Gloria Estefan (Cuba), Carlos Santana, Luis Miguel (Mexico) of whom have sold over 90 million records, Shakira (Colombia) and Vicente Fernández (Mexico) with over 50 million records sold worldwide. Enrique Iglesias, although not a Latin American, has also contributed for the success of Latin music.\n\nOther notable successful mainstream acts through the years, include RBD, Celia Cruz, Soda Stereo, Thalía, Ricky Martin, Maná, Marc Anthony, Ricardo Arjona, Selena, and Menudo.\n\nLatin Caribbean music, such as merengue, bachata, salsa, and more recently reggaeton, from such countries as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Panama, has been strongly influenced by African rhythms and melodies. Haiti's compas is a genre of music that is influenced by its Latin Caribbean counterparts, along with elements of jazz and modern sounds. The French Antillean zouk (derived from Haitian compas) is a musical style originating from the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique and popularized by the French Antillean Creole band Kassav' in the early 1980s then became popular mainly in the Caribbean islands of Saint Lucia, Dominica, and Haiti, all in the French Antilles (French West Indies). \n\nAnother well-known Latin American musical genre includes the Argentine and Uruguayan tango (with Carlos Gardel as the greatest exponent), as well as the distinct nuevo tango, a fusion of tango, acoustic and electronic music popularized by bandoneón virtuoso Ástor Piazzolla. Samba, North American jazz, European classical music and choro combined to form bossa nova in Brazil, popularized by guitarist João Gilberto with singer Astrud Gilberto and pianist Antonio Carlos Jobim.\n\nOther influential Latin American sounds include the Antillean soca and calypso, Dennery segment which is a style of Soca music developed in Saint Lucia in the early 2010s which came from Kuduro music, Zouk influence and Lucian drums alongside lyrics usually sung in French Antillean Creole Kwéyòl , Bouyon music is a mixture of Soca, Zouk, and traditional genres native to Dominica which is sung in French Antillean Creole and is one of the most popular musical genres in Dominica, the Honduran (Garifuna) punta, the Colombian cumbia and vallenato, the Chilean cueca, the Ecuadorian boleros, and rockoleras, the Mexican ranchera and the mariachi which is the epitome of Mexican soul, the Nicaraguan palo de Mayo, the Peruvian marinera and tondero, the Uruguayan candombe and the various styles of music from pre-Columbian traditions that are widespread in the Andean region.\n\nThe classical composer Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) worked on the recording of Native musical traditions within his homeland of Brazil. The traditions of his homeland heavily influenced his classical works. Also notable is the recent work of the Cuban Leo Brouwer, Uruguayan-American Miguel del Águila, guitar works of the Venezuelan Antonio Lauro and the Paraguayan Agustín Barrios. Latin America has also produced world-class classical performers such as the Chilean pianist Claudio Arrau, Brazilian pianist Nelson Freire and the Argentine pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim. Brazilian opera soprano Bidu Sayão, one of Brazil's most famous musicians, was a leading artist of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City from 1937 to 1952.\n\nArguably, the main contribution to music entered through folklore, where the true soul of the Latin American and Caribbean countries is expressed. Musicians such as Yma Súmac, Chabuca Granda, Atahualpa Yupanqui, Violeta Parra, Víctor Jara, Jorge Cafrune, Facundo Cabral, Mercedes Sosa, Jorge Negrete, Luiz Gonzaga, Caetano Veloso, Susana Baca, Chavela Vargas, Simon Diaz, Julio Jaramillo, Toto la Momposina, Gilberto Gil, Maria Bethânia, Nana Caymmi, Nara Leão, Gal Costa, Ney Matogrosso as well as musical ensembles such as Inti Illimani and Los Kjarkas are magnificent examples of the heights that this soul can reach.\n\nLatin pop, including many forms of rock, is popular in Latin America today (see Spanish language rock and roll). A few examples are Café Tacuba, Soda Stereo, Maná, Los Fabulosos Cadillacs, Rita Lee, Mutantes, Secos e Molhados Legião Urbana, Titãs, Paralamas do Sucesso, Cazuza, Barão Vermelho, Skank, Miranda!, Cansei de Ser Sexy or CSS, and Bajo Fondo.\n\nMore recently, reggaeton, which blends Jamaican reggae and dancehall with Latin America genres such as bomba and plena, as well as hip hop, is becoming more popular, in spite of the controversy surrounding its lyrics, dance steps (Perreo) and music videos. It has become very popular among populations with a \"migrant culture\" influence – both Latino populations in the United States, such as southern Florida and New York City, and parts of Latin America where migration to the United States is common, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, and Mexico.\n\nWorld Heritage Sites\nThe following is a list of the ten countries with the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Latin America.\n\nSee also \n\nAmericas (terminology)\nAnglo-America\nEuro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly\nFrench America\nHispanic America\nHispanic and Latino Americans\nIbero-America\nIndigenous peoples of the Americas (Amerindians)\nInter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance\nLatin America and the Caribbean\nLatin America and the League of Nations\nLatin America–United States relations\nLatin American diaspora\nLatin American integration\nLatin American studies\nLatin American Studies Association\nLatin Americans\nList of Latin Americans\nMesoamerica\nOrganization of American States\nPan-American Conferences\nPan-Americanism\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n Alonso, Paul. Digital Humor as Cultural Globalization in Latin America. Internet, Humor, and Nation in Latin/x America, 2022.\n Ardao, Arturo. Génesis de la idea y nombre de América Latina. Caracas: Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos Rómulo Gallegos, 1980.\n Ayala Mora, Enrique. \"El origen del nombre América Latina y la tradición católica del siglo XIX.\" Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura 40, no. 1 (2013), 213–41.\n Berryman, Phillip. Latin America at 200. Austin: University of Texas Press 2016.\n Bethell, Leslie, The Cambridge History of Latin America. 12 volumes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1985–2008.\n Bomfim, Manoel. A América latina: Males de origem. Rio de Janeiro: H. Garnier 1905.\n Braudel, Fernand. \"Y a-t-il une Amérique latine?\" Annales ESC 3 (1948), 467–71.\n Calderón, Fernando and Manuel Castells. The New Latin America. Cambridge: Polity Press 2020.\n Coatsworth, John H., and Alan M. Taylor, eds. Latin America and the World Economy Since 1800. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press 1998.\n Edwards, Sebastián. Left Behind: Latin America and the False Promise of Populism. University of Chicago Press, 2010.\n \n Galeano, Eduardo. Open Veins of Latin America: Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent. 1973\n Gobat, Michel, \"The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race,\" American Historical Review Vol. 118, no. 3 (December 2013), pp. 1345–1375.\n Halperin Donghi, Tulio. The Contemporary History of Latin America. Durham: Duke University Press 1993. \n Lockhart, James and Stuart B. Schwartz. Early Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1982.\n Martínez Estrada, Ezequiel. Diferencias y semejanzas entre los países de América Latina. Mexico\" Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 1962.\n Maurer Queipo, Isabel (ed.): \"Directory of World Cinema: Latin America\", intellectbooks, Bristol 2013, \n Mazzuca, Sebastián, Latecomer State Formation: Political Geography and Capacity Failure in Latin America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2021.\n McGinnes, Aims. \"Searching for 'Latin America': Race and Sovereignty in the Americas in the 1850s.\" In Race and Nation in Modern Latin America, edited by Nancy P. Appelbaum, Anne S. Macpherson, and Karin alejandra Rosemblatt. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2003, pp, 87–107.\n Mignolo, Walter, The Idea of Latin America. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell 2005.\n Moraña, Mabel, Enrique Dussel, and Carlos A. Jáuregui, eds. Coloniality at Large: Latin America and the Postcolonial Debate. Durham: Duke University Press 2008.\n Phelan, John Leddy. (1968). Pan-latinisms, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autonónoma de México 1968.\n Tenenbaum, Barbara A. ed. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. 5 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996\n Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio. Latin America: The Allure and Power of an Idea. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2017. \n Vasconcelos, José. Indología: Una interpretación de la cultura ibero-americana. Barcelona: Agencia Mundial de Librería 1927.\n Zea, Leopoldo, ed. Fuentes de la cultura latinoamericana. 2 vols. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1993.\n\nExternal links \n\n IDB Education Initiative\n Latin American, Caribbean, U.S. Latinx, and Iberian Online Free E-Resources (LACLI). \n Latin American Network Information Center \n Latin America Data Base \n Washington Office on Latin America\n Council on Hemispheric Affairs\n Codigos De Barra\n \n Map of Land Cover: Latin America and Caribbean (FAO) \n Lessons From Latin America by Benjamin Dangl, The Nation, March 4, 2009\n \n \n Latin America Cold War Resources, Yale University\n Latin America Cold War, Harvard University\n Latin American Research Centre, University of Calgary\n The war on Democracy, by John Pilger\n\n \nCategory:Country classifications", "title": "Latin America" }, { "text": "The Caribbean ( , ; ; ; ; ) is a subregion of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea and its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean); the nearby coastal areas on the mainland may also be included. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, and north of South America.\n\nSituated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region has more than 700 islands, islets, reefs, and cays (see the list of Caribbean islands). Island arcs delineate the northern and eastern edges of the Caribbean Sea: the Greater Antilles in the north and the Lesser Antilles (which includes the Leeward Antilles) in the east and south. The nearby Lucayan Archipelago (comprising The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands) is considered to be a part of the Caribbean despite not bordering the Caribbean Sea. All the islands in the Antilles plus the Lucayan Archipelago form the West Indies, which is often interchangeable with the term Caribbean. On the mainland, Belize, Guyana, and Suriname are often included as parts of the Caribbean due to their political and cultural ties with the region.\n\nGeopolitically, the islands of the Caribbean are often regarded as a subregion of North America, though sometimes they are included in Middle America or left as a subregion of their own and are organized into 33 political entities, including 13 sovereign states, 12 dependencies, 1 disputed territory, and 7 other overseas territories. From December 15, 1954, to October 10, 2010, there was a territory known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five islands, all of which were Dutch dependencies. From January 3, 1958, to May 31, 1962, there was also a short-lived political union called the West Indies Federation composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories, all of which were then British dependencies. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations.\n\nEtymology and pronunciation\nThe region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Americas.\n\nThe two most prevalent pronunciations of \"Caribbean\" outside the Caribbean are (), with the primary stress on the third syllable, and (), with the stress on the second. Most authorities of the last century preferred the stress on the third syllable. This is the older of the two pronunciations, but the stressed-second-syllable variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer () while North American speakers more typically use (), but major American dictionaries and other sources list the stress on the third syllable as more common in American English too. According to the American version of Oxford Online Dictionaries, the stress on the second syllable is becoming more common in UK English and is increasingly considered \"by some\" to be more up to date and more \"correct\".\n\nThe Oxford Online Dictionaries claim that the stress on the second syllable is the most common pronunciation in the Caribbean itself, but according to the Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage, the most common pronunciation in Caribbean English stresses the first syllable instead, ().\n\nDefinition\n\nThe word \"Caribbean\" has multiple uses. Its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to Africa, slavery, European colonisation and the plantation system.\n The United Nations geoscheme for the Americas presents the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas.\n Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea. To the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America.\n\nCountries and territories list\n\nHistory\n\nThe oldest evidence of humans in the Caribbean is in southern Trinidad at Banwari Trace, where remains have been found from seven thousand years ago. These pre-ceramic sites, which belong to the Archaic (pre-ceramic) age, have been termed Ortoiroid. The earliest archaeological evidence of human settlement in Hispaniola dates to about 3600 BC, but the reliability of these finds is questioned. Consistent dates of 3100 BC appear in Cuba. The earliest dates in the Lesser Antilles are from 2000 BC in Antigua. A lack of pre-ceramic sites in the Windward Islands and differences in technology suggest that these Archaic settlers may have Central American origins. Whether an Ortoiroid colonization of the islands took place is uncertain, but there is little evidence of one.\n\nDNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to National Geographic, \"studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today's Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands.\"\n\nBetween 400 BC and 200 BC the first ceramic-using agriculturalists, the Saladoid culture, entered Trinidad from South America. They expanded up the Orinoco River to Trinidad, and then spread rapidly up the islands of the Caribbean. Some time after 250 AD another group, the Barancoid, entered Trinidad. The Barancoid society collapsed along the Orinoco around 650 AD and another group, the Arauquinoid, expanded into these areas and up the Caribbean chain. Around 1300 AD a new group, the Mayoid, entered Trinidad and remained the dominant culture until Spanish settlement.\n\nAt the time of the European discovery of most of the islands of the Caribbean, three major Amerindian indigenous peoples lived on the islands: the Taíno in the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas and the Leeward Islands, the Island Caribs and Galibi in the Windward Islands, and the Ciboney in western Cuba. The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos, who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, Western Taínos, who occupied Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamian archipelago, and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the Leeward Islands. Trinidad was inhabited by both Carib speaking and Arawak-speaking groups.\n\nEuropean Contact \n\nSoon after Christopher Columbus came to the Caribbean, both Portuguese and Spanish explorers began claiming territories in Central and South America. These early colonies brought gold to Europe; most specifically England, the Netherlands, and France. These nations hoped to establish profitable colonies in the Caribbean. Colonial rivalries made the Caribbean a cockpit for European wars for centuries.\n\nColumbus, and the early colonists of Hispaniola, treated the indigenous peoples brutally, even enslaving children. In 1512, after pressure from Dominican friars, the Laws of Burgos were introduced by the Spanish Crown to better protect the rights of the New World natives. The Spanish used a form of slavery called the Encomienda, where slaves would be awarded to the conquistadors, who were charged with protecting and converting their slaves. This had a devastating impact on the population, so starting in 1503, slaves from Africa were imported to the colony.\n\nWhile early slave traders were Portuguese and Spanish, known as the First Atlantic System, by the 17th century the trade became dominated by British, French, and Dutch merchants. This was known as the Second Atlantic System. 5 million African slaves would be taken to the Caribbean, and around half would be traded to the British Caribbean islands. Slavery was abolished first in the Dutch Empire in 1814. Spain abolished slavery in its empire in 1811, with the exceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo. Slavery was not abolished in Cuba until 1886. Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807, and slavery proper in 1833. France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848.\n\t\nThe Caribbean was known for pirates, especially between 1640 and 1680. The term \"buccaneer\" is often used to describe a pirate operating in this region. The Caribbean region was war-torn throughout much of its colonial history, but the wars were often based in Europe, with only minor battles fought in the Caribbean. Some wars, however, were born of political turmoil in the Caribbean itself.\n\nIn 1791, a slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint-Domingue led to the establishment in 1804 of Haiti, the first republic in the Caribbean. Cuba became independent in 1898 following American intervention in the War of Independence during the Spanish-American war. Following the war, Spain's last colony in the Americas, Puerto Rico, became an unincorporated territory of the United States.\n\nDecolonisation and Modern period \nBetween the 1960s and 80s, most of the British holdings in the Caribbean achieved political independence, starting with Jamaica in 1962, then Trinidad and Tobago (1962), British Guiana (1966), Barbados (1966), Bahamas (1973), Grenada (1974), Dominica (1978), St. Lucia (1979), St. Vincent (1979), Antigua and Barbuda (1981), St. Kitts and Nevis (1983). Presently, the United States, Britain, France and the Netherlands still have some Caribbean possessions.\n\nThe decline of the export industries meant a need to diversify the economies of the Caribbean territories. The tourism industry started developing in the early 20th century, rapidly developing in the 1960s when regular international flights made vacations affordable and is now a $50 billion industry. Another industry that developed in the early 20th century was offshore banking and financial services, particularly in The Bahamas and the Cayman Islands, as the proximity of the Caribbean islands to North America made them an attractive location for branches of foreign banks seeking to avail themselves of more complicated regulations and higher tax rates.\n\nUS interventions\n\nThe United States has conducted military operations in the Caribbean for at least 100 years.\n\nSince the Monroe Doctrine, the United States gained a major influence on most Caribbean nations. In the early part of the 20th century this influence was extended by participation in the Banana Wars. Victory in the Spanish–American War and the signing of the Platt Amendment in 1901 ensured that the United States would have the right to interfere in Cuban political and economic affairs, militarily if necessary. After the Cuban Revolution of 1959, relations deteriorated rapidly leading to the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and successive US attempts to destabilize the island, based upon Cold War fears of the Soviet threat. The US invaded and occupied Hispaniola for 19 years (1915–34), subsequently dominating the Haitian economy through aid and loan repayments. The US invaded Haiti again in 1994 and in 2004 were accused by CARICOM of arranging a coup d'état to remove elected Haitian leader Jean-Bertrand Aristide. In 1965, 23,000 US troops were sent to the Dominican Republic to quash a local uprising against military rule (see Dominican Civil War). President Lyndon Johnson had ordered the invasion to stem what he deemed to be a \"Communist threat.\" However, the mission appeared ambiguous and was roundly condemned throughout the hemisphere as a return to gunboat diplomacy. In 1983, the US invaded Grenada to remove populist left-wing leader Maurice Bishop. The US maintains a naval military base in Cuba at Guantanamo Bay. The base is one of five unified commands whose \"area of responsibility\" is Latin America and the Caribbean. The command is headquartered in Miami, Florida.\n\nGeography and geology\n\nThe geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies: Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin. These islands include Aruba (possessing only minor volcanic features), Curaçao, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua. Others possess rugged towering mountain-ranges like the islands of Saint Martin, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Dominica, Montserrat, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Thomas, Saint John, Tortola, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Trinidad and Tobago.\n\nDefinitions of the terms Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles often vary. The Virgin Islands as part of the Puerto Rican bank are sometimes included with the Greater Antilles. The term Lesser Antilles is often used to define an island arc that includes Grenada but excludes Trinidad and Tobago and the Leeward Antilles.\n\nThe waters of the Caribbean Sea host large, migratory schools of fish, turtles, and coral reef formations. The Puerto Rico Trench, located on the fringe of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea just to the north of the island of Puerto Rico, is the deepest point in all of the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nThe region sits in the line of several major shipping routes with the Panama Canal connecting the western Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of the area is tropical, varying from tropical rainforest in some areas to tropical monsoon and tropical savanna in others. There are also some locations that are arid climates with considerable drought in some years, and the peaks of mountains tend to have cooler temperate climates.\n\nRainfall varies with elevation, size and water currents, such as the cool upwellings that keep the ABC islands arid. Warm, moist trade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rain forest and semi arid climates across the region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from Costa Rica north to Belize, as well as the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in Cuba, northern Colombia and Venezuela, and southern Yucatán, Mexico. Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including Aruba and Curacao, as well as the northwestern tip of Yucatán.\n\nWhile the region generally is sunny much of the year, the wet season from May through November sees more frequent cloud cover (both broken and overcast), while the dry season from December through April is more often clear to mostly sunny. Seasonal rainfall is divided into 'dry' and 'wet' seasons, with the latter six months of the year being wetter than the first half. The air temperature is hot much of the year, varying from 25 to 33 C (77 F to 90 F) between the wet and dry seasons. Seasonally, monthly mean temperatures vary from only about 5 C (7 F) in the northern most regions, to less than 3 C in the southernmost areas of the Caribbean.\n\nHurricane season is from June to November, but they occur more frequently in August and September and more common in the northern islands of the Caribbean. Hurricanes that sometimes batter the region usually strike northwards of Grenada and to the west of Barbados. The principal hurricane belt arcs to northwest of the island of Barbados in the Eastern Caribbean. A great example being recent events of Hurricane Irma devastating the island of Saint Martin during the 2017 hurricane season.\n\nSea surface temperatures change little annually, normally running from 30 °C (87 °F) in the warmest months to 26 °C (76 °F) in the coolest months. The air temperature is warm year round, in the 70s, 80s and 90s, and only varies from winter to summer about 2–5 degrees on the southern islands and about a 10–20 degrees difference on the northern islands of the Caribbean. The northern islands, like the Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, may be influenced by continental masses during winter months, such as cold fronts.\n\nAruba: Latitude 12°N\n\nPuerto Rico: Latitude 18°N\n\nCuba: at Latitude 22°N\n\nIsland groups\nLucayan Archipelago\n \n (United Kingdom)\nGreater Antilles\n (United Kingdom)\n \n Hispaniola\n \n \n \n (U.S. Commonwealth)\n Spanish Virgin Islands\n Navassa Island \nLesser Antilles\n Leeward Islands\n (U.S.)\n Saint Croix\n Saint Thomas\n Saint John\n Water Island\n (United Kingdom)\n Tortola\n Virgin Gorda\n Anegada\n Jost Van Dyke\n (United Kingdom)\n \n Antigua\n Barbuda\n Redonda\n Saint Martin, politically divided between\n (France)\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n (French Antilles, France)\n \n Saint Kitts\n Nevis\n (United Kingdom)\n (French Antilles, France) including\n Les Saintes\n Marie-Galante\n La Désirade\n Windward Islands\n \n (French Antilles, France)\n \n \n Saint Vincent\n The Grenadines\n \n Grenada\n Carriacou and Petite Martinique\n \n\n Tobago\n Trinidad\n Leeward Antilles\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n\nHistorical groupings\n\nAll islands at some point were, and a few still are, colonies of European nations; a few are overseas or dependent territories:\n British West Indies/Anglophone Caribbean – Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Bay Islands, Guyana, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Croix (briefly), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago (from 1797) and the Turks and Caicos Islands\n Danish West Indies – Possession of Denmark-Norway before 1814, then Denmark, present-day United States Virgin Islands\n Dutch West Indies – Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten, Bay Islands (briefly), Saint Croix (briefly), Tobago, Surinam and Virgin Islands\n French West Indies – Anguilla (briefly), Antigua and Barbuda (briefly), Dominica, Dominican Republic (briefly), Grenada, Haiti (formerly Saint-Domingue), Montserrat (briefly), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Eustatius (briefly), Sint Maarten, St. Kitts (briefly), Tobago (briefly), Saint Croix, the current French overseas départements of French Guiana, Martinique and Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante, La Désirade and Les Saintes), the current French overseas collectivities of Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin\n Portuguese West Indies – present-day Barbados, known as in the 16th century when the Portuguese claimed the island en route to Brazil. The Portuguese left Barbados abandoned years before the British arrived.\n Spanish West Indies – Cuba, Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic), Haiti (until 1659, lost to France), Puerto Rico, Jamaica (until 1655, lost to Great Britain), the Cayman Islands (until 1670 to Great Britain) Trinidad (until 1797, lost to Great Britain) and Bay Islands (until 1643, lost to Great Britain), coastal islands of Central America (except Belize), and some Caribbean coastal islands of Panama, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela.\n Swedish West Indies – present-day French Saint-Barthélemy, Guadeloupe (briefly) and Tobago (briefly).\n Courlander West Indies – Tobago (until 1691)\n\nThe British West Indies were united by the United Kingdom into a West Indies Federation between 1958 and 1962. The independent countries formerly part of the B.W.I. still have a joint cricket team that competes in Test matches, One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. The West Indian cricket team includes the South American nation of Guyana, the only former British colony on the mainland of that continent.\n\nIn addition, these countries share the University of the West Indies as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in the Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories such as Trinidad.\n\nContinental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands\n\n \n Ambergris Caye\n Caye Caulker\n Glover's Reef\n Hick's Cayes\n Lighthouse Reef\n St. George's Caye\n Tobacco Caye\n Turneffe Atoll\n \n Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina\nBajo Nuevo Bank\nCrab Cay\nQuita Sueño Bank\nRoncador Bank\nRoncador Cay\nSan Andrés (island)\nSanta Catalina Island (Colombia)\nSerrana Bank\nSerranilla Bank\n Rosario Islands\n \nBrava Island, Costa Rica\nIsla Calero\nUvita Island\n \n \n \n \n Islas de la Bahía\n Cayos Cochinos\n Guanaja\n Roatán\n Swan Islands\n Útila\nCayos Cochinos\nCayo Gorda\nBobel Cay\n\n \n Corn Islands\n Miskito Cays\n Pearl Cays\nCalala Island\nRama Cay\n \n Archipelago off Guna Yala coast (including the San Blas Islands)\n Bocas del Toro Archipelago (approximately 300 islands)\n Galeta Island (Panama)\nIsla Grande\nSoledad Miria\nCayos Limones\n \n Quintana Roo\n Banco Chinchorro\n Cozumel\n Isla Blanca\n Isla Contoy\n Isla Holbox\n Isla Mujeres\n \n \n Blanquilla Island\n Coche Island\n Cubagua Island\n Isla Aves\n Islas Los Frailes\n Isla Margarita\n La Orchila\n La Sola Island\n La Tortuga Island\n Las Aves archipelago\n Los Hermanos Archipelago\n Los Monjes Archipelago\n Los Roques archipelago\n Los Testigos Islands\n Patos Island\n\nBiodiversity\nThe Caribbean islands have one of the most diverse eco systems in the world. The animals, fungi and plants, and have been classified as one of Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots because of their exceptionally diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems, ranging from montane cloud forests, to tropical rainforest, to cactus scrublands. The region also contains about 8% (by surface area) of the world's coral reefs along with extensive seagrass meadows, both of which are frequently found in the shallow marine waters bordering the island and continental coasts of the region.\n\nFor the fungi, there is a modern checklist based on nearly 90,000 records derived from specimens in reference collections, published accounts and field observations. That checklist includes more than 11,250 species of fungi recorded from the region. As its authors note, the work is far from exhaustive, and it is likely that the true total number of fungal species already known from the Caribbean is higher. The true total number of fungal species occurring in the Caribbean, including species not yet recorded, is likely far higher given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have been discovered. Though the amount of available information is still small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to some Caribbean islands. For Cuba, 2200 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the island; for Puerto Rico, the number is 789 species; for the Dominican Republic, the number is 699 species; for Trinidad and Tobago, the number is 407 species.\n\nMany of the ecosystems of the Caribbean islands have been devastated by deforestation, pollution, and human encroachment. The arrival of the first humans is correlated with extinction of giant owls and dwarf ground sloths. The hotspot contains dozens of highly threatened animals (ranging from birds, to mammals and reptiles), fungi and plants. Examples of threatened animals include the Puerto Rican amazon, two species of solenodon (giant shrews) in Cuba and the Hispaniola island, and the Cuban crocodile.\n\nThe region's coral reefs, which contain about 70 species of hard corals and from 500 to 700 species of reef-associated fishes have undergone rapid decline in ecosystem integrity in recent years, and are considered particularly vulnerable to global warming and ocean acidification. According to a UNEP report, the Caribbean coral reefs might get extinct in next 20 years due to population explosion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas and global warming.\n\nSome Caribbean islands have terrain that Europeans found suitable for cultivation for agriculture. Tobacco was an important early crop during the colonial era, but was eventually overtaken by sugarcane production as the region's staple crop. Sugar was produced from sugarcane for export to Europe. Cuba and Barbados were historically the largest producers of sugar. The tropical plantation system thus came to dominate Caribbean settlement. Other islands were found to have terrain unsuited for agriculture, for example Dominica, which remains heavily forested. The islands in the southern Lesser Antilles, Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, are extremely arid, making them unsuitable for agriculture. However, they have salt pans that were exploited by the Dutch. Sea water was pumped into shallow ponds, producing coarse salt when the water evaporated.\n\nThe natural environmental diversity of the Caribbean islands has led to recent growth in eco-tourism. This type of tourism is growing on islands lacking sandy beaches and dense human populations.\n\nPlants and animals\n\nDemographics\n\nIndigenous groups\n\n Arawak peoples\n Igneri\n Taíno\n Caquetio people\n Ciboney\n Ciguayo\n Garifuna\n Kalina\n Kalinago\n Lucayan\n Macorix\n Raizal\n\nAt the time of European contact, the dominant ethnic groups in the Caribbean included the Taíno of the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles, the Island Caribs of the southern Lesser Antilles, and smaller distinct groups such as the Guanajatabey of western Cuba and the Ciguayo of eastern Hispaniola. The population of the Caribbean is estimated to have been around 750,000 immediately before European contact, although lower and higher figures are given. After contact, social disruption and epidemic diseases such as smallpox and measles (to which they had no natural immunity) led to a decline in the Amerindian population. such as the Kongo, Igbo, Akan, Fon and Yoruba as well as military prisoners from Ireland, who were deported during the Cromwellian reign in England. Immigrants from Britain, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and Denmark also arrived, although the mortality rate was high for both groups.\n\nThe population is estimated to have reached 2.2 million by 1800. Immigrants from India, China, Indonesia, and other countries arrived in the mid-19th century as indentured servants. After the ending of the Atlantic slave trade, the population increased naturally. The total regional population was estimated at 37.5 million by 2000.\n\nIn Haiti and most of the French, Anglophone and Dutch Caribbean, the population is predominantly of African origin; on many islands there are also significant populations of mixed racial origin (including Mulatto-Creole, Dougla, Mestizo, Quadroon, Cholo, Castizo, Criollo, Zambo, Pardo, Asian Latin Americans, Chindian, Cocoa panyols, and Eurasian), as well as populations of European ancestry: Dutch, English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish ancestry. Asians, especially those of Chinese, Indian descent, and Javanese Indonesians, form a significant minority in parts of the region. Indians form a plurality of the population in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname. Most of their ancestors arrived in the 19th century as indentured laborers.\n\nThe Spanish-speaking Caribbean populations are primarily of European, African, or racially mixed origins. Puerto Rico has a European majority with a mixture of European-African-Native American (tri-racial), and a large Mulatto (European-West African) and West African minority. Cuba also has a European majority, along with a significant population of African ancestry. The Dominican Republic has the largest mixed-race population, primarily descended from Europeans, West Africans, and Amerindians.\n\nJamaica has a large African majority, in addition to a significant population of mixed racial background, and has minorities of Chinese, Europeans, Indians, Latinos, Jews, and Arabs. This is a result of years of importation of slaves and indentured laborers, and migration. Most multi-racial Jamaicans refer to themselves as either mixed race or brown. Similar populations can be found in the Caricom states of Belize, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago has a multi-racial cosmopolitan society due to the arrivals of Africans, Indians, Chinese, Arabs, Jews, Latinos, and Europeans along with the native indigenous Amerindians population. This multi-racial mix of the Caribbean has created sub-ethnicities that often straddle the boundaries of major ethnicities and include Mulatto-Creole, Mestizo, Pardo, Zambo, Dougla, Chindian, Afro-Asians, Eurasian, Cocoa panyols, and Asian Latinos.\n\nLanguage\n\nSpanish (64%), French (25%), English (14%), Dutch, Haitian Creole, and Papiamento are the predominant official languages of various countries in the region, although a handful of unique creole languages or dialects can also be found in virtually every Caribbean country. Other languages such as Caribbean Hindustani, Chinese, Javanese, Arabic, Hmong, Amerindian languages, other African languages, other European languages, and other Indian languages can also be found.\n\nReligion\n\nChristianity is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (84.7%). Other religions in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Rastafari, Buddhism, Chinese folk religion (incl. Taoism and Confucianism), Bahá'í, Jainism, Sikhism, Kebatinan, Traditional African religions, Yoruba (incl. Trinidad Orisha), Afro-American religions, (incl. Santería, Palo, Umbanda, Brujería, Hoodoo, Candomblé, Quimbanda, Orisha, Xangô de Recife, Xangô do Nordeste, Comfa, Espiritismo, Santo Daime, Obeah, Candomblé, Abakuá, Kumina, Winti, Sanse, Cuban Vodú, Dominican Vudú, Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, and Vodun).\n\nPolitics\n\nRegionalism\n\nCaribbean societies are very different from other Western societies in terms of size, culture, and degree of mobility of their citizens. The current economic and political problems the states face individually are common to all Caribbean states. Regional development has contributed to attempts to subdue current problems and avoid projected problems. From a political and economic perspective, regionalism serves to make Caribbean states active participants in current international affairs through collective coalitions. In 1973, the first political regionalism in the Caribbean Basin was created by advances of the English-speaking Caribbean nations through the institution known as the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM) which is located in Guyana.\n\nCertain scholars have argued both for and against generalizing the political structures of the Caribbean. On the one hand the Caribbean states are politically diverse, ranging from communist systems such as Cuba toward more capitalist Westminster-style parliamentary systems as in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Other scholars argue that these differences are superficial, and that they tend to undermine commonalities in the various Caribbean states. Contemporary Caribbean systems seem to reflect a \"blending of traditional and modern patterns, yielding hybrid systems that exhibit significant structural variations and divergent constitutional traditions yet ultimately appear to function in similar ways.\" The political systems of the Caribbean states share similar practices.\n\nThe influence of regionalism in the Caribbean is often marginalized. Some scholars believe that regionalism cannot exist in the Caribbean because each small state is unique. On the other hand, scholars also suggest that there are commonalities amongst the Caribbean nations that suggest regionalism exists. \"Proximity as well as historical ties among the Caribbean nations has led to cooperation as well as a desire for collective action.\" These attempts at regionalization reflect the nations' desires to compete in the international economic system.\n\nFurthermore, a lack of interest from other major states promoted regionalism in the region. In recent years the Caribbean has suffered from a lack of U.S. interest. \"With the end of the Cold War, U.S. security and economic interests have been focused on other areas. As a result there has been a significant reduction in U.S. aid and investment to the Caribbean.\" The lack of international support for these small, relatively poor states, helped regionalism prosper.\n\nFollowing the Cold War another issue of importance in the Caribbean has been the reduced economic growth of some Caribbean States due to the United States and European Union's allegations of special treatment toward the region by each other.\n\nUnited States–EU trade dispute\nThe United States under President Bill Clinton launched a challenge in the World Trade Organization against the EU over Europe's preferential program, known as the Lomé Convention, which allowed banana exports from the former colonies of the Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific states (ACP) to enter Europe cheaply. The World Trade Organization sided in the United States' favour and the beneficial elements of the convention to African, Caribbean and Pacific states has been partially dismantled and replaced by the Cotonou Agreement.\n\nDuring the US/EU dispute, the United States imposed large tariffs on European Union goods (up to 100%) to pressure Europe to change the agreement with the Caribbean nations in favour of the Cotonou Agreement.\n\nFarmers in the Caribbean have complained of falling profits and rising costs as the Lomé Convention weakens. Some farmers have faced increased pressure to turn towards the cultivation of illegal drugs, which has a higher profit margin and fills the sizable demand for these illegal drugs in North America and Europe.\n\nCaribbean Financial Action Task Force and Association of Caribbean States\nCaribbean nations have also started to more closely cooperate in the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and other instruments to add oversight of the offshore industry. One of the most important associations that deal with regionalism amongst the nations of the Caribbean Basin has been the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Proposed by CARICOM in 1992, the ACS soon won the support of the other countries of the region. It was founded in July 1994. The ACS maintains regionalism within the Caribbean on issues unique to the Caribbean Basin. Through coalition building, like the ACS and CARICOM, regionalism has become an undeniable part of the politics and economics of the Caribbean. The successes of region-building initiatives are still debated by scholars, yet regionalism remains prevalent throughout the Caribbean.\n\nBolivarian Alliance\nThe President of Venezuela, Hugo Chavez launched an economic group called the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA), which several eastern Caribbean islands joined. In 2012, the nation of Haiti, with 9 million people, became the largest CARICOM nation that sought to join the union.