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The Canadian ( ) is a transcontinental passenger train operated by Via Rail Canada with service between Union Station in Toronto , Ontario , and Pacific Central Station in Vancouver , British Columbia . Before 1955 the Canadian was a Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) train between Toronto and Chicago . In 1955 , CPR renamed its transcontinental route between Montreal/Toronto and Vancouver the Canadian , with new streamlined trains . Via Rail took over in 1978 , and in 1990 reduced the Canadian to Toronto - Vancouver service primarily along Canadian National tracks . Canadian Pacific In the years following World War II , passenger trains on the CPR consisted of a mixture of prewar heavyweight and pre- and post-war lightweight cars , even on its flagship transcontinental The Dominion and its eastern extension , The Atlantic Limited . While these cars were serviceable , American trains of the early 1950s , such as the California Zephyr , had already adopted streamlined all-stainless steel consists featuring domed observation cars . Following an evaluation in 1949 of the dome cars featured on the General Motors / Pullman Standard demonstrator Train of Tomorrow , CPR management , including then Vice President Norris Crump , resolved to upgrade its rolling stock . In 1953 , CPR placed an order for 155 stainless steel cars with the Budd Company of Philadelphia that included 18 rear-end dome cars ( Park series ) , 18 Skyline mid-train dome cars , 30 coaches , 18 dining cars and 71 sleeping cars ( Manor and Château series ) . A subsequent order for 18 baggage-crew dormitory cars brought the final to total to 173 cars , sufficient for establishing an entirely new transcontinental service and partially re-equippiping The Dominion . The interior design of these new cars was contracted to the Philadelphia architectural firm Harbeson , Hough , Livingston & Larson ( a company known for its industrial designs on other prominent passenger trains such as the Pioneer Zephyr ) , and the resulting furnishings and pastel-shaded colour schemes were widely acclaimed . After deciding to name the Park series dome cars after famous Canadian parks , leading Canadian artists , including members of the Group of Seven , were commissioned to paint suitable murals for these cars . When the decision was made to add budget sleeping cars , the Budd order was supplemented by 22 existing heavyweight sleepers that CPR refurbished in its own Angus Shops , each fitted out with Budd-style stainless steel cladding . To complement the new rolling stock , the CPR ordered General Motors Diesel FP9 locomotives to supplement an existing fleet of FP7s . Although these F-units remained the preferred power for the train , it was occasionally pulled by a variety of motive power , including Montreal Locomotive Works FPA-2s . CPR christened its new flagship train The Canadian and service began on April 24 , 1955 . Running time between Montreal and Vancouver was reduced from about 85 to 71 hours , so that passengers spent only three , rather than four , nights en route . Although CPR competitor Canadian National Railways began its own new transcontinental service , the Super Continental , on the same day , CPR was able to boast honestly that The Canadian was `` The first and only all-stainless steel 'dome ' stream-liner in Canada '' — it was not until 1964 that the CNR acquired dome cars from the Milwaukee Road . CPR operated the train in two sections east of Sudbury , Ontario . The section operating between Montreal and Vancouver ( also serving Ottawa ) was known as train 1 westbound and train 2 eastbound , with a connecting section to or from Toronto splitting or joining at Sudbury ( this section was known as train 11 westbound , and train 12 eastbound ) . Matching its streamlined appearance , The Canadians 71-hour westbound schedule was 16 hours faster than that of The Dominion . Although initially successful , passenger train ridership began to decline in Canada during the 1960s . Facing competition from airlines and increased automobile usage following construction of the Trans-Canada Highway , the CPR cancelled The Dominion in 1966 , and petitioned the government to discontinue The Canadian in 1970 . Although this petition was denied , CPR during the 1970s attempted to remove itself from the passenger service market . The Canadian was operated at reduced levels , with the government subsidizing 80 percent of its losses . Via Rail The federal Crown corporation Via Rail Canada formally assumed responsibility for CPR 's passenger services on October 29 , 1978 , although the Via identity was not assumed by the trains themselves until the following summer . Following the takeover by Via , the Canadian became the company 's premier transcontinental train , and initially operated over its old CPR route . It was supplemented by the former CN Super Continental , which operated over the parallel , but more northerly , CN route . The Canadian continued to be operated in two sections east of Sudbury and provided daily service west to Vancouver and east to Toronto and Montreal . In the aftermath of the deep budget cuts made to Via Rail on January 15 , 1990 , the Super Continental service was abolished and the Canadian was moved from the CPR route to the Super Continental 's CN route . This maintained transcontinental service and allowed Via to operate its government-mandated service to small communities along the line . The new longer route bypassed Regina and Calgary in favor of Saskatoon and Edmonton . Service was reduced to three days per week and two times a week in off season , from previous daily service on both CP and CN routes . In 2007 the schedule was lengthened so that the train now takes four nights , rather than three , to travel between Toronto and Vancouver . The present schedule is almost identical with that of the 1940s over the same route , when CN operated it with steam locomotives . Today , Via Rail continues to operate the Canadian using the CN route with rebuilt ex-CPR Budd passenger equipment . In 2013 , the train was honoured by being featured on the back of the new polymer $ 10 Canadian bill . Route Vancouver-Kamloops The Canadian eastbound journey begins at Vancouver 's Pacific Central Station . It uses the BNSF tracks ( on which CN and Via have trackage rights ) through suburban communities including Burnaby , to New Westminster . After the train crosses the New Westminster Bridge , it enters CN tracks ( CN goes to the left/east ; BNSF and Amtrak to Seattle go to the right/west ) and then passes through several railroad yards and maintenance areas before it reaches Gifford . CN and CPR have agreements which allow directional running through the Fraser and Thompson River canyons . Most eastbound trains ( CN , CPR , and Via ) use the CPR tracks . Most westbound trains ( CN , CPR , and Via ) use the CN tracks . This allows the Canadian to travel on small portion of its original CPR route . At Gifford , the train diverts from the CN mainline and crosses the Fraser River to Mission , where it enters the CPR track . Mission , is the easternmost terminus of the West Coast Express , a commuter train service that operates on the Canadian original route from the Waterfront Station ( Canadian Pacific station ) in downtown Vancouver over the CPR line . From Mission , the Canadian travels on the CPR route through the Fraser and Thompson river canyons . The CPR stays on the west ( north ) side of the river until Cisco where it crosses over to the east ( south ) side of the river . Near Basque ( near Lytton ) , both the CPR and CN are on the same side of the river and have crossovers to access each other 's tracks , and it is here that the eastbound Canadian transfers from the CPR back onto the CN line . Shortly thereafter the CN line crosses back over to the west/north side of the Thompson River and makes a few other crossings across the river before the staying on the north/west side for rest of the way into Kamloops and crosses the North Thompson River before arriving at the Kamloops station , which is actually in North Kamloops , across the Thompson River from downtown Kamloops . On their regular schedules , both east and westbound Canadians travel through the Fraser and Thompson river canyons at night . Westbound , the Canadian stays on the CN tracks all the way into Vancouver . The CN route passes through Painted Canyon in which the train clings about 200 ft above the Thompson River and the crossing of CN 's 800 ft steel-arched bridge over the Fraser River and the CPR mainline at Cisco . After Cisco , the CN mainline stays of the east/south side of the Fraser River all the way to the New Westminster Bridge , following the same route as the eastbound train into Vancouver . The train ends its westbound journey by backing into the station . Kamloops–Jasper Standing at the North Kamloops station , the train is actually facing north and will be travelling north , at least in a northerly direction , for about the next six hours . The train follows the North Thompson River for much of the way , crossing it several times . The scenery changes gradually from the dry , rolling plateau – though miles of irrigation soften the starkness – to the lusher , evergreen forests farther north . Narrow valleys bordered by mountains on both sides feature farmlands , pastures , forests , logging camps , and small communities . Clearwater and Blue River are two such communities where the Canadian has flag stops . Near Clearwater , the train crosses the Clearwater River . The Monashee Mountains lie to the east for much of the way to Valemount . Some of the most dramatic segments along the route occur in this area as the train clings precariously to the mountainsides – particularly Groundhog Mountain and Mount Cheadle . One place in particular is known as Little Hells Gate ( Port d'Enfer ) , an area featuring treacherous rapids on the river similar to those in Hells Gate farther south on the Fraser River . Passengers will note railway slide fences on one side of the train . These wire fences protect the tracks and train from falling debris . When a wire breaks or is compromised , it sends a signal to stop or proceed at a much slower speed . As it is , the train creeps along at a cautious pace – 26 – – along this stretch . It is not difficult to see why . On the other side of the train are views to the North Thompson River down below as well as toward the often-snow-covered mountains in the distance . One of the prettiest sights in this area is of Pyramid Falls , which cascades 300 ft down the side of Mount Cheadle . The train slows down enough for passengers to get close-up looks and maybe get a nice picture or two . The Cariboo Mountains and Slide Mountain are to the west . Malton Range is to the east . The train crosses the Canoe River over a 240 ft bridge shortly before arriving Valemount . It was also south of Valemount and north of the Canoe River where the Canoe River crash occurred on November 21 , 1950 . Memorials can be seen from the train . The icefields of the Albreda Glacier should be visible for several miles . Valemount , `` Valley in the Mountains , '' sits in a valley surrounded by mountains and is a flag stop for the Canadian . The Selwyn Range is to the east , and the Premier Range is to the west . The Premier Range is so named because some of the peaks are named after prime ministers of Canada , the United Kingdom , and premiers of British Columbia . Mount Sir Wilfrid Laurier ( 3516 m ) and Mount Sir John Abbott ( 3398 m ) are two such mountains . North of Valemount is another area where eastbound and westbound trains ( both CN and the Canadian ) follow different routes . Out of Valemount , the eastbound train uses the Albreda Subdivision , which continues climbing along and often clings to the side of mountains from which there are views of the mountains and valleys below and beyond . Eventually and finally , the train rounds a sweeping curve ( near Jackman , at Milepost 65.5 ) and heads in a more easterly direction though still high up on the mountainside . Mount Robson comes into view . At 12972 ft , it is the tallest mountain in the Canadian Rockies . The mountain often makes its own weather and can be seen in its entirety fewer than 20 days a years . Even with the clouds , it can still be a scenic highlight for train passengers . The train has also been passing through Mount Robson Provincial Park . The train passes through a 1670 ft tunnel , where in 1905 an avalanche buried railroad workers , and continues its descent to Redpass , where it joins with the Robson Subdivision . It is lower in elevation and has more favourable grades for westbound trains than the Albreda Subdivision . The Robson Subdivision is used by westbound freights , the westbound Canadian and the westbound Jasper – Prince Rupert train . The eastbound Jasper – Prince Rupert train and eastbound freights off the Tête Jaune Subdivision from Prince George and Prince Rupert use the Albreda Subdivision . Incidentally , Tête Jaune ( `` Yellowhead '' in French ) and Yellowhead ( Highway , Pass , Mountain , etc . ) get their names from Pierre Bostonais , an Iroquois-Métis man who had blond hair . Redpass Junction is near the western shore of Moose Lake , which is known for its cold , deep waters . It is another scenic highlight , as the train follows along the north shore of the lake for several miles , and there are a couple of splashing waterfalls cascading down from theī mountains into the lake . The Selwyn Range borders the south shore of the lake . The train has essentially gone around the range . The Yellowhead Highway ( Highway # 16 ) parallels the CN tracks to the north . After Moose Lake , the train travels through a narrow valley nestled between the mountains , crosses the Moose and Fraser rivers and continues following the Fraser . Soon the train comes to the next major scenic highlight of the trip : Yellowhead Lake.Yellowhead Mountain continues to hover overhead to the north ( left side of the train going east ) while Mounts Rockingham ( 7,797 feet ) and Fitzwilliam ( 9,549 feet ) can be seen to the south ( to the right ) across the lake . The train finally crosses the Continental Divide at Yellowhead Pass , which at 3,718 feet is the lowest crossing of the divide in North America . There a number of boundaries represented here : between British Columbia and Alberta , the Pacific and Mountain time zones , and Pacific and Arctic watersheds . All rivers west of the divide flow to the Pacific Ocean ; rivers east flow to either the Arctic or Atlantic oceans . The train has also left Mount Robson Provincial Park and entered Jasper National Park . Once again the train hugs mountainsides among the Victoria Cross Range ( to the north ) above the Miette River and creeps through tunnels and past protective slide detector fences . Whistler Mountain is in view as the train descends , rounds a curve and pulls into the Jasper train station . At Jasper The Canadian , in both directions , is scheduled to be at the station for an hour and a half as the train is being serviced . The town of Jasper is the headquarters for Jasper National Park , a UNESCO World Heritage site , due to the `` area 's 'exceptional natural beauty ' , 'habitats of rare and endangered species ' and its natural landforms such as mountain peaks , glaciers , lakes , canyons , limestone caves , and the unique Burgess Shale fossils . '' The Mount Robson Provincial Park—through which the train has just passed , eastbound ; or through which the train is about to pass , westbound—is also a part of that heritage site . Passengers are encouraged to get off the train and wander around downtown Jasper . A visit to the Jasper Park Information Centre will help provide maps and other information about the park and areas the train has been and will be traveling through . Some might wish to visit the shops and restaurants , and/or just enjoy the crisp mountain air and the views of the surrounding mountains . Mount Edith Cavell ( 11,033 ft ) is visible toward the south . Pyramid Mountain ( 9,075 ft ) and the Victoria Cross Ranges are to the northwest . Whistlers Mountain , to the southwest , can be summitted via the Jasper Skytram . The station itself has a few attractions : the Jasper Raven Totem Pole , a vintage CN 4-8-2 steam locomotive on display , and inside the station is a café barista that also sells railroad memorabilia and other gifts . The station building was constructed by the CNR in 1926 and was declared a heritage railway station by the federal government in 1992 . Jasper to Edmonton The town of Jasper sits inside of a big `` U , '' as it relates to the railroad . The railroad comes in from the northwest and rounds a curve into the station . At the station , the train is actually facing northeast . Upon leaving the station , the train continues in a more northeasterly direction rather than due east . Also the train has descended into Jasper from Yellowhead Pass and now climbs a grade shortly after leaving the Jasper railyards . The train is once again hugging mountainsides overlooking the Athabasca Valley and River and surrounding mountains . There is usually a flock of bighorn sheep grazing on the bluffs above the train ( to the north ) and possibly down in the valley below . During the winter , they can often be seen licking salt off the highway—Highway 16 , also known as the Yellowhead Highway , paying little notice to the traffic or the trains . Other Canadian wildlife that may be seen from the train include bear , deer , elk , mountain goat , and various species of Canadian birds . To the north/northwest , passengers will see the peaks of the Victoria Cross Range —so named because six of the peaks are named after Canadian recipients of the Victoria Cross . Mount McKean ( 2743 m ) and Mount Zengel ( 2630 m ) are two such mountains that can be seen from the train . Others in the range include Pyramid Mountain ( 2766 m ) and Buttress Mountain ( 2685 m ) . Looking southward ( across the river ) , there is the Colin Range . Hawk Mountain ( 2553 m ) , Roche Bonhomme ( 2495 m ) , and Morro Peak ( 1678 m ) are among the peaks in this range that can be seen . English is the top of the grade , after which the train descends into the Athabasca Valley with all these mountains surrounding the Athabasca River , and the Yellowhead Highway ( Highway 16 ) is still paralleling the route . The train passes through Henry House . The train crosses the Snaring River , which has its source in Jasper National Park near the British Columbia border . The river drains several mountains , including its namesake Snaring Mountain . It and Chetamon Mountain ( 2606 m ) and the De Smet Range including the Roche de Smet ( 2539 m ) can be all seen from the train ( to the north ) . The Snaring River Campground is near the confluence of the Snaring and Athabaska Rivers . Looking to the south , passengers can see the Jacques Range including such peaks as Roche Jacques ( 2603 m ) and Cinquefoil Mountain ( 2259 m ) . The Athabasca River has its origins from the Columbia Glacier of the Columbia Icefield in Jasper National Park in Alberta , Canada , and travels 1,231 km ( 765 mi ) before draining into the Peace-Athabasca Delta near Lake Athabasca south of Fort Chipewyan . From there , its waters flow north as Rivière des Rochers , then joining the Peace River to form the Slave River that empties into Great Slave Lake and discharges through the Mackenzie River system into the Arctic Ocean . The train reaches the north shore of Jasper Lake and rides along it for several miles . The Yellowhead Highway rides along the south shore of the lake . The lake is a shallow , wide section of the Athabasca River . This has been the site of many CN publicity photographs—including of the Super Continental —through the years , and it is still popular with photographers , railfans , the present-day Canadian and its advertisers and passengers . The Jasper Lake Sand Dunes are on the northwest shore of Jasper Lake and can be seen from the train . They are the only sand dunes eco-system in the Canadian Rockies . Parts of the mainline have been built on causeways away from the shore , which have created several mini lakes . This adds to the effect of being out on the water , creating additional views of the lake , its waters and the forests and mountains surrounding it . The lake is surrounded by mountain ranges , many of which can be seen the train from various places along the lake . They include : From southeast to southwest : * Miette Range . Most prominent peaks include Utopia Mountain ( 2,602 m or 8,537 ft ) and Roche Miette ( 2,316 m or 7,600 ft ) . * Jacques Range . Prominent peaks : Cinquefoil Mountain ( 2259 m ) , Roche Jacques ( 2603 m ) , and Mount Merlin ( 2711 m ) . * Colin Range : Peaks include Mount Colin ( 2687 m ) and Roche Bonhomme ( 2495 m ) Northwest to northeast : * Victoria Cross Ranges—so named because six of the peaks are named after Canadian recipients of the Victoria Cross . * De Smet Range . Prominent peaks include : Roche de Smet , ( 2539 m ) and Mount Greenock ( 2065 m ) . * Bosche Range : Mount Aeolus ( 2643 m ) and Roche à Bosche ( 2123 m ) The train crosses Stoney River , glides through a 700 ft horseshoe tunnel underneath Disaster Point , and begins riding along the shores of Brûlé Lake . Black Cat Mountain ( 1800 m ) is so named because its top resembles a cat . There is also Mount Solomon ( 1585 m ) . The Yellowhead Highway is on the other side of the lake . Folding Mountain ( 2844 m ) should be visible as the train crosses the Athabasca River . The river is now on the north side of the tracks . Entrance is the official easternmost point of the Canadian Rockies ( at least on the CN ) , however , the Miette Range of the Rockies are usually still visible for many miles as the train heads out across the prairies . Actually , the surrounding landscapes are still heavily forested , the riverbanks are a bit dramatic , but the land is opening up to ever broader valleys , plains , and farmlands . About three miles west of Hinton , the train crosses an impressive trestle over Prairie Creek with the Athabasca still in sight . The train crosses a curved trestle over Sundance Creek then over the McLoed River on a 1066 ft bridge and Wolf Creek on a 652 ft bridge . The train rides along the shores of three lakes : to the north the Octopus Lake ; to the south , Wabamun and Chip . Westbound , train passengers should be able to start seeing mountains ( still way off in the distance ) just out of Edson crossing the Sundance Creek trestle . The train finally reaches West Junction which serves as a wye , where the train accesses the Edmonton Via Rail station by backing into it . Both east and westbound trains do this . The train is scheduled to be at the station for an hour as there will be a crew change and other servicing . The Panorama car travels only between Vancouver and Edmonton . Here , the car is taken off ( eastbound ) or put on ( westbound ) . The Edmonton City Centre Airport ( Blatchford Field ) is across the street . The skyline of downtown Edmonton is off in the distance . Historically , this is the northwest point of a loop trains once used to go into downtown Edmonton . Westbound , for example , trains would divert from the mainline at East Junction , head south as far as the CN passenger station , which was inside the CN Tower . The present-day Edmonton Light Rail Transit parallels some of the route , and remnants of the former mainline and railyards can still be seen along the way . The City Centre Campus of Grant MacEwan University lies on what was once CN railyards to the west of the former station . Trains would then swing north and rejoin the mainline at West Junction just north of the present station . Currently trains depart the station by heading out and going to the left westbound , or to the right eastbound . Edmonton to Saskatoon After reversing out of Edmonton station , the train cuts across the Canadian prairies for nearly 470 kilometers ( 272 miles ) , paralleling Alberta Hwy . 14 . The train stops in the rural communities of Viking , Alberta and Wainwright , Alberta before turning south to follow Alberta Hwy . 610 and crossing the Alberta-Saskatchewan border , stopping in Unity , Saskatchewan before passing over the Killsquaw Lakes en route to Biggar . Now paralleling Saskatchewan Hwy . 14 , the CN tracks branch off , and the train continues west on the main set of tracks . the train enters Saskatoon from the East , stopping at a modern station south of downtown on the site of the CN railyards via a short spur line . Saskatoon to Winnipeg After re-joining the CN main line , the train follows Saskatchewan Hwy . 11 out of the urban core of Saskatoon before once again paralleling the Yellowhead Highway . Now heading southwest , it begins to follow Saskatchewan Hwy . 2 into the town of Watrous , where the tracks branch off once more . Staying on the CN main line , it heads west towards Melville , paralleling Hwy . 15 , and heads southwest towards the Saskatchewan-Manitoba border . After entering Manitoba , the train stops in Rivers , near the city of Brandon , and heads west to the city of Portage la Prairie , now following the Trans-Canada Highway . It then continues west towards Winnipeg , where the tracks turn north , following the Assiniboine River , and enter the historic Winnipeg Union Station . Here , passengers can transfer to the Winnipeg-Churchill train . Northwest of Union Station , the train crosses over the Red River Of The North , and heads east through CN 's Transcona Yards . This section has a distance of nearly 714 kilometers ( 443 miles ) . Winnipeg to Toronto With its journey through the praires almost over , the train heads out of the yards and continues west , following Manitoba Provincial Trunk Hwy . 15 , towards the rural community of Elma , Manitoba , then turning West-Northwest towards Brereton Lake , Manitoba , Ophir , Manitoba and Winnitoba , Manitoba , and crosses the Manitoba-Ontario border after traversing Whiteshell Provincial Park . Now in Ontario , the train travels through the rugged Canadian Shield , stopping at Rice Lake , Ontario , near White , and Copelands Landing , Ontario en route to Malachi . After Malachi , the train loops around and heads through Ottermere , near Wade , Minaki , Redditt , Farlane , Canyon and Red Lake Road . after Red Lake Road , it loops around once more and stops at Richan , near Amesdale and Millidge

odql_7960--Canadian_(train).txt

The long distance train, 'The Canadian', travels between Toronto and which other city?

The Goulburn Correctional Centre , an Australian super-maximum , maximum , and minimum security prison for males , is located in Goulburn , New South Wales , three kilometres north-east of the central business district . The facility is operated by Corrective Services NSW , an agency of the Department of Attorney General and Justice , of the Government of New South Wales . The Complex accepts prisoners charged and convicted under New South Wales and/or Commonwealth legislation and serves as a reception prison for Southern New South Wales , and , in some cases , for inmates from the Australian Capital Territory . The current structure incorporates a massive , hand-carved sandstone gate and façade ( pictured above right ) that was opened in 1884 based on designs by the Colonial Architect , James Barnet . The High Risk Management Centre ( commonly called the SuperMax ) was opened in September 2001 . This was the first such facility in Australia and makes the Centre the highest security prison in Australia . History Goulburn 's first lock-up was built around 1830 and gallows were built as early as 1832 when floggings were common . The first Goulburn Gaol was proclaimed on 28 June 1847 , attached to the local Courthouse . When the Controller of Prisons first reported to parliament in 1878 Goulburn Gaol had accommodation for 63 segregated and 127 associated prisoners , and held 66 prisoners ; inclusive of one female . New premises were in the process of erection in 1881 as part of a scheme to 'bring the Colony from its backward position as regards to prison buildings ' . The building called and known by the name of the New Gaol at Goulburn on the current site was proclaimed as a Public Gaol , Prison and House of Correction from 1 July 1884 . The gaol also became a place of detention for male prisoners under sentence or transportation . The new gaol increased the capacity of the gaol to 182 separated and 546 associated prisoners . In the year ended 1884 there were a total of 295 prisoners in custody . In 1893 prison labour was used to build an additional 127 cells to Goulburn Gaol , six exercise yards for 'youthful offenders ' and a further yard for prisoners awaiting trial . This extension enabled Goulburn gaol to operate on the principle of restricted association which was gradually being adopted throughout the Colony . The following year additional cells were erected for female prisoners . The '7th class ' prisoners were moved into the former women 's cells thus preventing contact between these young prisoners and serious offenders . Steam cooking facilities were installed and a 70 ft chimney was erected , new workshops were planned to create one of the most complete prison complexes in NSW . The prison was renamed the Goulburn Reformatory in 1928 , and became known as the Goulburn Training Centre in 1949 . In 1992 the centre was again renamed - Goulburn Correctional Centre . Initially , Goulburn was one of the principal gaols in NSW . Its early prime focus was upon the first offenders where a program of employment , educational opportunities , physical education in addition to the scheme of restricted association was credited for a relatively low level of re-offending . In 2015 Goulburn attracted controversy after prisoner a Stephen who was housed in the maximum security wing escaped after he cut through a gate at the back of a small secure exercise yard attached to his cell , tied bed sheets together to scale a wall , and put a pillow around his waist to avoid being hurt by razor wire . In the same year the Minister for Corrections announced that security would be tightened following a breach when inmate an was caught with a contraband mobile phone that he used to upload pictures and text to a social media website . High-Risk Management Correctional Centre Opened in 2001 at a cost of 20 million , the Super Maximum facility is located within the confines of the Goulburn Correctional Centre . Initially called the High-Risk Management Unit ( HRMU , also referred to by inmates as HARM-U ) , it was Australia 's first Supermax prison since the closure of the Katingal facility at the Long Bay Correctional Centre in 1978 . The facility is the most secure prison within the NSW correctional system , and the inmates are subject to very strict daily regimes , and under intense scrutiny by security . Goulburn HRMCC has received complaints by prisoners , including the lack of natural light and fresh air ; access to legal books ; the use of isolation and solitary confinement ; limited and enclosed exercise ; self-mutilation and harsh treatment . A 2008 report by the New South Wales Ombudsman explained that there is “ no doubt… that the HRMU does not provide a therapeutic environment for these inmates ” . In spite of the security measures inside the HRMCC , in June 2011 it was reported that an unnamed inmate in the Centre had allegedly smuggled a mobile phone into the unit and plotted two kidnappings and a shooting . Criminal charges were laid against the inmate and his alleged co-conspirators . Notable prisoners * Malcolm George Baker - serving six consecutive terms of life imprisonment plus 25 years without the possibility of parole for the Central Coast Massacre in 1992 . * Darryl Burrell - convicted of armed robbery , attempted murder and assault with a deadly weapon . Only person to ever successfully escape from the Death Cells , once caught trying to go over the wall to freedom , but succeeded on his second attempt when he escaped in the boot of a car with two girls he had just met at a football game . Died in 2012 of cancer . * Leslie Camilleri - sentenced to two consecutive terms of life imprisonment plus 183 years without the possibility of parole for the Bega schoolgirl murders and the murder of Prue Bird in 1992 ; held at the prison before being extradited * Ray Denning - armed robber and serial prison escapee . * Sef Gonzales - sentenced to three consecutive terms of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole for the murders of his parents , Teddy and Mary Loiva , and younger sister Clodine . * Bassam Hamzy - jailed for the 1998 shooting murder of Kris Toumazis outside a Sydney nightclub , and was subsequently convicted for conspiring to murder a witness against him . Founder of the Brothers for Life street gang . * Lindsay Rose – sentence to 5 consecutive terms of life imprisonment without parole for contract killings , including the murder of his former girlfriend and her friend * Robert Hughes - actor and star of Australiam sitcom Hey Dad ! , sentenced to ten years and nine months with a non-parole period of six years for sexual offences against children in the 1980s . * Sam Ibrahim - brother of John Ibrahim , pleaded guilty to possession of four prohibited weapons . * Stephen `` Shorty '' Jamieson – Sentenced to life imprisonment plus 25 years without parole for the murder of Janine Balding . * Michael Kanaan - sentenced to three consecutive terms of life imprisonment plus 50 years 4 months without the possibility of parole for three murders in Sydney in 1998 . * Ivan Milat - sentenced to seven consecutive terms of life imprisonment plus 18 years without the possibility of parole for the Belanglo State Forest backpacker murders . * Les Murphy - the youngest of the Murphy brothers convicted of the murder of Anita Cobby , and the only one of the five men convicted with the possibility of parole . Sentenced to life imprisonment with a non-parole period of 34 years , but unlikely to ever be released . * Malcolm Naden - at the time of his arrest in 2012 , was Australia 's most wanted fugitive . Sentenced to life imprisonment plus 40 years without parole for two murders , an indecent assault on a 12-year-old girl and the attempted murder of a police officer . * Ngo Canh Phuong - sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole for the assassination of Cabramatta MP John Newman . * George Savvas ( deceased in 1997 ) - wholesale narcotics dealer who escaped from the prison for nine months in 1997 while serving a 25-year sentence . * Bilal Skaf - sentenced to 38 years ' imprisonment ( 32-year non-parole period ) for his involvement in the Sydney gang rapes in 2000 . * Michael Murphy – Sentenced to life imprisonment plus 50 years without the possibility of parole for the murder of Anita Cobby . * John Travers - sentenced to life imprisonment plus 65 years without the possibility of parole for the murder of Anita Cobby . * Mark Valera ( van Krevel ) - sentenced to two consecutive terms of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole over the 1998 murders of David O'Hearn and Frank Arkell . * 2005 Sydney terrorism plot co-conspirers Khaled Cheikho , Moustafa Cheikho , Mohamed Ali Elomar , Abdul Rakib Hasan , and Mohammed Omar Jamal - sentenced to between 23 and 28 years ' imprisonment for conspiring to commit a terrorist act .

bb_2572--Goulburn_Correctional_Centre.txt

As at 2012 Goulburn Correctional Centre is considered the highest security prison of which country?