\n\nRegional institutions\nHere are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:\n\n African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States\n Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Association of National Telecommunication Organizations (CANTO), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Guyana\n Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Barbados\n Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDERA), Barbados\n Caribbean Educators Network\n Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation (CARILEC), Saint Lucia\n Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC), Barbados and Jamaica\n Caribbean Financial Action Task Force (CFATF), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Food Crops Society, Puerto Rico\n Caribbean Football Union (CFU), Jamaica\n Caribbean Hotel & Tourism Association (CHTA), Florida and Puerto Rico\n Caribbean Initiative (Initiative of the IUCN)\n Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness (CPEC), Saint Lucia\n Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme (CREP), Barbados\n Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM), Belize\n Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM), Barbados and Dominican Republic\n Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO), Barbados\n Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)\n Foundation for the Development of Caribbean Children, Barbados\n Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC), Brazil and Uruguay\n Latin American and the Caribbean Economic System, Venezuela\n Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), Saint Lucia\n United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Chile and Trinidad and Tobago\n University of the West Indies, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago. In addition, the fourth campus, the Open Campus was formed in June 2008 as a result of an amalgamation of the Board for Non-Campus Countries and Distance Education, Schools of Continuing Studies, the UWI Distance Education Centres and Tertiary Level Units. The Open Campus has 42 physical sites in 16 Anglophone caribbean countries.\n West Indies Cricket Board, Antigua and Barbuda\n\nCuisine\n\nFavourite or national dishes\n\n Anguilla – rice, peas and fish\n Antigua and Barbuda – fungee and pepperpot\n Bahamas – Guava duff, Conch Salad, Peas n' Rice, and Conch Fritters\n Barbados – cou-cou and flying fish\n Belize – rice and beans, stew chicken with potato salad; white rice, stew beans and fry fish with cole slaw\n British Virgin Islands – fish and fungee\n Cayman Islands – turtle stew, turtle steak, grouper\n Colombian Caribbean – rice with coconut milk, arroz con pollo, sancocho, Arab cuisine (due to the large Arab population)\n Cuba – platillo Moros y Cristianos, ropa vieja, lechon, maduros, ajiaco\n Dominica – mountain chicken, rice and peas, dumplings, saltfish, dashin, bakes (fried dumplings), coconut confiture, curry goat, cassava farine, oxtail\n Dominican Republic – arroz con pollo with stewed red kidney beans, pan fried or braised beef, salad/ ensalada de coditos, empanadas, mangú, sancocho\n Grenada – oil down, Roti and rice & chicken\n Guyana – roti and curry, pepperpot, cookup rice, methem, pholourie\n Haiti – griot (fried pork) served with du riz a pois or diri ak pwa (rice and beans)\n Jamaica – ackee and saltfish, callaloo, jerk chicken, curry chicken\n Montserrat – Goat water\n Puerto Rico – yellow rice with green pigeon peas, saltfish stew, roasted pork shoulder, chicken fricassée, mofongo, tripe soup, alcapurria, coconut custard, rice pudding, guava turnovers, Mallorca bread\n Saint Kitts and Nevis – goat water, coconut dumplings, spicy plantain, saltfish, breadfruit\n Saint Lucia – callaloo, dal roti, dried and salted cod, green bananas, rice and beans\n Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – roasted breadfruit and fried jackfish\n Suriname – brown beans and rice, roti and curry, peanut soup, battered fried plantain with peanut sauce, nasi goreng, moksie alesi, bara, pom\n Trinidad and Tobago – doubles, curry with roti or dal bhat, aloo pie, phulourie, callaloo, bake and shark, curry crab and dumpling\n United States Virgin Islands – stewed goat, oxtail or beef, seafood, callaloo, fungee\n Venezuela Caribbean – fried fish with salad and rise, tostones, sancocho, patacon, pabellon\n\nSee also \n\n African diaspora\n Anchor coinage\n British African-Caribbean people\n British Indo-Caribbean people\n Caribbean people\n Climate change in the Caribbean\n CONCACAF\n Council on Hemispheric Affairs\n Culture of the Caribbean\n Economy of the Caribbean\n Indian diaspora\n Indo-Caribbean\n Indo-Caribbean American\n List of Caribbean music genres\n List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Caribbean\n NECOBELAC Project\n Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin\n Piracy in the Caribbean\n Politics of the Caribbean\n Tourism in the Caribbean\n\nGeography:\n Americas (terminology)\n List of archipelagos by number of islands\n List of Caribbean islands\n List of indigenous names of Eastern Caribbean islands\n List of mountain peaks of the Caribbean\n List of Ultras of the Caribbean\n Middle America (Americas)\n Latin America and the Caribbean (region)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n Engerman, Stanley L. \"A Population History of the Caribbean\", pp. 483–528 in A Population History of North America Michael R. Haines and Richard Hall Steckel (Eds.), Cambridge University Press, 2000, .\n Hillman, Richard S., and Thomas J. D'agostino, eds. Understanding the Contemporary Caribbean, London: Lynne Rienner, 2003 .\n\nFurther reading \n Develtere, Patrick R. 1994. \"Co-operation and development: With special reference to the experience of the Commonwealth Caribbean\" ACCO, \n Gowricharn, Ruben. Caribbean Transnationalism: Migration, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006.\n Henke, Holger, and Fred Reno, eds. Modern Political Culture in the Caribbean. Kingston: University of West Indies Press, 2003.\n Heuman, Gad. The Caribbean: Brief Histories. London: A Hodder Arnold Publication, 2006.\n de Kadt, Emanuel, (editor). Patterns of foreign influence in the Caribbean, Oxford University Press, 1972.\n Knight, Franklin W. The Modern Caribbean (University of North Carolina Press, 1989).\n Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. \n Langley, Lester D. The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. London: University of Georgia Press, 1989.\n Maingot, Anthony P. The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship. Westview Press, 1994.\n Palmie, Stephan, and Francisco A. Scarano, eds. The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples (University of Chicago Press; 2011); 660 pp.; writings on the region since the pre-Columbia era.\n Ramnarine, Tina K. Beautiful Cosmos: Performance and Belonging in the Caribbean Diaspora. London, Pluto Press, 2007.\n Rowntree, Lester/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff. Diversity Amid Globalization: World Regions, Environment, Development, 4th edition, 2008.\n\nExternal links \n\n \n Digital Library of the Caribbean\n Latin American, Caribbean, U.S. Latinx, and Iberian Online Free E-Resources (LACLI). \n Manioc, open access digital Library, books, images, conferences, articles about the Caribbean \n Federal Research Division of the U.S. Library of Congress: Caribbean Islands (1987)\n LANIC Caribbean country pages", "title": "Caribbean" }, { "text": "At the time of first contact between Europe and the Americas, the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean included the Taíno of the northern Lesser Antilles, most of the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas, the Kalinago of the Lesser Antilles, the Ciguayo and Macorix of parts of Hispaniola, and the Guanahatabey of western Cuba. The Kalinago have maintained an identity as an indigenous people, with a reserved territory in Dominica.\n\nIntroduction\n\nSome scholars consider it important to distinguish the Taíno from the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola, and the Lucayan of the Bahamas and Jamaica. Linguistically or culturally these differences extended from various cognates or types of canoe: canoa, piragua, cayuco to distinct languages. Languages diverged even over short distances. Previously these groups often had distinctly non-Taíno deities such as the goddess Jagua, strangely enough the god Teju Jagua is a major demon of indigenous Paraguayan mythology. Still these groups plus the high Taíno are considered Island Arawak, part of a widely diffused assimilating culture, a circumstance witnessed even today by names of places in the New World; for example localities or rivers called Guamá are found in Cuba, Venezuela and Brazil. Guamá was the name of famous Taíno who fought the Spanish.\n\nThus, since the neo-Taíno had far more diverse cultural input and a greater societal and ethnic heterogeneity than the true high Taíno (Rouse, 1992) of Boriquen (Puerto Rico) a separate section is presented here. A broader language group is Arawakan languages. The term Arawak (Aruaco) is said to be derived from an insulting term meaning \"eaters of meal\" given to them by mainland Caribs. In turn the Arawak legend explains the origin of the Caribs as offspring of a putrid serpent.\n\nThe social classes of the neo-Taíno, generalized from Bartolomé de las Casas, appeared to have been loosely feudal with the following Taíno classes: naboría (common people), nitaíno' (sub-chiefs, or nobles), bohique, (shamans priests/healers), and the cacique (chieftains, or princes). However, the neo-Taíno seem to have been more relaxed in this respect.\n\nAdministrative and national units\nThe Spanish found that most Cuban peoples for the part living peacefully in tidy towns and villages grouped into numerous principalities called cacicazgos or principalities with an almost feudal social structure. They were ruled by leaders or princes, called Caciques. Cuba was then divided into Guanahatabey, Ciboney, and Classical Taíno. Then some of Western Cuba was Guanahatabey. and some Ciboney. Taíno-like cultures controlled most of Cuba dividing it into the cacicazgos. Granberry and Vescelius (2004) and other contemporary authors only consider the cazicazgo of Baracoa as classical or high Taíno. Cuban cacicazgos including Bayaquitiri, Macaca, Bayamo, Camagüey, Jagua, Habana y Haniguanica are treated here as \"neo-Taíno\". Hispaniolan principalities at about 1500 included Maguá (Cacique Guarionex); Xaraguá (Behecchio); Maguana (Caonabo); Higüey also called Iguayagua (Higüayo); Cigüayo (Mayobanex), and unnamed region under Cacique Guanacagarí (Wilson, 1990). These principalities are considered to have various affinities to the contemporary Taíno and neo-Taíno cultures from what is now known as Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic and Haiti, but are generally believed somewhat different.\n\nFarming and fishing\nThe adroit farming and fishing skills of the neo-Taíno nations should not be underestimated; the names of fauna and flora that survive today are testimony of their continued use. Neo-Taíno fishing technologies were most inventive, including harpoons and fishnets and traps. Neo-Taíno common names of fish are still used today (DeSola, 1932 ; Erdman, 1983; Florida Fish and Wild Life Commission (Division of Marine Fisheries) 2002; Puerto Rico, Commonwealth, 1998). Agriculture included a wide variety of germplasm, including maize, peanuts, tomato, squash, and beans plus a vast array of tree fruits. Tubers in most frequent use were yuca (Manihot esculenta) a crop with perhaps 10,000 years of development in the Americas; boniato (the \"sweet potato\" — Ipomoea batatas), and malanga (Xanthosoma sp.)\n\nTaíno pharmacopoeia\nAs with all Arawak (Schultes, Raffault. 1990) and similar cultures there was considerable use of natural pharmacopoeia (Robineau, 1991).\n\nTaíno studies\nTaíno studies are in a state of both vigorous revival and conflict (Haslip-Viera, 2001). In this conflict deeply embedded cultural mores, senses of nationality and ethnicity struggle with each other. The Syboneistas undertook studies and wrote of neo-Taínos as part and cover for independence struggles against Spain (Fajardo, 1829 - circa 1862; Gautier Benítez, 1873).\n\nNeo-Taíno and Taíno art\nTaíno and related art has been celebrated in several significant exhibitions (Alegria, and Arrom 1998; Bercht, et al. 1997; Bullen, Dacal et al.; Kerchache, 1994, most notably in Paris.\n\nNeo-Taíno music (areíto) survives as echoes in the rich traditions of the popular music of the Caribbean, but is believed to continue to exist in its purest form and associated spirituality among the Waroa of Venezuela.\n\nMetallurgy\nThe art of the neo-Taínos demonstrates that these nations had metallurgical skills, and it has been postulated by some e.g. Paul Sidney Martin, that the inhabitants of these islands mined and exported metals such as copper (Martin et al. 1947). The Cuban town of (San Ramón de) Guaninao means the place of copper and is surmised to have been a site of pre-Columbian mining.\n\nPeoples of the Caribbean\n\nArchaic Age people\n\nDNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to National Geographic, \"studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today’s Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands.\"\n\nTaíno\n\nThe Taíno, an Arawak people, were the major population group throughout most of the Caribbean. Their culture was divided into three main groups, the Western Taíno, the Classic Taíno, and the Eastern Taíno, with other variations within the islands.\n\nClassic Taíno\nThe Classic Taíno lived in eastern Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. They spoke a dialect called Classic Taíno. Compared to their neighbors, the Classic Taíno had substantially developed agricultural societies. Puerto Rico was divided into twenty chiefdoms which were organized into one united kingdom or confederation, Borinquen. Hispaniola was divided into roughly 45 chiefdoms, which were organized into five kingdoms under the leadership of the chief of each area's premier chiefdom. Beginning around 1450, Classic Taíno from Hispaniola began migrating to eastern Cuba; they are conventionally known as the Cuban Taíno. The Cuban Taíno gained power over some of Cuba's earlier Western Taíno inhabitants, the Ciboney, but no regional or island-wide political structure had developed on the island at the time of Spanish colonization of the Americas.\n\nEastern Taíno\nThe Eastern Taíno inhabited the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles, from the Virgin Islands to Montserrat. They had less sophisticated societies than the Classic Taíno.\n\nWestern Taíno\n\nThe Western Taíno lived in the Bahamas, central Cuba, westernmost Hispaniola, and Jamaica. They spoke a dialect known as Ciboney Taíno or Western Taíno. The Western Taíno of the Bahamas were known as the Lucayans, they were wiped out by Spanish slave raids by 1520. Western Taíno living in Cuba were known as the Ciboney. They had no chiefdoms or organized political structure beyond individual villages, but by the time of Spanish conquest many were under the control of the Cuban Taíno in eastern Cuba.\n\nIgneri\n\nAccording to oral history, the Igneri were the original Arawak inhabitants of the Windward Islands in the Lesser Antilles before being conquered by the Caribs who are thought to have arrived from South America. Contemporary sources like to suggest that the Caribs took Igneri women as their wives while killing the men, resulting in the two sexes speaking different languages. This is not proven, and there appears to be a confusion of the reality: despite the name, the Island Carib language was Arawakan, not Cariban. Irving Rouse suggests that small numbers of Caribs may have conquered the Igneri without displacing them, and could have gradually adopted their language while retaining the Carib identity, but there is no evidence to prove this. Though they were Arawaks, the Igneri language appears to be as distinct from the Taíno language as it was from the mainland Arawak language of South America.\n\nKalinago\n\nBy the contact period, the Kalinago, also known as Island Caribs, inhabited the Windward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. \"Caribbean\" derives from the name \"Carib\", by which the Kalinago were formerly known. They self-identified with the Kalina or mainland Carib people of South America. Contemporary accounts asserted that the Island Caribs had conquered the Windward Islands from their previous inhabitants, the Igneri. However, the Kalinago language was Arawakan, not Cariban. Irving Rouse suggests that small numbers of South American Caribs invaded the Windwards and conquered the Igneri without displacing them; they gradually adopted the local language while maintaining the Carib identity. The Kalinago outlasted their Taíno neighbors, and continue to live in the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Noteworthy Kalinago descendants live on within the Garifuna people, known as the Black Caribs who descend from St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles.\n\nGuanahatabey\n\nA separate ethnic identity from far western Cuba. They were an archaic hunter-gatherer people who spoke a language distinct from Taíno, and appear to have predated the agricultural, Taíno-speaking Ciboney.\n\nCiguayo\n\nA separate ethnic people that inhabited the Peninsula of Samaná and part of the northern coast toward Nagua in what today is the Dominican Republic, and, by most contemporary accounts, differed in language and customs from the classical or high Taíno who lived on the eastern part of the island of Hispaniola then known. According to Eustaquio Fernandez de Navarrete, they were “warriors and spirited people,” (“gente animosa y guerrera”). The Cronista de Indias, Pedro Martir accused them of cannibalism: “when they descend from the mountains to wage war on their neighbors, they kill and eat some of them” (“trae[n] origen de los caníbales, pues cuando de las montañas bajan a lo llano para hacer guerra á sus vecinos, si matan á algunos se los comen”). Fray Ramón Pané, often dubbed as the first anthropologist of the Caribbean, distinguished the Ciguayo language from the rest of those spoken on Hispaniola. Bartolomé de las Casas, who studied them and was one of the few who read Ramón Pané’s original work in Spanish, provided most of the documentation about this group. Linguists Granberry and Gary Vescelius believe that the Cigüayos emigrated from Central America. Wilson (1990) states that circa 1500 this was the kingdom Cacicazgo of Cacique Guacangarí.\n\nMacorix\n\nAnother separate ethnic group that lived on the eastern side of the island of Hispaniola. Their region today is in the Dominican Republic. According to las Casas, their language was unintelligible for the Taínos, but may have been similar to the Ciguayo language.(Wilson, 1990)\n\nRecent studies show that the Macorix people coexisted with the Tainos on Hispaniola. The names San Francisco de Macorix and San Pedro de Macorix in the Dominican Republic are indirect references to the political divisions of the cacicazgo. The Spaniards wrongly assumed that the names given to the different territories were a reference \"to what they called a Cacicazgo:\n\nFlorida tribes\n\nThe Tequesta of the southeast coast of the Florida peninsula were once considered to be related to the Taíno, but most anthropologists now doubt this. The Tequesta had been present in the area for at least 2,000 years at the time of first European contact, and are believed to have built the Miami Stone Circle. Carl O. Sauer called the Florida Straits \"one of the most strongly marked cultural boundaries in the New World\", noting that the Straits were also a boundary between agricultural systems, with Florida Indians growing seed crops that originated in Mexico, while the Lucayans of the Bahamas grew root crops that originated in South America.\n\nIt is possible that a few Lucayas reached Florida shortly before the first European contacts in the area, but the northwestern Bahamas had remained uninhabited until approximately 1200, and the long established presence of the existing tribes in Florida would have likely prevented any pioneering settlements by people who had only just reached the neighboring islands. Analysis of ocean currents and weather patterns indicates that people traveling by canoe from the Bahamas to Florida were likely to land in northern Florida rather than closer to the Bahamas. A single 'Antillean axe head' found near Gainesville, Florida may support some limited contacts. Due to the same ocean currents, direct travel in canoes from southern Florida to the Bahamas was unlikely.\n\nThe term and context of the Ciboney (Siboney)\nCiboney (also Siboney) is a term preferred in Cuban historic contexts for the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba.\n\nOur knowledge of the Cuban indigenous cultures which are often, but less precisely, lumped into a category called Taíno (Caribbean Island Arawak) comes from early Spanish sources, oral traditions and considerable archeological evidence. The Spanish found that most Cuban peoples were, for the most part, living peacefully in tidy towns and villages grouped into numerous principalities called Cacicazgos with an almost feudal social structure (see Bartolomé de las Casas). They were ruled by leaders called Caciques. Cuba was divided into Guanahatabey, Ciboney-Taíno (here neo-Taíno), and Classical (High) Taíno. Some of western Cuba was Guanahatabey and some Siboney (see below).\n\nTaíno-like cultures controlled most of Cuba, dividing it into cacicazgos or principalities. Granberry, Vescelius (2004), and other contemporary authors only consider the cacicazgo of Baracoa as Classical or High Taíno. Cuban cacicazgos including Bayaquitiri, Macaca, Bayamo, Camagüey, Jagua, Habana y Haniguanica are considered neo-Taíno. These principalities are considered to have various affinities to contemporary Taíno and neo-Taíno cultures from Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, but are generally believed to have been somewhat different.\n\nEthnic/cultural derivatives\n\nGuajiros and Jibaros\nThe common name given to the rural inhabitants of Cuba is guajiros. Del Campo implies that quajiros are \"native-born whites\" and states that in Puerto Rico \"the influence of the indigenous population is more marked than that of the native populations in Cuba\".\n\nIn Puerto Rico, the rural inhabitants are called Jibaros. The term jíbaro, according to the Catholic online encyclopedia, is also the name of a tribal group in South America, it meant \"mountain men.\" Jíbaro means \"People of the Forest\" in the Taíno language. So the term obviously came with them as they immigrated from South America. However \"jíbaro\" – as is used in Puerto Rico, is not used the same in Cuba or the Dominican Republic, which were populated with the very same Taíno people. In Cuba the word jibaro is used to denote something wild or untamed, such as \"perros jibaros\" or wild dogs.\n\nGuajiro nation\nThe term Guajira/Guajiro, also refers to indigenous Arawak nation of the Guajira Peninsula between Venezuela and Colombia. For a small compendium of myths of this Nation please see:\nde Cora, Maria Manuela 1972. Kuai-Mare. Mitos Aborígenes de Venezuela. Monte Avila Editores Caracas.\n\nLater nations in this general area\nThe Arawak, Carib, other Mesoamerican coast, and Amazonian cultures can be considered as part of a tenuous continuum of nations, linked by some shared vocabulary, ethnic links, agricultural practices, reinforced by bride abduction, and continuous exogamy. After the violence of the Spanish conquest, and subsequent events of African slavery and rebellion, nations and cultures with diverse amounts of Arawak ethnicity, culture, and/or traditions transmuted and arose. Some of these nations had mixed or even predominantly African roots, which include the Cimarrón of Cuba and the Maroons of Jamaica and Guyana.\n\nSee also\nIndigenous peoples of the Americas\nArawak\nArawakan languages\nCariban languages\nLanguages of the Caribbean\nPre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles\nGarifuna\nGenetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas\nIgneri\nIndigenous peoples of Florida\nIndigenous peoples in Venezuela\nIsland Caribs\nList of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin\nInflux of disease in the Caribbean\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nAlbury, Paul 1975 The Story of the Bahamas. MacMillan Education Limited, London and Basingstoke. p. 19 \"After the first screams of despair, terror took such sole possession of the Lucayan's mind and body that it robbed him of the ability to defend himself. He became a jellied mass of sweating, trembling, helpless flesh. Men, women, and children were bound with ropes, stacked in the cane and taken to Carib land. There the males were mutilated, tortured and finally eaten. The females were kept for breeding purposes. And, it is said, their male offspring, sired by Caribs, were also eaten.\"\nAlonso José Ramón 2004 (accessed 11/7/2005). Panorama histórico-crítico sobre el estudio del arte rupestre de Punta del Este, Cuba. http://rupestreweb.tripod.com/puntadeleste.html\nAlvarez Chanca, Diego. La Carta del Doctor Chanca, que escribió à la Ciudad de Sevilla. Collección de los viages y descubrimientos. Martin Fernández de Navarrete. Madrid, 1825 Atl atl? \"Los desta isla pelean con unas varas agudas, las cuales tiran con unas tiranderas como las que tiran los mochachos las varillas en Castilla, con las cuales tiran muy lejos asaz certero. \"\nÁlvarez Conde, José 1956. Arqueología Indocubana. Junta Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología Impresores Úcar, García, S. A. Havana.\nÁlvarez Nazario, Manuel 1996. Arqueología Lingüística. Estudios modernos dirigidos al rescate y reconstrucción del arahuaco taíno. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico.\nArciniegas, Germán (editor) 1999. Historiadores de las Indias. Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes. Editorial Océano de México S.A.\nArrom, Jose Juan 2000 Estudios de Lexicologia Antillana. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico\nAzcárate Rosell, Rafael 1937. Historia de los Indios de Cuba. Editorial Tropical, Havana.\n\nBarreiro, José 1990 A Note on Taínos: Whither Progress? Northeast Indian Quarterly Fall, 1990, pp. 66–77. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/41/013.html https://web.archive.org/web/20051125070332/http://www.uctp.org/ANoteonTainos.html\nBarreiro, José 2005 In Cuba the cry was for water. Indian Country Today part one October 13, part two October 20, 2005. (accessed October 25, 2005) https://web.archive.org/web/20071010125128/http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096411742 https://web.archive.org/web/20060114074516/http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096411782\nBeltran, Juan. 1924. \"Bojeo de Cuba por Sebastian de O’Campo\" El Universal, Havana p. 9 paragraph 3 \"Vista de los Azules y aun tal vez vagamente presentada al misterioso reflejo de los lambentes, que andando los días había de servir de base a la poética y sentimental Luz de Yara...\"\nBercht, Fatima Estrellita Brodsky, John Alan Farmer, Dicey Taylor, (eds) 1997. Taíno: Pre-Columbian Art and Culture from the Caribbean. Museo Del Barrio Monacelli Press, New York.\nBiarakú (a Taíno Cultural Interest Group) 1999. 2. Taíno Sun Symbols Taíno Forum #25 http://members.aol.com/STaino/forum_25.htm, [email protected] [email protected]\nBiarakú (a Taíno Cultural Interest Group) 2003 Taíno Short Dictionary\nBlack, Clinton V. 1965. History of Jamaica. 3rd edition Collins Clear Type Press, London and Glasgow.\nBreton, Raymond 1665. Dictionnaire caraïbe–français (El caribe insular del siglo XVII Tratado sobre la lengua y la cultura de los Callínago) Translated to Spanish by Duna Troiani CELIA-CNRS / París (Centro de estudios de las lenguas indígenas de América, Centre national de la recherche scientifique.) Link found at https://web.archive.org/web/20050414091620/http://www.centrelink.org/General.html\nBueno, Salvador (ed.) 2003. Cuban Leyends (SeigfriedKaden illustrator, Christine R. Ayorinde translator). Markus Weiner Publishers, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.\nCarrada, Alfred 2003 (Accessed 11/5/2005) Dictionary of the Taíno language\nDe las Casas, Bartolomé (circa 1474–1566, 1995 reprinting). Historia de las Indias, Cultura Economica, Mexico City (Casas vol. 2, p. 521-522).\nCastellanos Garcia, Gerardo 1927. Tierras y Glorias de Oriente (Calixto Garcia Iñiguez), Editorial Hermes Havana p. 155.\nCastellanos, Juan de. 1874 Elegia VI. Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias. Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, pp. 14–17.\nCienfuegos page (sampled September 9, 2004) Leyendas de Cienfuegos, Las Mulatas. http://www.cienfuegoscuba.galeon.com/lasmulatas.htm\nCohen, J. M (editor and translator) 1969. The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus. Being His Own Log-Book, Letters and Dispatches. Penguin Books, London, New York and Victoria Australia.\n \"He therefore went to the island of Guadalupe, anchored there and sent boats ashore well armed. But, before they arrived, a number of women came out of the woods carrying bows and arrows, and with feathers on their heads, apparently resolved to defend the island … to northern islands … When the ships came very close to shore, they saw many Indian men coming out on to the beach with bows and arrows, which they shot at our men with great daring and great shouts. But they shot in vain, for their arrows fell short … The houses were square not round like on the islands, and in one of them a human arm was found cooking in a stew pot.\" (pp. 195–196)\nColl y Toste, Cayetano 1972. \"Vocabulario indo-antillano.\" In: Clásicos de Puerto Rico second edition, Ediciones Latinoamericanas. Found at: http://www.angelfire.com/de2/bohemia/diccionario.html https://web.archive.org/web/20080430163856/http://members.dandy.net/~orocobix/terms1.htm\nDe Cora, Maria Manuela 1972. Kuai-Mare. Mitos Aborígenes de Venezuela. Monte Avila Editores Caracas.\nCrespo, George 1993. How the Sea Began. A Taíno Myth Retold and Illustrated. Clarion Books, New York.\n\nDacal Moure, Ramon, Manuel Rivero De La Calle, Daniel H. Sandweiss 1996 Art and Archaeology of Pre-Columbian Cuba (Pitt Latin American Series) University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburg.\n\nDrummond, Lee. 1981 \"The serpent's children: semiotics of cultural genesis in Arawak and Trobriand myth.\" – American ethnologist (Washington) 8 (3): 633-660. \"Drummond tells us in his study of Arawak myth (1981), the action of celebrating the myth of Arawak origins actually creates the distinction between the Arawak and the Carib. It renders the Arawak people real.\" https://web.archive.org/web/20051102230133/http://www.uwm.edu/~wash/mirror13.htm\nErdman, D.S. 1983. \"Nombres vulgares de peces de Puerto Rico. Common names of fishes in Puerto Rico CODREMAR\". Inf. Téc. 3(2): 1-44 (not yet obtained).\nEstefanía, Carlos Manuel 2005 Así nació Cuba In: Cuba Nuestra digital (accessed 11/5/2005) https://web.archive.org/web/20050507075517/http://www.cubanuestra.nu/web/article.asp?artID=2330\nD’ Estéfano Pisani, Miguel A. 1943. La Delincuencia de los Indios de Cuba. Jesus Montero (Editor), Havana. (Note: this book shows a strong biased against the Taínos, and yet it provides useful insights into Taíno word usage)\nFajardo, Juan Cristobal Nápoles (known as Cucalambé 1829–1862?). Cucalambé (Décimas Cubanas. Selección de Rumores del Hórmigo) Ediciones Universal Miami 2nd Edition 1999.\nFernández de Oviedo, Gonzalo (República Dominicana, Puerto Rico, Cuba, 1478–1557). Libro doceno. Primera Parte. Historia General y Natural de las Indias. Volume 2. Primera Parte. Historia General y Natural de las Indias.\nFergus, Claudius 2003. The 'Carib' Work Stones of Chateaubelair: curio or calendar system? St Vincent and the Grenadines Country Conference Pre-Prints University of the West Indies. St Vincent and the Grenadines. http://www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde/svg/conference/papers/fergus.html\nFigueroa, Ivonne 2004 Taínos El Boricua. Edited by Barbara Yañez, Assistant WebSite Editor http://www.elboricua.com/history.html accessed 2/15/04\nFlorida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (Division of Marine Fisheries) 2002 Land Crabs (Cardisoma guanhumi). September 2002 http://www.floridaconservation.org/commission/2002/sept/LANDCRABS.pdf\nGautier Benítez, José. \"Romance\". El Progreso (periodical), 24 August 1873. p. 3.\nGomez de la Maza y Jimenez, Manuel and Juan Tomas Roig y Mesa 1914. Flora de Cuba (Datos para su estudio) Rambla, Bouza y Cia, Havana.\nBobby Gonzalez. Taino Indian reading list\nGonzalez, Francisco J. 1996 Taíno-Maya Contacts. Taíno-L Taíno Forum The retrospective history of the Native Caribbean World History Archives Hartford Web Publishing http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/41/238.html\nGrondine, E.P. (accessed 11/5/2005) Going into the water: A survey of impact events and the coastal peoples of south-east North America, the Caribbean, and Central America http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ccc/ce010702.html\nTorres, Pedro. circa 1999. Taíno Words. The Taíno Tribal Council http://www.hartford-hwp.com/Taino/jatibonuco.html\nGuitar, Lynne (2002). Documentando el mito de la extinción de la cultura Taína. KACIKE: Revista de la historia y antropología de los indígenas del Caribe [Revista electrónica], special edition, Lynne Guitar, editor. Disponible en: https://web.archive.org/web/20051026125615/http://www.kacike.org/GuitarEspanol.html [Accessed 05/11/2005]\nGranberry, Julian, and Gary Vescelius 2004 Languages of the Pre-Columbian Antilles, University Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, \nGulf States Maine Fisheries Commission 2003 Cairina moschata Linnaeus,\nHaslip-Viera, Gabriel (Editor) 2001 Taíno Revival: Critical Perspectives on Puerto Rican Identity and Cultural Politics. Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton N.J. \nHerbold, Stacey. Jamaican Patois and the Power of Language in Reggae Music The only evidence of the Arawak dialect in Jamaica today is a few loan words, place names, food, natural objects, and events (hurricane) (Lalla and D’Costa, 1990). Xaymaca is actually an Arawak word meaning \"island of springs\", which is where the name Jamaica is derived from (Pryce, 1997). It is possible that the first contact of the Arawaks and the Spaniards may have led to an early pidgin or bilingualism among the first generation of mixed blood.\"\nHernández Aquino, Luis. 1993. Diccionario de voces indígenas de Puerto Rico. Tercera edición, Editorial Cultural, Esmaco, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico.\nHill, Jonathan D. and Fernando Santos-Granero (eds.). 2002. Comparative Arawakan Histories. Rethinking Language Family and Cultural Area in Amazonia. University of Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago. \nJiménez, Mariano II and Mariano G. Jiménez 2003 El Güije. Cuentos de Antaño http://www.guije.com/index.htm\nJohnson, Kim (accessed 5/3/2005) The story of the 'Caribs and Arawaks' http://www.raceandhistory.com/Taino/Caribs.htm\nLópez de Gómara, Francisco. Primera Parte. La historia general de las Indias. Historiadores primitivos de Indias. Enrique de Vedia, ed. Madrid: Imprenta de M. Ribadeneyra, 1877.\nMaciques Sánchez, Esteban 2004. El arte rupestre del Caribe insular: estilo y cronología in Rupestreweb, http://rupestreweb.tripod.com/maciques.html\nMartinez Arango, Felipe, 1997. \"Los Aborigines de la Cuenca de Santiago de Cuba.\" Ediciones Universal, Miami.\n\nMendez, Eugenio Fernandez 1981. Cronicas de Puerto Rico, Desde la Conquista Hasta Nuestros Dias (1493–1955) Editorial Universitaria, Universidad de Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras.\nMiner Solá, Edwin 2002 Diccionario Taíno Ilustrado. Ediciones Servilibros (Serie Puerto Rico Prehistórico, 1). San Juan, Indigenous language dictionary arranged thematically with numerous illustrations, many in color.\nNápoles Fajardo, Juan Cristobal (known as Cucalambé 1829–1862?). Cucalambé (Décimas Cubanas. Selección de Rumores del Hórmigo) Ediciones Universal Miami 2nd Edition1999.\nNicholson, Desmond V. 1983. The Story of the Arawaks in Antigua and Bermuda. Antigua Archeological Society. Antigua West Indies.\nOlsen, Fred 1974. On the Trail of the Arawaks. Civilization of the American Indian, v 129. University of Oklahoma Press. Norman. Oklahoma.\nPané, Fray Ramón (circa 1475-circa 1498) An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians: Chronicles of the New World Encounter (Latin America in Translation/En Traduccion/En Traducao) Jose Juan Arom (Editor), Susan C. Griswold (translator). Duke University Press, Durham and London. (1999 edition).\nPané, Fray Ramón. Relación de Fray Ramon de las antigüedades de los indios. Cuba primitiva. Habana: Miguel de Villa, 1883.\nPapá Lino 2002 \"¡Qué Te Parece, Boricua\" Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, 2nd ed. \"El dios taíno Yuquiyú es el mismo 'Loukuo' de la mitología escandinava.\" Cited from https://web.archive.org/web/20071112091459/http://groups.msn.com/CarlitosWay/triviadeborinquen.msnw\nPuerto Rico, Commonwealth. 1998 Reglamento de Pesca de Puerto Rico Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. Salvador Salas Quintana (Secretario). https://web.archive.org/web/20060227201150/http://www.drna.gobierno.pr/reglamentospdf/DRNA/Reglamento%20de%20Pesca.pdf\nRivas, Anthony T. 2000 Enigmas of Cuban Spanish Proteus, Newsletter of the National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators Vol. IX, No. 3 Summer 2000 https://web.archive.org/web/20051124160310/http://www.najit.org/proteus/v9n3/rivas_v9n3.htm \"While lacking conclusive proof, some linguists believe that the marked intonation pattern exhibited by some natives of the former Oriente province originates in Arawak, a language spoken by the indigenous Taíno people, who survived for a limited time just in this province.\"\nRobineau, Lionel (editor) 1991. Towards a Caribbean Pharmacopoeia. End-Caribe, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.\nRobiou La Marche, Sebastián 2003. Taínos and Caribes. Las culturas aborígenes antillanas. Editorial Punto y Coma, San Juan Puerto Rico.\n\nRouse, Irving 1992. The Taínos. Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus. Yale University Press. New Haven and London.\nSauer, Carl Otwin. 1966. (Fourth printing, 1992.) The Early Spanish Main. The University of California Press. \nde la Sagra, Ramón 1843. Historia física, política y natural de la Isla de Cuba, Libreria de Arthus Bertrand, Paris.\nSchwartz, Marion. 1997. A History of Dogs in the Early Americas. Yale University Press, New Haven pp. 76–78.\nSears, William H. 1977. Seaborne contacts between early cultures in the lower southeastern United States and Middle (-) through South America. In: The Sea in the pre-Columbian World. Elizabeth P. Benson, editor. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. pp. 1–15.\nSuarez, Constantino 1921 Vocabulario Cubano, Libreria Cervantes, Havana and Perlado, Páez y Cía, Madrid.\nSued Badillo, Jalil. 1985. Las Cacicas Indoantillanas, Revista del Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña 87, 1-26.\nUCTP (United Confederation of Taíno People) 2002. Diccionario de Voces Taína’ (Taíno Dictionary) https://web.archive.org/web/20071016055722/http://www.uctp.org/VocesIndigena.html \nVazquez Doris M. 1993 (accessed 11/7/2005) Puerto Rican Folktales\nhttp://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1993/2/93.02.12.x.html#top\nVela, Enrique (editor). 1988. La navegación entre los Mayas. Arqueología Mexicana 6 (number 33, September October 1988) 4-5.\nVespucio, Américo (circa 1454–1512), Fragments and Letters found at https://web.archive.org/web/20051210061617/http://www.e-libro.net/E-libro-viejo/gratis/nvomundo.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20051028185055/http://www.unsl.edu.ar/librosgratis/gratis/nvomundo.pdf \nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040818183442/http://www.banrep.gov.co/blaavirtual/credencial/hamerica.htm translated '.. the women go naked and are libidinous, lewd, and lustful but despite this their bodies are beautiful and clean....\"\nWilbert, Johannes1977. Navigators of the Winter Sun In: The Sea in the pre-Columbian World. Elizabeth P. Benson, editor. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. pp. 16–44.\nWilson, Samuel M. 1990 Hispaniola Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age of Columbus. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa and London. \nZayas y Alfonso, Alfredo 1914. \"Lexografía Antillana\" El Siglo XX Press, Havana.\nHill, Jonathan D. and Fernando Santos-Granero (eds.). 2002. Comparative Arawakan Histories. Rethinking Language Family and Cultural Area in Amazonia. University of Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago. \nHulme. Peter 2000 Remnants of Conquest. The Island Caribs and their Visitors, 1877–1898. Oxford University Press \nLa Rosa Corzo, Gabino (translated by Mary Todd) [1988] 2003 Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba: Resistance and Repression, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill \nDe la Riva Herrera, Martín 2003 La Conquista de los Motilones, Tabalosos, Maynas y Jíbaros. CETA Iquitos, Perú\n\nExternal links", "title": "Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean" }, { "text": "North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as a part of North America geographically.\n\nNorth America covers an area of about , about 16.5% of Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface area. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. In human geography and in the English-speaking world outside the United States, particularly in Canada, \"North America\" and \"North American\" can refer to just Canada and the United States together.\n\nNorth America was reached by its first human populations during the Last Glacial Period, via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 20,000 to 17,000 years ago. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago (the beginning of the Archaic or Meso-Indian period). The classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The first recorded Europeans to visit North America (other than Greenland) were the Norse around 1000 AD. Christopher Columbus's arrival in 1492 sparked a transatlantic exchange which included migrations of European settlers during the Age of Discovery and the early modern period. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves, immigrants from Europe, Asia, and the descendants of these groups.\n\nOwing to Europe's colonization of the Americas, most North Americans speak European languages such as English, Spanish or French, and their cultures commonly reflect Western traditions. However, in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Central America, there are indigenous populations continuing their cultural traditions and speaking native languages.\n\nName \n\nThe Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a world map, in which he placed the word \"America\" on the continent of South America. What was known about the continent was referred to as Parias above what is today Mexico. On a 1553 world map published by Petrus Apianus, North America was called Baccalearum, meaning \"realm of the Cod fish\", in reference to the abundance of Cod fish on the east coast.\n\nWaldseemüller used the Latinized version of Vespucci's name (Americus Vespucius), but in its feminine form \"America\", following the examples of \"Europa\", \"Asia\" and \"Africa\". Later mapmakers extended the name America to the northern continent. In 1538, Gerard Mercator used America on his map of the world for the entire Western Hemisphere.\n\nGerardus Mercator on his map called North America \"America or New India\" (America sive India Nova). The Spanish Empire called its territories in North and South America \"Las Indias\"; the state body overseeing them was the Council of the Indies.\n\nExtent \n\nThe United Nations formally recognizes \"North America\" as comprising three areas: Northern America, Central America, and the Caribbean. This has been formally defined by the UN Statistics Division.\n\n\"Northern America\", as a term distinct from \"North America\", excludes Central America, which itself may or may not include Mexico. In the limited context of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the term covers Canada, the United States, and Mexico, which are the three signatories of that treaty.\n\nFrance, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Greece, and the countries of Latin America use a six-continent model, with the Americas viewed as a single continent and North America designating a subcontinent comprising Canada, the U.S., Mexico, and Saint Pierre et Miquelon (politically part of France), and often Greenland, and Bermuda.\n\nNorth America has been historically referred to by other names. Spanish North America (New Spain) was often referred to as Northern America, and this was the first official name given to Mexico.\n\nRegions\n\nGeographically, the North American continent has many regions and subregions. These include cultural, economic, and geographic regions. Economic regions included those formed by trade blocs, such as those of the NAFTA and Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). Linguistically and culturally, the continent could be divided into Anglo-America and Latin America. Anglo-America includes most of Northern America, Belize, and Caribbean islands with English-speaking populations (though sub-national entities, such as Louisiana and Quebec, have large Francophone populations; in Quebec, French is the sole official language).\n\nThe southern part of the North American continent is composed of two regions. These are Central America and the Caribbean. The north of the continent maintains recognized regions as well. In contrast to the common definition of \"North America\", which encompasses the whole continent, the term \"North America\" is sometimes used to refer only to Mexico, Canada, the U.S., and Greenland.\n\nThe term Northern America refers to the northernmost countries and territories of North America: the U.S., Bermuda, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Canada, and Greenland. Although the term does not refer to a unified region, Middle America—not to be confused with the Midwestern U.S.—groups the regions of Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean.\n\nNorth America's largest countries by land area, Canada and the U.S., also have well-defined and recognized regions. In the case of Canada, these are (from east to west) Atlantic Canada, Central Canada, Canadian Prairies, the British Columbia Coast, and Northern Canada. These regions also contain many subregions. In the case of the U.S.—and in accordance with the U.S. Census Bureau definitions—these regions are: New England, Mid-Atlantic, South Atlantic states, East North Central states, West North Central states, East South Central states, West South Central states, Mountain states, and Pacific states. Regions shared between both nations include the Great Lakes region. Megalopolises have formed between both nations in the case of the Pacific Northwest and the Great Lakes Megaregion.\n\nCountries, dependencies, and other territories\n\nNatural characteristics\n\nGeography \n\nNorth America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America (which, in many countries is considered as a single continent with North America a subcontinent). North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa. North America's only land connection to South America is at the Isthmus of Darian/Isthmus of Panama. The continent is delimited on the southeast by most geographers at the Darién watershed along the Colombia-Panama border, placing almost all of Panama within North America. Alternatively, some geologists physiographically locate its southern limit at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, with Central America extending southeastward to South America from this point. The Caribbean islands, or West Indies, are considered part of North America. The continental coastline is long and irregular. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest body of water indenting the continent, followed by Hudson Bay. Others include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Gulf of California.\n\nBefore the Central American isthmus formed, the region had been underwater. The islands of the West Indies delineate a submerged former land bridge, which had connected North and South America via what are now Florida and Venezuela.\n\nThere are numerous islands off the continent's coasts; principally, the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, Turks & Caicos, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Aleutian Islands (some of which are in the Eastern Hemisphere proper), the Alexander Archipelago, the many thousand islands of the British Columbia Coast, and Newfoundland. Greenland, a self-governing Danish island, and the world's largest, is on the same tectonic plate (the North American Plate) and is part of North America geographically. In a geologic sense, Bermuda is not part of the Americas, but an oceanic island that was formed on the fissure of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over 100 million years ago (mya). The nearest landmass to it is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. However, Bermuda is often thought of as part of North America, especially given its historical, political and cultural ties to Virginia and other parts of the continent.\n\nThe vast majority of North America is on the North American Plate. Parts of western Mexico, including Baja California, and of California, including the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and Santa Cruz, lie on the eastern edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The southernmost portion of the continent and much of the West Indies lie on the Caribbean Plate, whereas the Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates border the North American Plate on its western frontier.\n\nThe continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many subregions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf.\n\nThe western mountains are split in the middle into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, with the Great Basin—a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts—in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska.\n\nThe U.S. Geographical Survey (USGS) states that the geographic center of North America is \"6 miles [10 km] west of Balta, Pierce County, North Dakota\" at about , about from Rugby, North Dakota. The USGS further states that \"No marked or monumented point has been established by any government agency as the geographic center of either the 50 states, the conterminous United States, or the North American continent.\" Nonetheless, there is a field stone obelisk in Rugby claiming to mark the center. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located from the nearest coastline, between Allen and Kyle, South Dakota at .\n\nGeology\n\nGeologic history \n\nLaurentia is an ancient craton which forms the geologic core of North America; it formed between 1.5 and 1.0 billion years ago during the Proterozoic eon. The Canadian Shield is the largest exposure of this craton. From the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic eras, North America was joined with the other modern-day continents as part of the supercontinent Pangaea, with Eurasia to its east. One of the results of the formation of Pangaea was the Appalachian Mountains, which formed some 480 mya, making it among the oldest mountain ranges in the world. When Pangaea began to rift around 200 mya, North America became part of Laurasia, before it separated from Eurasia as its own continent during the mid-Cretaceous period. The Rockies and other western mountain ranges began forming around this time from a period of mountain building called the Laramide orogeny, between 80 and 55 mya. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama that connected the continent to South America arguably occurred approximately 12 to 15 mya, and the Great Lakes (as well as many other northern freshwater lakes and rivers) were carved by receding glaciers about 10,000 years ago.\n\nNorth America is the source of much of what humanity knows about geologic time periods. The geographic area that would later become the United States has been the source of more varieties of dinosaurs than any other modern country. According to paleontologist Peter Dodson, this is primarily due to stratigraphy, climate and geography, human resources, and history. Much of the Mesozoic Era is represented by exposed outcrops in the many arid regions of the continent. The most significant Late Jurassic dinosaur-bearing fossil deposit in North America is the Morrison Formation of the western U.S.\n\nCanada \n\nGeologically, Canada is one of the oldest regions in the world, with more than half of the region consisting of Precambrian rocks that have been above sea level since the beginning of the Palaeozoic era. Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers. Throughout the Shield, there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater. The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.\n\nUnited States \nThe lower 48 U.S. states can be divided into roughly five physiographic provinces:\n The American cordillera\n The Canadian Shield Northern portion of the upper midwestern U.S.\n The stable platform\n The coastal plain\n The Appalachian orogenic belt\n\nThe geology of Alaska is typical of that of the cordillera, while the major islands of Hawaii consist of Neogene volcanics erupted over a hot spot.\n\nCentral America \n\nCentral America is geologically active with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. In 1976 Guatemala was hit by a major earthquake, killing 23,000 people; Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972, the last one killing about 5,000 people; three earthquakes devastated El Salvador, one in 1986 and two in 2001; one earthquake devastated northern and central Costa Rica in 2009, killing at least 34 people; in Honduras a powerful earthquake killed seven people in 2009.\n\nVolcanic eruptions are common in the region. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted and killed 87 people. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in agriculturally productive highland areas.\n\nCentral America has many mountain ranges; the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia, and the Cordillera de Talamanca. Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the people; in fact, most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala live in valleys. Valleys are also suitable for the production of coffee, beans, and other crops.\n\nClimate \n\nNorth America is a very large continent that extends from north of the Arctic Circle to south of the Tropic of Cancer. Greenland, along with the Canadian Shield, is tundra with average temperatures ranging from , but central Greenland is composed of a very large ice sheet. This tundra radiates throughout Canada, but its border ends near the Rocky Mountains (but still contains Alaska) and at the end of the Canadian Shield, near the Great Lakes.\nClimate west of the Cascade Range is described as being temperate weather with average precipitation .\nClimate in coastal California is described to be Mediterranean, with average temperatures in cities like San Francisco ranging from over the course of the year.\n\nStretching from the East Coast to eastern North Dakota, and stretching down to Kansas, is the humid continental climate featuring intense seasons, with a large amount of annual precipitation, with places like New York City averaging .\nStarting at the southern border of the humid continental climate and stretching to the Gulf of Mexico (whilst encompassing the eastern half of Texas) is the humid subtropical climate. This area has the wettest cities in the contiguous U.S., with annual precipitation reaching in Mobile, Alabama.\nStretching from the borders of the humid continental and subtropical climates, and going west to the Sierra Nevada, south to the southern tip of Durango, north to the border with tundra climate, the steppe/desert climates are the driest in the United States. Highland climates cut from north to south of the continent, where subtropical or temperate climates occur just below the tropics, as in central Mexico and Guatemala. Tropical climates appear in the island regions and in the subcontinent's bottleneck, found in countries and states bathed by the Caribbean Sea or to the south of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. Precipitation patterns vary across the region, and as such rainforest, monsoon, and savanna types can be found, with rains and high temperatures throughout the year.\n\nEcology \n\nNotable North American fauna include the bison, black bear, jaguar, cougar, prairie dog, turkey, pronghorn, raccoon, coyote and monarch butterfly.\n\nNotable plants that were domesticated in North America include tobacco, maize, squash, tomato, sunflower, blueberry, avocado, cotton, chile pepper\nand vanilla.\n\nHistory\n\nPre-Columbian \n\nThe indigenous peoples of the Americas have many creation myths by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its creation, but there is no evidence that humans evolved there. The specifics of the initial settlement of the Americas by ancient Asians are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that hunters entered the Bering Land Bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska from 27,000 to 14,000 years ago. A growing viewpoint is that the first American inhabitants sailed from Beringia some 13,000 years ago, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the Last Glacial Period, in what is known as the Late Glacial Maximum, around 12,500 years ago. The oldest petroglyphs in North America date from 15,000 to 10,000 years before present. Genetic research and anthropology indicate additional waves of migration from Asia via the Bering Strait during the Early-Middle Holocene.\n\nBefore contact with Europeans, the natives of North America were divided into many different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several \"culture areas\", which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones and give a good indication of the main way of life of the people who lived there (e.g., the bison hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native groups can also be classified by their language family (e.g., Athapascan or ). Peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies. Anthropologists think that the Inuit of the high Arctic came to North America much later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record, and their replacement by the Thule people.\n\nDuring the thousands of years of native habitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. One of the oldest yet discovered is the Clovis culture (c. 9550–9050 BCE) in modern New Mexico. Later groups include the Mississippian culture and related Mound building cultures, found in the Mississippi river valley and the Pueblo culture of what is now the Four Corners. The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes, squash, and maize. As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many other cultural advances were made there. The Mayans developed a writing system, built huge pyramids and temples, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero around 400 CE.\n\nThe first recorded European references to North America are in Norse sagas where it is referred to as Vinland. The earliest verifiable instance of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact by any European culture with the North America mainland has been dated to around 1000 CE. The site, situated at the northernmost extent of the island named Newfoundland, has provided unmistakable evidence of Norse settlement. Norse explorer Leif Erikson (c. 970–1020 CE) is thought to have visited the area. Erikson was the first European to make landfall on the continent (excluding Greenland).\n\nThe Mayan culture was still present in southern Mexico and Guatemala when the Spanish conquistadors arrived, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire, whose capital city Tenochtitlan was located further north in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs were conquered in 1521 by Hernán Cortés.\n\nPost-contact, 1492–1910 \n\nDuring the so-called Age of Discovery, Europeans explored overseas and staked claims to various parts of North America, much of which was already settled by indigenous peoples. Upon Europeans' arrival in the \"New World\", indigenous peoples had a variety of reactions, including curiosity, trading, cooperation, resignation, and resistance. The indigenous population declined substantially following European arrival, primarily due to the introduction of Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which the indigenous peoples lacked immunity, and because of violent conflicts with Europeans. Indigenous culture changed significantly and their affiliation with political and cultural groups also changed. Several linguistic groups died out, and others changed quite quickly.\n\nOn the southern east coast of North America, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, who had accompanied Columbus's second voyage, visited and named in 1513 La Florida. As the colonial period unfolded, Spain, England, and France appropriated and claimed extensive territories in North America eastern and southern coastlines. Spain established permanent settlements on the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola and Cuba in the 1490s, building cities, putting the resident indigenous populations to work, raising crops for Spanish settlers and panning gold to enrich the Spaniards. Much of the indigenous population died due to disease and overwork, spurring the Spaniards on to claim new lands and peoples. An expedition under the command of Spanish settler, Hernán Cortés, sailed westward in 1519 to what turned out to be the mainland in Mexico. With local indigenous allies, the Spanish conquered the Aztec empire in central Mexico in 1521. Spain then established permanent cities in Mexico, Central America, and Spanish South America in the sixteenth century. Once Spaniards conquered the high civilization of the Aztecs and Incas, the Caribbean was a backwater of the Spanish empire.\n\nOther European powers began to intrude on areas that Spain had claimed, including the Caribbean islands. France took the western half of Hispaniola and developed Saint-Domingue as a cane sugar producing colony worked by black slave labor. Britain took Barbados and Jamaica; the Dutch and Danes also took islands previously claimed by Spain. Britain did not begin settling on the North American mainland until a hundred years after the first Spanish settlements, since it sought first to control nearby Ireland. The first permanent English settlement was in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, and then further settler colonial establishments on the east coast of the continent from what is now Georgia up to Massachusetts, forming the Thirteen Colonies. The English did not establish settlements north, east of the St. Lawrence Valley in what would become Canada until well after the war of independence. English early permanent settlements were St. John's, Newfoundland in 1630 and Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1749. The first permanent French settlement was in Quebec City, Quebec in 1608. In the British victory the Seven Years' War, France ceded to Britain its claims east of the Mississippi River in 1763. Spain gained rights to the territories west of Mississippi now acting as a border. French so-called \"colonists\" that had first settled the Illinois Country after several generations of experience on the new continent migrated over the Mississippi in the absence of Spanish occupants while leveraging earlier Louisiana French settlements around the Gulf of Mexico. These early French settlers partnering with midwest indigenous tribes and their mixed ancestry descendants would precede the westward push and guide through waves of followers all the way to the Pacific.\n\nThe Thirteen Colonies on the North Atlantic coast declared independence in 1776, fighting a protracted war of independence with the aid of Britain's enemies France and Spain, becoming the United States of America. The new nation steadily attempted to increase its territory. By that time, the Russians were already well established on the Pacific Northwest northern coastline with maritime fur trade activities supported by active settlements. As a result, the Spanish were showing more interest in controlling the trade on the Pacific coast and mapped most of its coastline. The first Spanish settlements were attempted in Alta California during that period. Numerous overland explorations associated with voyageurs, fur trade, and U.S. led expeditions (e.g., Lewis and Clark, Fremont and Wilkes) were reaching the Pacific at various latitudes around the turn of the century. In 1803 Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining claims in North America, west of the Mississippi River, to the U.S., in a deal named the Louisiana Purchase. Spain and the U.S. settled their western boundary dispute in 1819 in the Adams–Onís Treaty. Mexico fought a lengthy war for independence from Spain, winning it for Mexico (which included Central America at the time) in 1821. The U.S. sought further westward expansion and fought the Mexican–American War, gaining a vast territory that first Spain and then Mexico claimed but which they did not effectively control. Much of the area was in fact dominated by indigenous peoples, which did not recognize the claims of Spain, France, or the U.S. Russia sold its North American claims, which included Alaska, to the U.S in 1867. Also in 1867, settler colonies in eastern North America were unified as the dominion of Canada. The U.S. sought to dig a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, a part of Colombia, and aided Panamanians in a war to separate it from Colombia. The U.S. carved out the Panama Canal Zone, over which it claimed sovereignty. After decades of work the Panama Canal was completed, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in 1913.\n\nDemographics\n\nEconomically, Canada and the U.S. are the wealthiest and most developed nations in the continent, followed by Mexico, a newly industrialized country. The countries of Central America and the Caribbean are at various levels of economic and human development. For example, small Caribbean island-nations, such as Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Antigua and Barbuda, have a higher GDP (PPP) per capita than Mexico due to their smaller populations. Panama and Costa Rica have a significantly higher Human Development Index and GDP than the rest of the Central American nations. Additionally, despite Greenland's vast resources in oil and minerals, much of them remain untapped, and the island is economically dependent on fishing, tourism, and subsidies from Denmark. Nevertheless, the island is highly developed.\n\nDemographically, North America is ethnically diverse. Its three main groups are Whites, Mestizos and Blacks. There is a significant minority of Indigenous Americans and Asians among other less numerous groups.\n\nLanguages \n\nThe dominant languages in North America are English, Spanish, and French. Danish is prevalent in Greenland alongside Greenlandic, and Dutch is spoken side by side local languages in the Dutch Caribbean. The term Anglo-America is used to refer to the anglophone countries of the Americas: namely Canada (where English and French are co-official) and the U.S., but also sometimes Belize and parts of the tropics, especially the Commonwealth Caribbean. Latin America refers to the other areas of the Americas (generally south of the U.S.) where the Romance languages, derived from Latin, of Spanish and Portuguese, (but French-speaking countries are not usually included) predominate: the other republics of Central America (but not always Belize), part of the Caribbean (not the Dutch-, English-, or French-speaking areas), Mexico, and most of South America (except Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana [France], and the Falkland Islands [UK]).\n\nThe French language has historically played a significant role in North America and now retains a distinctive presence in some regions. Canada is officially bilingual. French is the official language of the Province of Quebec, where 95% of the people speak it as either their first or second language, and it is co-official with English in the Province of New Brunswick. Other French-speaking locales include the Province of Ontario (the official language is English, but there are an estimated 600,000 Franco-Ontarians), the Province of Manitoba (co-official as de jure with English), the French West Indies and Saint-Pierre et Miquelon, as well as the U.S. state of Louisiana, where French is also an official language. Haiti is included with this group based on historical association but Haitians speak both Creole and French. Similarly, French and French Antillean Creole is spoken in Saint Lucia and the Commonwealth of Dominica alongside English.\n\nA significant number of Indigenous languages are spoken in North America, with 372,000 people in the U.S. speaking an indigenous language at home, about 225,000 in Canada and roughly 6 million in Mexico. In the U.S. and Canada, there are approximately 150 surviving indigenous languages of the 300 spoken prior to European contact.\n\nReligions \n\nChristianity is the largest religion in the U.S., Canada and Mexico. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, 77% of the population considered themselves Christians. Christianity also is the predominant religion in the 23 dependent territories in North America. The U.S. has the largest Christian population in the world, with nearly 247 million Christians (70%), although other countries have higher percentages of Christians among their populations. Mexico has the world's second largest number of Catholics, surpassed only by Brazil.\n\nAccording to the same study, the religiously unaffiliated (including agnostics and atheists) make up about 17% of the population of Canada and the U.S. Those with no religious affiliation make up about 24% of Canada's total population.\n\nCanada, the U.S. and Mexico host communities of Jews (6 million or about 1.8%), Buddhists (3.8 million or 1.1%) and Muslims (3.4 million or 1.0%). The largest number of Jews can be found in the U.S. (5.4 million), Canada (375,000) and Mexico (67,476). The U.S. hosts the largest Muslim population in North America with 2.7 million or 0.9%, while Canada hosts about one million Muslims or 3.2% of the population. In Mexico there were 3,700 Muslims in 2010. In 2012, U-T San Diego estimated U.S. practitioners of Buddhism at 1.2 million people, of whom 40% are living in Southern California.\n\nThe predominant religion in Mexico and Central America is Christianity (96%). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Mexico in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism was the only religion permitted by Spanish crown and Catholic church. A vast campaign of religious conversion, the so-called \"spiritual conquest\", was launched to bring the indigenous peoples into the Christian fold. The Inquisition was established to assure orthodox belief and practice. The Catholic Church remained an important institution, so that even after political independence, Roman Catholicism remained the dominant religion. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion. Christianity is also the predominant religion in the Caribbean (85%). Other religious groups in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Rastafari (in Jamaica), and Afro-American religions such as Santería and Vodou.\n\nPopulace \n\nNorth America is the fourth most populous continent after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Its most populous country is the U.S. with 329.7 million persons. The second largest country is Mexico with a population of 112.3 million. Canada is the third most populous country with 37.0 million. The majority of Caribbean island-nations have national populations under a million, though Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico (a territory of the U.S.), Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago each have populations higher than a million. Greenland has a small population of 55,984 for its massive size (2,166,000 km2 or 836,300 mi2), and therefore, it has the world's lowest population density at 0.026 pop./km2 (0.067 pop./mi2).\n\nWhile the U.S., Canada, and Mexico maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. There are also large cities in the Caribbean. The largest cities in North America, by far, are Mexico City and New York City. These cities are the only cities on the continent to exceed eight million, and two of three in the Americas. Next in size are Los Angeles, Toronto, Chicago, Havana, Santo Domingo, and Montreal. Cities in the Sun Belt regions of the U.S., such as those in Southern California and Houston, Phoenix, Miami, Atlanta, and Las Vegas, are experiencing rapid growth. These causes included warm temperatures, retirement of Baby Boomers, large industry, and the influx of immigrants. Cities near the U.S. border, particularly in Mexico, are also experiencing large amounts of growth. Most notable is Tijuana, a city bordering San Diego that receives immigrants from all over Latin America and parts of Europe and Asia. Yet as cities grow in these warmer regions of North America, they are increasingly forced to deal with the major issue of water shortages.\n\nEight of the top ten metropolitan areas are located in the U.S. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 5.5 million and include the New York City metropolitan area, Los Angeles metropolitan area, Chicago metropolitan area, and the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within the U.S., Mexico is host to the largest metropolitan area by population in North America: Greater Mexico City. Canada also breaks into the top ten largest metropolitan areas with the Toronto metropolitan area having six million people. The proximity of cities to each other on the Canada–U.S. border and Mexico–U.S. border has led to the rise of international metropolitan areas. These urban agglomerations are observed at their largest and most productive in Detroit–Windsor and San Diego–Tijuana and experience large commercial, economic, and cultural activity. The metropolitan areas are responsible for millions of dollars of trade dependent on international freight. In Detroit-Windsor the Border Transportation Partnership study in 2004 concluded US$13 billion was dependent on the Detroit–Windsor international border crossing while in San Diego-Tijuana freight at the Otay Mesa Port of Entry was valued at US$20 billion.\n\nNorth America has also been witness to the growth of megapolitan areas. In the U.S. exists eleven megaregions that transcend international borders and comprise Canadian and Mexican metropolitan regions. These are the Arizona Sun Corridor, Cascadia, Florida, Front Range, Great Lakes Megalopolis, Gulf Coast, Northeast, Northern California, Piedmont Atlantic, Southern California, and the Texas Triangle. Canada and Mexico are also the home of megaregions. These include the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, Golden Horseshoe—both of which are considered part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis—and the Central Mexico megalopolis. Traditionally the largest megaregion has been considered the Boston-Washington, DC Corridor, or the Northeast, as the region is one massive contiguous area. Yet megaregion criterion have allowed the Great Lakes Megalopolis to maintain status as the most populated region, being home to 53,768,125 people in 2000.\n\n†2011 Census figures\n\nEconomy \n\nNorth America's GDP per capita was evaluated in October 2016 by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to be $41,830, making it the richest continent in the world, followed by Oceania.\n\nCanada, Mexico, and the U.S. have significant and multifaceted economic systems. The U.S. has the largest economy of all three countries and in the world. In 2016, the U.S. had an estimated per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $57,466 according to the World Bank, and is the most technologically developed economy of the three. The U.S.'s services sector comprises 77% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 22% and agriculture comprises 1.2%. The U.S. economy is also the fastest growing economy in North America and the Americas as a whole, with the highest GDP per capita in the Americas as well.\n\nCanada shows significant growth in the sectors of services, mining and manufacturing. Canada's per capita GDP (PPP) was estimated at $44,656 and it had the 11th largest GDP (nominal) in 2014. Canada's services sector comprises 78% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 20% and agriculture comprises 2%. Mexico has a per capita GDP (PPP) of $16,111 and as of 2014 is the 15th largest GDP (nominal) in the world. Being a newly industrialized country, Mexico maintains both modern and outdated industrial and agricultural facilities and operations. Its main sources of income are oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and financial services.\n\nThe North American economy is well defined and structured in three main economic areas. These areas are those under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), and the Central American Common Market (CACM). Of these trade blocs, the U.S. takes part in two. In addition to the larger trade blocs there is the Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement among numerous other free-trade relations, often between the larger, more developed countries and Central American and Caribbean countries.\n\nThe NAFTA forms one of the four largest trade blocs in the world. Its implementation in 1994 was designed for economic homogenization with hopes of eliminating barriers of trade and foreign investment between Canada, the U.S. and Mexico. While Canada and the U.S. already conducted the largest bilateral trade relationship—and to present day still do—in the world and Canada–U.S. trade relations already allowed trade without national taxes and tariffs, NAFTA allowed Mexico to experience a similar duty-free trade. The free-trade agreement allowed for the elimination of tariffs that had previously been in place on U.S.–Mexico trade. Trade volume has steadily increased annually and in 2010, surface trade between the three NAFTA nations reached an all-time historical increase of 24.3% or US$791 billion. The NAFTA trade bloc GDP (PPP) is the world's largest with US$17.617 trillion. This is in part attributed to the fact that the economy of the U.S. is the world's largest national economy; the country had a nominal GDP of approximately $14.7 trillion in 2010. The countries of NAFTA are also some of each other's largest trade partners. The U.S. is the largest trade partner of Canada and Mexico, while Canada and Mexico are each other's third largest trade partners. In 2018, the NAFTA was replaced by the U.S.–Mexico–Canada Agreement.\n\nThe Caribbean trade bloc (CARICOM) came into agreement in 1973 when it was signed by 15 Caribbean nations. As of 2000, CARICOM trade volume was US$96 billion. CARICOM also allowed for the creation of a common passport for associated nations. In the past decade the trade bloc focused largely on free-trade agreements and under the CARICOM Office of Trade Negotiations free-trade agreements have been signed into effect.\n\nIntegration of Central American economies occurred under the signing of the Central American Common Market agreement in 1961; this was the first attempt to engage the nations of this area into stronger financial cooperation. The 2006 implementation of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) left the future of the CACM unclear. The Central American Free Trade Agreement was signed by five Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, and the U.S. The focal point of CAFTA is to create a free trade area similar to that of NAFTA. In addition to the U.S., Canada also has relations in Central American trade blocs.\n\nThese nations also take part in inter-continental trade blocs. Mexico takes a part in the G3 Free Trade Agreement with Colombia and Venezuela and has a trade agreement with the EU. The U.S. has proposed and maintained trade agreements under the Transatlantic Free Trade Area between itself and the European Union; the U.S.–Middle East Free Trade Area between numerous Middle Eastern nations and itself; and the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership between Southeast Asian nations, Australia, and New Zealand.\n\nTransport \n\nThe Pan-American Highway route in the Americas is the portion of a network of roads nearly in length which travels through the mainland nations. No definitive length of the Pan-American Highway exists because the U.S. and Canadian governments have never officially defined any specific routes as being part of the Pan-American Highway, and Mexico officially has many branches connecting to the U.S. border. However, the total length of the portion from Mexico to the northern extremity of the highway is roughly .\n\nThe first transcontinental railroad in the U.S. was built in the 1860s, linking the railroad network of the eastern U.S. with California on the Pacific coast. Finished on 10 May 1869 at the famous golden spike event at Promontory Summit, Utah, it created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the American West, catalyzing the transition from the wagon trains of previous decades to a modern transportation system. Although an accomplishment, it achieved the status of first transcontinental railroad by connecting myriad eastern U.S. railroads to the Pacific and was not the largest single railroad system in the world. The Canadian Grand Trunk Railway had, by 1867, already accumulated more than of track by connecting Ontario with the Canadian Atlantic provinces west as far as Port Huron, Michigan, through Sarnia, Ontario.\n\nCommunications \nA shared telephone system known as the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) is an integrated telephone numbering plan of 24 countries and territories: the U.S. and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and 17 Caribbean nations.\n\nCulture \n\nThe cultures of North America are diverse. The U.S. and English Canada have many cultural similarities, while French Canada has a distinct culture from Anglophone Canada, which is protected by law. Since the U.S. was formed from portions previously part of the Spanish Empire and then independent Mexico, and there has been considerable and continuing immigration of Spanish speakers from south of the U.S.–Mexico border. In the southwest of the U.S. there are many Hispanic cultural traditions and considerable bilingualism. Mexico and Central America are part of Latin America and are culturally distinct from anglophone and francophone North America. However, they share with the United States the establishment of post-independence governments that are federated representative republics with written constitutions dating from their founding as nations. Canada is a federated parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy.\n\nCanada's constitution dates to 1867, with confederation, in the British North America Act, but not until 1982 did Canada have the power to amend its own constitution. Canada's Francophone heritage has been enshrined in law since the British parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774. In contrast to largely Protestant Anglo settlers in North America, French-speaking Canadians were Catholic and with the Quebec Act were guaranteed freedom to practice their religion, restored the right of the Catholic Church to impose tithes for its support, and established French civil law in most circumstances.\n\nThe distinctiveness of French language and culture has been codified in Canadian law, so that both English and French are designated official languages. The U.S. has no official language, but its national language is English.\n\nThe Canadian government took action to protect Canadian culture by limiting non-Canadian content in broadcasting, creating the Canadian Radio and Telecommunications Commission to monitor Canadian content. In Quebec, the provincial government established the Quebec Office of the French Language, often called the \"language police\" by Anglophones, which mandates the use of French terminology and signage in French. Since 1968 the unicameral legislature has been called the Quebec National Assembly. Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day, 24 June, is the national holiday of Quebec and celebrated by francophone Canadians throughout Canada. In Quebec, the school system was divided into Catholic and Protestant, so-called confessional schools. Anglophone education in Quebec has been increasingly undermined.\n\nLatino culture is strong in the southwest of the U.S., as well as Florida, which draws Latin Americans from many countries in the hemisphere. Northern Mexico, particularly in the cities of Monterrey, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Mexicali, is strongly influenced by the culture and way of life of the U.S. Monterrey, a modern city with a significant industrial group, has been regarded as the most Americanized city in Mexico. Northern Mexico, the Western U.S. and Alberta, Canada share a cowboy culture.\n\nThe Anglophone Caribbean states have witnessed and participated in the decline of the British Empire and its influence on the region, and its replacement by the economic influence of Northern America in the Anglophone Caribbean. This is partly due to the relatively small populations of the English-speaking Caribbean countries, and also because many of them now have more people living abroad than those remaining at home.\n\nGreenland has experienced many immigration waves from Northern Canada, e.g. the Thule people. Therefore, Greenland shares some cultural ties with the indigenous peoples of Canada. Greenland is also considered Nordic and has strong Danish ties due to centuries of colonization by Denmark.\n\nPopular culture – sports \nThe U.S. and Canada have major sports teams that compete against each other, including baseball, basketball, hockey, and soccer/football.\nCanada, Mexico and the U.S. submitted a joint bid to host the 2026 FIFA World Cup.\nThe following table shows the most prominent sports leagues in North America, in order of average revenue. Canada has a separate Canadian Football League from the U.S. teams.\n\nThe Native American game of lacrosse is considered a national sport in Canada. Curling is an important winter sport in Canada, and the Winter Olympics includes it in the roster. The English sport of cricket is popular in parts of anglophone Canada and very popular in parts of the former British empire, but in Canada is considered a minor sport. Boxing is also a major sport in some countries, such as Mexico, Panama and Puerto Rico, and it is considered one of the main individual sports in the U.S.\n\nSee also \n Flags of North America\n List of cities in North America\n North American Union\n Outline of North America\n Table manners in North America\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nCitations\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n \n \n North America: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society \n European Colonization of North America at the National Geographic Society \n \n \n The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press \n \n \n\n \n\n \nCategory:Continents", "title": "North America" } ]