The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is a four-engine propeller-driven heavy bomber designed by Boeing which was flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War . It was one of the largest aircraft operational during World War II and featured state of the art technology . It was the single most expensive weapons project undertaken by the United States in World War II , exceeding the cost of the Manhattan Project by between 1 and 1.7 billion dollars . It featured a pressurized cabin , all dual wheeled , tricycle landing gears , and a remote , computer-controlled fire-control system that directed four machine gun turrets that could be operated by a single gunner and a fire-control officer . A manned tail gun installation was semi-remote . The name `` Superfortress '' continued the pattern Boeing started with its well-known predecessor , the B-17 Flying Fortress . Designed for the high-altitude strategic bomber role , the B-29 also excelled in low-altitude nighttime incendiary bombing missions . One of the B-29 's final roles during World War II was carrying out the atomic bomb attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Due to the B-29 's highly advanced design , unlike many other World War II-era bombers , the Superfortress remained in service long after the war ended , with a few even being employed as flying television transmitters for the Stratovision company . The B-29 served in various roles throughout the 1950s . The Royal Air Force flew the B-29 as the Washington until phasing out the type in 1954 . The Soviet Union produced an unlicensed reverse-engineered copy as the Tupolev Tu-4 . The B-29 was the progenitor of a series of Boeing-built bombers , transports , tankers , reconnaissance aircraft and trainers including the B-50 Superfortress ( the first aircraft to fly around the world non-stop ) which was essentially a re-engined B-29 . The type was finally retired in the early 1960s . The B-29 production total was 3,970 aircraft . Dozens of B-29s remain as static displays but only two examples , Fifi and DOC , have been restored to flying status ; with Doc flying again for the first time from McConnell AFB on July 17th , 2016 . A transport developed from the B-29 was the Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter , first flown in 1944 , followed by its commercial airliner variant , the Boeing Model 377 Stratocruiser in 1947 . This bomber-to-airliner derivation was similar to the B-17/Model 307 evolution . In 1948 Boeing introduced a tanker variant of the B-29 as the KB-29 , followed by the Model 377-derivative KC-97 introduced in 1950 . A heavily modified line of outsized-cargo variants of the Stratocruiser is the GuppyMini GuppySuper Guppy which remain in service today with operators such as NASA . Design and development Boeing began work on pressurized long-range bombers in 1938 , in response to a United States Army Air Corps request . Boeing 's design study for the Model 334 was a pressurized derivative of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress with nosewheel undercarriage . Although the Air Corps did not have money to pursue the design , Boeing continued development with its own funds as a private venture . In April 1939 , Charles Lindbergh convinced general Henry H. Arnold to produce a new bomber in large numbers to counter the Nazi production . The Air Corps issued a formal specification for a so-called `` superbomber '' , capable of delivering 20000 lb of bombs to a target 2,667 mi ( 4,290 km ) away and capable of flying at a speed of 400 mph in December 1939 . Boeing 's previous private venture studies formed the starting point for its response to this specification . Boeing submitted its Model 345 on 11 May 1940 , in competition with designs from Consolidated Aircraft ( the Model 33 , later to become the B-32 ) , Lockheed ( the Lockheed XB-30 ) , and Douglas ( the Douglas XB-31 ) . Douglas and Lockheed soon abandoned work on their projects , but Boeing received an order for two flying prototypes , given the designation XB-29 , and an airframe for static testing on 24 August 1940 , with the order being revised to add a third flying aircraft on 14 December . Consolidated continued to work on its Model 33 as it was seen by the Air Corps as a backup in case of problems with Boeing 's design . Boeing received an initial production order for 14 service test aircraft and 250 production bombers in May 1941 , this being increased to 500 aircraft in January 1942 . The B-29 featured a fuselage design with circular cross-section for strength . The need for pressurization in the cockpit area also led to the B-29 being one of very few American combat aircraft of World War II to have a stepless cockpit design , without a separate windscreen for the pilots . Manufacturing the B-29 was a complex task . It involved four main-assembly factories : a pair of Boeing operated plants at Renton , Washington ( Boeing Renton ) , and Wichita , Kansas ( now Spirit AeroSystems ) , a Bell plant at Marietta , Georgia ( `` Bell-Atlanta '' ) , and a Martin plant at Omaha , Nebraska ( `` Martin-Omaha '' - Offutt Field ) . Thousands of subcontractors were involved in the project . The first prototype made its maiden flight from Boeing Field , Seattle on 21 September 1942 . The combined effects of the aircraft 's highly advanced design , challenging requirements , and immense pressure for production , hurried development and caused setbacks . The second prototype , which , unlike the unarmed first , was fitted with a Sperry defensive armament system using remote-controlled gun turrets sighted by periscopes , first flew on 30 December 1942 , this flight being terminated due to a serious engine fire . On 18 February 1943 , the second prototype , flying out of Boeing Field in Seattle , experienced an engine fire and crashed . The crash killed Boeing test pilot Edmund T. Allen and his 10-man crew , 20 workers at the Frye Meat Packing Plant and a Seattle firefighter . Changes to the production craft came so often and so fast that in early 1944 , B-29s flew from the production lines directly to modification depots for extensive rebuilds to incorporate the latest changes . AAF-contracted modification centers and its own air depot system struggled to cope with the scope of the requirement . Some facilities lacked hangars capable of housing the giant B-29 , requiring outdoor work in freezing cold weather , further delaying necessary modification . By the end of 1943 , although almost 100 aircraft had been delivered , only 15 were airworthy . This prompted an intervention by General Hap Arnold to resolve the problem , with production personnel being sent from the factories to the modification centers to speed availability of sufficient aircraft to equip the first Bomb Groups in what became known as the `` Battle of Kansas '' . This resulted in 150 aircraft being modified in the six weeks between 10 March and 15 April 1944 . The most common cause of maintenance headaches and catastrophic failures were the engines . Although the Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone radial engines later became a trustworthy workhorse in large piston-engined aircraft , early models were beset with dangerous reliability problems . This problem was not fully cured until the aircraft was fitted with the more powerful Pratt & Whitney R-4360 `` Wasp Major '' in the B-29D/B-50 program , which arrived too late for World War II . Interim measures included cuffs placed on propeller blades to divert a greater flow of cooling air into the intakes which had baffles installed to direct a stream of air onto the exhaust valves . Oil flow to the valves was also increased , asbestos baffles installed around rubber push rod fittings to prevent oil loss , thorough pre-flight inspections made to detect unseated valves , and frequent replacement of the uppermost five cylinders ( every 25 hours of engine time ) and the entire engines ( every 75 hours ) . Pilots , including the present day pilots of the Commemorative Air Force ’ s Fifi , one of the last two remaining flying B-29s , describe flight after takeoff as being an urgent struggle for airspeed ( generally , flight after takeoff should consist of striving for altitude ) . Radial engines need airflow to keep them cool , and failure to get up to speed as soon as possible could result in an engine failure and risk of fire . One useful technique was to check the magnetos while already on takeoff roll rather than during a conventional static engine-runup before takeoff . In wartime , the B-29 was capable of flight at altitudes up to 31850 ft , at speeds of up to 350 mph ( true airspeed ) . This was its best defense , because Japanese fighters could barely reach that altitude , and few could catch the B-29 even if they did attain that altitude . Only the heaviest of anti-aircraft weapons could reach it , and since the Axis forces did not have proximity fuzes , hitting or damaging the aircraft from the ground in combat proved difficult . Defensive gun turret emplacements The revolutionary General Electric Central Fire Control system on the B-29 directed four remotely controlled turrets armed with two .50 Browning M2 machine guns each . Some turrets were made according to patents from the Tucker Gun Turret . All weapons were aimed optically with targeting computed by analog electrical instrumentation . There were five interconnected sighting stations located in the nose and tail positions and three Plexiglas blisters in the central fuselage . Five General Electric analog computers ( one dedicated to each sight ) increased the weapons ' accuracy by compensating for factors such as airspeed , lead , gravity , temperature and humidity . The computers also allowed a single gunner to operate two or more turrets ( including tail guns ) simultaneously . The gunner in the upper position acted as fire control officer , managing the distribution of turrets among the other gunners during combat . The tail position initially had two .50 Browning machine guns and a single M2 20 mm cannon . Later aircraft had the 20 mm cannon removed , and sometimes replaced by a third machine gun . In early 1945 , Major General Curtis Lemay , commander of XXI Bomber Command , the Marianas-based B-29-equipped bombing force — that resulted in the affected aircraft having as little defensive firepower as the atomic mission-intended Silverplate B-29 airframes — ordered most of the defensive armament and remote-controlled sighting equipment removed from the B-29s under his command so that they could carry greater fuel and bomb loads as a result of the change of role from high-altitude , daylight bombing with high explosive bombs to low-altitude night raids using incendiary bombs . As a consequence of this requirement , Bell Atlanta ( BA ) produced a series of 311 B-29Bs that had turrets and sighting equipment omitted , except for the tail position , which was fitted with AN/APG-15 fire control radar . This version could also have an improved APQ-7 `` Eagle '' bombing-through-overcast radar fitted in an airfoil shaped radome under the fuselage . Most of these aircraft were assigned to the 315th Bomb Wing , Northwest Field , Guam . A fully pressurized bomber design The crew enjoyed , for the first time in a bomber , full-pressurization comfort . This first-ever cabin pressure system for an Allied production bomber was developed for the B-29 by Garrett AiResearch . The nose and the cockpit were pressurized , but the designers were faced with deciding whether to have bomb bays that were not pressurized , between fore and aft pressurized sections , or a fully pressurized fuselage with the need to de-pressurize to drop their loads . The solution was a long tunnel over the two bomb bays so as not to interrupt pressurization during bombing . Crews could crawl back and forth between the fore and aft sections , with both areas and the tunnel pressurized . The bomb bays were not pressurized . Operational history World War II In September 1941 , the Army Air Forces plans for war against Germany and Japan proposed basing the B-29 in Egypt for operations against Germany as British airbases were likely to be overcrowded . Air Force planning throughout 1942 and early 1943 continued to have the B-29 deployed initially against Germany , only transferring to the Pacific after the end of the war in Europe . By the end of 1943 , however , plans had changed , partly due to production delays , and the B-29 was dedicated to the Pacific Theater . A new plan implemented at the direction of President Franklin D. Roosevelt as a promise to China , called Operation Matterhorn , deployed the B-29 units to attack Japan from four forward bases in southern China , with five main bases in India , and to attack other targets in the region from China and India as needed . The Chengdu region was eventually chosen over the Guilin region to avoid having to raise , equip , and train 50 Chinese divisions to protect the advanced bases from Japanese ground attack . The XX Bomber Command , initially intended to be two combat wings of four groups each , was reduced to a single wing of four groups because of the lack of availability of aircraft , automatically limiting the effectiveness of any attacks from China . This was an extremely costly scheme , as there was no overland connection available between India and China , and all supplies had to be flown over the Himalayas , either by transport aircraft or by the B-29s themselves , with some aircraft being stripped of armor and guns and used to deliver fuel . B-29s started to arrive in India in early April 1944 . The first B-29 flight to airfields in China ( over the Himalayas , or `` The Hump '' ) took place on 24 April 1944 . The first B-29 combat mission was flown on 5 June 1944 , with 77 out of 98 B-29s launched from India bombing the railroad shops in Bangkok and elsewhere in Thailand . Five B-29s were lost during the mission , none to hostile fire . Forward base in China On 5 June 1944 , B-29s raided Bangkok , in what is reported as a test before being deployed against the Japanese home islands . Sources do not report from where they launched , and vary as to the numbers involved—77 , 98 , and 114 being claimed . Targets were Bangkok 's Memorial Bridge and a major power plant . Bombs fell over two kilometres away , damaged no civilian structures , but destroyed some tram lines and destroyed both a Japanese military hospital and the Japanese secret police headquarters . On 15 June 1944 , 68 B-29s took off from bases around Chengdu , 47 B-29s bombed the Imperial Iron and Steel Works at Yahata , Japan . This was the first attack on Japanese islands since the Doolittle raid in April 1942 . The first B-29 combat losses occurred during this raid , with one B-29 destroyed on the ground by Japanese fighters after an emergency landing in China , one lost to anti-aircraft fire over Yawata , and another , the Stockett 's Rocket ( after Capt . Marvin M. Stockett , Aircraft Commander ) B-29-1-BW 42-6261 , disappeared after takeoff from Chakulia , India , over the Himalayas ( 12 KIA , 11 crew and one passenger ) This raid , which did little damage to the target , with only one bomb striking the target factory complex , nearly exhausted fuel stocks at the Chengdu B-29 bases , resulting in a slow-down of operations until the fuel stockpiles could be replenished . Starting in July , the raids against Japan from Chinese airfields continued at relatively low intensity . Japan was bombed on : 7 July 1944 ( 14 B-29s ) , 29 July ( 70+ ) , 10 August ( 24 ) , 20 August ( 61 ) , 8 September ( 90 ) , 26 September ( 83 ) , 25 October ( 59 ) , 12 November ( 29 ) , 21 November ( 61 ) , 19 December ( 36 ) and for the last time on 6 January 1945 ( 49 ) . The tactic of using aircraft to ram American B-29s was first recorded on the raid of 20 August 1944 on the steel factories at Yawata . Sergeant Shigeo Nobe of the 4th Sentai intentionally flew his Kawasaki Ki-45 into a B-29 ; debris from the explosion following this attack severely damaged another B-29 , which also went down . Lost were Colonel Robert Clinksale 's B-29-10-BW 42-6334 Gertrude C and Captain Ornell Stauffer 's B-29-15-BW 42-6368 Calamity Sue , both from the 486th BG . Several B-29s were destroyed in this way over the ensuing months . Although the term `` Kamikaze '' is often used to refer to the pilots conducting these attacks , the word was not used by the Japanese military . B-29s were withdrawn from airfields in China by the end of January 1945 . Throughout this prior period , B-29 raids were also launched from China and India against many other targets throughout Southeast Asia , including a series of raids on Singapore and Thailand . On 2 November 1944 , 55 B-29s raided Bangkok 's Bang Sue marshalling yards in the largest raid of the war . Seven RTAF Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusas from Foong Bin ( Air Group ) 16 and 14 IJAAF Ki-43s attempted intercept . RTAF Flt Lt Therdsak Worrasap attacked a B-29 , damaging it , but was shot down by return fire . One B-29 was lost , possibly the one damaged by Flt Lt Therdsak . On 14 April 1945 , a second B-29 raid on Bangkok destroyed two key power plants , and was the last major attack conducted against Thai targets . The B-29 effort was gradually shifted to the new bases in the Mariana Islands in the Central Pacific , with the last B-29 combat mission from India flown on 29 March 1945 . New Mariana Islands air bases In addition to the logistical problems associated with operations from China , the B-29 could only reach a limited part of Japan while flying from Chinese bases . The solution to this problem was to capture the Mariana Islands , which would bring targets such as Tokyo , about 1,500 mi ( 2,400 km ) north of the Marianas within range of B-29 attacks . The Joint Chiefs of Staff agreed in December 1943 to seize the Marianas . A joint US forces invaded Saipan on 15 June 1944 . Despite a Japanese naval counterattack which led to the Battle of the Philippine Sea and heavy fighting on land , Saipan was secured by 9 July . Operations followed against Guam and Tinian , with all three islands secured by August . Naval construction battalions ( Seabees ) began at once to construct air bases suitable for the B-29 , commencing even before the end of ground fighting . In all , five major air fields were built : two on the flat island of Tinian , one on Saipan , and two on Guam . Each was large enough to eventually accommodate a bomb wing consisting of four bomb groups , giving a total of 180 B-29s per airfield . These bases , which could be supplied by ship , and unlike the bases in China , were not vulnerable to attacks by Japanese ground forces , became the launch sites for the large B-29 raids against Japan , in the final year of the war . The first B-29 arrived on Saipan on 12 October 1944 , and the first combat mission was launched from there on 28 October 1944 , with 14 B-29s attacking the Truk atoll . The 73rd Bomb Wing launched the first mission against Japan from bases in the Marianas , on 24 November 1944 , sending 111 B-29s to attack Tokyo . For this first attack on the Japanese capital since the Doolittle Raid in April 1942 , 73rd Bomb Wing wing commander Brigadier General Emmett O'Donnell , Jr. acted as mission command pilot in B-29 Dauntless Dotty . The raids intensified , being launched regularly until the end of the war . The attacks succeeded in devastating most large Japanese cities ( with the exception of Kyoto and several others ) , and they gravely damaged Japan 's war industries . Although less publicly appreciated , the mining of Japanese ports and shipping routes ( Operation Starvation ) carried out by B-29s from April 1945 significantly affected Japan 's ability to support its population and move its troops . The atomic bombs Perhaps the most famous B-29s were the Silverplate series , which were modified to drop atomic bombs . They were also stripped of all guns except the tail gun to be lighter . The Silverplate aircraft were handpicked by Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets for the mission , straight off the assembly line at the Omaha plant that was to become Offutt Air Force Base . Enola Gay , flown by Tibbets , dropped the first bomb , called Little Boy , on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 . Enola Gay is fully restored and on display at the Smithsonian 's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center , outside Dulles Airport in Washington , D.C. Bockscar dropped the second bomb , called Fat Man , on Nagasaki three days later . Bockscar is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force . Following the surrender of Japan , called V-J Day , B-29s were used for other purposes . A number supplied POWs with food and other necessities by dropping barrels of rations on Japanese POW camps . In September 1945 , a long-distance flight was undertaken for public relations purposes : Generals Barney M. Giles , Curtis LeMay , and Emmett O'Donnell , Jr. piloted three specially modified B-29s from Chitose Air Base in Hokkaidō to Chicago Municipal Airport , continuing to Washington , D.C. , the farthest nonstop distance to that date flown by U.S. Army Air Forces aircraft and the first-ever nonstop flight from Japan to the U.S. Two months later , Colonel Clarence S. Irvine commanded another modified B-29 , Pacusan Dreamboat , in a world-record-breaking long-distance flight from Guam to Washington , D.C. , traveling 7,916 miles ( 12,740 km ) in 35 hours , [ http : //www.af.mil/information/heritage/milestones.asp ? dec 1940 & sd01/01/1940 & ed 12/31/1949 `` Monday , January 01 , 1940 – Saturday , December 31 , 1949 . '' ] History Milestones ( US Air Force ) . Retrieved : 21 October 2010. with a gross takeoff weight of 155,000 pounds ( 70,000 kg ) .Mayo , Weyland . [ http : //b-29s-over-korea.com/B-29s-SetRecords/B-29s-SetRecords.html `` B-29s Set Speed , Altitude , Distance Records . '' ] b-29s-over-korea.com . Retrieved : 21 October 2010 . Almost a year later , in October 1946 , the same B-29 flew 9,422 miles nonstop from Oahu , Hawaii to Cairo , Egypt in less than 40 hours , further proving the capability of routing airlines over the polar icecap . B-29s in Europe and Australia Although considered for other theaters , and briefly evaluated in the United Kingdom , the B-29 was exclusively used in World War II in the Pacific Theatre . The use of YB-29-BW 41-36393 , the so-named Hobo Queen , one of the service test aircraft flown around several British airfields in early 1944 , was part of a `` disinformation '' program from its mention in an American-published Sternenbanner German language propaganda leaflet from Leap Year Day in 1944 , meant to be circulated within the Reich , with the intent to deceive the Germans into believing that the B-29 would be deployed to Europe . American post-war military assistance programs loaned the RAF enough Superfortresses to equip several RAF Bomber Command squadrons . The aircraft were known as the Washington B.1 in RAF service , and served from March 1950 until the last bombers were returned in early 1954 . The phase out had been occasioned by deliveries of the English Electric Canberra bombers . Three Washingtons modified for ELINT duties and a standard bomber version used for support by No . 192 Squadron RAF were decommissioned in 1958 , being replaced by de Havilland Comet aircraft . Two British Washington B.1 aircraft were transferred to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in 1952 . They were attached to the Aircraft Research and Development Unit and used in trials conducted on behalf of the British Ministry of Supply . Both aircraft were placed in storage in 1956 and were sold for scrap in 1957 . Soviet re-engineering of the B-29 The Soviet experience in developing a four-engined heavy bomber was limited . The Petlyakov Pe-8 equipped the VVS starting in 1940 however only some 93 examples were ever built . During 1944 and 1945 five B-29s made emergency landings in Soviet territory after bombing raids on Japanese Manchuria and Japan . In accordance with Soviet neutrality in the Pacific War , the bombers were interned and kept by the Soviets , despite American requests for their return . Through reverse engineering the American B-29 were , instead , used by the Soviets as a pattern for the Tupolev Tu-4 . On 31 July 1944 Ramp Tramp ( serial number 42-6256 ) , of the 462nd ( Very Heavy ) Bomb Group was diverted to Vladivostok , Russia after an engine failed and the propeller could not be feathered . This B-29 was part of a 100 aircraft raid against the Japanese Showa steel mill in Anshan , Manchuria . [ http : //www.moninoaviation.com/40a.html `` Tu-4 `` Bull '' and Ramp Tramp . '' ] Monino Aviation . Retrieved : 1 November 2009 . On 20 August 1944 , Cait Paomat ( 42-93829 ) , flying from Chengdu , was damaged by anti-aircraft gunfire during a raid on the Yawata Iron Works . Due to the damage sustained , the crew elected to divert to the Soviet Union . The aircraft crashed in the foothills of Sikhote Alin Range east of Khabarovsk after the crew bailed out . On 11 November 1944 , during a night raid on Omura on Kyushu Japan , the General H.H . Arnold Special ( 42-6365 ) was damaged and forced to divert to Vladivostok in the Soviet Union . The crew was interned . On 21 November 1944 , Ding Hao ( 42-6358 ) was damaged during a raid on an aircraft factory at Omura , Japan , and was also forced to divert to Vladivostok . The interned crews of these four B-29s were allowed to escape into American-occupied Iran in January 1945 but none of the B-29s were returned after Stalin ordered the Tupolev OKB to examine and copy the B-29 , and produce a design ready for quantity production as soon as possible.Lednicer , David . [ http : //mysite.ncnetwork.net/res12e522/ColdWar.html `` Intrusions , Overflights , Shootdowns and Defections During the Cold War and Thereafter . '' ] David Lednicer , 16 April 2011 . Retrieved : 31 July 2011 . Because aluminum in the USSR was supplied in different gauges from that available in the US ( metric vs imperial ) , the entire aircraft had to be extensively re-engineered . In addition , Tupolev substituted his own favored airfoil sections for those used by Boeing , with the Soviets themselves already having their own Wright R-1820-derived 18 cylinder radial engine , the Shvetsov ASh-73 of comparable power and displacement to the B-29 's Duplex Cyclone radials available to power their design . In 1947 , the Soviets debuted both the Tupolev Tu-4 ( NATO ASCC code named Bull ) , and the Tupolev Tu-70 transport variant . The Soviets used tail-gunner positions similar to the B-29 in many later bombers and transports . Transition to USAF Production of the B-29 was phased out after World War II with the last example completed by Boeing 's Renton factory on 28 May 1946 . Many aircraft went into storage , being declared excess inventory and were ultimately scrapped as surplus . Others remained in the active inventory and equipped the Strategic Air Command when it formed on 21 March 1946 . In particular , the `` Silverplate '' modified aircraft of the 509th Composite Group remained the only aircraft capable of delivering the atomic bomb , and so the unit was involved in the Operation Crossroads series of tests , with B-29 Dave 's Dream dropping a `` Fat Man '' -type bomb in Test Able on 1 July 1946 . Some B-29s , fitted with filtered air sampling scoops , were

qg_2643--Boeing_B-29_Superfortress.txt

What became the last city on earth to experience the horror of a nuclear bomb when the B-29 Bockscar devastated what Japanese city on August 9, 1945?