[ "The indigenous population in Guatemala consists primarily of Mayan groups and the Non-Mayan group, Xinca. The Mayan portion can be broken down into 23 groups namely K'iche, Kaqchikel, Mam, Q'eqchi' and some others. The Xinca are another set of Indigenous people in Guatemala.", "The article discusses the Indigenous populations and their languages in Guatemala. It talks about the official recognition of 23 Indigenous languages, including Xinca, by the government in 2003 under the Law of National Languages which orders public and government institutions to translate and provide services in these languages. The article also touches upon the ILO Convention 169, ratified by the Guatemalan Constitutional Court in 1996, that mandates the consultation with Indigenous groups prior to any projects occurring on tribal lands. This sheds light on the efforts being taken to grant and protect the rights of Indigenous people in Guatemala.", "Yes, the K'iche tribe is the largest among the Mayan groups in Guatemala, making up 11.3% of the Indigenous population.", "The text does not provide information on when the Indigenous populations, including the K'iche tribe, settled in Guatemala.", "The text does not provide additional information about the people of this region in Guatemala.", "The text does not provide specific details about what makes up the rest of the Indigenous population in Guatemala besides the Mayan and Xinca groups.", "The text does not provide information on how long the Indigenous tribes, including the Mayan and Xinca groups, have been in Guatemala." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_cfa498d1423349c2b86dd37cf1346c4d_1_q#0", "C_cfa498d1423349c2b86dd37cf1346c4d_1_q#1", "C_cfa498d1423349c2b86dd37cf1346c4d_1_q#2", "C_cfa498d1423349c2b86dd37cf1346c4d_1_q#3", "C_cfa498d1423349c2b86dd37cf1346c4d_1_q#4", "C_cfa498d1423349c2b86dd37cf1346c4d_1_q#5" ]