MuḥammadFull name : Abū al-Qāsim Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Hāshim ( , lit : Father of Qasim Muhammad son of Abd Allah son of Abdul-Muttalib son of Hashim ) ( ; c. 570 CE – 8 June 632 CE ) Elizabeth Goldman ( 1995 ) , p. 63 , gives 8 June 632 CE , the dominant Islamic tradition . Many earlier ( mainly non-Islamic ) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the invasion of Palestine . See Stephen J. Shoemaker , The Death of a Prophet : The End of Muhammad 's Life and the Beginnings of Islam , University of Pennsylvania Press , 2011. is the central figure of Islam and widely regarded as its founder by non-Muslims . He is known to Muslims as the `` Holy Prophet '' , almost all of whomThe Ahmadiyya Muslim Community considers Muhammad to be the `` Seal of the Prophets '' ( Khātam an-Nabiyyīn ) and the last law-bearing Prophet but not the last Prophet . See : * * consider him to be the last prophet sent by God to mankind There are smaller sects which too believe Muhammad to be not the last Prophet : The Nation of Islam considers Elijah Muhammad to be a prophet ( source : African American Religious Leaders – Page 76 , Jim Haskins , Kathleen Benson – 2008 ) . United Submitters International consider Rashad Khalifa to be a prophet . ( Source : Daniel Pipes , Miniatures : Views of Islamic and Middle Eastern Politics , page 98 ( 2004 ) ) to restore Islam , which they believe to be the unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam , Abraham , Moses , Jesus , and other prophets . He united Arabia into a single Muslim polity and ensured that his teachings , practices , and the Quran , which Muslims believe was revealed to him by God , formed the basis of Islamic religious belief . Born in the Arabian city of Mecca , in approximately 570CE , Muhammad was orphaned at an early age ; he was raised under the care of his paternal uncle Abu Talib . After his childhood , Muhammad primarily worked as a merchant . Occasionally , he would retreat to a cave named Hira in the mountains for several nights of seclusion and prayer ; later , at age 40 , he reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave , where he stated he received his first revelation from God . Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly , proclaiming that `` God is One '' , that complete `` surrender '' ( lit . islām ) to him is the only way ( dīn ) 'Islam ' is always referred to in the Quran as a dīn , a word that means `` way '' or `` path '' in Arabic , but is usually translated in English as `` religion '' for the sake of convenience acceptable to God , and that he was a prophet and messenger of God , similar to the other prophets in Islam.F . E. Peters ( 2003 ) , p. 9 . Muhammad gained few early followers , and met hostility from some Meccan tribes . To escape persecution , Muhammad sent some followers to Abyssinia before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina ( then known as Yathrib ) in the year 622 . This event , the Hijra , marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar , also known as the Hijri Calendar . In Medina , Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina . In December 629 , after eight years of intermittent conflict with Meccan tribes , Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca . The attack went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed . He destroyed 360 pagan idols at the Kaaba . In 632 , a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage , Muhammad fell ill and died . Before his death , most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam . The revelations ( each known as Ayah , lit . `` Sign [ of God ] '' ) , which Muhammad reported receiving until his death , form the verses of the Quran , regarded by Muslims as the `` Word of God '' and around which the religion is based . Besides the Quran , Muhammad 's teachings and practices ( sunnah ) , found in the Hadith and sira literature , are also upheld by Muslims and used as sources of Islamic law ( see Sharia ) . Names and appellations in the Quran The name Muhammad means `` praiseworthy '' and appears four times in the Quran . The Quran addresses Muhammad in the second person by various appellations ; prophet , messenger , servant of God ( abd ) , announcer ( bashir ) , witness ( shahid ) , bearer of good tidings ( mubashshir ) , warner ( nathir ) , reminder ( mudhakkir ) , one who calls [ unto God ] ( dā ‘ ī ) , light personified ( noor ) , and the lightgiving lamp ( siraj munir ) . Muhammad is sometimes addressed by designations deriving from his state at the time of the address : thus he is referred to as the enwrapped ( al-muzzammil ) in Quran and the shrouded ( al-muddaththir ) in Quran . In Sura Al-Ahzab God singles out Muhammad as the `` Seal of the Prophets '' , or the last of the prophets . The Quran also refers to Muhammad as Aḥmad `` more praiseworthy '' ( , Sura As-Saff ) . Sources Quran The Quran is the central religious text of Islam . Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad . Living Religions : An Encyclopaedia of the World 's Faiths , Mary Pat Fisher , 1997 , p. 338 , I.B . Tauris Publishers . Although it mentions Muhammad directly only four times , there are verses which can be interpreted as allusions to Muhammad 's life.S . A. Nigosian ( 2004 ) , p. 6 The Encyclopaedia of Islam says that the Quran responds `` constantly and often candidly to Muhammad 's changing historical circumstances and contains a wealth of hidden data . '' The Quran , however , provides minimal assistance for Muhammad 's chronological biography ; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context . Early biographies An important source may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era ( AH – 8th and 9th century CE ) . These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad ( the sira literature ) , which provide additional information about Muhammad 's life . The earliest surviving written sira ( biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him ) is Ibn Ishaq 's Life of God 's Messenger written c. 767 CE ( 150 AH ) . Although the work was lost , this sira was used verbatim at great length by Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari . Another early history source is the history of Muhammad 's campaigns by al-Waqidi ( death 207 of Muslim era ) , and the work of his secretary Ibn Sa 'd al-Baghdadi ( death 230 of Muslim era ) . Many scholars accept the earliest biographies as accurate , though their accuracy is unascertainable . Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and purely historical ones . In the former sphere , traditions could have been subject to invention while in the latter sphere , aside from exceptional cases , the material may have been only subject to `` tendential shaping '' . Hadith Another important source may be found in hadith collections , accounts of the verbal and physical teachings and traditions of Muhammad . Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by notable individuals such as Muhammad al-Bukhari , Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj , Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi , Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai , Abu Dawood , Ibn Majah , Malik bin Anas , al-Daraqutni etc . Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical sources . Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods , but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures . Pre-Islamic Arabia The Arabian Peninsula was largely arid and volcanic , making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs . The landscape was dotted with towns and cities ; two of the most prominent being Mecca and Medina . Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement , while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes . Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions , supporting indigenous tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle . Tribal grouping was encouraged with unity being based on blood relations . Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary , the former constantly travelling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks , while the latter settled and focused on trade and agriculture . Nomadic survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases ; nomads did not view this as a crime . Byzantine and Sassanian empires dominated the pre-Islamic Middle East region . The Roman-Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region , making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes . Politically Arabia at the time was divided between two tribal confederations , the Banu Qais , loosely allied with Byzantium and who were originally powerful in Northern and Western Arabia , and the Banu Kalb , who had originally come from Yemen , and were loosely allied with Sassanid Persia . In pre-Islamic Arabia , gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes , their spirits being associated with sacred trees , stones , springs and wells . As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage , the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities . Three goddesses were associated with Allah as his daughters : Allāt , Manāt and al- ‘ Uzzá . Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia , including Christians and Jews . Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who `` professed a rigid monotheism '' – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia , although their historicity is disputed among scholars . According to Muslim tradition , Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael , son of Abraham . Life In Mecca Muhammad was born in Mecca and lived there for roughly the first 52 years of his life ( c. 570–622 ) . This period is generally divided into two phases , before and after declaring his prophetic visions . Childhood and early life Muhammad was born about the year 570 and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi ' al-awwal . He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan , part of the Quraysh tribe , and was one of Mecca 's prominent families , although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad 's early lifetime . Tradition places the year of Muhammad 's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant , which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha , Yemen 's king , who supplemented his army with elephants . Alternatively some 20th century scholars have suggested different years , such as 568 or 569 . Muhammads ' father , Abdullah , died almost six months before he was born . According to Islamic tradition , soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert , as desert life was considered healthier for infants ; some western scholars reject this tradition 's historicity.Watt , `` [ http : //referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/halima-bint-abi-dhuayb-SIM_2648 Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb ] '' , Encyclopaedia of Islam . Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother , Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb , and her husband until he was two years old . At the age of six , Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan . For the next two years , he was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib , of the Banu Hashim clan until his death ; Muhammad was eight years old . He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib , the new leader of Banu Hashim . According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century , `` Muhammad 's guardians saw that he did not starve to death , but it was hard for them to do more for him , especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time . '' In his teens , Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade . Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans ' caravan to Syria , he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad 's career as a prophet of God . Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth , available information is fragmented , causing difficulty to separate history from legend . It is known that he became a merchant and `` was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea . '' Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname `` al-Amin '' ( Arabic : الامين ) , meaning `` faithful , trustworthy '' and `` al-Sadiq '' meaning `` truthful '' and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator . His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah , a 40-year-old widow . Muhammad consented to the marriage , which by all accounts was a happy one . Several years later , according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq , Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE . The Black Stone , a sacred object , was removed to facilitate renovations to the Kaaba . The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place . They decided to ask the next man who comes through the gate to make that decision . That man was the 35-year-old Muhammad ; this event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him . He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center . The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot , then Muhammad laid the stone , satisfying the honour of all . Beginnings of the Quran Muhammad began to pray alone in a cave named Hira on Mount Jabal al-Nour , near Mecca for several weeks every year . Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to that cave , in the year 610 the angel Gabriel appeared to him and commanded Muhammad to recite verses that would be included in the Quran . Consensus exists that the first Quranic words revealed were the beginning of Surah . Muhammad was deeply distressed upon receiving his first revelations . After returning home , Muhammad was consoled and reassured by Khadijah and her Christian cousin , Waraqah ibn Nawfal.Esposito ( 2010 ) , p. 8 Waraqah is variously described as an Ebionite priest ( possibly of Mecca ) or Nestorian . He also feared that others would dismiss his claims as being possessed . Shi ' a tradition states Muhammad was not surprised or frightened at Gabriel 's appearance ; rather he welcomed the angel , as if he was expected . The initial revelation was followed by a three-year pause ( a period known as fatra ) during which Muhammad felt depressed and further gave himself to prayers and spiritual practices . When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching : `` Thy Guardian-Lord hath not forsaken thee , nor is He displeased . '' Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing his revelations as `` sometimes it is ( revealed ) like the ringing of a bell '' . Aisha reported , `` I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead ( as the Inspiration was over ) '' . According to Welch these descriptions may be considered genuine , since they are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims . Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages . According to the Quran , one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment ( Quran , Quran ) . Occasionally the Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided examples from the history of extinct communities and warns Muhammad 's contemporaries of similar calamities ( Quran ) . Muhammad did not only warn those who rejected God 's revelation , but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil , listening to the divine words and serving God . Muhammad 's mission also involves preaching monotheism : The Quran commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God . The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator ; the resurrection of the dead , God 's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise , and the signs of God in all aspects of life . Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few : belief in God , asking for forgiveness of sins , offering frequent prayers , assisting others particularly those in need , rejecting cheating and the love of wealth ( considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca ) , being chaste and not killing newborn girls . Opposition According to Muslim tradition , Muhammad 's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet . She was followed by Muhammad 's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib , close friend Abu Bakr , and adopted son Zaid . Around 613 , Muhammad began to preach to the public ( Quran ) . Most Meccans ignored him and mocked him , though a few became his followers . There were three main groups of early converts to Islam : younger brothers and sons of great merchants ; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it ; and the weak , mostly unprotected foreigners.Watt , The Cambridge History of Islam ( 1977 ) , p. 36 . According to Ibn Saad , opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the polytheism practiced by the Meccan forefathers . However , the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as Muhammad started public preaching . As his followers increased , Muhammad became a threat to the local tribes and rulers of the city , whose wealth rested upon the Ka'aba , the focal point of Meccan religious life that Muhammad threatened to overthrow . Muhammad 's denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe , the Quraysh , as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba . Powerful merchants attempted to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching ; he was offered admission to the inner circle of merchants , as well as an advantageous marriage . He refused both of these offers . Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment towards Muhammad and his followers . Sumayyah bint Khabbab , a slave of a prominent Meccan leader Abu Jahl , is famous as the first martyr of Islam ; killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith . Bilal , another Muslim slave , was tortured by Umayyah ibn Khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion . In 615 , some of Muhammad 's followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire and founded a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar . Ibn Sa'ad mentions two separate migrations . According to him , most of the Muslims returned to Mecca prior to Hijra , while a second group rejoined them in Medina . Ibn Hisham and Tabari , however , only talk about one migration to Ethiopia . These accounts agree that Meccan persecution played a major role in Muḥammad 's decision to suggest that a number of his followers seek refuge among the Christians in Abyssinia . According to the famous letter of ʿUrwa preserved in al-Tabari , the majority of Muslims returned to their native town as Islam gained strength and high ranking Meccans , such as Umar and Hamzah converted . However , there is a completely different story on the reason why the Muslims returned from Ethiopia to Mecca . According to this account – initially mentioned by Al-Waqidi then rehashed by Ibn Sa'ad and Tabari , but not by Ibn Hisham and not by Ibn Ishaq – Muhammad , desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe , pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah . Muhammad retracted the verses the next day at the behest of Gabriel , claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself . Instead , a ridicule of these gods was offered . The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm ( Q.53 ) , as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel , Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20 : `` Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third , the other ; These are the exalted Gharaniq , whose intercession is hoped for . '' ( Allāt , al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans ) . cf Ibn Ishaq , A. Guillaume p . 166 . `` Apart from this one-day lapse , which was excised from the text , the Quran is simply unrelenting , unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism . '' ( The Cambridge companion to Muhammad , Jonathan E. Brockopp , p. 35 ) This episode known as `` The Story of the Cranes '' ( translation : , transliteration : Qissat al Gharaneeq ) is also known as `` Satanic Verses '' . According to the story this led to a general reconciliation between Muḥammad and the Meccans , and the Abyssinia Muslims began to return home . When they arrived Gabriel had informed Muḥammad the two verses were not part of the revelation , but had been inserted by Satan . Notable scholars at the time argued against the historic authenticity of these verses and the story itself on various grounds . `` Although , there could be some historical basis for the story , in its present form , it is certainly a later , exegetical fabrication . Sura LIII , 1–20 and the end of the sura are not a unity , as is claimed by the story , XXII , 52 is later than LIII , 2107 and is almost certainly Medinan ; and several details of the story- the mosque , the sadjda , and others not mentioned in the short summary above do not belong to Meccan setting . Caetani and J. Burton have argued against the historicity of the story on other grounds , Caetani on the basis of week isnads , Burton concluded that the story was invented by jurists so that XXII 52 could serve as a Kuranic proof-text for their abrogation theories . `` ( `` Kuran '' in the Encyclopaedia of Islam , 2nd Edition , Vol . 5 ( 1986 ) , p. 404 ) Later , the incident received some acceptance , though strong objections to it arose from the 10th century onwards , on theological grounds . The objections continued until rejection of these verses and the story itself eventually became the only acceptable orthodox Muslim position . In 617 , the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams , two important Quraysh clans , declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim , their commercial rival , to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad . The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective . During this , Muhammad was only able to preach during the holy pilgrimage months in which all hostilities between Arabs was suspended . Isra and Mi'raj Islamic tradition states that in 620 , Muhammad experienced the Isra and Mi'raj , a miraculous night-long journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel . At the journey 's beginning , the Isra , he is said to have travelled from Mecca on a winged steed ( Buraq ) to `` the farthest mosque '' ( in Arabic : masjid al-aqsa ) . Later , during the Mi'raj , Muhammad is said to have toured heaven and hell , and spoke with earlier prophets , such as Abraham , Moses , and Jesus . Ibn Ishaq , author of the first biography of Muhammad , presents the event as a spiritual experience ; later historians , such as Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir , present it as a physical journey . Some western scholars hold that the Isra and Mi'raj journey traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur ( heavenly prototype of the Kaaba ) ; later traditions indicate Muhammad 's journey as having been from Mecca to Jerusalem . Last years in Mecca before Hijra Muhammad 's wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib both died in 619 , the year thus being known as the `` year of sorrow '' . With the death of Abu Talib , leadership of the Banu Hashim clan passed to Abu Lahab , a tenacious enemy of Muhammad . Soon afterwards , Abu Lahab withdrew the clan 's protection over Muhammad . This placed Muhammad in danger ; the withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted . Muhammad then visited Ta'if , another important city in Arabia , and tried to find a protector , but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger . Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca . A Meccan man named Mut'im ibn Adi ( and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal ) made it possible for him to safely re-enter his native city . Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba . Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers . After several unsuccessful negotiations , he found hope with some men from Yathrib ( later called Medina ) . The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there . They also hoped , by the means of Muhammad and the new faith , to gain supremacy over Mecca ; the Yathrib were jealous of its importance as the place of pilgrimage . Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Medina ; by June of the subsequent year , seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad . Meeting him secretly by night , the group made what is known as the `` Second Pledge of al- ` Aqaba '' , or , in Orientalists ' view , the `` Pledge of War '' . Following the pledges at Aqabah , Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib . As with the migration to Abyssinia , the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration . However , almost all Muslims managed to leave.Peterson ( 2006 ) , pp . 86–9 Hijra The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE . In June 622 , warned of a plot to assassinate him , Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca and moved his followers to Medina , 450 km north of Mecca . Migration to Medina A delegation , consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina , invited Muhammad to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community ; due to his status as a neutral outsider . There was fighting in Yathrib : primarily the dispute involved its Arab and Jewish inhabitants ,

jp_1936--Muhammad.txt

In what city was Muhammad born?

The Championships , Wimbledon , commonly known simply as Wimbledon , is the oldest tennis tournament in the world , and is widely considered the most prestigious . It has been held at the All England Club in Wimbledon , London since 1877 . Wimbledon is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments , the others being the Australian Open , the French Open and the US Open . Since the Australian Open shifted to hardcourt in 1988 , Wimbledon is the only major still played on grass . The tournament takes place over two weeks in late June and early July , culminating with the Ladies ' and Gentlemen 's Singles Final , scheduled always for the second Saturday and Sunday of July respectively . Five major , junior , and invitational events are held each year . Wimbledon traditions include a strict dress code for competitors and Royal patronage . The tournament is also notable for the absence of sponsor advertising around the courts . In 2009 , Wimbledon 's Centre Court was fitted with a retractable roof to lessen the loss of playing time due to rain . History Beginning The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club is a private club founded on 23 July 1868 , originally as `` The All England Croquet Club '' . Its first ground was off Worple Road , Wimbledon . In 1876 , lawn tennis , a game devised by Major Walter Clopton Wingfield a year or so earlier and originally given the name Sphairistikè , was added to the activities of the club . In spring 1877 , the club was renamed `` The All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club '' and signalled its change of name by instituting the first Lawn Tennis Championship . A new code of laws , replacing the code administered by the Marylebone Cricket Club , was drawn up for the event . Today 's rules are similar except for details such as the height of the net and posts and the distance of the service line from the net . The inaugural 1877 Wimbledon Championship opened on 9 July 1877 . The Gentlemen 's Singles was the only event held and was won by Spencer Gore , an old Harrovian rackets player , from a field of 22 . About 200 spectators paid one shilling each to watch the final . The lawns at the ground were arranged so that the principal court was in the middle with the others arranged around it , hence the title `` Centre Court '' . The name was retained when the Club moved in 1922 to the present site in Church Road , although no longer a true description of its location . However , in 1980 four new courts were brought into commission on the north side of the ground , which meant the Centre Court was once more correctly defined . The opening of the new No . 1 Court in 1997 emphasised the description . By 1882 , activity at the club was almost exclusively confined to lawn tennis and that year the word `` croquet '' was dropped from the title . However , for sentimental reasons it was restored in 1899 . In 1884 , the club added Ladies ' Singles and Gentlemen 's Doubles competitions . Ladies ' Doubles and Mixed Doubles events were added in 1913 . Until 1922 , the reigning champion had to play only in the final , against whomever had won through to challenge him/her . As with the other three Major or Grand Slam events , Wimbledon was contested by top-ranked amateur players , professional players were prohibited from participating . This changed with the advent of the open era in 1968 . No British man won the singles event at Wimbledon between Fred Perry in 1936 and Andy Murray in 2013 , while no British woman has won since Virginia Wade in 1977 , although Annabel Croft and Laura Robson won the Girls ' Championship in 1984 and 2008 respectively . The Championship was first televised in 1937 . Though properly called `` The Championships , Wimbledon '' , depending on sources the event is also known as `` The All England Lawn Tennis Championships '' , `` The Wimbledon Championships '' or simply `` Wimbledon '' . From 1912 to 1924 , the tournament was recognized by the International Lawn Tennis Federation as the `` World Grass Court Championships '' . 21st century Wimbledon is considered the world 's premier tennis tournament and the priority of the Club is to maintain its leadership . To that end a long-term plan was unveiled in 1993 , intended to improve the quality of the event for spectators , players , officials and neighbours . Stage one ( 1994–1997 ) of the plan was completed for the 1997 championships and involved building the new No . 1 Court in Aorangi Park , a broadcast centre , two extra grass courts and a tunnel under the hill linking Church Road and Somerset Road . Stage two ( 1997–2009 ) involved the removal of the old No . 1 Court complex to make way for the new Millennium Building , providing extensive facilities for players , press , officials and members , and the extension of the West Stand of the Centre Court with 728 extra seats . Stage three ( 2000–2011 ) has been completed with the construction of an entrance building , club staff housing , museum , bank and ticket office . A new retractable roof was built in time for the 2009 championships , marking the first time that rain did not stop play for a lengthy time on Centre Court . The Club tested the new roof at an event called A Centre Court Celebration on Sunday , 17 May 2009 , which featured exhibition matches involving Andre Agassi , Steffi Graf , Kim Clijsters and Tim Henman . The first Championship match to take place under the roof was the completion of the fourth round women 's singles match between Dinara Safina and Amélie Mauresmo . The first match to be played in its entirety under the new roof took place between Andy Murray and Stanislas Wawrinka on 29 June 2009 , which Murray won . Murray was also involved in the match completed latest in the day at Wimbledon , which ended at 11:02 pm in a victory over Marcos Baghdatis at Centre Court in the third round of the 2012 Championships . The 2012 Men 's Singles Final on 8 July 2012 , between Roger Federer and Murray , was the first final to be played under the roof , which was activated during the third set . A new 4000-seat No . 2 Court was built on the site of the old No . 13 Court in time for the 2009 Championships . A new 2000-seat No . 3 Court was built on the site of the old No . 2 and No . 3 Courts . On 17 January 2016 , it was reported The Championships at Wimbledon were among several high-level tennis tournaments being investigated for instances of alleged match-fixing . Events Wimbledon consists of five main events , five junior events and five invitation events . Main events The five main events , and the number of players ( or teams , in the case of doubles ) are : * Gentlemen 's Singles ( 128 ) * Ladies ' Singles ( 128 ) * Gentlemen 's Doubles ( 64 ) * Ladies ' Doubles ( 64 ) * Mixed Doubles ( 48 ) Junior events The five junior events and the number of players or teams are : * Boys ' Singles ( 64 ) * Girls ' Singles ( 64 ) * Boys ' Doubles ( 32 ) * Girls ' Doubles ( 32 ) * Disabled Doubles ( 12 ) No mixed doubles event is held at this level . Invitation events The five invitational events and the number of pairs are : * Gentlemen 's Invitation Doubles ( 8 pairs Round Robin ) * Senior Gentlemen 's Invitation Doubles ( 8 pairs Round Robin ) * Ladies ' Invitation Doubles ( 8 pairs Round Robin ) * Gentlemen 's Wheelchair Doubles ( 4 pairs ) * Ladies ' Wheelchair Doubles ( 4 pairs ) From 2016 singles draws for the existing wheelchair events were added . Match formats Matches in the Gentlemen 's Singles and Gentlemen 's Doubles are best-of-five sets ; all other events are best-of-three sets . A tiebreak game is played if the score reaches 6–6 in any set except the fifth ( in a five-set match ) or the third ( in a three-set match ) , in which case a two-game lead must be reached . All events are single-elimination tournaments , except for the Gentlemen 's , Senior Gentlemen 's and the Ladies ' Invitation Doubles , which are round-robin tournaments . Until 1922 , the winners of the previous year 's competition ( except in the Ladies ' Doubles and Mixed Doubles ) were automatically granted byes into the final round ( then known as the challenge round ) . This led to many winners retaining their titles in successive years , as they were able to rest while their opponent competed from the start of the competition . From 1922 , the prior year 's champions were required to play all the rounds , like other tournament competitors . Schedule Each year the tournament begins on the last Monday in June , two weeks after the Queen 's Club Championships , which is one of the men 's major warm-up tournaments , together with the Gerry Weber Open , which is held in Halle , Germany , during the same week . Other grass-court tournaments before Wimbledon are Eastbourne , England , and Rosmalen in the Netherlands , both combining mixed events . The other women 's warm-up tournament for Wimbledon is Birmingham , also in England . The only grass-court tournament scheduled after the Championships is the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships at Newport , Rhode Island , USA , which takes place the week after Wimbledon . Wimbledon is scheduled for 14 days , beginning on a Monday and ending on a Sunday . The five main events span both weeks , but the junior and invitational events are held mainly during the second week . Traditionally , there is no play on the `` Middle Sunday '' , which is considered a rest day . However , rain has forced play on the Middle Sunday four times , in 1991 , 1997 , 2004 and 2016 . On each of these occasions , Wimbledon staged a `` People 's Sunday '' , with unreserved seating and readily available , inexpensive tickets , allowing those with more limited means to sit on the show courts . Since 2015 , the championships have begun one week later than in previous years , extending the gap between the tournament and the French Open from two to three weeks . Additionally the Stuttgart Open men 's tournament converted to a grass surface and was rescheduled from July to June , extending the grass court season . Players and seeding Both the men 's and ladies ' singles consist of 128 players . Players and doubles pairs are admitted to the main events on the basis of their international rankings , with 104 direct entries into the men 's and 108 into the ladies ' competitions . Both tournaments have 8 wild card entrants , with the remainder in each made up of qualifiers . Since the 2001 tournament 32 players have been given seedings in the Gentlemen 's and Ladies ' singles , 16 teams in the doubles events . The system of seeding was introduced during the 1924 Wimbledon Championships . This was a simplified version allowing countries to nominate four players who were placed in different quarters of the draw . This system was replaced for the 1927 Wimbledon Championships and from then on players were seeded on merit . The first players to be seeded as no . 1 were René Lacoste and Helen Wills . The Committee of Management decide which players receive wildcards . Usually , wild cards are players who have performed well during previous tournaments , or would stimulate public interest in Wimbledon by participating . The only wild card to win the Gentlemen 's Singles Championship was Goran Ivanišević in 2001 . Players and pairs who neither have high enough rankings nor receive wild cards may participate in a qualifying tournament held one week before Wimbledon at the Bank of England Sports Ground in Roehampton . The singles qualifying competitions are three-round events ; the same-sex doubles competitions last for only one round . There is no qualifying tournament for Mixed Doubles . The furthest that any qualifier has progressed in a Singles tournament is the semi-final round : John McEnroe in 1977 ( Gentlemen 's Singles ) , Vladimir Voltchkov in 2000 ( Gentlemen 's Singles ) , and Alexandra Stevenson in 1999 ( Ladies ' Singles ) . Players are admitted to the junior tournaments upon the recommendations of their national tennis associations , on their International Tennis Federation world rankings and , in the case of the singles events , on the basis of a qualifying competition . The Committee of Management determines which players may enter the four invitational events . The Committee seeds the top players and pairs on the basis of their rankings , but it can change the seedings based on a player 's previous grass court performance . Since 2002 a seeding committee has not been required for the Gentlemen 's Singles following an agreement with the ATP . While the seeds are still the top 32 players according to rankings , the seeding order is determined using the formula : ATP Entry System Position points + 100 % points earned for all grass court tournaments in the past 12 months + 75 % points earned for the best grass court tournament in the 12 months before that . A majority of the entrants are unseeded . Only two unseeded players have won the Gentlemen 's Singles : Boris Becker in 1985 and Goran Ivanišević in 2001 . In 1985 there were only 16 seeds and Becker was ranked 20th ; Ivanišević was ranked 125th when he won as a Wild Card entrant , although he had previously been a finalist three times , and been ranked no . 2 in the world ; his low ranking was due to having been hampered by a persistent shoulder injury for three years , which had only just cleared up . In 1996 , the title was won by Richard Krajicek , who was originally unseeded ( ranked 17th , and only 16 players were seeded ) but was promoted to a seeded position ( still with the number 17 ) when Thomas Muster withdrew before the tournament . No unseeded player has captured the Ladies ' Singles title ; the lowest seeded female champion was Venus Williams , who won in 2007 as the 23rd seed ; Williams was returning from an injury that had prevented her playing in previous tournaments , giving her a lower ranking than she would normally have had . Unseeded pairs have won the doubles titles on numerous occasions ; the 2005 Gentlemen 's Doubles champions were not only unseeded , but also ( for the first time ever ) qualifiers . Grounds Since 2001 , the courts used for Wimbledon have been sown with 100 % perennial ryegrass . Prior to 2001 a combination of 70 % ryegrass and 30 % Creeping Red Fescue was used . The change was made to improve durability and strengthen the sward to better withstand the increasing wear of the modern game . The main show courts , Centre Court and No . 1 Court , are normally used for only two weeks a year , during the Championships , but play can extend into a third week in exceptional circumstances . The remaining 17 courts are regularly used for other events hosted by the Club . The show courts were in action for the second time in three months in 2012 as Wimbledon hosted the tennis events of the 2012 Olympic Games . One of the show courts is also used for home ties of the GB teams in the Davis Cup on occasions . Wimbledon is the only Grand Slam event played on grass courts . At one time , all the Majors , except the French Open , were played on grass . The US Open abandoned grass in 1975 and the Australian Open in 1988 . The principal court , Centre Court , was opened in 1922 when the Club moved from Worple Road to Church Road . The Church Road venue was larger and was needed to meet the ever-growing public demand . Due to the possibility of rain during Wimbledon , a retractable roof was installed prior to the 2009 Championship . It is designed to close/open in about 20 minutes and will be closed primarily to protect play from inclement ( and , if necessary , extremely hot ) weather during The Championships . When the roof is being opened or closed , play is suspended . The first time the roof was closed during a Wimbledon Championship match was on Monday 29 June 2009 , involving Amélie Mauresmo and Dinara Safina . Because of the summer climate in southern England , Wimbledon employs 'Court Attendants ' each year , who work to maintain court conditions . Their principal responsibility is to ensure that the courts are quickly covered when it begins to rain , so that play can resume as quickly as possible once the referees decide to uncover the courts . The court attendants are mainly university students working to make summer money . Centre Court is covered by full-time groundstaff , however . The court has a capacity of 15,000 . At its south end is the Royal Box , from which members of the Royal Family and other dignitaries watch matches . Centre Court usually hosts the finals and semifinals of the main events , as well as many matches in the earlier rounds involving top-seeded players or local favourites . The second most important court is No . 1 Court . The court was constructed in 1997 to replace the old No.1 Court , which was adjacent to Centre Court . The old No.1 Court was demolished because its capacity for spectators was too low . The court was said to have had a unique , more intimate atmosphere and was a favourite of many players . The new No.1 Court has a capacity of approximately 11,000 . From 2009 , a new No . 2 Court is being used at Wimbledon with a capacity for 4,000 people . To obtain planning permission , the playing surface is around 3.5m below ground level , ensuring that the single-storey structure is only about 3.5m above ground level , and thus not affecting local views . Plans to build on the current site of Court 13 were dismissed due to the high capacity of games played at the 2012 Olympic Games . The old No.2 Court has been renamed as No.3 Court . The old No.2 Court was known as the `` Graveyard of Champions '' because many highly seeded players were eliminated there during early rounds over the years , including Ilie Năstase , John McEnroe , Boris Becker , Andre Agassi , Pete Sampras , Martina Hingis , Venus Williams , Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova . The court has a capacity of 2,192 + 770 standing . In 2011 a new No.3 Court and a new Court 4 were unveiled on the sites of the old No.2 and 3 courts . At the northern end of the grounds is a giant television screen on which important matches are broadcast . Fans watch from an area of grass officially known as the Aorangi Terrace . When British players do well at Wimbledon , the hill attracts fans for them , and is often renamed by the press for them : Greg Rusedski 's followers convened at `` Rusedski Ridge '' , and Tim Henman has had the hill nicknamed Henman Hill . As both of them have now retired and Andy Murray is the number 1 British player , the hill is occasionally referred to as `` Murray Mound '' or `` Murrayfield '' , as a reference to his Scottish heritage and the Scottish ground of the same name , but this has largely failed to catch on – the area is still usually referred to as Henman Hill . None of these nicknames are official . ; Grounds schedule The grounds open at 10:30 am on each day . On the Centre Court , play starts at 1 pm , with exception of the final two days of the competition ( Ladies ' and Gentlemen 's Finals ) , when play begins at 2 pm . On courts 2–19 , play begins at noon for at least the first eight days of the competition . It then starts at 11 am for the Junior matches on the middle Saturday and during the second week . Traditions Social commentator Ellis Cashmore describes Wimbledon as having `` a David Niven-ish propriety '' , conforming to the standards of behaviour common in the 1950s . Writer Peter York sees the event as representing a particular white and affluent type of Britishness , describing the area of Wimbledon as `` a southern , well off , late Victorian suburb with a particular social character '' . Cashmore has criticised the event for being `` remote and insulated '' from the changing multicultural character of modern Britain , describing it as `` nobody 's idea of all-things-British '' . Ball boys and ball girls In the championship games , ball boys and girls , known as BBGs , play a crucial role in the smooth running of the tournament , with a brief that a good BBG `` should not be seen . They should blend into the background and get on with their jobs quietly . '' From 1947 ball boys were supplied by Goldings , the only Barnardos school to provide them . Prior to this , from the 1920s onwards , the ball boys had been provided by The Shaftesbury Children 's Home . Since 1969 , BBGs have been provided by local schools . As of 2008 they are drawn from schools in the London boroughs of Merton , Sutton , Kingston , and Wandsworth , as well as from Surrey . Traditionally , Wandsworth Boys Grammar School in Sutherland Grove , Southfields and Mayfield Girls School on West Hill in Wandsworth , both now defunct , were the schools of choice for selection of BBGs . This was possibly owing to their proximity to the club . BBGs have an average age of 15 , being drawn from the school years nine and ten . BBGs will serve for one , or if re-selected , up to five tournaments , from Year Nine to Year Thirteen . Starting in 2005 , BBGs work in teams of six , two at the net , four at the corners , and teams rotate one hour on court , one hour off , ( two hours depending on the court ) for the day 's play . Teams are not told which court they will be working on the day , to ensure the same standards across all courts . With the expansion of the number of courts , and lengthening the tennis day , as of 2008 , the number of BBGs required is around 250 . From the second Wednesday , BBGs are told to leave the Championships , leaving around 80 on the final Sunday . Each BBG receives a certificate , a can of used balls , a group photograph and a programme when leaving . BBG service is paid , with a total of £120-£180 being paid to each ball boy or girl after the 13-day period depending on the number of days served . Every BBG keeps all of their kit , typically consisting of three or four shirts , two or three shorts or skorts , track suit bottoms and top , twelve pairs of socks , three pairs of wristbands , a hat , water bottle holder , bag and trainers . Along with this it is seen as a privilege , and seen as a valuable addition to a school leaver 's curriculum vitae , showing discipline . BBG places are split 50:50 between boys and girls , with girls having been used since 1977 , appearing on centre court since 1985 . Prospective BBGs are first nominated by their school headteacher , to be considered for selection . To be selected , a candidate must pass written tests on the rules of tennis , and pass fitness , mobility and other suitability tests , against initial preliminary instruction material . Successful candidates then commence a training phase , starting in February , in which the final BBGs are chosen through continual assessment . As of 2008 , this training intake was 600 . The training includes weekly sessions of physical , procedural and theoretical instruction , to ensure that the BBGs are fast , alert , self-confident and adaptable to situations . As of 2011 , early training occurs at the Wimbledon All England Lawn Tennis Club Covered Courts , to the side of the Grounds , and then moves to outside courts ( 8 , 9 , 10 ) the week before the Championships for a feel of the grass court . Colours and uniforms Dark green and purple are the traditional Wimbledon colours . However , all tennis players participating in the tournament are required to wear all-white or at least almost all-white clothing , a long-time tradition at Wimbledon . Wearing white clothing with some colour accents is also acceptable , provided the colour scheme is not that of an identifiable commercial brand logo ( the outfitter 's brand logo being the sole exception ) . Controversy followed Martina Navratilova 's wearing branding for `` Kim '' cigarettes in 1982 . Green clothing was worn by the chair umpire , linesmen , ball boys and ball girls until the 2005 Championships ; however , beginning with the 2006 Championships , officials , ball boys and ball girls were dressed in new navy blue- and cream-coloured uniforms from American designer Ralph Lauren . This marked the first time in the history of the Championships that an outside company was used to design Wimbledon clothing ; the contract with Polo Ralph Lauren is set to end in 2015 . Referring to players By tradition , the `` Men 's '' and `` Women 's '' competitions are referred to as `` Gentlemen 's '' and `` Ladies ' '' competitions at Wimbledon . The junior competitions are referred to as the `` Boys ' '' and `` Girls ' '' competitions . Prior to 2009 female players were referred to by the title `` Miss '' or `` Mrs '' on scoreboards . As dictated by strict rule of etiquette , married female players are referred to by their husbands ' names : for example , Chris Evert-Lloyd appeared on scoreboards as `` Mrs. J. M. Lloyd '' during her marriage to John Lloyd , since `` Mrs. X '' essentially designates the wife of X . This tradition has continued at least to some extent . For the first time during the 2009 tournament , players were referred to on scoreboards by both their first and last names . The title `` Mr '' is not used for male players who are professionals on scoreboards but the prefix is retained for amateurs , although chair umpires refer to players as `` Mr '' when they use the replay challenge . The chair umpire will say `` Mr is challenging the call ... '' and `` Mr has X challenges remaining . '' However , the umpires still say Miss when announcing the score of the Ladies ' matches . If a match is being played with two competitors of the same surname ( e.g . Venus and Serena Williams , Bob and Mike Bryan ) , the chair umpire will specify to whom they are referring by stating the player 's first name and surname during announcements ( e.g . `` Game , Miss Serena Williams '' , `` Advantage , Mike Bryan '' ) . Royal Family Previously

qw_72--The_Championships,_Wimbledon.txt

Who was the 2001 Wimbledon Women's Singles Champion?

The James Bond series focuses on a fictional British Secret Service agent created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming , who featured him in twelve novels and two short-story collections . Since Fleming 's death in 1964 , eight other authors have written authorised Bond novels or novelizations : Kingsley Amis , Christopher Wood , John Gardner , Raymond Benson , Sebastian Faulks , Jeffery Deaver , William Boyd and Anthony Horowitz . The latest novel is Trigger Mortis by Anthony Horowitz , published in September 2015 . Additionally Charlie Higson wrote a series on a young James Bond , and Kate Westbrook wrote three novels based on the diaries of a recurring series character , Moneypenny . The character has also been adapted for television , radio , comic strip , video games and film . The films are the longest continually running and the third-highest-grossing film series to date , which started in 1962 with Dr. No , starring Sean Connery as Bond . As of , there have been twenty-four films in the Eon Productions series . The most recent Bond film , Spectre ( 2015 ) , stars Daniel Craig in his fourth portrayal of Bond ; he is the sixth actor to play Bond in the Eon series . There have also been two independent productions of Bond films : Casino Royale ( a 1967 spoof ) and Never Say Never Again ( a 1983 remake of an earlier Eon-produced film , Thunderball ) . The Bond films are renowned for a number of features , including the musical accompaniment , with the theme songs having received Academy Award nominations on several occasions , and two wins . Other important elements which run through most of the films include Bond 's cars , his guns , and the gadgets with which he is supplied by Q Branch . The films are also noted for Bond 's relationships with various women , who are sometimes referred to as `` Bond girls '' . Publication history Creation and inspiration As the central figure for his works , Ian Fleming created the fictional character of James Bond , an intelligence officer in the Secret Intelligence Service , commonly known as MI6 . Bond was also known by his code number , 007 , and was a Royal Naval Reserve Commander . Fleming based his fictional creation on a number of individuals he came across during his time in the Naval Intelligence Division during World War II , admitting that Bond `` was a compound of all the secret agents and commando types I met during the war '' . Among those types were his brother , Peter , who had been involved in behind-the-lines operations in Norway and Greece during the war . Aside from Fleming 's brother , a number of others also provided some aspects of Bond 's make up , including Conrad O'Brien-ffrench , Patrick Dalzel-Job and Bill `` Biffy '' Dunderdale . The name James Bond came from that of the American ornithologist James Bond , a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide Birds of the West Indies . Fleming , a keen birdwatcher himself , had a copy of Bond 's guide and he later explained to the ornithologist 's wife that `` It struck me that this brief , unromantic , Anglo-Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed , and so a second James Bond was born '' . He further explained that : On another occasion , Fleming said : `` I wanted the simplest , dullest , plainest-sounding name I could find , 'James Bond ' was much better than something more interesting , like 'Peregrine Carruthers ' . Exotic things would happen to and around him , but he would be a neutral figure—an anonymous , blunt instrument wielded by a government department . '' Fleming decided that Bond should resemble both American singer Hoagy Carmichael and himself and in Casino Royale , Vesper Lynd remarks , `` Bond reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael , but there is something cold and ruthless . '' Likewise , in Moonraker , Special Branch Officer Gala Brand thinks that Bond is `` certainly good-looking ... Rather like Hoagy Carmichael in a way . That black hair falling down over the right eyebrow . Much the same bones . But there was something a bit cruel in the mouth , and the eyes were cold . '' Fleming also endowed Bond with many of his own traits , including sharing the same golf handicap , the taste for scrambled eggs and using the same brand of toiletries . Bond 's tastes are also often taken from Fleming 's own as was his behaviour , with Bond 's love of golf and gambling mirroring Fleming 's own . Fleming used his experiences of his espionage career and all other aspects of his life as inspiration when writing , including using names of school friends , acquaintances , relatives and lovers throughout his books . It was not until the penultimate novel , You Only Live Twice , that Fleming gave Bond a sense of family background . The book was the first to be written after the release of Dr. No in cinemas and Sean Connery 's depiction of Bond affected Fleming 's interpretation of the character , to give Bond both a sense of humour and Scottish antecedents that were not present in the previous stories . In a fictional obituary , purportedly published in The Times , Bond 's parents were given as Andrew Bond , from the village of Glencoe , Scotland , and Monique Delacroix , from the canton of Vaud , Switzerland . Fleming did not provide Bond 's date of birth , but John Pearson 's fictional biography of Bond , James Bond : The Authorized Biography of 007 , gives Bond a birth date on 11 November 1920 , while a study by John Griswold puts the date at 11 November 1921 . Novels and related works Ian Fleming novels Whilst serving in the Naval Intelligence Division , Fleming had planned to become an author and had told a friend , `` I am going to write the spy story to end all spy stories . '' On 17 February 1952 , he began writing his first James Bond novel , Casino Royale at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica , where he wrote all his Bond novels during the months of January and February each year . He started the story shortly before his wedding to his pregnant girlfriend , Ann Charteris , in order to distract himself from his forthcoming nuptials . After completing the manuscript for Casino Royale , Fleming showed the manuscript to his friend ( and later editor ) William Plomer to read . Plomer liked it and submitted it to the publishers , Jonathan Cape , who did not like it as much . Cape finally published it in 1953 on the recommendation of Fleming 's older brother Peter , an established travel writer . Between 1953 and 1966 , two years after his death , twelve novels and two short-story collections were published , with the last two books – The Man with the Golden Gun and Octopussy and The Living Daylights – published posthumously . All the books were published in the UK through Jonathan Cape . Post-Fleming novels After Fleming 's death a continuation novel , Colonel Sun , was written by Kingsley Amis ( as Robert Markham ) and published in 1968 . Amis had already written a literary study of Fleming 's Bond novels in his 1965 work The James Bond Dossier . Although novelizations of two of the Eon Productions Bond films appeared in print , James Bond , The Spy Who Loved Me and James Bond and Moonraker , both written by screenwriter Christopher Wood , the series of novels did not continue until the 1980s . In 1981 the thriller writer John Gardner picked up the series with Licence Renewed . Gardner went on to write sixteen Bond books in total ; two of the books he wrote – Licence to Kill and GoldenEye – were novelizations of Eon Productions films of the same name . Gardner moved the Bond series into the 1980s , although he retained the ages of the characters as they were when Fleming had left them . In 1996 Gardner retired from writing James Bond books due to ill health . In 1996 the American author Raymond Benson became the author of the Bond novels . Benson had previously been the author of The James Bond Bedside Companion , first published in 1984 . By the time he moved on to other , non-Bond related projects in 2002 , Benson had written six Bond novels , three novelizations and three short stories . After a gap of six years , Sebastian Faulks was commissioned by Ian Fleming Publications to write a new Bond novel , which was released on 28 May 2008 , the 100th anniversary of Fleming 's birth . The book—titled Devil May Care—was published in the UK by Penguin Books and by Doubleday in the US . American writer Jeffery Deaver was then commissioned by Ian Fleming Publications to produce Carte Blanche , which was published on 26 May 2011 . The book updated Bond into a post-9/11 agent , independent of MI5 or MI6 . On 26 September 2013 Solo , written by William Boyd , was published , set in 1969 . In October 2014 it was announced that Anthony Horowitz was to write a Bond continuation novel . Set in the 1950s two weeks after the events of Goldfinger , it contains material written , but previously unreleased , by Fleming . Trigger Mortis was released on 8 September 2015 . Young Bond The Young Bond series of novels was started by Charlie Higson and , between 2005 and 2009 , five novels and one short story were published . The first Young Bond novel , SilverFin was also adapted and released as a graphic novel on 2 October 2008 by Puffin Books . In October 2013 Ian Fleming Publications announced that Stephen Cole would continue the series , with the first edition scheduled to be released in Autumn 2014 . The Moneypenny Diaries The Moneypenny Diaries are a trilogy of novels chronicling the life of Miss Moneypenny , M 's personal secretary . The novels are penned by Samantha Weinberg under the pseudonym Kate Westbrook , who is depicted as the book 's `` editor '' . The first instalment of the trilogy , subtitled Guardian Angel , was released on 10 October 2005 in the UK . A second volume , subtitled Secret Servant was released on 2 November 2006 in the UK , published by John Murray . A third volume , subtitled Final Fling was released on 1 May 2008 . Adaptations Television In 1954 CBS paid Ian Fleming $ 1,000 ( $ in dollars ) to adapt his novel Casino Royale into a one-hour television adventure as part of its Climax ! series . The episode aired live on 21 October 1954 and starred Barry Nelson as `` Card Sense '' James Bond and Peter Lorre as Le Chiffre . The novel was adapted for American audiences to show Bond as an American agent working for `` Combined Intelligence '' , while the character Felix Leiter—American in the novel—became British onscreen and was renamed `` Clarence Leiter '' . In 1973 a BBC documentary Omnibus : The British Hero featured Christopher Cazenove playing a number of such title characters ( e.g . Richard Hannay and Bulldog Drummond ) . The documentary included James Bond in dramatised scenes from Goldfinger—notably featuring 007 being threatened with the novel 's circular saw , rather than the film 's laser beam—and Diamonds Are Forever . In 1991 a TV cartoon series James Bond Jr. was produced with Corey Burton in the role of Bond 's nephew , also called James Bond . Radio In 1956 the novel Moonraker was adapted for broadcast on South African radio , with Bob Holness providing the voice of Bond . According to The Independent , `` listeners across the Union thrilled to Bob 's cultured tones as he defeated evil master criminals in search of world domination '' . The BBC have adapted five of the Fleming novels for broadcast : in 1990 You Only Live Twice was adapted into a 90-minute radio play for BBC Radio 4 with Michael Jayston playing James Bond . The production was repeated a number of times between 2008 and 2011 . On 24 May 2008 BBC Radio 4 broadcast an adaptation of Dr. No . The actor Toby Stephens , who played Bond villain Gustav Graves in the Eon Productions version of Die Another Day , played Bond , while Dr. No was played by David Suchet . Following its success , a second story was adapted and on 3 April 2010 BBC Radio 4 broadcast Goldfinger with Stephens again playing Bond . Sir Ian McKellen was Goldfinger and Stephens ' Die Another Day co-star Rosamund Pike played Pussy Galore . The play was adapted from Fleming 's novel by Archie Scottney and was directed by Martin Jarvis . In 2012 the novel From Russia , with Love was dramatized for Radio 4 ; it featured a full cast again starring Stephens as Bond . In May 2014 Stephens again played Bond , in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , with Alfred Molina as Blofeld , and Joanna Lumley as Irma Bunt . Comics medium In 1957 the Daily Express approached Ian Fleming to adapt his stories into comic strips , offering him £1,500 per novel and a share of takings from syndication . After initial reluctance , Fleming , who felt the strips would lack the quality of his writing , agreed . To aid the Daily Express in illustrating Bond , Fleming commissioned an artist to create a sketch of how he believed James Bond looked . The illustrator , John McLusky , however , felt that Fleming 's 007 looked too `` outdated '' and `` pre-war '' and changed Bond to give him a more masculine look . The first strip , Casino Royale was published from 7 July 1958 to 13 December 1958 and was written by Anthony Hern and illustrated by John McLusky . Most of the Bond novels and short stories have since been adapted for illustration , as well as Kingsley Amis 's Colonel Sun ; the works were written by Henry Gammidge or Jim Lawrence with Yaroslav Horak replacing McClusky as artist in 1966 . After the Fleming and Amis material had been adapted , original stories were produced , continuing in the Daily Express and Sunday Express until May 1977 . Several comic book adaptations of the James Bond films have been published through the years : at the time of Dr. No 's release in October 1962 , a comic book adaptation of the screenplay , written by Norman J. Nodel , was published in Britain as part of the Classics Illustrated anthology series . It was later reprinted in the United States by DC Comics as part of its Showcase anthology series , in January 1963 . This was the first American comic book appearance of James Bond and is noteworthy for being a relatively rare example of a British comic being reprinted in a fairly high-profile American comic . It was also one of the earliest comics to be censored on racial grounds ( some skin tones and dialogue were changed for the American market ) . With the release of the 1981 film For Your Eyes Only , Marvel Comics published a two-issue comic book adaptation of the film . When Octopussy was released in the cinemas in 1983 , Marvel published an accompanying comic ; Eclipse also produced a one-off comic for Licence to Kill , although Timothy Dalton refused to allow his likeness to be used . New Bond stories were also drawn up and published from 1989 onwards through Marvel , Eclipse Comics and Dark Horse Comics . Films The Eon Productions films In 1962 Eon Productions , the company of Canadian Harry Saltzman and American Albert R. `` Cubby '' Broccoli , released the first cinema adaptation of an Ian Fleming novel , Dr. No , featuring Sean Connery as 007 . Connery starred in a further four films before leaving the role after You Only Live Twice , which was taken up by George Lazenby for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service . Lazenby left the role after just one appearance and Connery was tempted back for his last Eon-produced film Diamonds Are Forever . In 1973 Roger Moore was appointed to the role of 007 for Live and Let Die and played Bond a further six times over twelve years before being replaced by Timothy Dalton for two films . After a six-year hiatus , during which a legal wrangle threatened Eon 's productions of the Bond films , Irish actor Pierce Brosnan was cast as Bond in GoldenEye , released in 1995 ; he remained in the role for a total of four films , before leaving in 2002 . In 2006 , Daniel Craig was given the role of Bond for Casino Royale , which rebooted the series . The twenty-third Eon produced film , Skyfall , was released on 26 October 2012 . The series has grossed almost $ 7 billion to date , making it the third-highest-grossing film series ( behind Harry Potter and the Marvel Cinematic Universe ) , and the single most successful adjusted for inflation . Non-Eon films In 1967 Casino Royale was adapted into a parody Bond film starring David Niven as Sir James Bond and Ursula Andress as Vesper Lynd . Niven had been Fleming 's preference for the role of Bond . The result of a court case in the High Court in London in 1963 allowed Kevin McClory to produce a remake of Thunderball titled Never Say Never Again in 1983 . The film , produced by Jack Schwartzman 's Taliafilm production company and starring Sean Connery as Bond , was not part of the Eon series of Bond films . In 1997 the Sony Corporation acquired all or some of McClory 's rights in an undisclosed deal , which were then subsequently acquired by MGM , whilst on 4 December 1997 , MGM announced that the company had purchased the rights to Never Say Never Again from Taliafilm . As at 2015 Eon holds the full adaptation rights to all of Fleming 's Bond novels . Music The `` James Bond Theme '' was written by Monty Norman and was first orchestrated by the John Barry Orchestra for 1962 's Dr. No , although the actual authorship of the music has been a matter of controversy for many years . In 2001 , Norman won £30,000 in libel damages from the The Sunday Times newspaper , which suggested that Barry was entirely responsible for the composition . The theme , as written by Norman and arranged by Barry , was described by another Bond film composer , David Arnold , as `` bebop-swing vibe coupled with that vicious , dark , distorted electric guitar , definitely an instrument of rock 'n ' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want : It was cocky , swaggering , confident , dark , dangerous , suggestive , sexy , unstoppable . And he did it in two minutes . '' Barry composed the scores for eleven Bond films and had an uncredited contribution to Dr. No with his arrangement of the Bond Theme . A Bond film staple are the theme songs heard during their title sequences sung by well-known popular singers . Several of the songs produced for the films have been nominated for Academy Awards for Original Song , including Paul McCartney 's `` Live and Let Die '' , Carly Simon 's `` Nobody Does It Better '' , Sheena Easton 's `` For Your Eyes Only '' , Adele 's `` Skyfall '' , and Sam Smith 's `` Writing 's on the Wall '' . Adele won the award at the 85th Academy Awards , and Smith won at the 88th Academy Awards . For the non-Eon produced Casino Royale , Burt Bacharach 's score included `` The Look of Love '' , which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song . Video games In 1983 the first Bond video game , developed and published by Parker Brothers , was released for the Atari 2600 , the Atari 5200 , the Atari 800 , the Commodore 64 and the ColecoVision . Since then , there have been numerous video games either based on the films or using original storylines . In 1997 the first-person shooter video game GoldenEye 007 was developed by Rare for the Nintendo 64 , based on the 1995 Pierce Brosnan film GoldenEye . The game received very positive reviews , won the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for UK Developer of the Year in 1998 and sold over eight million copies worldwide , grossing $ 250 million . In 1999 Electronic Arts acquired the licence and released Tomorrow Never Dies on 16 December 1999 . In October 2000 , they released The World Is Not Enough for the Nintendo 64 followed by 007 Racing for the PlayStation on 21 November 2000 . In 2003 , the company released James Bond 007 : Everything or Nothing , which included the likenesses and voices of Pierce Brosnan , Willem Dafoe , Heidi Klum , Judi Dench and John Cleese , amongst others . In November 2005 , Electronic Arts released a video game adaptation of 007 : From Russia with Love , which involved Sean Connery 's image and voice-over for Bond . In 2006 Electronic Arts announced a game based on then-upcoming film Casino Royale : the game was cancelled because it would not be ready by the film 's release in November of that year . With MGM losing revenue from lost licensing fees , the franchise was removed from EA to Activision . Activision subsequently released the 007 : Quantum of Solace game on 31 October 2008 , based on the film of the same name . A new version of GoldenEye 007 featuring Daniel Craig was released exclusively for the Nintendo Wii and a handheld version for the Nintendo DS in November 2010 . A year later another new version was released for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 under the title GoldenEye 007 : Reloaded . In October 2012 007 Legends was released , which featured one mission from each of the Bond actors of the Eon Productions ' series . Guns , vehicles and gadgets Guns For the first five novels , Fleming armed Bond with a Beretta 418 until he received a letter from a thirty-one-year-old Bond enthusiast and gun expert , Geoffrey Boothroyd , criticising Fleming 's choice of firearm for Bond , calling it `` a lady 's gun – and not a very nice lady at that ! '' Boothroyd suggested that Bond should swap his Beretta for a Walther PPK 7.65mm and this exchange of arms made it to Dr. No . Boothroyd also gave Fleming advice on the Berns-Martin triple draw shoulder holster and a number of the weapons used by SMERSH and other villains . In thanks , Fleming gave the MI6 Armourer in his novels the name Major Boothroyd and , in Dr. No , M introduces him to Bond as `` the greatest small-arms expert in the world '' . Bond also used a variety of rifles , including the Savage Model 99 in `` For Your Eyes Only '' and a Winchester .308 target rifle in `` The Living Daylights '' . Other handguns used by Bond in the Fleming books included the Colt Detective Special and a long-barrelled Colt .45 Army Special . The first Bond film , Dr. No , saw M ordering Bond to leave his Beretta behind and take up the Walther PPK , which the film Bond used in eighteen films . In Tomorrow Never Dies and the two subsequent films , Bond 's main weapon was the Walther P99 semi-automatic pistol . Vehicles In the early Bond stories Fleming gave Bond a battleship-grey Bentley 4½ Litre with an Amherst Villiers supercharger . After Bond 's car was written off by Hugo Drax in Moonraker , Fleming gave Bond a Mark II Continental Bentley , which he used in the remaining books of the series . During Goldfinger , Bond was issued with an Aston Martin DB Mark III with a homing device , which he used to track Goldfinger across France . Bond returned to his Bentley for the subsequent novels . The Bond of the films has driven a number of cars , including the Aston Martin V8 Vantage , during the 1980s , the V12 Vanquish and DBS during the 2000s , as well as the Lotus Esprit ; the BMW Z3 , BMW 750iL and the BMW Z8 . He has , however , also needed to drive a number of other vehicles , ranging from a Citroën 2CV to a Routemaster Bus , amongst others . Bond 's most famous car is the silver grey Aston Martin DB5 , first seen in Goldfinger ; it later featured in Thunderball , GoldenEye , Tomorrow Never Dies , Casino Royale and Skyfall . The films have used a number of different Aston Martins for filming and publicity , one of which was sold in January 2006 at an auction in the US for $ 2,090,000 to an unnamed European collector . Gadgets Fleming 's novels and early screen adaptations presented minimal equipment such as the booby-trapped attaché case in From Russia with Love , although this situation changed dramatically with the films . However , the effects of the two Eon-produced Bond films Dr. No and From Russia with Love had an effect on the novel The Man with the Golden Gun , through the increased number of devices used in Fleming 's final story . For the film adaptations of Bond , the pre-mission briefing by Q Branch became one of the motifs that ran through the series . Dr. No provided no spy-related gadgets , but a Geiger counter was used ; industrial designer Andy Davey observed that the first ever onscreen spy-gadget was the attaché case shown in From Russia with Love , which he described as `` a classic 007 product '' . The gadgets assumed a higher profile in the 1964 film Goldfinger . The film 's success encouraged further espionage equipment from Q Branch to be supplied to Bond , although the increased use of technology led to an accusation that Bond was over-reliant on equipment , particularly in the later films . Davey noted that `` Bond 's gizmos follow the zeitgeist more closely than any other ... nuance in the films '' as they moved from the potential representations of the future in the early films , through to the brand-name obsessions of the later films . It is also noticeable that , although Bond uses a number of pieces of equipment from Q Branch , including the Little Nellie autogyro , a jet pack and the exploding attaché case , the villains are also well-equipped with custom-made devices , including Scaramanga 's golden gun , Rosa Klebb 's poison-tipped shoes , Oddjob 's steel-rimmed bowler hat and Blofeld 's communication devices in his agents ' vanity case . Cultural impact Cinematically , Bond has been a major influence within the spy genre since the release of Dr. No in 1962 , with 22 secret agent films released in 1966 alone attempting to capitalise on the Bond franchise 's popularity and success . The first parody was the 1964 film Carry On Spying , which shows the villain Dr. Crow being overcome by agents who included James Bind ( Charles Hawtry ) and Daphne Honeybutt ( Barbara Windsor ) . One of the films that reacted against the portrayal of Bond was the Harry Palmer series , whose first film , The Ipcress File was released in 1965 . The eponymous hero of the series was what academic Jeremy Packer called an `` anti-Bond '' , or what Christoph Lindner calls `` the thinking man 's Bond '' . The Palmer series were produced by Harry Saltzman , who also used key crew members from the Bond series , including designer Ken Adam , editor Peter R. Hunt and composer John Barry . The four `` Matt Helm '' films starring Dean Martin ( released between 1966 and 1969 ) , the `` Flint '' series starring James Coburn ( comprising two films , one each in 1966 and 1969