[ "Who has he collaborated with?", "Has he had any other collaborations?", "Did he work a lot with Yoochun?", "What soundtracks did he work on?", "Was this a hit?", "What other soundtracks did he do?" ]

[ 2, 2, 1, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 1, 0, 0, 1, 2, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 180 ], [ 890 ], [ 873 ], [ 1210 ], [ 1634 ], [ 1312 ] ], "texts": [ [ "label-mates The Grace" ], [ "Yoochun" ], [ "Kim and bandmate Yoochun released a self-composed single \"Colors (Melody and Harmony)/Shelter." ], [ "Kim sang \"Love\" for the soundtrack of the film Heaven's Postman in" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "He also sang \"Found You\" and \"For you It's Separation, For me It's Waiting\" for the soundtrack of the television drama Sungkyunkwan Scandal," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 180, 890, 873, 1210, 1634, 1312 ], "texts": [ "label-mates The Grace", "Yoochun", "Kim and bandmate Yoochun released a self-composed single \"Colors (Melody and Harmony)/Shelter.", "Kim sang \"Love\" for the soundtrack of the film Heaven's Postman in", "CANNOTANSWER", "He also sang \"Found You\" and \"For you It's Separation, For me It's Waiting\" for the soundtrack of the television drama Sungkyunkwan Scandal," ] }