qb_7255--James_Bond.txt

What it the title of the second James Bond film, which opened in the UK in 1963?

Pygmalion is a play by George Bernard Shaw , named after a Greek mythological character . It was first presented on stage to the public in 1913 . Professor of phonetics Henry Higgins makes a bet that he can train a bedraggled Cockney flower girl , Eliza Doolittle , to pass for a duchess at an ambassador 's garden party by teaching her to assume a veneer of gentility , the most important element of which , he believes , is impeccable speech . The play is a sharp lampoon of the rigid British class system of the day and a commentary on women 's independence . In ancient Greek mythology , Pygmalion fell in love with one of his sculptures , which then came to life . The general idea of that myth was a popular subject for Victorian era English playwrights , including one of Shaw 's influences , W. S. Gilbert , who wrote a successful play based on the story called Pygmalion and Galatea first presented in 1871 . Shaw would also have been familiar with the burlesque version , Galatea , or Pygmalion Reversed . Shaw 's play has been adapted numerous times , most notably as the musical My Fair Lady and the film of that name . Shaw mentioned that the character of Professor Henry Higgins was inspired by several British professors of phonetics : Alexander Melville Bell , Alexander J. Ellis , Tito Pagliardini , but above all , the cantankerous Henry Sweet . First productions Shaw wrote the play in early 1912 and read it to famed actress Mrs. Patrick Campbell in June . She came on board almost immediately , but her mild nervous breakdown contributed to the delay of a London production . Pygmalion premiered at the Hofburg Theatre in Vienna on 16 October 1913 , in a German translation by Shaw 's Viennese literary agent and acolyte , Siegfried Trebitsch . Its first New York production opened on 24 March 1914 at the German-language Irving Place Theatre . It opened in London on 11 April 1914 , at Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree 's His Majesty 's Theatre and starred Mrs. Campbell as Eliza and Tree as Higgins , running for 118 performances . Shaw directed the actors through tempestuous rehearsals often punctuated by at least one of the two storming out of the theatre in a rage . Plot Shaw was conscious of the difficulties involved in staging a complete representation of the play . Acknowledging in a `` note for technicians '' that such a thing would only be possible `` on the cinema screen or on stages furnished with exceptionally elaborate machinery '' , he marked some scenes as candidates for omission if necessary . Of these , a short scene at the end of Act One in which Eliza goes home , and a scene in Act Two in which Eliza is unwilling to undress for her bath , are not described here . The others are the scene at the Embassy Ball in Act Three and the scene with Eliza and Freddy in Act Four . Neither the Gutenberg edition referenced throughout this page nor the Wikisource text linked below contain these sequences . Act One 'Portico of Saint Paul 's Church ( not Wren 's Cathedral but Inigo Jones Church in Covent Garden vegetable market ) ' – 11.15p.m . A group of people are sheltering from the rain . Among them are the Eynsford-Hills , superficial social climbers eking out a living in `` genteel poverty '' , consisting initially of Mrs. Eynsford-Hill and her daughter Clara . Clara 's brother Freddy enters having earlier been dispatched to secure them a cab ( which they can ill-afford ) , but being rather timid and faint-hearted he has failed to do so . As he goes off once again to find a cab , he bumps into a flower girl , Eliza . Her flowers drop into the mud of Covent Garden , the flowers she needs to survive in her poverty-stricken world . Shortly they are joined by a gentleman , Colonel Pickering . While Eliza tries to sell flowers to the Colonel , a bystander informs her that a man is writing down everything she says . The man is Henry Higgins , a professor of phonetics . Eliza worries that Higgins is a police officer and will not calm down until Higgins introduces himself . It soon becomes apparent that he and Colonel Pickering have a shared interest in phonetics ; indeed , Pickering has come from India to meet Higgins , and Higgins was planning to go to India to meet Pickering . Higgins tells Pickering that he could pass off the flower girl as a duchess merely by teaching her to speak properly . These words of bravado spark an interest in Eliza , who would love to make changes in her life and become more mannerly , even though , to her , it only means working in a flower shop . At the end of the act , Freddy returns after finding a taxi , only to find that his mother and sister have gone and left him with the cab . The streetwise Eliza takes the cab from him , using the money that Higgins tossed to her , leaving him on his own . Act Two Higgins ' – Next Day . As Higgins demonstrates his phonetics to Pickering , the housekeeper , Mrs. Pearce , tells him that a young girl wants to see him . Eliza has shown up because she wishes to talk like a lady in a flower shop . She tells Higgins that she will pay for lessons . He shows no interest , but she reminds him of his boast the previous day . Higgins claimed that he could pass her for a duchess . Pickering makes a bet with him on his claim , and says that he will pay for her lessons if Higgins succeeds . She is sent off to have a bath . Mrs. Pearce tells Higgins that he must behave himself in the young girl 's presence . He must stop swearing , and improve his table manners . He is at a loss to understand why she should find fault with him . Alfred Doolittle , Eliza 's father , appears with the sole purpose of getting money out of Higgins . He has no paternal interest in his daughter 's welfare . He sees himself as a member of the undeserving poor , and means to go on being undeserving . With his intelligent mind untamed by education , he has an eccentric view of life . He is also aggressive , and when Eliza , on her return , sticks her tongue out at him , he goes to hit her , but is prevented by Pickering . The scene ends with Higgins telling Pickering that they really have got a difficult job on their hands . Act Three Mrs. Higgins ' drawing room . Higgins bursts in and tells his mother he has picked up a `` common flower girl '' whom he has been teaching . Mrs. Higgins is not very impressed with her son 's attempts to win her approval because it is her 'at home ' day and she is entertaining visitors . The visitors are the Eynsford-Hills . Higgins is rude to them on their arrival . Eliza enters and soon falls into talking about the weather and her family . Whilst she is now able to speak in beautifully modulated tones , the substance of what she says remains unchanged from the gutter . She confides her suspicions that her aunt was killed by relatives , and mentions that gin had been `` mother 's milk '' to this aunt , and that Eliza 's own father was always more cheerful after a goodly amount of gin . Higgins passes off her remarks as `` the new small talk '' , and Freddy is enraptured . When she is leaving , he asks her if she is going to walk across the park , to which she replies , `` Walk ? Not bloody likely ! '' ( This is the most famous line from the play , and , for many years after the play 's debut , use of the word 'bloody ' was known as a pygmalion ; Mrs. Campbell was considered to have risked her career by speaking the line on stage ) After she and the Eynsford-Hills leave , Henry asks for his mother 's opinion . She says the girl is not presentable and is very concerned about what will happen to her , but neither Higgins nor Pickering understand her thoughts of Eliza 's future , and leave feeling confident and excited about how Eliza will get on . This leaves Mrs. Higgins feeling exasperated , and exclaiming , `` Men ! Men ! ! Men ! ! ! '' Act Four Higgins ' home – The time is midnight , and Higgins , Pickering , and Eliza have returned from the ball . A tired Eliza sits unnoticed , brooding and silent , while Pickering congratulates Higgins on winning the bet . Higgins scoffs and declares the evening a `` silly tomfoolery '' , thanking God it 's over and saying that he had been sick of the whole thing for the last two months . Still barely acknowledging Eliza beyond asking her to leave a note for Mrs. Pearce regarding coffee , the two retire to bed . Higgins returns to the room , looking for his slippers , and Eliza throws them at him . Higgins is taken aback , and is at first completely unable to understand Eliza 's preoccupation , which aside from being ignored after her triumph is the question of what she is to do now . When Higgins does understand he makes light of it , saying she could get married , but Eliza interprets this as selling herself like a prostitute . `` We were above that at the corner of Tottenham Court Road . '' Finally she returns her jewellery to Higgins , including the ring he had given her , which he throws into the fireplace with a violence that scares Eliza . Furious with himself for losing his temper , he damns Mrs. Pearce , the coffee and then Eliza , and finally himself , for `` lavishing '' his knowledge and his `` regard and intimacy '' on a `` heartless guttersnipe '' , and retires in great dudgeon . Eliza roots around in the fireplace and retrieves the ring . Act Five Mrs. Higgins ' drawing room , the next morning . Higgins and Pickering , perturbed by the discovery that Eliza has walked out on them , call on Mrs. Higgins to phone the police . Higgins is particularly distracted , since Eliza had assumed the responsibility of maintaining his diary and keeping track of his possessions , which causes Mrs. Higgins to decry their calling the police as though Eliza were `` a lost umbrella '' . Doolittle is announced ; he emerges dressed in splendid wedding attire and is furious with Higgins , who after their previous encounter had been so taken with Doolittle 's unorthodox ethics that he had recommended him as the `` most original moralist in England '' to a rich American founding Moral Reform Societies ; the American had subsequently left Doolittle a pension worth three thousand pounds a year , as a consequence of which Doolittle feels intimidated into joining the middle class and marrying his missus . Mrs. Higgins observes that this at least settles the problem of who shall provide for Eliza , to which Higgins objects – after all , he paid Doolittle five pounds for her . Mrs. Higgins informs her son that Eliza is upstairs , and explains the circumstances of her arrival , alluding to how marginalised and overlooked Eliza felt the previous night . Higgins is unable to appreciate this , and sulks when told that he must behave if Eliza is to join them . Doolittle is asked to wait outside . Eliza enters , at ease and self-possessed . Higgins blusters but Eliza is n't shaken and speaks exclusively to Pickering . Throwing Higgins ' previous insults back at him ( `` Oh , I 'm only a squashed cabbage leaf '' ) , Eliza remarks that it was only by Pickering 's example that she learned to be a lady , which renders Higgins speechless . Eliza goes on to say that she has completely left behind the flower girl she was , and that she could n't utter any of her old sounds if she tried – at which point Doolittle emerges from the balcony , causing Eliza to relapse totally into her gutter speech . Higgins is jubilant , jumping up and crowing over her . Doolittle explains his situation and asks if Eliza will come with him to his wedding . Pickering and Mrs. Higgins also agree to go , and leave with Doolittle and Eliza to follow . The scene ends with another confrontation between Higgins and Eliza . Higgins asks if Eliza is satisfied with the revenge she has brought thus far and if she will now come back , but she refuses . Higgins defends himself from Eliza 's earlier accusation by arguing that he treats everyone the same , so she should n't feel singled out . Eliza replies that she just wants a little kindness , and that since he will never stop to show her this , she will not come back , but will marry Freddy . Higgins scolds her for such low ambitions : he has made her `` a consort for a king . '' When she threatens to teach phonetics and offer herself as an assistant to Nepomuck , Higgins again loses his temper and promises to wring her neck if she does so . Eliza realises that this last threat strikes Higgins at the very core and that it gives her power over him ; Higgins , for his part , is delighted to see a spark of fight in Eliza rather than her erstwhile fretting and worrying . He remarks `` I like you like this '' , and calls her a `` pillar of strength '' . Mrs. Higgins returns and she and Eliza depart for the wedding . As they leave , Higgins incorrigibly gives Eliza a number of errands to run , as though their recent conversation had not taken place . Eliza disdainfully explains why they are unnecessary and wonders what Higgins is going to do without her ( in another version , Eliza disdainfully tells him to do the errands himself ; Mrs. Higgins says that she 'll get the items , but Higgins cheerfully tells her that Eliza will do it after all ) . Higgins laughs to himself at the idea of Eliza marrying Freddy as the play ends . Ending Pygmalion was the most broadly appealing of all Shaw 's plays . But popular audiences , looking for pleasant entertainment with big stars in a West End venue , wanted a `` happy ending '' for the characters they liked so well , as did some critics . During the 1914 run , to Shaw 's exasperation but not to his surprise , Tree sought to sweeten Shaw 's ending to please himself and his record houses . `` From the Point of View of A Playwright , '' by Bernard Shaw , collected in Herbert Beerbohm Tree , Some Memories of Him and His Art , Collected by Max Beerbohm ( 1919 ) . London : Hutchinson . [ https : //archive.org/details/herbertbeerbohmt00beer Versions at Text Archive ] [ https : //archive.org/about/about.php Internet Archive ] Shaw returned for the 100th performance and watched Higgins , standing at the window , toss a bouquet down to Eliza . `` My ending makes money ; you ought to be grateful , '' protested Tree , to which Shaw replied `` Your ending is damnable ; you ought to be shot . '' Shaw remained sufficiently irritated to add a postscript essay , `` 'What Happened Afterwards , '' to the 1916 print edition for inclusion with subsequent editions , in which he explained precisely why it was impossible for the story to end with Higgins and Eliza getting married . He continued to protect what he saw as the play 's and Eliza 's integrity by protecting the last scene . For at least some performances during the 1920 revival , Shaw adjusted the ending in a way that underscored the Shavian message . In an undated note to Mrs. Campbell he wrote , When Eliza emancipates herself – when Galatea comes to life – she must not relapse . She must retain her pride and triumph to the end . When Higgins takes your arm on 'consort battleship ' you must instantly throw him off with implacable pride ; and this is the note until the final 'Buy them yourself . ' He will go out on the balcony to watch your departure ; come back triumphantly into the room ; exclaim 'Galatea ! ' ( meaning that the statue has come to life at last ) ; and – curtain . Thus he gets the last word ; and you get it too . ( This ending , however , is not included in any print version of the play . ) Shaw fought against a Higgins-Eliza happy-end pairing as late as 1938 . He sent the 1938 film version 's producer , Gabriel Pascal , a concluding sequence which he felt offered a fair compromise : a tender farewell scene between Higgins and Eliza , followed by one showing Freddy and Eliza happy in their greengrocery-flower shop . Only at the sneak preview did he learn that Pascal had finessed the question of Eliza 's future with a slightly ambiguous final scene in which Eliza returns to the house of a sadly musing Higgins and self-mockingly quotes her previous self announcing `` I washed my face and hands before I come , I did '' . Different versions Different printed versions of the play omit or add certain lines . The Project Gutenberg version published online , for instance , omits Higgins ' famous declaration to Eliza , `` Yes , you squashed cabbage-leaf , you disgrace to the noble architecture of these columns , you incarnate insult to the English language ! I could pass you off as the Queen of Sheba ! '' – a line so famous that it is now retained in nearly all productions of the play , including the 1938 film version of Pygmalion as well as in the stage and film versions of My Fair Lady . The co-director of the 1938 film , Anthony Asquith , had seen Mrs. Campbell in the 1920 revival of Pygmalion and noticed that she spoke the line , `` It 's my belief as how they done the old woman in . '' He knew `` as how '' was not in Shaw 's text , but he felt it added color and rhythm to Eliza 's speech , and liked to think that Mrs. Campbell had ad libbed it herself . Eighteen years later he added it to Wendy Hiller 's line in the film . In the original play Eliza 's test is met at an ambassador 's garden party , offstage . For the 1938 film Shaw and co-writers replaced that exposition with a scene at an embassy ball ; Nepommuck , the blackmailing translator spoken about in the play , is finally seen , but his name is updated to Aristid Karpathy – named so by Gabriel Pascal , the film 's Hungarian producer , who also made sure that Karpathy mistakes Eliza for a Hungarian princess . In My Fair Lady he became Zoltan Karpathy . ( The change of name was likely to avoid offending the sensibilities of Roman Catholics , as St. John Nepommuck was , ironically , a Catholic martyr who refused to divulge the secrets of the confessional . ) The 1938 film also introduced the famous pronunciation exercises `` the rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain '' and `` In Hertford , Hereford , and Hampshire , hurricanes hardly ever happen '' . Neither of these appear in the original play . Shaw 's screen version of the play as well as a new print version incorporating the new sequences he had added for the film script were published in 1941 . The scenes he had noted in `` Note for Technicians '' are added . Influence Pygmalion remains Shaw 's most popular play . The play 's widest audiences know it as the inspiration for the highly romanticized 1956 musical and 1964 film My Fair Lady . Pygmalion has transcended cultural and language barriers since its first production . The British Museum contains `` images of the Polish production ... ; a series of shots of a wonderfully Gallicised Higgins and Eliza in the first French production in Paris in 1923 ; a fascinating set for a Russian production of the 1930s . There was no country which did n't have its own 'take ' on the subjects of class division and social mobility , and it 's as enjoyable to view these subtle differences in settings and costumes as it is to imagine translators wracking their brains for their own equivalent of 'Not bloody likely ' . `` [ http : //www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/anne-summers-the-lesson-of-a-polish-production-of-pygmalion-676377.html `` The lesson of a Polish production of 'Pygmalion . ' '' ] The Independent on Sunday , 3 July 2001 . [ http : //www.independent.co.uk/ The Independent ] Joseph Weizenbaum named his artificial intelligence computer program ELIZA after the character Eliza Doolittle . Notable productions * 1945 : Raymond Massey and Gertrude Lawrence at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre * 1974 : Diana Rigg at the Albery Theatre * 1984 : Peter O'Toole and Jackie Smith-Wood at the Shaftesbury Theatre * 1997 : Roy Marsden , Carli Norris ( who replaced Emily Lloyd early in rehearsals ) and Michael Elphick , directed by Ray Cooney at the Albery Theatre * 2007 : Tim Pigott-Smith and Michelle Dockery . Director Peter Hall . Old Vic Theatre , London . * 2007 : Jefferson Mays and Claire Danes in a Broadway revival * 2011 : Rupert Everett ( later Alistair McGowan ) and Kara Tointon at the Garrick Theatre , London * 2011 : Risteárd Cooper and Charlie Murphy at the Abbey Theatre , Dublin Adaptations ; Stage * My Fair Lady ( 1956 ) , the Broadway musical by Lerner and Loewe ( based on the 1938 film ) , starring Rex Harrison as Higgins and Julie Andrews as Eliza * Pygmalion ( 2013 ) Australian stage play ; Film * Pygmalion ( 1935 ) , a German film adaptation by Shaw and others , starring Gustaf Gründgens as Higgins and Jenny Jugo as Eliza . Directed by Erich Engel . * Pygmalion ( 1937 ) , a Dutch film adaptation , starring Johan De Meester as Higgins and Lily Bouwmeester as Elisa . Directed by Ludwig Berger . * Pygmalion ( 1938 ) , a film adaptation by Shaw and others , starring Leslie Howard as Higgins and Wendy Hiller as Eliza * My Fair Lady ( 1964 ) , a film version of the musical starring Audrey Hepburn as Eliza and Rex Harrison as Higgins * The Opening of Misty Beethoven ( 1976 ) , an American hardcore pornography film take-off starring Constance Money and Jamie Gillis * She 's All That ( 1999 ) : a modern , teenage take on Pygmalion * The Duff ( 2015 ) : based on the novel of the same name by Kody Keplinger , which in turn is a modern teenage adaption of Pygmalion ; Television * A 1963 Hallmark Hall of Fame production of Pygmalion , starring Julie Harris as Eliza and James Donald as Higgins * Pygmalion ( 1973 ) , a BBC Play of the Month version starring James Villiers as Higgins and Lynn Redgrave as Eliza * Pygmalion ( 1981 ) , a film version starring Twiggy as Eliza and Robert Powell as Higgins * Pygmalion ( 1983 ) , an adaptation starring Peter O'Toole as Higgins and Margot Kidder as Eliza * The Makeover , a 2013 Hallmark Hall of Fame modern adaptation of Pygmalion , starring Julia Stiles and David Walton and directed by John Gray * Selfie , a 2014 television sitcom on ABC , starring Karen Gillan and John Cho . * Classic Alice , a webseries , aired a 10-episode adaptation on YouTube , starring Kate Hackett and Tony Noto in 2014 . * Totalmente Demais , a 2015 Brazilian telenovela , starring Juliana Paes , Marina Ruy Barbosa and Fábio Assunção . ; Non–English language * Ti Phulrani , an adaptation by Pu La Deshpande in Marathi . The plot follows Pygmalion closely but the language features are based on Marathi . * Santu Rangeeli , an adaptation by Madhu Rye and Pravin Joshi in Gujarati . * A 1996 television play in Polish , translated by Kazimierz Piotrowski , directed by Maciej Wojtyszko and performed at Teatr Telewizji ( Polish Television studio in Warsaw ) by some of the top Polish actors at the time . It has been aired on national TV numerous times since its TV premiere in 1998 . * A 2007 adaptation by Aka Morchiladze and Levan Tsuladze in Georgian performed at the Marjanishvili Theatre in Tbilisi * Man Pasand , a 1980 Hindi movie directed by Basu Chatterjee * Ogo Bodhu Shundori , a 1981 Bengali comedy film starring Uttam Kumar directed by Salil Dutta * Laiza Porko Sushi , a Papiamentu adaptation from writer and artist May Henriquez * Gönülcelen , a Turkish series starring Tuba Büyüküstün and Cansel Elcin * Δύο Ξένοι , a Greek series starring Nikos Sergianopoulos and Evelina Papoulia In popular culture ; Films * Hoi Polloi ( 1935 ) , a film adaptation by The Three Stooges . * Willy Russell 's 1980 stage comedy Educating Rita and the subsequent film adaptation are similar in plot to Pygmalion . [ http : //www.willyrussell.com/page2intro.html Willy Russell – Introduction ] * The First Night of Pygmalion ( 1972 ) , a play depicting the backstage tensions during the first British production . * Trading Places ( 1983 ) , a film starring Eddie Murphy and Dan Aykroyd . * Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen ( 2004 ) , a film starring Lindsay Lohan where she auditions for a modernized musical version of Pygmalion called `` Eliza Rocks '' . ; Television * Moonlightings second season episode `` My Fair David '' ( 1985 ) is inspired by the movie My Fair Lady , in a plot where Maddie Hayes makes a bet with David Addison consisting in making him softer and more serious with work . She is her Henry Higgins , while he is put in the Eliza Doolittle position , as the funny , clumsy , bad-mannered part of the relationship . * The Man from U.N.C.L.E . 's third season episode `` The Galatea Affair '' ( 1966 ) is a spoof of My Fair Lady . A crude barroom entertainer ( Joan Collins ) is taught to behave like a lady . Noel Harrison , son of Rex Harrison , star of the My Fair Lady film , is the guest star . * In The Beverly Hillbillies episode `` Pygmalion and Elly '' Sonny resumes his high-class courtship of Elly May by playing Julius Caesar and Pygmalion . * In The Andy Griffith Show season 4 episode `` My Fair Ernest T. Bass '' , Andy and Barney attempt to turn the mannerless Ernest T. Bass into a presentable gentleman . References to `` Pygmalion '' abound : Bass ' manners are tested at a social gathering , where he is assumed by the hostess to be a man from up north . Several characters comment `` if you wrote this into a play nobody 'd believe it . '' * In Doctor Who , the character of Leela is loosely based on Eliza Doolittle . She was a regular in the programme from 1977 to 1978 , and later reprised in audio dramas from 2003 to present . In Ghost Light , the character of Control is heavily based upon Eliza Doolittle , with Redvers Fenn-Cooper in a similar role as Henry Higgins ; the story also features reference to the `` Rain in Spain '' rhyme and the Doctor referring to companion Ace as `` Eliza '' . * In the Remington Steele season 2 episode `` My Fair Steele '' , Laura

qf_620--Pygmalion_(play).txt

Who taught Eliza Dolittle to be a lady ?

Katherine Lucy Bridget Burke ( born 13 June 1964 ) is an English actress , comedian , playwright and theatre director . She became known for her regular appearances in the sketch shows French and Saunders ( 1988–99 ) , Harry Enfield 's Television Programme ( 1990–92 ) and Harry Enfield and Chums ( 1994–98 ) , and for her recurring role as Magda in the BBC sitcom Absolutely Fabulous ( 1992–96 ) . For her role as Valerie in the film Nil by Mouth , she won Best Actress at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role . Burke made her film debut in Scrubbers in 1983 , and played Mary I in the 1998 film Elizabeth . Her other film appearances include Dancing at Lughnasa ( 1998 ) , This Year 's Love ( 1999 ) , Kevin & Perry Go Large ( 2000 ) , The Martins ( 2001 ) , and Anita and Me ( 2002 ) . From 1999 to 2001 , she starred as Linda La Hughes in the BBC sitcom Gim me Gim me Gim me , for which she received two of her five BAFTA TV Award nominations . Having spent most of the 2000s concentrating on her work as a director , she returned to film roles in the 2010s with Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy ( 2011 ) , Pan ( 2015 ) and Absolutely Fabulous : The Movie ( 2016 ) . Early life Burke was born at the Royal Free Hospital in Hampstead , London , and was brought up in Islington . She has two elder brothers , John and Barry . Her mother , Bridget ( Bridie ) , died of cancer when she was two , and she was brought up by neighbours ( the Galvin family ) for the following few years . Subsequently , she returned to live with her Irish father , Patrick ( Paddy ) , a builder who died of cancer in 1985 . Burke attended the Maria Fidelis RC Convent School . She then studied theatre at the Anna Scher Theatre . Career Burke 's first role was in the controversial 1983 film Scrubbers , directed by Swedish actress Mai Zetterling and featuring Pam St. Clement , Robbie Coltrane , Miriam Margolyes , Honey Bane , Debby Bishop and Eva Mottley . The film was set in a young offenders ' institute for girls and was seen as a female version of the film Scum . Burke appeared in a non-speaking role in a 1985 public information film about heroin addiction . Burke first became familiar to television audiences as a player of minor roles in sketches by better-known performers such as Harry Enfield , Dawn French and Jennifer Saunders . Early TV work included regular appearances on the chat show `` The Last Resort '' hosted by Jonathan Ross on UK Channel 4 in the mid-1980s , playing the characters 'Tina Bishop ' and 'Perry the Pre-pubescent Schoolboy '' . Bishop was a continually pregnant `` expert '' offering advice on household chores , always with disastrous results . Along with French and Saunders , she has contributed to two Comic Relief charity singles . She first appeared as a member of Bananarama parody band Lananeeneenoonoo in 1989 , and then as a member of Spice Girls ' look-alike band the Sugar Lumps in 1997 . In real life Burke is a big fan of Morrissey and appeared in the video for his 1989 single `` Ouija Board , Ouija Board '' and later in the 2002 Channel 4 documentary The Importance of Being Morrissey . She quickly became successful in her own right and although mainly associated with comedy , she has played several serious roles including that of Queen Mary I of England in Elizabeth . Burke was awarded the Royal Television Society Award for Best Actress , for her performance as the mute Martha in the 1993 BBC TV series Mr Rowe 's Virgins . Burke won the Best Actress award at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival for her role in the gritty drama Nil by Mouth . Burke was so convinced she would not win that she made no plans to attend the ceremony ; when told shortly beforehand she had won , she found her passport was out of date . The film also earned her a BAFTA nomination for Best Actress in a Leading Role . Since then she has appeared as Perry in Kevin & Perry Go Large , and as Linda La Hughes in Gim me Gim me Gim me ( which she developed with wrilter Jonathan Harvey ) where she was nominated for 3 British Comedy Awards ( winning one ) , 2 BAFTA TV Awards and a National Television Award for her performance . In 2000 , she appeared in the cult film Love Honour and Obey with Ray Burdis . In 2003 , she was listed in The Observer as one of the 50 funniest acts in British comedy . Beginning in 2001 , she refrained from acting and threw herself into theatre directing ; something she considers to be one of her true passions . She said in an interview with Dawn French in Dawn French 's Girls Who do Comedy that she no longer felt the same creative energy associated with acting that she used to ( she described it as a `` feeling in my belly '' ) and that this was the reason she had stopped acting . However , she has done some voiceover work in the past few years , including adverts for Ski yoghurt ( in the UK ) as well as Flushed Away ( 2006 ) . She also appeared in the 2007 Christmas Special of The Catherine Tate Show as Nan 's daughter . In early 1990 she wrote and directed her first play , Mr Thomas , at the Old Red Lion Theatre . Set in 1950s London it starred James Clyde , Anita Graham , Jamie Oliver , Ian Jentle , Oliver Smith and Ray Winstone . It was subsequently filmed and shown on Channel 4 the next year . In 2007 , Burke contracted Clostridium difficile while in hospital for an operation , resulting in her having to pass directing duties on Dying for It at the Almeida Theatre ( which starred Charlie Condou and Sophie Stanton who she worked with on Gim me Gim me Gim me ) . In 2009 , Burke made her television directorial debut with the BBC Three sketch show series Horne & Corden , starring Mathew Horne and James Corden . In 2010 , Burke completed a short autobiographical film , `` Better Than Christmas '' , for Little Crackers , a collection of comic shorts . Burke plays a nun . On 19 January 2012 , it was announced that Burke 's short for Little Crackers would be turned into a four-part series , `` Walking and Talking '' , written by Burke . Burke appeared as a nun in each of the episodes . The series aired in the summer of 2012 on Sky Atlantic . In 2011 , Burke played Connie Sachs in the film adaptation of the novel Tinker , Tailor , Soldier , Spy . She was long-listed for a BAFTA nomination for her performance as Supporting Actress in 2012 . Burke appeared in the 2015 Peter Pan prequel film , Pan , as Mother Barnabas . In November 2015 Burke presented the BBC topical news panel show Have I Got News for You . Filmography Theatre * Lilli in Amongst Barbarians by Michael Wall at the Royal Exchange , Manchester ( 1989 ) * It 's a Great Big Shame ! by Mike Leigh ( Theatre Royal Stratford East , 1993 ) As director * Out in the Open by Jonathan Harvey at the Hampstead Theatre . * Kosher Harry ( 2002 ) by Nick Grosso at the Royal Court Theatre . * Born Bad ( 2003 ) by Debbie Tucker Green at the Hampstead Theatre . * Love Me Tonight ( 2004 ) by Nick Stafford at the Hampstead Theatre . * Blue/Orange ( 2005 ) by Joe Penhall at the Cambridge Arts Theatre . * The God of Hell by Sam Shepard at the Donmar Warehouse . Awards

qz_860--Kathy_Burke.txt

What is the name of Kevin the teenager's friend played by Kathy Burke in a series of sketches with Harry Enfield?

Dan Dare is a British science fiction comic hero , created by illustrator Frank Hampson who also wrote the first stories . Dare appeared in the Eagle comic story Dan Dare , Pilot of the Future from 1950 to 1967 ( and subsequently in reprints ) , and dramatised seven times a week on Radio Luxembourg ( 1951–1956 ) . The stories were set in the late 1990s , but the dialogue and manner of the characters is reminiscent of British war films of the 1950s . Dan Dare has been described as `` Biggles in Space '' and as the British equivalent of Buck Rogers . Dan Dare was distinguished by its long , complex storylines , snappy dialogue and meticulously illustrated comic-strip artwork by Hampson and other artists , including Harold Johns , Don Harley , Bruce Cornwell , Greta Tomlinson , Frank Bellamy and Keith Watson . Dan Dare returned in new strips in 2000 AD in 1977 until 1979 and in the relaunched Eagle in 1982 until 1994 . The most recent mainstream story was a Dan Dare mini-series published by Virgin Comics in 2007 and 2008 . It was written by Garth Ennis and illustrated by Gary Erskine and is a completely new and somewhat darker interpretation of Dan Dare . Since October 2003 , however , Dare 's adventures have also continued in Spaceship Away , a specialist magazine created by Rod Barzilay by agreement with the Dan Dare Corporation . Published three times a year , its mission statement is to continue the original Dare 's adventures where the original Eagle left off , in a style as close to that of the classic strip as possible . To that end , Barzilay originally hired former Eagle artist Keith Watson , and following Watson 's death Don Harley , both of whom had drawn Dare in the 1960s , to work on the strips which are written very much in the style of the fifties stories . Despite a fairly small circulation ( it is available only via mail order , through its own Web site or in a select few comic shops ) , Spaceship Away continues to appear . Publication history Eagle Dan Dare appeared on the cover of the first issue of the weekly comic strip magazine , Eagle , on 14 April 1950 . There were two large colour pages of his story per issue . The artwork was of a high quality , the product of artists in a studio called the Old Bakehouse in Churchtown , Southport , Lancashire . The Eagle 's founder , the Rev John Marcus Harston Morris , was vicar of the Southport church of St James at the time . It had scale models of spaceships , and models in costume as reference for the artists . Occasionally , Eagle incorporated `` centrefolds '' of the fictional spaceships , such as Dan 's ship the Anastasia , reminiscent of cutaway drawings of aircraft in aviation magazines or even Eagle itself . The storylines were long and complex , sometimes lasting more than a year . Later , artwork was produced at a studio in Hampson 's house in Epsom , Surrey , where his production line techniques were continued . Attention was paid to scientific plausibility , the promising young writer Arthur C. Clarke ( later a science fiction luminary ) acting as science and plot adviser to the first strip . The stories were set mostly on planets of the Solar System presumed to have extraterrestrial life and alien inhabitants , common in science fiction before space probes of the 1960s proved the most likely worlds were lifeless . The first story begins with Dan Dare as pilot of the first successful flight to Venus . Hampson 's working habits twice caused him to suffer serious breakdowns in health , leaving his assistants to continue the series . The first occurred after two episodes of `` Marooned on Mercury '' ( 1952 ) , which was taken over by Harold Johns , from scripts by Samaritans founder and clergyman Rev . Chad Varah , who had known Marcus Morris in Southport . Hampson returned to start the following story , `` Operation Saturn '' ( 1953 ) , but suffered a relapse after 20 weeks . Principal art was taken over by new chief assistant Don Harley , who completed the story and its successor , `` Prisoners of Space '' ( the only series to feature extensive work by an artist outside the studio , finishes being provided by Desmond Walduck . Hampson returned full-time in 1955 , starting `` The Man from Nowhere '' trilogy , which took Dan and his companions outside the Solar System for the first time . The quality of the strip and its popularity remained high throughout the 1950s . In the late fifties Eagles new owners objected to the cost of the studio and the complexity of the stories . The conflict caused Hampson to leave the strip in 1959 , in the middle of a long plot that saw Dan searching an alien planet for his long-lost father . Production fell to Frank Bellamy , whose modern three-dimensional style contrasted with Hampson 's , despite efforts to smooth the transition by alternating the two pages of the weekly strip between Bellamy and the team of Don Harley and Keith Watson , and freelance artist Bruce Cornwell . Characters Dan Dare was surrounded by a varying cast , initially : * Dan Dare ( full name Colonel Daniel McGregor Dare ) was chief pilot of the Interplanet Space Fleet . He was born in Manchester , England , in 1967 and educated at Rossall School . Although not a super-hero , he sometimes pulled off exceptional piloting and often proved extraordinarily lucky . He excelled at jujutsu , but he most often found non-violent solutions to predicaments . He was bound by a sense of honour , never lied , and would rather die than break his word . His lean-faced character was recognisable by the outer tips of his eyebrows , which were wavy . His uniform looked like a typical British Army type ( Frank Hampson used his own World War II army uniform as a model ) , though a lighter green . In place of British rank insignia it had coloured stripes and circles on the shoulderboards . His cap badge was a vertical , antique rocketship in a circle with one five-pointed star on either side . Initially , Dare had been intended to be portrayed as a chaplain . * Digby ( Albert Fitzwilliam Digby ) was Dan 's Wigan-born batman . Rotund and sometimes bumbling , he provided comic relief . He was fiercely loyal and the only character apart from Dan to appear in every story . His favourite recreation was sleeping and he was fond of traditional English food . His nearest relative was his Aunt Anastasia , after whom Dan named his spaceship . * Sir Hubert Guest , Controller of the Space Fleet , sent Dan on missions , and occasionally joined him . He was a veteran pilot , having been on the first mission to the Moon and led the first mission to Mars . He was based on Hampson 's father . * Professor Peabody ( Prof. Jocelyn Mabel Peabody ) , the only major female , was the brains behind many of the team 's most inventive plans . * Hank Hogan and Pierre Lafayette , stereotypically American and French , were two of the Fleet 's best pilots and an inseparable double-act . Pierre was primarily a pilot , Hank more a mechanic . * Sondar was a Treen , a reptilian inhabitant of northern Venus . Originally a servant of the Mekon , he reformed after Dan spared his life during a traumatic episode that also caused his first experience of strong emotion , which the Treens suppressed . He became governor of northern Venus when the planet was placed under UN rule at the end of the first story , but nevertheless joined Dan on later adventures . He was also a talented spacecraft designer , and designed Dan 's personal spaceship . * The Mekon , super-intelligent ruler of the Treens , was Dan 's archenemy . He escaped at the end of each story to return with an even more inventive scheme for the conquest of Earth . * Christopher 'Flamer ' Spry , freckle-faced student at 'Astral ' space academy , who accompanies Dan Dare on many later missions . Flamer was based on Hampson 's son , Peter Hampson . * Lex O'Malley , bearded Irish submarine commander , who accompanies Dan Dare on later missions . With the exception of Digby , all the supporting cast were dropped after 1961 , although Guest , O'Malley , Hogan and Sondar made occasional reappearances . In 1963 , Keith Watson and writer David Motton were allowed to introduce a new supporting cast , who remained with the series throughout the rest of its run . * Colonel Wilf Banger , handlebar moustache , pilot and designer , an impulsive and volatile character . Banger designed and built the Tempus Frangit . * Technician Nutter Cobb , red-haired , broken-nosed . Banger 's assistant , a Digby to his Dare . * Major Shillitoe Spence , balding , pencil moustache . A prim , fussy administrator . * Xel , first encountered in Operation Time Trap in 1963 . Xel is another enemy in the mould of the Mekon . Having stowed away with Dare at the end of his first appearance , in the next story Xel allies with the Mekon but the two fall out . Xel would make regular appearances through the 60s before being finally captured . Vehicles Spacecraft of various designs were presented as the product of inhabitants of various planets . The vehicle most identified with Dan was the winged Anastasia . Designed by Sondar , it employed both Venusian and Earth space drives . Later , an alien ship was adopted and renamed the Zyl-bat . There was also an experimental time-travelling ship called Tempus Frangit ( Latin : it breaks time or time breaks ) . There were land and air vehicles – in the first stories , cars conform to styling of the time , while some flying machines were based on the design of helicopters of the mid-twentieth century . Also of note was Lex O'Malley 's ship , the Poseidon , a versatile craft that could operate as a jetfoil as well as a submarine . London Transport used overhead monorails and helibuses in early stories . Ground transport cars were also drawn with gyroscopes and single wheels . Venusian vehicles were depicted as being technologically more advanced than those of Earth . South of the Flamebelt the Therons had applied their technology to peaceful agricultural purposes including dedicated agricultural land and flying machines . North of the Flamebelt the Treens perfected low friction/low energy consumption means of transport including vacuum tube transport ( Electrosenders ) for long distance travel . Spaceports There is evidence that the Spacefleet spaceport in Earth is west of Formby in Lancashire on a semicircle of land built into the Irish Sea by landfill . Spacesuits Spacefleet spacesuits had a corselet plate like on Siebe Gorman standard diving suits . Their suit had no life-support backpack ; the life-support gear was between two layers of the helmet . All or most Dan Dare comic pictures were drawn from models or posed humans . As a result , the Spacefleet spacesuits in space hang in folds like the boilersuit in which the models posed and show no sign of gas pressure . After the first Venus war , Spacefleet spacesuits had propulsor backpacks copied from a Treen or Theron design . Some other spacesuits such as Blasco 's have life-support backpacks . The 1960s In 1960 artwork was taken over by Frank Bellamy , Don Harley , Keith Watson , Gerald Palmer , with Bruce Cornwell , and the look changed , with the colourful , rounded rocket ships replaced by angular silver craft , and changes to the space suits and insignia . The changes were never wholeheartedly taken up , however , and the look was erratic from then on . In 1962 the strip was removed from the front to the inside of the comic , in black and white , and was drawn by Keith Watson . Over the remaining years the strip varied in format and quality , eventually returning to the front page in colour , until it ended in 1967 with Dan retiring to become Space Fleet controller . Strips from the 1950s were reprinted until 1969 , when Eagle merged with Lion . For a while the reprints continued in black and white in Lion . 2000 AD In 1977 , Dan Dare appeared again in the first issue of 2000 AD ( 26 February 1977 ) . The first instalment , scripted by Ken Armstrong and Pat Mills , had the character revived from suspended animation after two hundred years to find himself in a different world . The Mekon had also survived but otherwise the cast was different , as was the tone of the strip ( heavily influenced by the punk movement , as was much of 2000 AD ) and the personality of the title character . Written by Kelvin Gosnell and then Steve Moore , the strip was initially illustrated by Massimo Bellardinelli , whose Dare owed nothing to the original apart from the wavy eyebrows . After 23 issues in this format the strip took a break for a month and then returned in a revamped format with a more realistic style , written by Gerry Finley-Day and Jack Adrian ( Chris Lowder ) and illustrated by Dave Gibbons . Dare was now launched on a deep space mission , much in the style of Star Trek but with technology designs very much influenced by Star Wars . In a series of episodic adventures , Dare encountered various threats , including an extended multi-episode adventure uniting slave races in opposition to the `` Star Slayers '' – the oppressive race controlling that region . The overall mission had a surprisingly downbeat ending , leaving a space-suited Dare the only survivor , adrift in space on wreckage . The strip was rested for 14 issues , returning early in 1979 in 2000 ADs 100th issue . The amnesiac Dare is rescued from space by the Mekon and indoctrinated into the Mekon 's army before eventually recovering his memory . Now penned by Tom Tully but still drawn by Dave Gibbons , this re-imagining of Dare casts him almost as a superhero with a colourful tight-fitting uniform provided by the Mekon . Dare escapes to a planet that is home to an amphibian-like race , which claims he is their Chosen One . There he receives a semi-mystical glove that can shoot energy beams but is unable to prevent the Mekon from acquiring the mystical Crystal of Life . On his return to Earth , he and his Treen companion Sondar find themselves branded traitors and found guilty of helping the Mekon to steal the Crystal . This story arc concluded with the pair escaping the Earth authorities and going on the run to try to clear their names by tracking down the Mekon and recovering the Crystal , establishing the format for the next story arc . Despite promises that Dare and Sondar would be back , the 2000 AD Dan Dare strip `` Attack on Eternium '' ended here in prog 126 ( 18 August 1979 ) . In 1997 , to celebrate their 20th anniversary , 2000 AD published two issues with additional free comics , the first a reprint of the first issue of 2000 AD , which starred Dan Dare . The second free comic was a speculative issue called 3000 AD which contained strips partially based on the first issue of 2000 AD . One strip was entitled `` The Return of Dan Dare '' , which also featured the return of the Mekon . The new Eagle In 1982 Eagle was re-launched , with Dan Dare again its flagship strip . The new character was the great-great-great-grandson of the original hero—the only surviving character from the original strip being the Mekon . The initial artist was Gerry Embleton , who drew Dan to resemble the original exactly , but he was quickly replaced by Ian Kennedy , who gave the hero a younger look and blond hair . The opening Dan Dare story was an epic , lasting 18 months , written by Pat Mills and John Wagner . It opened with a flashback to the unseen final defeat of the Mekon by the original Dan , after which he was sealed inside an artificial asteroid and exiled into space . Centuries later he was accidentally freed and returned to conquer Earth . A few years later the descendant of his sworn enemy returned from space to find Earth under Treen rule and set out to free the planet . His new cast included Lt Helen Scott , leader of the Earth Resistance , and Valdon , a renegade Treen similar to the earlier Sondar . One controversial aspect of the strip was a lengthy flashback which retconned the original Dan to be a veteran of the Second World War and to have travelled through time to the era in which his adventures in the original Eagle took place—an attempt to explain why a hero in the age of space travel had a 1950s outlook on life . After this initial storyline other writers were used and different supporting characters came and went , including Professor Pinkerton , a female scientist similar to Professor Peabody , and a new Digby ( again , a descendant of the original ) . The Mekon was generally the foe in alternate stories . In 1987 the strip became more like a space opera , with increasing violence . Now drawn by John Gillatt , Dan took on a tough-guy look . He led space commandos and packed a hi-tech gun reminiscent of that carried by Judge Dredd . The original strip , featuring the characters of the 1950s Eagle , was revived in 1989 , with artist Keith Watson providing the artwork for the initial run of stories . Watson had been part of the Dan Dare team from 1958 to 1960 and was sole artist on Dan Dare from 1962 to 1967 . The new Eagle ended in 1994 . Revolver In 1990 , a strip entitled Dare , written by Grant Morrison and drawn by Rian Hughes , was serialised in Revolver . It presented bleak and cynical characters and was a not-too-subtle satire of 1980s British politics . Spacefleet had been privatised , the Treens were subjected to racist abuse in urban ghettos , Digby was unemployed , Professor Peabody committed suicide , and Dare 's mentor Sir Hubert Guest betrayed Dare to the Mekon and his quisling British Prime Minister , Gloria Monday ( whose appearance and demeanour appear modelled on Margaret Thatcher . ) Ultimately , Dare destroys London , the Mekon and himself through a smuggled nuclear weapon . The Planet In 1996 , The Planet published its first and only issue . Inside was a new and unfinished Dan Dare story , `` Remembrance '' , drawn by Sydney Jordan featuring a slightly older Dare and apparently set some years after the original Eagle strips . Virgin Comics In 2007–2008 Virgin Comics published a 7 issue Dan Dare mini-series written by Garth Ennis , with art by Gary Erskine . Virgin 's founder and chairman Richard Branson is a fan of the character . The series is set several years after the original strips . Space Fleet has collapsed along with the UN due to nuclear war between China and America ; Britain survived due to defensive shields made by Professor Peabody , and has become a world power again as a result , with the Royal Navy taking Space Fleet 's role . Peabody is the Home Secretary to a Prime Minister modelled on Tony Blair , who has sold Earth 's defence out to The Mekon out of fear of overwhelming odds . Dare , assisted by Digby ( who sacrifices himself in battle ) leads a spirited defence of both Earth and his honourable principles . Spaceship Away Launched in October 2003 , [ http : //www.spaceshipaway.org.uk Spaceship Away ] magazine was originally created in order to get `` The Phoenix Mission '' ( a 1950s style story by Rod Barzilay with art by Keith Watson and Don Harley ) into publication . Response was good enough , though , to warrant the magazine 's continuation following that strip 's conclusion , initially with `` Green Nemesis '' ( again by Barzilay and Don Harley , with later chapters drawn by David Pugh and Tim Booth . Other stories have since followed . In other media Radio Radio Luxembourg serial The New Adventures of Dan Dare , Pilot of the Future aired five times a week on Radio Luxembourg for five years from 2 July 1951 . Dan 's voice was Noel Johnson , who also played Dick Barton on BBC radio . Each episode started with the command `` Spaceships Away ! `` . The 15-minute show was sponsored by Horlicks and on 3 March 1952 , the 106th episode of Dan Dare was heard that Monday night with different episodes on Tuesday , Wednesday , Thursday and Friday at 7:15pm . Although the dramatisation was recorded on wax discs for broadcast , the original discs were lost or destroyed . Until recently no copies had ever been recovered but in late 2011 two episodes were found as part of the Lost Shows Appeal , orchestrated by missing episode hunter Charles Norton . The recovered shows were `` Under Sentence of Death '' ( episode 76 ) , aired 21 January 1952 , and The Lost World On Mars ( episode 53 ) , aired 19 March 1953 . Radio Madrid serial `` Diego Valor '' Spanish adaptation of Dan Dare from 1954 BBC adaptation From 19 April – 10 May 1990 , BBC Radio 4 aired a four-part adaptation of Voyage to Venus , dramatised by Nick McCarty and directed by Glyn Dearman . The cast included Mick Ford ( Col. Dan Dare ) , Donald Gee ( Digby ) , Richard Pearce ( the Mekon ) , Terence Alexander ( Sir Hubert Guest ) , Zelah Clarke ( Prof. Peabody ) , William Roberts ( Hank Hogan ) , Sean Barrett ( Pierre Lafayette ) , John Moffatt ( Kalon ) , Shirley Dixon ( Mrs. Digby ) , Ben Onwukwe ( Volstar ) , David Goudge ( Sondar ) , Margaret Courtenay ( Aunt Anastasia ) , Brian Miller ( Urtag ) , David King ( Dapon ) . B7 Media adaptation In September 2015 , B7 Media announced it had secured the rights to produce a new Dan Dare audio drama series from the Dan Dare Corporation . The lead writers were announced as Richard Kurti and Bev Doyle , with Andrew Mark Sewell as director and Simon Moorhead as producer . John Freeman will serve as creative consultant . Television In 2002 , Dan Dare : Pilot of the Future became a computer-generated TV series produced first by Netter Digital then by Foundation Imaging , running to twenty-six 22-minute episodes . The series drew on several comic book incarnations . It started on Nicktoons UK on 5 November 2005 at 6.30 pm . Two abortive attempts had been made to make a live-action series , in 1981 and 1991 . James Fox and Robert Bathurst were reportedly lined up to play Dare respectively . In 1991 a short pilot starring Bathurst as Dare , and Geoffrey Hughes as Digby was made . Parts of it were broadcast in an ITV documentary , Future Perfect . Film In 2010 , Variety announced that Warner Bros. will produce a Dan Dare movie starring Sam Worthington in the title role . Computer games During the 1980s Dan Dare starred in three computer games for the Commodore 64/128 , ZX Spectrum , Amstrad CPC and Atari computers . The first was a different game on each system ; the second and third were shoot'em-ups . All three were based on the 1950s strip rather than the contemporary comics . * Dan Dare : Pilot of the Future ( 1986 , Electronic Arts , re-released by Ricochet ) * Dan Dare II : The Mekon 's Revenge ( 1988 , Virgin Games , re-released by Ricochet ) * Dan Dare III : The Escape ( 1990 , Virgin Games ) Music Pink Floyd founder Syd Barrett wrote Dan Dare into his song `` Astronomy Domine '' , from the band 's debut album The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , with the line `` Stairway scare , Dan Dare , who 's there ? '' David Bowie 's song `` D.J . '' contains the somewhat obscure lyric : `` I feel like Dan Dare lies down '' Sir Elton John recorded `` Dan Dare ( Pilot Of The Future ) '' for his 1975 album Rock Of The Westies . British punk rock group The Mekons included a song `` Dan Dare '' on their album The Quality of Mercy is not Strnen . The album Below the Waste by the Art of Noise opened with the song `` Dan Dare '' Characters inspired by Dan Dare Characters inspired by or based on Dan Dare have appeared throughout British popular culture . One example is Wing Commander Leyton in British Summertime by Paul Cornell , which juxtaposes the utopian future portrayed in the original comics with the Britain of today . In the 1980s , Private Eye published Dan Dire , Pilot of Future ? . Dire was based on politician Neil Kinnock , the question being whether he 'd ever become Prime Minister . Dire 's enemy was the Maggon , a combination of the Mekon and Margaret Thatcher . A porcine pastiche , Ham Dare : Pig of the Future , written by Lew Stringer and with art by Malcolm Douglas , appeared in Oink ! comic . Marvel Comics created a Dan Dare-esque character in their Captain Britain line in the 1980s . The character was Roy Risk , one of the British heroes killed by The Fury . In Jonathan Hickman 's `` Avengers '' series , the character Smasher 's secret identity is astronomer Isabel 'Izzy ' Dare whose dying elderly grandfather alludes to Izzy as inheriting a destiny from him . He hand her a business card that expresses a deep friendship with Captain America . The card reveals the grandfather 's name as Dan . In the trade hardcover for Avengers , Izzy 's last name is changed to Kane , meaning her grandfather is Marvel 's Captain Terror . In his Afterword to Ministry of Space , Warren Ellis lists Dan Dare as one of the inspirations for the story , in which Britain forges an ambitious space programme in the decades following World War II . Sir John Dashwood , the central character of Ministry of Space , is a cynical version of Dan Dare himself . Captain Jack Harkness , the Doctor Who and Torchwood character , has several similarities to Dan Dare . The script for the episode `` The Empty Child '' in which Captain Jack makes his first appearance describes him as having `` the jawline of Dan Dare , the smile of a bastard '' . Collected editions Most of the 1950s and 1960s strips were reprinted by Hawk Books between 1987 and 1995 . # Pilot of the Future # The Red Moon Mystery and Marooned on Mercury # Operation Saturn # Prisoners of Space # The Man from Nowhere # Rogue Planet # Reign of the Robots and The Ship That Lived # The Phantom Fleet # Terra Nova trilogy # Project Nimbus # Solid Space Mystery # The Final Volume Stories left out were : * Operation Earthsavers ( v13 , 10–23 ) * The Evil One ( v13 , 24–32 ) * Operation Fireball ( v13 , 33–42 ) * The Web of Fear ( v13 , 43–52 ) * Operation Dark Star