[]

[ "Kim has collaborated with The Grace and his bandmate Yoochun. He also participated in m-flo's album.", "Based on the information given in the context, no other collaborations of Kim are mentioned.", "The context mentions that Kim and Yoochun released a self-composed single together. However, no details are given to indicate the level or frequency of their collaborations.", "Kim sang for the soundtracks of \"A Millionaire's First Love\", the film \"Heaven's Postman\", and the television dramas \"Sungkyunkwan Scandal\", \"Protect the Boss\", and \"Dr. Jin\".", "The context does not provide information on whether Kim's work on these soundtracks was a hit.", "According to the context given, Kim also worked on the soundtracks of \"A Millionaire's First Love\", \"Heaven's Postman\", \"Sungkyunkwan Scandal\", \"Protect the Boss\", and \"Dr. Jin\". No other soundtracks are mentioned." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "When was his first solo album released?", "Did the first album receive any rewards or recognition?", "How many solo albums has he released?", "how many songs are the in his second album?", "what recognition does the second album receive?", "what is the second album about?" ]

[ 0, 2, 0, 1, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 958 ], [ 1045 ], [ 1433 ], [ 1632 ], [ 1495 ], [ 1632 ] ], "texts": [ [ "His first full-length solo album, WWW was released on 29 October 2013." ], [ "\"Sunny Day\" was released ahead of the album and topped the iTunes EP chart in Japan." ], [ "His second solo album, No.X was released on 12 February 2016." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "It topped iTunes charts of 39 countries around the world upon its release," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 958, 1045, 1433, 1632, 1495, 1632 ], "texts": [ "His first full-length solo album, WWW was released on 29 October 2013.", "\"Sunny Day\" was released ahead of the album and topped the iTunes EP chart in Japan.", "His second solo album, No.X was released on 12 February 2016.", "CANNOTANSWER", "It topped iTunes charts of 39 countries around the world upon its release,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "His first full-length solo album, WWW, was released on 29 October 2013.", "The text does not provide information on any rewards or recognition received for his first solo album.", "He has released two solo albums.", "The text does not provide information on the number of songs in his second album.", "His second solo album, No.X, topped iTunes charts of 39 countries around the world upon its release, and was named the most popular K-pop album in China for 2016.", "The text does not provide information on what the second album is about." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_88f03f8169c54916a0b815509a39fef1_0_q#0", "C_88f03f8169c54916a0b815509a39fef1_0_q#1", "C_88f03f8169c54916a0b815509a39fef1_0_q#2", "C_88f03f8169c54916a0b815509a39fef1_0_q#3", "C_88f03f8169c54916a0b815509a39fef1_0_q#4", "C_88f03f8169c54916a0b815509a39fef1_0_q#5", "C_88f03f8169c54916a0b815509a39fef1_0_q#6" ]

[ "What legacy did J.R. have", "How was it decisive?", "What reforms?", "What else did he leave behind?", "when did he die", "What are some interesting aspects about this article?", "Who built it" ]

[ 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 167 ], [ 1669 ], [ 261 ], [ 1669 ], [ 1191 ], [ 1073 ] ], "texts": [ [ "On the economic front, Jayewardene's legacy was decisive." ], [ "Since Jayewardene's reforms, the island has maintained healthy growth despite the civil war." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "On the ethnic question, Jayewardene's legacy is bitterly divisive." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "a statue of Jayewardene was erected at the Kamakura Temple in the Kanagawa Prefecture in Japan in his honor." ], [ "Japan" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 167, 1669, 261, 1669, 1191, 1073 ], "texts": [ "On the economic front, Jayewardene's legacy was decisive.", "Since Jayewardene's reforms, the island has maintained healthy growth despite the civil war.", "CANNOTANSWER", "On the ethnic question, Jayewardene's legacy is bitterly divisive.", "CANNOTANSWER", "a statue of Jayewardene was erected at the Kamakura Temple in the Kanagawa Prefecture in Japan in his honor.", "Japan" ] }

[ { "text": "JR, J. R. or Jr. may refer to:\n\n Jr. or Junior (suffix), a name suffix\n\nArts and entertainment\n J.R. (album), an album by Jim Bob\n J R, a 1975 novel written by William Gaddis\n \"Jr.\", a song by Codeine on the album Barely Real\n J. R. Ewing, a television character from Dallas\n JR Chandler, aka Adam Chandler Jr, a television character from All My Children\n Jornal da Record, a Brazilian news program on RecordTV\n\nBusinesses and organizations\n Aero California, Mexican airline (IATA code JR, 1960-2008)\n Japan Railways Group or the JR Group, the main operators of the Japanese railway network\n Jember railway station\n John Radcliffe Hospital\n Joy Air, Chinese airline (IATA code JR since 2008)\n\nPeople\n\nIn arts and entertainment\n JR (artist) (born 1983), French artist\n J.R. (musician) (born 1979), American Christian musician and producer\n JR (rapper) (born 1987), South African rapper and entrepreneur \n J. R. a pen-name of writer John Ruskin\n Jr., stage name of Park Jin-young, South Korean singer\n J.R. Martinez (born 1983), American actor, motivational speaker, and former U.S. Army soldier\n Jim Ross (born 1952), professional wrestling commentator\n JR (born 1995), stage name of Kim Jong-hyeon, South Korean singer and member of NU'EST\n\nIn politics\n Junius Richard Jayawardena (1906–1996), President of Sri Lanka from 1978–1989\n\nIn sport\n J. R. Bremer (born 1980), American-born naturalized Bosnian basketball player\n J. R. Redmond (born 1977), former NFL player for the New England Patriots\n J. R. Smith (born 1985), former NBA player\n Jeremy Roenick (born 1970), professional ice hockey player\n\nSee also\n\n \n Junior (disambiguation)\n JRJR (disambiguation)", "title": "JR" } ]

[ "J.R. Jayewardene left a significant economic legacy, with his reforms leading to healthy growth for Sri Lanka despite the civil war. However, his legacy on the ethnic front was bitterly divisive. While he was not against Tamils personally, he did not take measures to stop the attack on them, leading to escalated ethnic tensions and two civil wars by the end of his tenure. He was respected in Japan for his efforts towards peace and reconciliation post-war, and the J.R Jayewardene Centre was established in his honour, serving as an archive for his personal library, papers, records, and the gifts he received during his tenure as President.", "Jayewardene's economic legacy was decisive in that his reforms resulted in healthy growth for Sri Lanka after thirty years of the country struggling with slow growth and high unemployment.", "The context does not provide specific details about the reforms implemented by Jayewardene.", "Along with his legacy, J.R Jayewardene also left behind his personal library, papers, records from the Presidential Secretariat, and the gifts he received during his tenure as President. These were all preserved at the J.R Jayewardene Centre, which was established by the Parliament at his childhood home. There is also a statue of Jayewardene in Japan in his honor owing to his efforts for peace and reconciliation with post-war Japan.", "The text does not provide information on when J.R. Jayewardene died.", "Some interesting aspects of this article include the significant impact of Jayewardene's economic reforms on Sri Lanka's economic growth and the controversial nature of his approach to ethnicity and politics, which led to high levels of violence and civil war. His personal relationships, such as his friendship with a Tamil Supreme Court judge, provide an interesting contrast to his political actions. Another intriguing aspect is his international reputation, with him being highly respected in Japan to the point of having a statue erected in his honor. The establishment of the J.R Jayewardene centre which holds his personal archives also adds a personal element to his legacy.", "The J.R Jayewardene Centre was established by the Parliament of Sri Lanka. It was set up at the childhood home of J. R. Jayewardene in Colombo as per the J.R Jayewardene Centre Act No. 77 of 1988." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Neutral", "No" ]

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[ "When was he born?", "Where did he grow up?", "Where did he go to school?", "Did he go to any other schools?", "Where else did he study?", "What did he do in his early life?", "Who were his parents?" ]

[ 1, 1, 0, 0, 2, 0, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1700 ], [ 1700 ], [ 565 ], [ 1268 ], [ 1487 ], [ 0 ], [ 1700 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "he received his primary education at Bishop's College, Colombo and attended Royal College, Colombo for his secondary education." ], [ "Jayewardene entered the University College, Colombo (University of London), in 1926" ], [ "he transferred law by entering Colombo Law College" ], [ "Born to a prominent Ceylonese family with a strong association with the legal profession," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1700, 1700, 565, 1268, 1487, 0, 1700 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "he received his primary education at Bishop's College, Colombo and attended Royal College, Colombo for his secondary education.", "Jayewardene entered the University College, Colombo (University of London), in 1926", "he transferred law by entering Colombo Law College", "Born to a prominent Ceylonese family with a strong association with the legal profession,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "JR, J. R. or Jr. may refer to:\n\n Jr. or Junior (suffix), a name suffix\n\nArts and entertainment\n J.R. (album), an album by Jim Bob\n J R, a 1975 novel written by William Gaddis\n \"Jr.\", a song by Codeine on the album Barely Real\n J. R. Ewing, a television character from Dallas\n JR Chandler, aka Adam Chandler Jr, a television character from All My Children\n Jornal da Record, a Brazilian news program on RecordTV\n\nBusinesses and organizations\n Aero California, Mexican airline (IATA code JR, 1960-2008)\n Japan Railways Group or the JR Group, the main operators of the Japanese railway network\n Jember railway station\n John Radcliffe Hospital\n Joy Air, Chinese airline (IATA code JR since 2008)\n\nPeople\n\nIn arts and entertainment\n JR (artist) (born 1983), French artist\n J.R. (musician) (born 1979), American Christian musician and producer\n JR (rapper) (born 1987), South African rapper and entrepreneur \n J. R. a pen-name of writer John Ruskin\n Jr., stage name of Park Jin-young, South Korean singer\n J.R. Martinez (born 1983), American actor, motivational speaker, and former U.S. Army soldier\n Jim Ross (born 1952), professional wrestling commentator\n JR (born 1995), stage name of Kim Jong-hyeon, South Korean singer and member of NU'EST\n\nIn politics\n Junius Richard Jayawardena (1906–1996), President of Sri Lanka from 1978–1989\n\nIn sport\n J. R. Bremer (born 1980), American-born naturalized Bosnian basketball player\n J. R. Redmond (born 1977), former NFL player for the New England Patriots\n J. R. Smith (born 1985), former NBA player\n Jeremy Roenick (born 1970), professional ice hockey player\n\nSee also\n\n \n Junior (disambiguation)\n JRJR (disambiguation)", "title": "JR" } ]

[ "The text does not provide information on when Jayewardene was born.", "The text does not provide specific information on where Jayewardene grew up.", "Jayewardene received his primary education at Bishop's College, Colombo and attended Royal College, Colombo for his secondary education. He later attended the University College, Colombo (University of London) and also studied at Colombo Law College.", "The text does not provide information on Jayewardene attending any other schools beyond Bishop's College, Royal College, University College, Colombo, and Colombo Law College.", "The text does not provide information on Jayewardene studying anywhere beyond Bishop's College, Royal College, University College, Colombo, and Colombo Law College.", "In his early life, Jayewardene received his primary education at Bishop's College, Colombo and attended Royal College, Colombo for his secondary education. At Royal College, he played for the college cricket team, debuted in the Royal-Thomian series in 1925, was the captain of the rugby team, excelled in studies and sports, and was involved in clubs and societies. Jayewardene was also the first Chairman/Secretary in Royal College Social Services League in 1921, became the head prefect in 1925, represented his school in football, boxing, and was a member of the cadet corps. He later served as the Secretary of the Royal College Union. He then entered the University College, Colombo, in 1926 to study English, Latin, Logic, and Economics. In 1928, he transferred to law by entering Colombo Law College and became an advocate, starting his practice in the unofficial bar, for a brief period. Jayewardene converted from Christianity to Buddhism during his youth.", "Jayewardene's parents were Hon. Justice Eugene Wilfred Jayewardene KC, a Chief Justice of Ceylon, and Agnes Helen Don Philip Wijewardena, the daughter of Tudugalage Muhandiram Don Philip Wijewardena, a wealthy merchant." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No" ]

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[ "When was the rebel season?", "Why was the Welsh championship replaced?", "What was their record during the rebel season?", "Did they win the championship?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 114 ], [ 304 ], [ 1687 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1990, the unofficial Welsh championship was replaced by a league structure involving promotion and relegation." ], [ "Cardiff competed in top flight but could only manage a fourth-place finish in 1990-91, and exited the Cup at the quarter-final stage." ], [ "beating league runners-up and Cup champions Llanelli 43-0 at the Arms Park and beating league champions Neath 18-4 away in the last game of the season." ], [ "In 1993-94 they slid back to fourth in the league but won the SWALEC Cup" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 114, 304, 1687 ], "texts": [ "In 1990, the unofficial Welsh championship was replaced by a league structure involving promotion and relegation.", "Cardiff competed in top flight but could only manage a fourth-place finish in 1990-91, and exited the Cup at the quarter-final stage.", "beating league runners-up and Cup champions Llanelli 43-0 at the Arms Park and beating league champions Neath 18-4 away in the last game of the season.", "In 1993-94 they slid back to fourth in the league but won the SWALEC Cup" ] }

[]

[ "C_2136d6e92025474f8d7627b714c4784d_0_q#0", "C_2136d6e92025474f8d7627b714c4784d_0_q#1", "C_2136d6e92025474f8d7627b714c4784d_0_q#2", "C_2136d6e92025474f8d7627b714c4784d_0_q#3" ]

[ "What is Lynn Howells?", "How did the team do with stats at that time?", "What players were signed during this time?", "What was the teams's record during this time?" ]

[ 2, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2084 ], [ 1801 ], [ 2718 ], [ 647 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Following the unsuccessful season Lynn Howells's contract was not renewed" ], [ "A turgid forward battle resulted in a 21-15 defeat for the Blue and Blacks." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The season is also notable for a club record victory of 116-0 over Duvnant in the Welsh/Scottish League," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2084, 1801, 2718, 647 ], "texts": [ "Following the unsuccessful season Lynn Howells's contract was not renewed", "A turgid forward battle resulted in a 21-15 defeat for the Blue and Blacks.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The season is also notable for a club record victory of 116-0 over Duvnant in the Welsh/Scottish League," ] }

[]

[ "Lynn Howells was a rugby director whose contract was not renewed after an unsuccessful season with Cardiff.", "During this period, Cardiff had a mixed record. At the start of the 1999-2000 season, they faced challenges due to missing 13 first choice players due to the World Cup, and were dealt a heavy defeat by Llanelli. However, they did progress to the Heineken Cup quarter-finals and also clinched the Welsh/Scottish League title with three games remaining. In one season they had a club record victory of 116-0 over Duvnant, and went almost unbeaten at home, with their only defeat of that season being a very close 41-40 loss to Swansea. The following season they initially won their first five games, but then began to stumble and ended the season without a trophy.", "During this time, Cardiff signed British Lion outside-half Neil Jenkins, Wales internationals second-row Craig Quinnell and flanker Martyn Williams. They also signed South African centre Pieter Muller. The players who joined the club later on were Rob Appleyard, Matt Allen and Craig Hudson.", "During this time, the Cardiff team had a mixed performance record. They had a poor start to the 1999-2000 season, missing 13 first-choice players due to the World Cup and suffering a heavy 60-18 defeat to Llanelli. However, they managed to progress to the Heineken Cup quarter-finals, clinched the Welsh/Scottish League title with three games left, and even recorded a club record victory of 116-0 over Duvnant. They also went nearly unbeaten at home save for a narrow 41-40 loss to Swansea in their final game. \n\nIn the following season, they started strong, winning their first five Welsh/Scottish League matches and defeating the Saracens in the Heineken Cup. However, the team's form began to decline towards the end of the year, and they suffered a few key losses, including a 21-15 defeat to Gloucester in the Heineken Cup quarter-finals. This led to them failing to win any trophies that season." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What was unusual about the look and style of Terry Gillium's films?", "What is a Dutch angle?", "Is his style considered unique?", "Does he always use this style of filmmaking?", "Has there ever been a film without extreme perspective distortion?", "What or who influenced his style?" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 143 ], [ 2509 ], [ 0 ], [ 419 ], [ 2509 ], [ 2509 ] ], "texts": [ [ "to create a surreal atmosphere of psychological unrest and a world out of balance, he frequently uses unusual camera angles, particularly low-angle shots, high-angle shots, and Dutch angles." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Gilliam's films have a distinctive look, not only in mise-en-scene but even more so in photography, often recognisable from just a short clip;" ], [ "Most of his movies are shot almost entirely with rectilinear ultra-wide-angle lenses with focal lengths of 28mm or less to achieve a distinctive style defined by extreme perspective distortion" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 143, 2509, 0, 419, 2509, 2509 ], "texts": [ "to create a surreal atmosphere of psychological unrest and a world out of balance, he frequently uses unusual camera angles, particularly low-angle shots, high-angle shots, and Dutch angles.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Gilliam's films have a distinctive look, not only in mise-en-scene but even more so in photography, often recognisable from just a short clip;", "Most of his movies are shot almost entirely with rectilinear ultra-wide-angle lenses with focal lengths of 28mm or less to achieve a distinctive style defined by extreme perspective distortion", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Terry Gillium's films have a distinctive and unusual look, largely due to his use of specific camera angles and lenses. To create a surreal atmosphere and a world that seems out of balance, Gillium often uses low-angle shots, high-angle shots, and Dutch angles. He frequently shoots his films almost entirely with rectilinear ultra-wide-angle lenses, specifically with focal lengths of 28mm or less. This results in a style defined by extreme perspective distortion and extremely deep focus. He also favors wide-angle lenses because they make the film's space feel more immersive, they're full of detail, and they don't limit the audience's focus to just one thing.", "The context does not provide information on what a Dutch angle is.", "Yes, the context suggests that Terry Gillium's style is considered unique. His use of specific camera angles, along with his almost exclusive use of rectilinear ultra-wide-angle lenses that create extreme perspective distortion and deep focus, results in a distinctive look that is often recognized from just a short clip of his films. His style is so distinct that the 14-mm lens has even become informally known as \"The Gilliam\" among filmmakers.", "The context suggests that Terry Gillium frequently uses this style of filmmaking, characterized by unique camera angles and the prominent usage of ultra-wide-angle lenses. However, it does not definitively indicate that he always uses this style in all of his films.", "The context does not provide information on whether Terry Gillium has made a film without extreme perspective distortion.", "The context does not provide information on what or who influenced Terry Gillium's distinctive style." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_716b12024b594fe99a6bfeb63a501d7a_0_q#0", "C_716b12024b594fe99a6bfeb63a501d7a_0_q#1", "C_716b12024b594fe99a6bfeb63a501d7a_0_q#2", "C_716b12024b594fe99a6bfeb63a501d7a_0_q#3", "C_716b12024b594fe99a6bfeb63a501d7a_0_q#4" ]

[ "Did GIlliam direct The imaginarium?", "Who did he co-write with?", "How did Gilliam approach making the film?", "When did it come out?", "What was the response to the film?" ]

[ 1, 2, 0, 2, 1 ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 177 ], [ 1891 ], [ 1415 ], [ 1571 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, directed and co-written by Gilliam," ], [ "his writing partner Charles McKeown." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The UK release for the film was scheduled for 6 June 2009 but was pushed back to 16 October 2009. The USA release was on 25 December 2009." ], [ "$30 million-budgeted film had grossed more than $60 million in worldwide theatrical release and received two Academy Award nominations." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 177, 1891, 1415, 1571 ], "texts": [ "The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, directed and co-written by Gilliam,", "his writing partner Charles McKeown.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The UK release for the film was scheduled for 6 June 2009 but was pushed back to 16 October 2009. The USA release was on 25 December 2009.", "$30 million-budgeted film had grossed more than $60 million in worldwide theatrical release and received two Academy Award nominations." ] }

[]

[ "Yes, Gilliam directed The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus.", "He co-wrote with his writing partner Charles McKeown.", "The context does not provide specific information on how Gilliam approached making the film.", "The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus was released in 2009.", "The context mentions that the film had successful screenings and received two Academy Award nominations. It grossed more than $60 million in worldwide theatrical release." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_f0a854805b4c4787a02329b8d50b3ce3_1_q#0", "C_f0a854805b4c4787a02329b8d50b3ce3_1_q#1", "C_f0a854805b4c4787a02329b8d50b3ce3_1_q#2", "C_f0a854805b4c4787a02329b8d50b3ce3_1_q#3", "C_f0a854805b4c4787a02329b8d50b3ce3_1_q#4", "C_f0a854805b4c4787a02329b8d50b3ce3_1_q#5", "C_f0a854805b4c4787a02329b8d50b3ce3_1_q#6" ]