sfq_3253--Dan_Dare.txt

From which planet did Dan Dare's enemy The Mekon come?

Opera ( ; English plural : operas ; Italian plural : opere ) is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text ( libretto ) and musical score , usually in a theatrical setting . In traditional opera , singers do two types of singing : recitative , a speech-inflected style and arias , a more melodic style . Opera incorporates many of the elements of spoken theatre , such as acting , scenery , and costumes and sometimes includes dance . The performance is typically given in an opera house , accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble , which since the early 19th century has been led by a conductor . Opera is part of the Western classical music tradition . It started in Italy at the end of the 16th century ( with Jacopo Peri 's lost Dafne , produced in Florence in 1598 ) and soon spread through the rest of Europe : Schütz in Germany , Lully in France , and Purcell in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century . In the 18th century , Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe ( except France ) , attracting foreign composers such as Handel . Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera , until Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his `` reform '' operas in the 1760s . In the 2000s , the most renowned figure of late 18th-century opera is Mozart , who began with opera seria but is most famous for his Italian comic operas , especially The Marriage of Figaro ( Le Nozze Di Figaro ) , Don Giovanni , and Così fan tutte , as well as The Magic Flute ( Die Zauberflöte ) , a landmark in the German tradition . The first third of the 19th century saw the high point of the bel canto style , with Rossini , Donizetti and Bellini all creating works that are still performed in the 2000s It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer . The mid-to-late 19th century was a `` golden age '' of opera , led and dominated by Wagner in Germany and Verdi in Italy . The popularity of opera continued through the verismo era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Puccini and Strauss in the early 20th century . During the 19th century , parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe , particularly in Russia and Bohemia . The 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles , such as atonality and serialism ( Schoenberg and Berg ) , Neoclassicism ( Stravinsky ) , and Minimalism ( Philip Glass and John Adams ) . With the rise of recording technology , singers such as Enrico Caruso and Maria Callas became known to much wider audiences that went beyond the circle of opera fans . Since the invention of radio and television , operas were also performed on ( and written for ) these mediums . Beginning in 2006 , a number of major opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas around the world . In 2009 , an opera company offered an online download of a complete performance . Operatic terminology The words of an opera are known as the libretto ( literally `` small book '' ) . Some composers , notably Richard Wagner , have written their own libretti ; others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists , e.g . Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte . Traditional opera , often referred to as `` number opera '' , consists of two modes of singing : recitative , the plot-driving passages sung in a style designed to imitate and emphasize the inflections of speech , and aria ( an `` air '' or formal song ) in which the characters express their emotions in a more structured melodic style . Vocal duets , trios and other ensembles often occur , and choruses are used to comment on the action . In some forms of opera , such as singspiel , opéra comique , operetta , and semi-opera , the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue . Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of , or instead of , recitative , are also referred to as arioso . The terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below . During both the Baroque and Classical periods , recitative could appear in two basic forms , each of which was accompanied by a different instrumental ensemble : secco ( dry ) recitative , sung with a free rhythm dictated by the accent of the words , accompanied only by basso continuo , which was usually a harpsichord and a cello ; or accompagnato ( also known as strumentato ) in which the orchestra provided accompaniment . Over the 18th century , arias were increasingly accompanied by the orchestra . By the 19th century , accompagnato had gained the upper hand , the orchestra played a much bigger role , and Richard Wagner revolutionised opera by abolishing almost all distinction between aria and recitative in his quest for what he termed `` endless melody '' . Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagner 's example , though some , such as Stravinsky in his The Rake 's Progress have bucked the trend . The changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below . History Origins The Italian word opera means `` work '' , both in the sense of the labour done and the result produced . The Italian word derives from the Latin opera , a singular noun meaning `` work '' and also the plural of the noun opus . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the Italian word was first used in the sense `` composition in which poetry , dance , and music are combined '' in 1639 ; the first recorded English usage in this sense dates to 1648 . Dafne by Jacopo Peri was the earliest composition considered opera , as understood today . It was written around 1597 , largely under the inspiration of an elite circle of literate Florentine humanists who gathered as the `` Camerata de ' Bardi '' . Significantly , Dafne was an attempt to revive the classical Greek drama , part of the wider revival of antiquity characteristic of the Renaissance . The members of the Camerata considered that the `` chorus '' parts of Greek dramas were originally sung , and possibly even the entire text of all roles ; opera was thus conceived as a way of `` restoring '' this situation . Dafne is unfortunately lost . A later work by Peri , Euridice , dating from 1600 , is the first opera score to have survived to the present day . The honour of being the first opera still to be regularly performed , however , goes to Claudio Monteverdi 's L'Orfeo , composed for the court of Mantua in 1607 . The Mantua court of the Gonzagas , employers of Monteverdi , played a significant role in the origin of opera employing not only court singers of the concerto delle donne ( till 1598 ) , but also one of the first actual `` opera singers '' ; Madama Europa . Italian opera The Baroque era Opera did not remain confined to court audiences for long . In 1637 , the idea of a `` season '' ( Carnival ) of publicly attended operas supported by ticket sales emerged in Venice . Monteverdi had moved to the city from Mantua and composed his last operas , Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria and L'incoronazione di Poppea , for the Venetian theatre in the 1640s . His most important follower Francesco Cavalli helped spread opera throughout Italy . In these early Baroque operas , broad comedy was blended with tragic elements in a mix that jarred some educated sensibilities , sparking the first of opera 's many reform movements , sponsored by the Arcadian Academy , which came to be associated with the poet Metastasio , whose libretti helped crystallize the genre of opera seria , which became the leading form of Italian opera until the end of the 18th century . Once the Metastasian ideal had been firmly established , comedy in Baroque-era opera was reserved for what came to be called opera buffa . Before such elements were forced out of opera seria , many libretti had featured a separately unfolding comic plot as sort of an `` opera-within-an-opera . '' One reason for this was an attempt to attract members of the growing merchant class , newly wealthy , but still not as cultured as the nobility , to the public opera houses . These separate plots were almost immediately resurrected in a separately developing tradition that partly derived from the commedia dell'arte , a long-flourishing improvisatory stage tradition of Italy . Just as intermedi had once been performed in-between the acts of stage plays , operas in the new comic genre of `` intermezzi '' , which developed largely in Naples in the 1710s and '20s , were initially staged during the intermissions of opera seria . They became so popular , however , that they were soon being offered as separate productions . Opera seria was elevated in tone and highly stylised in form , usually consisting of secco recitative interspersed with long da capo arias . These afforded great opportunity for virtuosic singing and during the golden age of opera seria the singer really became the star . The role of the hero was usually written for the high-pitched male castrato voice , which was produced by castration of the singer before puberty , which prevented a boy 's larynx from being transformed at puberty . Castrati such as Farinelli and Senesino , as well as female sopranos such as Faustina Bordoni , became in great demand throughout Europe as opera seria ruled the stage in every country except France . Farinelli was one of the most famous singers of the 18th century . Italian opera set the Baroque standard . Italian libretti were the norm , even when a German composer like Handel found himself composing the likes of Rinaldo and Giulio Cesare for London audiences . Italian libretti remained dominant in the classical period as well , for example in the operas of Mozart , who wrote in Vienna near the century 's close . Leading Italian-born composers of opera seria include Alessandro Scarlatti , Vivaldi and Porpora . Reform : Gluck , the attack on the Metastasian ideal , and Mozart Opera seria had its weaknesses and critics . The taste for embellishment on behalf of the superbly trained singers , and the use of spectacle as a replacement for dramatic purity and unity drew attacks . Francesco Algarotti 's Essay on the Opera ( 1755 ) proved to be an inspiration for Christoph Willibald Gluck 's reforms . He advocated that opera seria had to return to basics and that all the various elements—music ( both instrumental and vocal ) , ballet , and staging—must be subservient to the overriding drama . In 1765 Melchior Grimm published `` '' , an influential article for the Encyclopédie on lyric and opera librettos . Several composers of the period , including Niccolò Jommelli and Tommaso Traetta , attempted to put these ideals into practice . The first to succeed however , was Gluck . Gluck strove to achieve a `` beautiful simplicity '' . This is evident in his first reform opera , Orfeo ed Euridice , where his non-virtuosic vocal melodies are supported by simple harmonies and a richer orchestra presence throughout . Gluck 's reforms have had resonance throughout operatic history . Weber , Mozart , and Wagner , in particular , were influenced by his ideals . Mozart , in many ways Gluck 's successor , combined a superb sense of drama , harmony , melody , and counterpoint to write a series of comedies , notably Così fan tutte , The Marriage of Figaro , and Don Giovanni ( in collaboration with Lorenzo Da Ponte ) which remain among the most-loved , popular and well-known operas today . But Mozart 's contribution to opera seria was more mixed ; by his time it was dying away , and in spite of such fine works as Idomeneo and La clemenza di Tito , he would not succeed in bringing the art form back to life again . Bel canto , Verdi and verismo The bel canto opera movement flourished in the early 19th century and is exemplified by the operas of Rossini , Bellini , Donizetti , Pacini , Mercadante and many others . Literally `` beautiful singing '' , bel canto opera derives from the Italian stylistic singing school of the same name . Bel canto lines are typically florid and intricate , requiring supreme agility and pitch control . Examples of famous operas in the bel canto style include Rossini 's Il barbiere di Siviglia and La Cenerentola , as well as Donizetti 's Lucia di Lammermoor . Following the bel canto era , a more direct , forceful style was rapidly popularized by Giuseppe Verdi , beginning with his biblical opera Nabucco . This opera , and the ones that would follow in Verdi 's career , revolutionized Italian opera , changing it from merely a display of vocal fireworks , with Rossini 's and Donizetti 's works , to dramatic story-telling . Verdi 's operas resonated with the growing spirit of Italian nationalism in the post-Napoleonic era , and he quickly became an icon of the patriotic movement for a unified Italy . In the early 1850s , Verdi produced his three most popular operas : Rigoletto , Il trovatore and La traviata . The first of these , Rigoletto , proved the most daring and revolutionary . In it , Verdi blurs the distinction between the aria and recitative as it never before was , leading the opera to be `` an unending string of duets '' . La traviata was also novel . It tells the story of courtesan , and is often cited as one of the first `` realistic '' operas , because rather than featuring great kings and figures from literature , it focuses on the tragedies of ordinary life and society . After these , he continued to develop his style , composing perhaps the greatest French Grand Opera , Don Carlos , and ending his career with two Shakespeare-inspired works , Otello and Falstaff , which reveal how far Italian opera had grown in sophistication since the early 19th century . These final two works showed Verdi at his most masterfully orchestrated , and are both incredibly influential , and modern . In Falstaff , Verdi sets the preeminent standard for the form and style that would dominate opera throughout the twentieth century . Rather than long , suspended melodies , Falstaff contains many little motifs and mottos , that , rather than being expanded upon , are introduced and subsequently dropped , only to be brought up again later . These motifs never are expanded upon , and just as the audience expects a character to launch into a long melody , a new character speaks , introducing a new phrase . This fashion of opera directed opera from Verdi , onward , exercising tremendous influence on his successors Giacomo Puccini , Richard Strauss , and Benjamin Britten . After Verdi , the sentimental `` realistic '' melodrama of verismo appeared in Italy . This was a style introduced by Pietro Mascagni 's Cavalleria rusticana and Ruggero Leoncavallo 's Pagliacci that came virtually to dominate the world 's opera stages with such popular works as Giacomo Puccini 's La bohème , Tosca , and Madama Butterfly . Later Italian composers , such as Berio and Nono , have experimented with modernism . German-language opera The first German opera was Dafne , composed by Heinrich Schütz in 1627 , but the music score has not survived . Italian opera held a great sway over German-speaking countries until the late 18th century . Nevertheless , native forms would develop in spite of this influence . In 1644 , Sigmund Staden produced the first Singspiel , Seelewig , a popular form of German-language opera in which singing alternates with spoken dialogue . In the late 17th century and early 18th century , the Theater am Gänsemarkt in Hamburg presented German operas by Keiser , Telemann and Handel . Yet most of the major German composers of the time , including Handel himself , as well as Graun , Hasse and later Gluck , chose to write most of their operas in foreign languages , especially Italian . In contrast to Italian opera , which was generally composed for the aristocratic class , German opera was generally composed for the masses and tended to feature simple folk-like melodies , and it was not until the arrival of Mozart that German opera was able to match its Italian counterpart in musical sophistication . Mozart 's Singspiele , Die Entführung aus dem Serail ( 1782 ) and Die Zauberflöte ( 1791 ) were an important breakthrough in achieving international recognition for German opera . The tradition was developed in the 19th century by Beethoven with his Fidelio , inspired by the climate of the French Revolution . Carl Maria von Weber established German Romantic opera in opposition to the dominance of Italian bel canto . His Der Freischütz ( 1821 ) shows his genius for creating a supernatural atmosphere . Other opera composers of the time include Marschner , Schubert and Lortzing , but the most significant figure was undoubtedly Wagner . Wagner was one of the most revolutionary and controversial composers in musical history . Starting under the influence of Weber and Meyerbeer , he gradually evolved a new concept of opera as a Gesamtkunstwerk ( a `` complete work of art '' ) , a fusion of music , poetry and painting . He greatly increased the role and power of the orchestra , creating scores with a complex web of leitmotifs , recurring themes often associated with the characters and concepts of the drama , of which prototypes can be heard in his earlier operas such as Der fliegende Holländer , Tannhäuser and Lohengrin ; and he was prepared to violate accepted musical conventions , such as tonality , in his quest for greater expressivity . In his mature music dramas , Tristan und Isolde , Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg , Der Ring des Nibelungen and Parsifal , he abolished the distinction between aria and recitative in favour of a seamless flow of `` endless melody '' . Wagner also brought a new philosophical dimension to opera in his works , which were usually based on stories from Germanic or Arthurian legend . Finally , Wagner built his own opera house at Bayreuth with part of the patronage from Ludwig II of Bavaria , exclusively dedicated to performing his own works in the style he wanted . Opera would never be the same after Wagner and for many composers his legacy proved a heavy burden . On the other hand , Richard Strauss accepted Wagnerian ideas but took them in wholly new directions , along with incorporating the new form introduced by Verdi . He first won fame with the scandalous Salome and the dark tragedy Elektra , in which tonality was pushed to the limits . Then Strauss changed tack in his greatest success , Der Rosenkavalier , where Mozart and Viennese waltzes became as important an influence as Wagner . Strauss continued to produce a highly varied body of operatic works , often with libretti by the poet Hugo von Hofmannsthal . Other composers who made individual contributions to German opera in the early 20th century include Alexander von Zemlinsky , Erich Korngold , Franz Schreker , Paul Hindemith , Kurt Weill and the Italian-born Ferruccio Busoni . The operatic innovations of Arnold Schoenberg and his successors are discussed in the section on modernism . During the late 19th century , the Austrian composer Johann Strauss II , an admirer of the French-language operettas composed by Jacques Offenbach , composed several German-language operettas , the most famous of which was Die Fledermaus , which is still regularly performed today . Nevertheless , rather than copying the style of Offenbach , the operettas of Strauss II had distinctly Viennese flavor to them , which have cemented the Strauss II 's place as one of the most renowned operetta composers of all time . French opera In rivalry with imported Italian opera productions , a separate French tradition was founded by the Italian Jean-Baptiste Lully at the court of King Louis XIV . Despite his foreign origin , Lully established an Academy of Music and monopolised French opera from 1672 . Starting with Cadmus et Hermione , Lully and his librettist Quinault created tragédie en musique , a form in which dance music and choral writing were particularly prominent . Lully 's operas also show a concern for expressive recitative which matched the contours of the French language . In the 18th century , Lully 's most important successor was Jean-Philippe Rameau , who composed five tragédies en musique as well as numerous works in other genres such as opéra-ballet , all notable for their rich orchestration and harmonic daring . Despite the popularity of Italian opera seria throughout much of Europe during the Baroque period , Italian opera never gained much of a foothold in France , where its own national operatic tradition was more popular instead . After Rameau 's death , the German Gluck was persuaded to produce six operas for the Parisian stage in the 1770s . They show the influence of Rameau , but simplified and with greater focus on the drama . At the same time , by the middle of the 18th century another genre was gaining popularity in France : opéra comique . This was the equivalent of the German singspiel , where arias alternated with spoken dialogue . Notable examples in this style were produced by Monsigny , Philidor and , above all , Grétry . During the Revolutionary period , composers such as Méhul and Cherubini , who were followers of Gluck , brought a new seriousness to the genre , which had never been wholly `` comic '' in any case . Another phenomenon of this period was the 'propaganda opera ' celebrating revolutionary successes , e.g . Gossec 's Le triomphe de la République ( 1793 ) . By the 1820s , Gluckian influence in France had given way to a taste for Italian bel canto , especially after the arrival of Rossini in Paris . Rossini 's Guillaume Tell helped found the new genre of Grand Opera , a form whose most famous exponent was another foreigner , Giacomo Meyerbeer . Meyerbeer 's works , such as Les Huguenots emphasised virtuoso singing and extraordinary stage effects . Lighter opéra comique also enjoyed tremendous success in the hands of Boïeldieu , Auber , Hérold and Adolphe Adam . In this climate , the operas of the French-born composer Hector Berlioz struggled to gain a hearing . Berlioz 's epic masterpiece Les Troyens , the culmination of the Gluckian tradition , was not given a full performance for almost a hundred years . In the second half of the 19th century , Jacques Offenbach created operetta with witty and cynical works such as Orphée aux enfers , as well as the opera Les Contes d'Hoffmann ; Charles Gounod scored a massive success with Faust ; and Bizet composed Carmen , which , once audiences learned to accept its blend of Romanticism and realism , became the most popular of all opéra comiques . Jules Massenet , Camille Saint-Saëns and Léo Delibes all composed works which are still part of the standard repertory , examples being Massenet 's Manon , Saint-Saëns ' Samson et Dalila and Delibes ' Lakmé . At the same time , the influence of Richard Wagner was felt as a challenge to the French tradition . Many French critics angrily rejected Wagner 's music dramas while many French composers closely imitated them with variable success . Perhaps the most interesting response came from Claude Debussy . As in Wagner 's works , the orchestra plays a leading role in Debussy 's unique opera Pelléas et Mélisande ( 1902 ) and there are no real arias , only recitative . But the drama is understated , enigmatic and completely unWagnerian . Other notable 20th-century names include Ravel , Dukas , Roussel and Milhaud . Francis Poulenc is one of the very few post-war composers of any nationality whose operas ( which include Dialogues des Carmélites ) have gained a foothold in the international repertory . Olivier Messiaen 's lengthy sacred drama Saint François d'Assise ( 1983 ) has also attracted widespread attention . English-language opera In England , opera 's antecedent was the 17th-century jig . This was an afterpiece which came at the end of a play . It was frequently libellous and scandalous and consisted in the main of dialogue set to music arranged from popular tunes . In this respect , jigs anticipate the ballad operas of the 18th century . At the same time , the French masque was gaining a firm hold at the English Court , with even more lavish splendour and highly realistic scenery than had been seen before . Inigo Jones became the quintessential designer of these productions , and this style was to dominate the English stage for three centuries . These masques contained songs and dances . In Ben Jonson 's Lovers Made Men ( 1617 ) , `` the whole masque was sung after the Italian manner , stilo recitativo '' . [ http : //www.webrarian.co.uk/ivanhoe/ivan01.html From Webrarian.com 's ] Ivanhoe site . The approach of the English Commonwealth closed theatres and halted any developments that may have led to the establishment of English opera . However , in 1656 , the dramatist Sir William Davenant produced The Siege of Rhodes . Since his theatre was not licensed to produce drama , he asked several of the leading composers ( Lawes , Cooke , Locke , Coleman and Hudson ) to set sections of it to music . This success was followed by The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru ( 1658 ) and The History of Sir Francis Drake ( 1659 ) . These pieces were encouraged by Oliver Cromwell because they were critical of Spain . With the English Restoration , foreign ( especially French ) musicians were welcomed back . In 1673 , Thomas Shadwell 's Psyche , patterned on the 1671 'comédie-ballet ' of the same name produced by Molière and Jean-Baptiste Lully . William Davenant produced The Tempest in the same year , which was the first musical adaption of a Shakespeare play ( composed by Locke and Johnson ) . About 1683 , John Blow composed Venus and Adonis , often thought of as the first true English-language opera . Blow 's immediate successor was the better known Henry Purcell . Despite the success of his masterwork Dido and Aeneas ( 1689 ) , in which the action is furthered by the use of Italian-style recitative , much of Purcell 's best work was not involved in the composing of typical opera , but instead he usually worked within the constraints of the semi-opera format , where isolated scenes and masques are contained within the structure of a spoken play , such as Shakespeare in Purcell 's The Fairy-Queen ( 1692 ) and Beaumont and Fletcher in The Prophetess ( 1690 ) and Bonduca ( 1696 ) . The main characters of the play tend not to be involved in the musical scenes , which means that Purcell was rarely able to develop his characters through song . Despite these hindrances , his aim ( and that of his collaborator John Dryden ) was to establish serious opera in England , but these hopes ended with Purcell 's early death at the age of 36 . Following Purcell , the popularity of opera in England dwindled for several decades . A revived interest in opera occurred in the 1730s which is largely attributed to Thomas Arne , both for his own compositions and for alerting Handel to the commercial possibilities of large-scale works in English . Arne was the first English composer to experiment with Italian-style all-sung comic opera , with his greatest success being Thomas and Sally in 1760 . His opera Artaxerxes ( 1762 ) was the first attempt to set a full-blown opera seria in English and was a huge success , holding the stage until the 1830s . Although Arne imitated many elements of Italian opera , he was perhaps the only English composer at that time who was able to move beyond the Italian influences and create his own unique and distinctly English voice . His modernized ballad opera , Love in a Village ( 1762 ) , began a vogue for pastiche opera that lasted well into

sfq_23994--Opera.txt

Who wrote the 1911 opera ‘Der Rosenkavalier’?