[ "What is Flesh and Blood ?", "When was the album released ?", "Can you name one song from the album ?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "How did he Magpie the songs ?", "Is there an example of a song he magpied ?", "Who collaborated with him on the album ?" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 1, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1673 ], [ 1330 ], [ 842 ], [ 1027 ], [ 1330 ], [ 1715 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The early sessions for the John Butler Trio's sixth studio album commenced in mid-2013, following the band's largest tour of the US." ], [ "Released in Australia on 8 February 2014, Flesh and Blood was produced by Jan Skubiszewski and features a vocal duet with Ainslie Wills." ], [ "One of the songs on the album, \"Wings Are Wide\", was written as a dedication to his grandmother," ], [ "But a lot of these songs on this album I kind of magpied. Magpies are this bird in Australia that takes shiny things from anywhere" ], [ "I'll take a little of my own experience of having some heavy party time with certain friends, and then I'll hear some other stories" ], [ "One of the songs on the album, \"Wings Are Wide\", was written as a dedication to his grandmother," ], [ "Flesh and Blood was produced by Jan Skubiszewski and features a vocal duet with Ainslie Wills." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1673, 1330, 842, 1027, 1330, 1715 ], "texts": [ "The early sessions for the John Butler Trio's sixth studio album commenced in mid-2013, following the band's largest tour of the US.", "Released in Australia on 8 February 2014, Flesh and Blood was produced by Jan Skubiszewski and features a vocal duet with Ainslie Wills.", "One of the songs on the album, \"Wings Are Wide\", was written as a dedication to his grandmother,", "But a lot of these songs on this album I kind of magpied. Magpies are this bird in Australia that takes shiny things from anywhere", "I'll take a little of my own experience of having some heavy party time with certain friends, and then I'll hear some other stories", "One of the songs on the album, \"Wings Are Wide\", was written as a dedication to his grandmother,", "Flesh and Blood was produced by Jan Skubiszewski and features a vocal duet with Ainslie Wills." ] }

[ { "text": "Specific may refer to:\n\n Specificity (disambiguation)\n Specific, a cure or therapy for a specific illness\n\nLaw \n Specific deterrence, focussed on an individual\n Specific finding, intermediate verdict used by a jury in determining the final verdict\n Specific jurisdiction over an out-of-state party, specific to cases that have a substantial connection to the party's in-state activity\n Order of specific performance, court order to perform a specific act\n\nEconomics, finance, and accounting\n Asset specificity, the extent to which the investments made to support a particular transaction have a higher value to that transaction than they would have if they were redeployed for any other purpose\n Specific identification (inventories), summing purchase costs of all inventory items\n Specific rate duty, duty paid at a specific amount per unit\n Specific risk, risk that affects a very small number of assets\n\nPsychology \n Domain specificity, theory that many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized, presumably evolutionarily specified, learning devices\n Specific developmental disorder, disorders in which development is delayed in one specific area or areas, and in which basically all other areas of development are not affected\n Specific learning disability\n Specific phobia, phobia of a specific thing or situation\n Specific social phobia, triggered only by specific social situations\n\nBiology \n pertaining to a species\n Specific name (botany), species name of a plant\n Specific name (zoology), species name of an animal\n Specific appetite, drive to eat foods with specific flavors or other characteristics\n Specific granule, secretory vesicle in granulocytes\n Specific immunity, to a particular pathogen\n Specific Pathogen Free, of a laboratory animal guaranteed free of particular (i.e., specific and named) pathogens\n\nOther fields \n A specific quantity generally means a physical quantity normalized \"per unit\" of something (often mass).\n SPECIFIC, The Sustainable Product Engineering Centre for Innovative Functional Industrial Coatings\n Specific creation, creationism as opposed to evolution\n Specific interval, shortest possible clockwise distance between pitch classes on the chromatic circle\n Specific integral, in calculus, eliminates the constant of integration\n Specific Physical Preparedness, being prepared for the movements in a specific physical activity (usually a sport)\n\nSee also \n Species (disambiguation)\n Specification (disambiguation)\n Specialty (disambiguation)\n Site-specific (disambiguation)\n Language for specific purposes, has been primarily used to refer to two areas within applied linguistics", "title": "Specific" } ]

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[ "What started his solo career?", "Was it well received?", "Did he tour during his solo career?", "How did the overseas tour do?", "How many shows did he do?", "Did he ever collaborate with anyone of note?", "Was there any controversy during his solo career?", "Who influenced his solo career?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1898 ], [ 844 ], [ 1056 ], [ 931 ], [ 1372 ], [ 1898 ], [ 1898 ] ], "texts": [ [ "On 29 June, Butler gave a live solo performance" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In July 2009, Butler undertook a solo overseas tour" ], [ "In North America he sold out headline shows" ], [ "he played at the Montreal Jazz Festival, the Rothbury Music Festival in Michigan and The Mile High Music Festival" ], [ "Butler performed alongside other local musicians (including Paul Kelly, Missy Higgins, Troy Cassar-Daley, Clare Bowditch, Tex Perkins and Bernard Fanning" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1898, 844, 1056, 931, 1372, 1898, 1898 ], "texts": [ "On 29 June, Butler gave a live solo performance", "CANNOTANSWER", "In July 2009, Butler undertook a solo overseas tour", "In North America he sold out headline shows", "he played at the Montreal Jazz Festival, the Rothbury Music Festival in Michigan and The Mile High Music Festival", "Butler performed alongside other local musicians (including Paul Kelly, Missy Higgins, Troy Cassar-Daley, Clare Bowditch, Tex Perkins and Bernard Fanning", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Specific may refer to:\n\n Specificity (disambiguation)\n Specific, a cure or therapy for a specific illness\n\nLaw \n Specific deterrence, focussed on an individual\n Specific finding, intermediate verdict used by a jury in determining the final verdict\n Specific jurisdiction over an out-of-state party, specific to cases that have a substantial connection to the party's in-state activity\n Order of specific performance, court order to perform a specific act\n\nEconomics, finance, and accounting\n Asset specificity, the extent to which the investments made to support a particular transaction have a higher value to that transaction than they would have if they were redeployed for any other purpose\n Specific identification (inventories), summing purchase costs of all inventory items\n Specific rate duty, duty paid at a specific amount per unit\n Specific risk, risk that affects a very small number of assets\n\nPsychology \n Domain specificity, theory that many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized, presumably evolutionarily specified, learning devices\n Specific developmental disorder, disorders in which development is delayed in one specific area or areas, and in which basically all other areas of development are not affected\n Specific learning disability\n Specific phobia, phobia of a specific thing or situation\n Specific social phobia, triggered only by specific social situations\n\nBiology \n pertaining to a species\n Specific name (botany), species name of a plant\n Specific name (zoology), species name of an animal\n Specific appetite, drive to eat foods with specific flavors or other characteristics\n Specific granule, secretory vesicle in granulocytes\n Specific immunity, to a particular pathogen\n Specific Pathogen Free, of a laboratory animal guaranteed free of particular (i.e., specific and named) pathogens\n\nOther fields \n A specific quantity generally means a physical quantity normalized \"per unit\" of something (often mass).\n SPECIFIC, The Sustainable Product Engineering Centre for Innovative Functional Industrial Coatings\n Specific creation, creationism as opposed to evolution\n Specific interval, shortest possible clockwise distance between pitch classes on the chromatic circle\n Specific integral, in calculus, eliminates the constant of integration\n Specific Physical Preparedness, being prepared for the movements in a specific physical activity (usually a sport)\n\nSee also \n Species (disambiguation)\n Specification (disambiguation)\n Specialty (disambiguation)\n Site-specific (disambiguation)\n Language for specific purposes, has been primarily used to refer to two areas within applied linguistics", "title": "Specific" } ]

[ "John Butler's solo career started with his live solo performance at Twist and Shout Records in Denver, Colorado, in June, which was then released in January 2008 as an eight-track EP, One Small Step. This was Butler's first official solo release.", "The text does not provide information on how well John Butler's first solo release, One Small Step, was received.", "Yes, John Butler undertook a solo overseas tour in July 2009, starting in North America where he played at various music festivals and sold out headline shows in Toronto and Los Angeles. He then moved on to perform in Europe, playing at venues in Paris, London, Cannes, Amsterdam, and Antwerp.", "The text indicates that during his overseas solo tour, John Butler's performances were quite successful. In North America, he sold out headline shows in Toronto and Los Angeles. However, there's no specific information provided about the reception or success of his performances in Europe.", "The text does not specify the exact number of shows John Butler performed during his overseas solo tour. However, it mentions particular performances at the Montreal Jazz Festival, the Rothbury Music Festival in Michigan, The Mile High Music Festival in Denver, and sold out headline shows in Toronto and Los Angeles in North America. In Europe, performances were specified in Paris, London, Cannes, Amsterdam, and Antwerp.", "Yes, John Butler has collaborated with notable musicians. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2007, Butler performed \"Funky Tonight\" in a collaboration with fellow Australian musician Keith Urban. He also performed alongside other local musicians including Paul Kelly, Missy Higgins, Troy Cassar-Daley, Clare Bowditch, Tex Perkins and Bernard Fanning reinterpreting the catalogue of indigenous Australian musician Kev Carmody.", "The text does not provide any information about any controversy during John Butler's solo career.", "The text does not provide information on who influenced John Butler's solo career." ]

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[ "Where did Kavanaugh spend his early life?", "Did he play football in high school?", "What position did he play during college?", "Were there any memorable games during his college years?", "What did he study in college?", "Tell me more about his family as a child.", "Were there any other awards or recognitions he earned as a college player?", "Where did he go to play football right out of college?", "What were his plans after he graduated from college?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 105 ], [ 364 ], [ 645 ], [ 2000 ], [ 2000 ], [ 1561 ], [ 198 ], [ 1913 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Kavanaugh was born in Little Rock, Arkansas. He graduated from Little Rock Central High School in 1936." ], [ "Kavanaugh arrived at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana in 1936 and joined the LSU football varsity team in 1937." ], [ "At 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m), Kavanaugh was a large receiver for his time, and used his size to outreach defenders." ], [ "He was named to the Associated Press (AP) All-Southeastern Conference (SEC) second alternate team after the 1937 season." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The Nashville Banner named Kavanaugh co-MVP of the Southeastern Conference for 1939 along with Bob Foxx of Tennessee." ], [ "the LSU football varsity team in 1937." ], [ "as the nation's lineman of the year, and finished seventh in Heisman Trophy balloting." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 105, 364, 645, 2000, 2000, 1561, 198, 1913 ], "texts": [ "Kavanaugh was born in Little Rock, Arkansas. He graduated from Little Rock Central High School in 1936.", "Kavanaugh arrived at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana in 1936 and joined the LSU football varsity team in 1937.", "At 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m), Kavanaugh was a large receiver for his time, and used his size to outreach defenders.", "He was named to the Associated Press (AP) All-Southeastern Conference (SEC) second alternate team after the 1937 season.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "The Nashville Banner named Kavanaugh co-MVP of the Southeastern Conference for 1939 along with Bob Foxx of Tennessee.", "the LSU football varsity team in 1937.", "as the nation's lineman of the year, and finished seventh in Heisman Trophy balloting." ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

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[ "What did Ken do Post-war?", "DId he play well with the Bears?", "Did he win a lot of games?", "What other career highlights did he make?", "Did he receive any awards or accolades?", "Was he recognized in any other ways?", "Is there anything else interesting?", "Where did he play for most of his career?", "Does he hold any other records?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 55 ], [ 1587 ], [ 599 ], [ 1705 ], [ 1785 ], [ 1587 ], [ 1273 ], [ 1029 ] ], "texts": [ [ "After the war, he continued his career with the Bears." ], [ "In 1945 he had 543 yards and six touchdowns, and in 1946 had 337 yards and five touchdowns." ], [ "His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon, who tied it in 1970." ], [ "He had career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns." ], [ "In 1969, Kavanaugh was voted by sportswriters to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team." ], [ "The Professional Football Researchers Association named Kavanaugh to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2009" ], [ "His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon, who tied it in 1970." ], [ "Kavanaugh spent a total of eight seasons in Chicago." ], [ "in 1948, and he again led the league in receiving touchdowns in 1949, with nine." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 55, 1587, 599, 1705, 1785, 1587, 1273, 1029 ], "texts": [ "After the war, he continued his career with the Bears.", "In 1945 he had 543 yards and six touchdowns, and in 1946 had 337 yards and five touchdowns.", "His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon, who tied it in 1970.", "He had career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns.", "In 1969, Kavanaugh was voted by sportswriters to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team.", "The Professional Football Researchers Association named Kavanaugh to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2009", "His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon, who tied it in 1970.", "Kavanaugh spent a total of eight seasons in Chicago.", "in 1948, and he again led the league in receiving touchdowns in 1949, with nine." ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "Post-war, Ken Kavanaugh continued his career with the Bears. He played several seasons, during which he achieved career highs and set numerous records. For example, he had career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns in 1947, and he set a Bears record by recording a receiving touchdown in seven straight games. He remains the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50. He also holds franchise records for highest career and single season yards-per-reception. Kavanaugh was named to All-NFL first teams multiple times and was voted by sportswriters to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team in 1969.", "Yes, Kavanaugh played well with the Bears. He accomplished several records, including career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns in 1947. He also set a Bears record by recording a receiving touchdown in seven straight games. Kavanaugh remains the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50, and holds franchise records for highest career and single season yards-per-reception. His performances earned him multiple All-NFL first team selections and a place on the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team, according to sportswriters.", "The context does not provide specific information on the number of games Kavanaugh won, but it does mention that he helped the Bears claim a league championship in 1946.", "Aside from leading the Bears to a league championship in 1946, Kavanaugh had numerous personal career highlights. In 1947, he recorded career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns. He set a Bears record by recording a receiving touchdown in seven consecutive games. He also led the league in receiving touchdowns twice, once in 1947 and again in 1949. He was named to the All-NFL first team three years in a row from 1946 to 1948, and he was named to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team in 1969. Kavanaugh is still the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50, and holds franchise records for the highest career and single-season yards-per-reception. His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single-season Bears record that he shares with Dick Gordon. The Professional Football Researchers Association named Kavanaugh to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2009.", "Yes, Kavanaugh received several awards and accolades. He was named to the All-NFL first team three years in a row from 1946 to 1948. In 1969, he was voted by sportswriters to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team. Furthermore, The Professional Football Researchers Association named Kavanaugh to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2009.", "Yes, aside from the awards and accolades, Kavanaugh was recognized for his contributions to the game as he holds several franchise records for the Bears. This includes being the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50, and holding records for the highest career and single-season yards-per-reception. His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single-season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon.", "Aside from his impressive football career, one interesting fact about Kavanaugh is that he managed to achieve his success despite the interruption of World War II. The text doesn't mention it directly, but his career continued after \"the war\", implying he might have served in the military. After this interruption, he returned to professional football and achieved great success, suggesting an impressive level of resilience and dedication.", "Ken Kavanaugh played for the majority of his career with the Chicago Bears.\n", "Yes, apart from being the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, Ken Kavanaugh holds franchise records for the highest career and single season yards-per-reception. His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 are a single season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "what was the settlement like?", "where did they arrive?", "did they have any struggles?", "what types of houses did they live in?", "did they have any laws?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1188 ], [ 149 ], [ 1304 ], [ 2505 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The colonists brought along with them clothing, plants (called \"canoe plants\") and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew" ], [ "Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as early as 1500 or more years ago." ], [ "valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew kalo (taro), mai`a (banana), niu (coconut), ulu (breadfruit), and raised pua`a (pork), moa (chicken), and `ilio (poi dog" ], [ "Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making ancient Hawaiian aquaculture among the most advanced of the original peoples of the Pacific." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1188, 149, 1304, 2505 ], "texts": [ "The colonists brought along with them clothing, plants (called \"canoe plants\") and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew", "Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as early as 1500 or more years ago.", "valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew kalo (taro), mai`a (banana), niu (coconut), ulu (breadfruit), and raised pua`a (pork), moa (chicken), and `ilio (poi dog", "Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making ancient Hawaiian aquaculture among the most advanced of the original peoples of the Pacific.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The settlers established their settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. They grew various plants and raised livestock, although fruits, vegetables, and seafood were consumed more often than meats. They also adapted estuaries and streams into fishponds for aquaculture. They built homes (hale) and temples (heiau) upon arrival. The first settlements were believed to be on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawai`i which then quickly extended northwards along the seacoasts and river valleys. As the population grew, settlements were made further inland. Before European contact, the population was very dense, ranging from 200,000 to 1,000,000 people.", "The settlers arrived in Hawai`i. The first settlements were believed to be on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawai`i.", "The text does not provide specific information about any struggles the settlers may have faced.", "The settlers lived in homes called hale.", "The text does not provide information on whether the settlers had any laws." ]

[ "Answer: Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "How did religion effect their society?", "What is Kapu?", "What are some examples of kapu in their society?", "What are the beginnings of the kapu system like?", "How did this wave effect society or the system?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 116 ], [ 173 ], [ 465 ], [ 655 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Religion held ancient Hawaiian society together, affecting habits, lifestyles, work methods, social policy and law." ], [ "The legal system was based on religious kapu, or taboos." ], [ "There was a correct way to live, to worship, and even to eat." ], [ "The rigidity of the kapu system might have come from a second wave of migrations in 1000-1300 from which different religions and systems" ], [ "Hawai`i would have been influenced by the Tahitian chiefs, the kapu system would have become stricter, and the social structure would have changed." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 116, 173, 465, 655 ], "texts": [ "Religion held ancient Hawaiian society together, affecting habits, lifestyles, work methods, social policy and law.", "The legal system was based on religious kapu, or taboos.", "There was a correct way to live, to worship, and even to eat.", "The rigidity of the kapu system might have come from a second wave of migrations in 1000-1300 from which different religions and systems", "Hawai`i would have been influenced by the Tahitian chiefs, the kapu system would have become stricter, and the social structure would have changed." ] }

[]

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[ "How did Billie Jean get started?", "Where did she go from that record?", "Did she have any endorsements?", "Did she win any Grand slams?", "Did she receive any formal awards for her talents?", "When did she stop competing?", "Does she still compete currently?", "Any information on how her career ended?" ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 139 ], [ 555 ], [ 397 ], [ 794 ], [ 1453 ], [ 1190 ], [ 1453 ] ], "texts": [ [ "King's triumph at the French Open in 1972 made her only the fifth woman in tennis history to win the singles titles at all four" ], [ "events, a \"career Grand Slam.\"" ], [ "King was the runner-up in six Grand Slam singles events." ], [ "King played 51 Grand Slam singles events from 1959 through 1983, reaching at least the semifinals in 27 and at least the quarterfinals in 40 of her attempts." ], [ "King won 129 singles titles, 78 of which were WTA titles, and her career prize money totaled US$1,966,487." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "King's career win-loss record was 22-4, winning her last nine matches." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 139, 555, 397, 794, 1453, 1190, 1453 ], "texts": [ "King's triumph at the French Open in 1972 made her only the fifth woman in tennis history to win the singles titles at all four", "events, a \"career Grand Slam.\"", "King was the runner-up in six Grand Slam singles events.", "King played 51 Grand Slam singles events from 1959 through 1983, reaching at least the semifinals in 27 and at least the quarterfinals in 40 of her attempts.", "King won 129 singles titles, 78 of which were WTA titles, and her career prize money totaled US$1,966,487.", "CANNOTANSWER", "King's career win-loss record was 22-4, winning her last nine matches.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "Yes, King won many Grand Slam titles in her career. She won the singles titles at all four Grand Slam events, a feat known as a \"career Grand Slam.\" Additionally, she won a career Grand Slam in mixed doubles. In total, King won 20 career titles at Wimbledon - six in singles, 10 in women's doubles, and four in mixed doubles.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The context does not provide specific information on when King stopped competing.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ]

[ "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]