Around the World in Eighty Days ( ) is a classic adventure novel by the French writer Jules Verne , published in 1873 . In the story , Phileas Fogg of London and his newly employed French valet Passepartout attempt to circumnavigate the world in 80 days on a £20,000 wager ( ) set by his friends at the Reform Club . It is one of Verne 's most acclaimed works . Plot summary The story starts in London on Tuesday , October 1 , 1872 . Phileas Fogg is a rich British gentleman living in solitude . Despite his wealth , Fogg lives a modest life with habits carried out with mathematical precision . Very little can be said about his social life other than that he is a member of the Reform Club . Having dismissed his former valet , James Forster , for bringing him shaving water at 84 F instead of 86 F , Fogg hires a Frenchman by the name of Jean Passepartout as a replacement . At the Reform Club , Fogg gets involved in an argument over an article in The Daily Telegraph stating that with the opening of a new railway section in India , it is now possible to travel around the world in 80 days . He accepts a wager for £20,000 ( equal to about £ million today ) from his fellow club members , which he will receive if he makes it around the world in 80 days . Accompanied by Passepartout , he leaves London by train at 8:45 P.M. on Wednesday , October 2 , 1872 , and is due back at the Reform Club at the same time 80 days later , Saturday , December 21 , 1872 . Fogg and Passepartout reach Suez in time . While disembarking in Egypt , they are watched by a Scotland Yard detective named Fix , who has been dispatched from London in search of a bank robber . Because Fogg matches the vague description of the robber , Fix mistakes Fogg for the criminal . Since he can not secure a warrant in time , Fix boards the steamer ( the Mongolia ) conveying the travellers to Bombay . Fix becomes acquainted with Passepartout without revealing his purpose . Fogg promises the steamer engineer a large reward if he gets them to Bombay early . They dock two days ahead of schedule . After reaching India they take a train from Bombay to Calcutta . Fogg learns that the Daily Telegraph article was wrong — the railroad ends at Kholby and starts again 50 miles further on at Allahabad . Fogg buys an elephant , hires a guide , and starts toward Allahabad . They come across a procession in which a young Indian woman , Aouda , is led to a sanctuary to be sacrificed by suttee the next day by Brahmins . Since the young woman is drugged with opium and hemp and is obviously not going voluntarily , the travellers decide to rescue her . They follow the procession to the site , where Passepartout takes the place of Aouda 's deceased husband on the funeral pyre on which she is to be burned . During the ceremony he rises from the pyre , scaring off the priests , and carries the young woman away . The twelve hours gained earlier are lost , but Fogg shows no regret . The travellers hasten to catch the train at the next railway station , taking Aouda with them . At Calcutta , they board a steamer ( the Rangoon ) going to Hong Kong . Fix has Fogg and Passepartout arrested . They jump bail and Fix follows them to Hong Kong . He shows himself to Passepartout , who is delighted to again meet his travelling companion from the earlier voyage . In Hong Kong , it turns out that Aouda 's distant relative , in whose care they had been planning to leave her , has moved to Holland , so they decide to take her with them to Europe . Still without a warrant , Fix sees Hong Kong as his last chance to arrest Fogg on British soil . Passepartout becomes convinced that Fix is a spy from the Reform Club . Fix confides in Passepartout , who does not believe a word and remains convinced that his master is not a bank robber . To prevent Passepartout from informing his master about the premature departure of their next vessel , the Carnatic , Fix gets Passepartout drunk and drugs him in an opium den . Passepartout still manages to catch the steamer to Yokohama , but neglects to inform Fogg that the steamer is leaving the evening before its scheduled departure date . Fogg discovers that he missed his connection . He searches for a vessel that will take him to Yokohama , finding a pilot boat , the Tankadere , that takes him and Aouda to Shanghai , where they catch a steamer to Yokohama . In Yokohama , they search for Passepartout , believing that he may have arrived there on the Carnatic as originally planned . They find him in a circus , trying to earn the fare for his homeward journey . Reunited , the four board a paddle-steamer , the General Grant , taking them across the Pacific to San Francisco . Fix promises Passepartout that now , having left British soil , he will no longer try to delay Fogg 's journey , but support him in getting back to Britain to minimize the amount of his share of the stolen money that Fogg can spend . In San Francisco they board a transcontinental train to New York , encountering a number of obstacles along the way : a massive herd of bison crossing the tracks , a failing suspension bridge , and the train being attacked by Sioux warriors . After uncoupling the locomotive from the carriages , Passepartout is kidnapped by the Indians , but Fogg rescues him after American soldiers volunteer to help . They continue by a wind powered sledge to Omaha , where they get a train to New York . In New York , having missed the sailing of their ship , the China , Fogg starts looking for an alternative to cross the Atlantic Ocean . He finds a steamboat , the Henrietta , destined for Bordeaux , France . The captain of the boat refuses to take the company to Liverpool , whereupon Fogg consents to be taken to Bordeaux for $ 2000 ( roughly $ today ) per passenger . He then bribes the crew to mutiny and make course for Liverpool . Against hurricane winds and going on full steam , the boat runs out of fuel after a few days . Fogg buys the boat from the captain and has the crew burn all the wooden parts to keep up the steam . The companions arrive at Queenstown ( Cobh ) , Ireland , take the train to Dublin and then a ferry to Liverpool , still in time to reach London before the deadline . Once on English soil , Fix produces a warrant and arrests Fogg . A short time later , the misunderstanding is cleared up — the actual robber ( James Strand ) was caught three days earlier in Edinburgh . However , Fogg has missed the train and arrives in London five minutes late , certain he lost the wager . The following day Fogg apologises to Aouda for bringing her with him , since he now has to live in poverty and can not support her . Aouda confesses that she loves him and asks him to marry her . He calls for Passepartout to notify the minister . At the minister 's , Passepartout learns that he is mistaken in the date , which he takes to be Sunday , December 22 , but which is actually Saturday , December 21 , because the party travelled eastward , gaining a day . The wager can still be won , but there is very little time left . Passepartout hurries to inform Fogg , who reaches the Reform Club just in time to win the wager . Fogg marries Aouda and the journey around the world is complete within 80 days . Background and analysis Around the World in Eighty Days was written during difficult times , both for France and for Verne . It was during the Franco-Prussian War ( 1870–1871 ) in which Verne was conscripted as a coastguard ; he was having financial difficulties ( his previous works were not paid royalties ) ; his father had died recently ; and he had witnessed a public execution , which had disturbed him.William Butcher ( translation and introduction ) . Around the World in Eighty Days , Oxford Worlds Classics , 1995 , Introduction . Despite all this , Verne was excited about his work on the new book , the idea of which came to him one afternoon in a Paris café while reading a newspaper . The technological innovations of the 19th century had opened the possibility of rapid circumnavigation and the prospect fascinated Verne and his readership . In particular three technological breakthroughs occurred in 1869-70 that made a tourist-like around-the-world journey possible for the first time : the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in America ( 1869 ) , the linking of the Indian railways across the sub-continent ( 1870 ) , and the opening of the Suez Canal ( 1869 ) . It was another notable mark in the end of an age of exploration and the start of an age of fully global tourism that could be enjoyed in relative comfort and safety . It sparked the imagination that anyone could sit down , draw up a schedule , buy tickets and travel around the world , a feat previously reserved for only the most heroic and hardy of adventurers . Verne is often characterized as a futurist or science fiction author but there is not a glimmer of science fiction in this , his most popular work ( at least in English ) . Rather than any futurism , it remains a memorable portrait of the British Empire `` on which the sun never sets '' shortly before its peak , drawn by an outsider . It is interesting to note that , until 2006 , no critical editions were written . This was caused by the poor translations available and the stereotypical connection between science fiction and `` worthless '' boys ' literature . However , Verne 's works began receiving more serious reviews in the late 20th and early 21st centuries , with new translations appearing . It is also interesting to note that the book is a source of common notable English and extended British attitudes in quotes such as `` Phileas Fogg and Sir Francis Cromarty … endured the discomfort with true British phlegm , talking little , and scarcely able to catch a glimpse of each other '' , as well as in Chapter 12 when the group is being jostled around on the elephant ride across the jungle . In Chapter 25 , when Fogg is insulted in San Francisco , Fix acknowledges that clearly `` Mr. Fogg was one of those Englishmen who , while they do not tolerate duelling at home , fight abroad when their honour is attacked '' . The closing date of the novel , 21 December 1872 , was the same date as the serial publication . As it was being published serially for the first time , some readers believed that the journey was actually taking place — bets were placed , and some railway companies and ship liner companies lobbied Verne to appear in the book . It is unknown if Verne submitted to their requests , but the descriptions of some rail and shipping lines leave some suspicion he was influenced . Although a journey by balloon has become one of the images most strongly associated with the story , this iconic symbol was never deployed by Verne – the idea is briefly brought up in chapter 32 , but dismissed , it `` would have been highly risky and , in any case , impossible . '' However the popular 1956 movie adaptation Around the World in Eighty Days floated the balloon idea , and it has now become a part of the mythology of the story , even appearing on book covers . This plot element is reminiscent of Verne 's earlier Five Weeks in a Balloon which first made him a well-known author . Following Towle and d'Anver 's 1873 English translation , many people have tried to follow in the footsteps of Fogg 's fictional circumnavigation , often within self-imposed constraints : * In 1889 , Nellie Bly undertook to travel around the world in 80 days for her newspaper , the New York World . She managed to do the journey within 72 days , meeting Verne in Amiens . Her book Around the World in Seventy-Two Days , became a best seller . * In 1903 , James Willis Sayre , a Seattle theatre critic and arts promoter , set the world record for circling the earth using public transport , 54 days , 9 hours , and 42 minutes . * In 1908 , Harry Bensley , on a wager , set out to circumnavigate the world on foot wearing an iron mask . The journey was abandoned , incomplete , at the outbreak of World War I in 1914 . * In 1984 , Nicholas Coleridge emulated Fogg 's trip , taking 78 days . He wrote a book entitled Around the World in 78 Days . * In 1988 , Monty Python alumnus Michael Palin took a similar challenge without using aircraft as a part of a television travelogue , called Michael Palin : Around the World in 80 Days . He completed the journey in 79 days and 7 hours . * Since 1993 , the Jules Verne Trophy is given to the boat that sails around the world without stopping and with no outside assistance , in the shortest time . * In 2009 , twelve celebrities performed a relay version of the journey for the BBC Children In Need charity appeal . * In 2014 , the Optimistic Traveler team consisting of Muammer Yilmaz and Milan Bihlmann completed the `` 80 Days Challenge '' , a trip around the world without using money , as a first step of their charity campaign for education in Haiti . They finished the journey in 79 days . * In 2015 , a group of Italian travelers , led by Luigi Cavallito , creator of The Steroteller repeated the journey inspired by Jules Verne . The members of the group were all millennials born between the 1980s and 2000 ; the project aimed to describe the life , projects and dreams of that generation . They started their journey from the Reform Club on October 2 , 2015 and they came back to London on December 21 , 80 days later . They stopped in Paris , Turin , Athens , Cairo , Alexandria , Dubai , Mumbai , Kolkata , Hong Kong , Manila , Tokyo , Honolulu , San Francisco , New York and Dublin . Accompanying Luigi Cavallito were Alessio Nicastro , Andrea Cavallo Perin , Andrea Dutto , and Didie Caria . Origins The idea of a trip around the world within a set period had clear external origins and was popular before Verne published his book in 1872 . Even the title Around the World in Eighty Days is not original . About six sources have been suggested as the origins of the story , as follows : Greek traveller Pausanias ( c. 100 AD ) wrote a work that was translated into French in 1797 as Voyage autour du monde ( `` Around the World '' ) . Verne 's friend Jacques Arago had written a very popular Voyage autour du monde in 1853 . In 1869/70 the idea of travelling around the world reached critical popular attention when three geographical breakthroughs occurred : the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in America ( 1869 ) , the linking of the Indian railways across the sub-continent ( 1870 ) , and the opening of the Suez Canal ( 1869 ) . In 1871 appeared Around the World by Steam , via Pacific Railway , published by the Union Pacific Railroad Company , and an Around the World in A Hundred and Twenty Days by Edmond Planchut . Between 1869 and 1871 , American William Perry Fogg went around the world describing his tour in a series of letters to The Cleveland Leader , titled Round the World : Letters from Japan , China , India , and Egypt ( 1872 ) . In early 1870 , the Erie Railway Company published a statement of routes , times , and distances detailing a trip around the globe of 23,739 miles in seventy-seven days and twenty-one hours . Another early reference comes from the Italian traveler Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri . He wrote a book in 1699 that was translated into French : Voyage around the World or Voyage du Tour du Monde ( 1719 , Paris ) . The novel documents his trip as one of the first Europeans to circle the world for pleasure rather than profit , using publicly available transportation . Gemelli Careri provides rich accounts of seventeenth-century civilization outside of Europe . These include Persia during the Ottoman Empire , Hindustan during the reign of Aurungzebe , the Chinese Lantern Festival and the Great Wall , and the native people of Meso-America . References to his books can be found in other historical publications like the Calcutta Review . In 1872 Thomas Cook organised the first around-the-world tourist trip , leaving on 20 September 1872 and returning seven months later . The journey was described in a series of letters that were published in 1873 as Letter from the Sea and from Foreign Lands , Descriptive of a tour Round the World . Scholars have pointed out similarities between Verne 's account and Cook 's letters , although some argue that Cook 's trip happened too late to influence Verne . Verne , according to a second-hand 1898 account , refers to a Cook advertisement as a source for the idea of his book . In interviews in 1894 and 1904 , Verne says the source was `` through reading one day in a Paris cafe '' and `` due merely to a tourist advertisement seen by chance in the columns of a newspaper. ” Around the World itself says the origins were a newspaper article . All of these point to Cook 's advert as being a probable spark for the idea of the book . The periodical Le Tour du monde ( 3 October 1869 ) contained a short piece entitled `` Around the World in Eighty Days '' , which refers to `` 140 miles '' of railway not yet completed between Allahabad and Bombay , a central point in Verne 's work . But even the Le Tour de monde article was not entirely original ; it cites in its bibliography the Nouvelles Annales des Voyages , de la Géographie , de l'Histoire et de l'Archéologie ( August , 1869 ) , which also contains the title Around the World in Eighty Days in its contents page . The Nouvelles Annales were written by Conrad Malte-Brun ( 1775—1826 ) and his son Victor Adolphe Malte-Brun ( 1816—1889 ) . Scholars believe Verne was aware of the Le Tour de monde article or the Nouvelles Annales ( or both ) , and consulted it — the Le Tour du monde even included a trip schedule very similar to Verne 's final version . A possible inspiration was the traveller George Francis Train , who made four trips around the world , including one in 80 days in 1870 . Similarities include the hiring of a private train and being imprisoned . Train later claimed `` Verne stole my thunder . I 'm Phileas Fogg . '' Regarding the idea of gaining a day , Verne said of its origin : `` I have a great number of scientific odds and ends in my head . It was thus that , when , one day in a Paris café , I read in the Siècle that a man could travel around the world in 80 days , it immediately struck me that I could profit by a difference of meridian and make my traveller gain or lose a day in his journey . There was a dénouement ready found . The story was not written until long after . I carry ideas about in my head for years – ten , or 15 years , sometimes – before giving them form . '' In his lecture of April 1873 `` The Meridians and the Calendar '' , Verne responded to a question about where the change of day actually occurred , since the international date line had only become current in 1880 and the Greenwich prime meridian was not adopted internationally until 1884 . Verne cited an 1872 article in Nature , and Edgar Allan Poe 's short story `` Three Sundays in a Week '' ( 1841 ) , which was also based on going around the world and the difference in a day linked to a marriage at the end . Verne even analysed Poe 's story in his Edgar Poe and His Works ( 1864 ) . Either the periodical Le Tour du monde or the Nouvelles Annales , W. P. Fogg , probably Thomas Cook 's advert ( and maybe his letters ) would be the main likely source for the book . Poe 's story `` Three Sundays in a Week '' was clearly the inspiration for the lost day plot device . Adaptations and influences The book has been adapted or reimagined many times in different forms . Literature * The science fiction novel The Other Log of Phileas Fogg by Philip José Farmer gives an alternate interpretation of the story . Theatre * In 1874 a theatrical adaptation by Verne and Adolphe d'Ennery opened at the Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin in Paris for 415 performances ; in April 1876 it transferred to the Théâtre du Châtelet where it ran for 2,195 performances over 64 years . * In 1946 Orson Welles produced and starred in Around the World , a musical stage version , with music and lyrics by Cole Porter , that was only loosely faithful to Verne 's original . * A musical version , 80 Days , with songs by Ray Davies of The Kinks and a book by playwright Snoo Wilson , directed by Des McAnuff , ran at the Mandell Weiss Theatre in San Diego from August 23 to October 9 , 1988 , receiving mixed responses from the critics . Davies 's multi-faceted music , McAnuff 's directing , and the acting were well received , with the show winning the `` Best Musical '' award from the San Diego Theatre Critics Circle . * In 2013 a musical version `` Around the World in 80 Days '' with book and lyrics by Chris Blackwood and music by Piers Chater Robinson went on general release and has had productions across the globe . Published by IT & M Shows . * Mark Brown adapted the book for a five-actor stage production in 2001 . It has been performed in New York , Canada , England , South Africa , and Bangladesh . * St. James Theatre , London put on an adaptation by Laura Eason which was directed by Lucy Bailey and ran from 26 November 2015 to 17 January 2016 with Robert Portal as Fogg , Simon Gregor as Passepartout and Shanaya Rafaat as Aouda . Radio * The Mercury Theatre on the Air presented a radio adaptation of Around the World in 80 Days on October 23 , 1938 , one week before its famous production of The War of the Worlds . Orson Welles played Fogg . * Jules Verne – Around the World in Eighty Days , a 4-part drama adaptation by Terry James and directed by Janet Whittaker for BBC Radio 7 ( now BBC Radio 4 Extra ) , starring Leslie Phillips as Phileas Fogg , Yves Aubert as Passepartout and Jim Broadbent as Sergeant Fix . Film * Around the World in Eighty Days ( 1919 film ) , a German film starring Conrad Veidt , the first film version * An Indian Fantasy Story is an unfinished French/English co-production from 1938 , featuring the wager at the Reform Club and the rescue of the Indian Princess . It was never completed . * Around the World in 80 Days ( 1956 film ) , starring David Niven and Cantinflas * 1963 saw the release of The Three Stooges Go Around the World in a Daze . * Around the World in 80 Days ( 1988 film ) , an Australian animated adaptation * The Singing Kettle World Tour ( 1994 video ) , a Scottish adaptation starring Cilla Fisher , Artie Trezise , and Gary Coupland * Tweety 's High-Flying Adventure ( 2000 film ) , an updated direct-to-video animated film spoof starring Tweety from the Warner Bros. Looney Tunes * Around the World in 80 Days ( 2004 film ) , starring Jackie Chan and Steve Coogan Television * Around the World in 80 Days ( 1972 cartoon ) , a one-season Australian animated television adaptation . * Around the World with Willy Fog , a 26-episode Spanish-Japanese animated TV series by BRB International and Nippon Animation , in which all characters are anthropomorphic animals . A second series was made that was loosely based on other stories by Jules Verne . * Around the World in 80 Days ( miniseries ) , a 1989 adaptation starring Pierce Brosnan . * Bolek and Lolek 's Great Travel , a 1977 animated movie/15 episode series which occur long after the events of the book , with the late Mr. Fogg 's fortune to be inherited by the one who will repeat his feat . * Michael Palin : Around the World in 80 Days , a seven-episode series made by the BBC in 1988 starring Michael Palin . Games * The board game Around the World in 80 Days is derived from the novel . * The mobile game company Inkle published an interactive fiction adaptation of the novel , titled 80 Days , which has won numerous awards . Internet * Flightfox created a trip , `` Around the World in 80 Hours '' to see if flight experts could find flights following the same path as described in the book ( for cheap ) . The online travel company then wrote a fictional eBook based on the results of the contest . Other * Worlds of Fun , an amusement park in Kansas City , Missouri , was conceived using the novel as its theme .

qg_425--Around_the_World_in_Eighty_Days.txt

The third most translated author, which Frenchman, whose birthday is celebrated yesterday, is considered the father of Science Fiction (along with Hugo Gemsback and H.G. Wells) and wrote works such as Around the World in 80 Days and A Journey to the Center of the Earth?

The Rugby League World Cup is an international rugby league tournament , contested by national teams of the Rugby League International Federation , which was first held in France in 1954 , the first World Cup in either rugby code . The idea of a rugby league world cup tournament was first mooted in the 1930s with the French proposing holding a tournament in 1931 , and again in 1951 . The fourteen tournaments held to date have been at intervals ranging from two to eight years , and have featured a number of different formats . So far three nations have won the competition ( Australia ten times , Great Britain three times and New Zealand once ) . Australia , France and New Zealand are the only teams to have played in all tournaments ( Great Britain has been split into England , Wales , Scotland and Ireland since 1995 , while England and Wales had previously competed as separate teams in the 1975 World Cup ) . Since 2000 , the RLIF has also organised World Cups for women , students and other categories . The 2013 Rugby League World Cup was held in England , France , Ireland and Wales and won by Australia . History 1935–1954 : Establishment The Rugby League World Cup was an initiative of the French who had been campaigning for a competition since 1935 . The idea was raised in 1951 by Paul Barrière , the President of the French Rugby League . In 1952 , Rugby Football League secretary Bill Fallowfield persuaded the Rugby League Council to support the concept . At a meeting in Blackpool , England in 1953 , the International Board accepted Paul Barrière ’ s proposal that France should be the nation to host the first tournament to be officially known as the `` Rugby World Cup '' . In addition to the hosts , the tournament featured teams from Britain , Australia and New Zealand . The 1954 Rugby League World Cup was won by Great Britain who defeated France in Paris on 13 November to claim the title . 1955–1974 : Sporadic competitions The World Cup was initially contested by the four Test nations : Australia , Great Britain , France and New Zealand . The teams played each other in a league format . After a final was played between the top two teams in 1954 , it was decided that the team that finished first in the league standings would be declared the winner for the second World Cup in Australia in 1957 . Australia proved victorious on their home ground . After the successful 1960 competition , in which Great Britain won the title for the second time , there would be no further World Cup for eight years . The competition had been scheduled to be held in France in 1965 , this time with the inclusion of the South African team . However , after an unsuccessful tour of Australia , the French withdrew . The tournament was next held in 1968 , and followed a two-year cycle until the mid-1970s . The 1972 World Cup final ended in a 10-all draw , and the title was awarded to Great Britain by virtue of their superior record in the qualifiers . Great Britain were captained by Welshman , Clive Sullivan who was the first black player to captain any British national sports team . 1975–1990s : International hosts In 1975 , the competition underwent a radical overhaul . It was decided to play matches on a home and away basis around the world instead of in any one host nation and the Great Britain team was split into England and Wales . Australia won that tournament and in 1977 it was decided that Great Britain should once more compete as a single entity . Although the final between Australia and Great Britain was a closely fought affair , public interest in the tournament waned due to the continuing tinkering with the format and it was not held again until the mid-1980s . From 1985 to 1988 , each nation played each other a number of times on a home and away basis . At the end of that period , Australia met New Zealand at Eden Park . The match was a physical encounter , and Australian captain Wally Lewis played part of the match with a broken arm . The Kangaroos won the competition 25-12 . This format was repeated from 1989–1992 and Australia won again , defeating Great Britain 10-6 at Wembley Stadium in front of 73,361 people . This crowd remained a Rugby League World Cup record ( and a record for any rugby league international match ) until beaten by the 74,468 crowd which attended the 2013 World Cup Final at Old Trafford . 1995–2008 : Expansion In 1995 , the competition was once again restructured , returning to the traditional 'host ' format with ten teams entering . New teams competing included Fiji , Tonga , Samoa and South Africa . Due to the Super League war , players aligned with the rebel competition were not selected by the ARL to represent the Kangaroos . This meant the absence of many star players from the Australian team 's line-up . The tournament , which was also held to celebrate the centenary of the sport in England , was highly successful with over 250,000 people attending the group stages and over 66,000 people attending the final to see Australia defeat England 16-8 . Following the Super League war , the subsequent re-structuring of rugby league 's international governing bodies meant that the proposed 1998 World Cup was postponed . The 2000 World Cup expanded the field further , with sixteen teams entering . However numerous issues including poor organization and blown-out scorelines meant that this tournament was seen as highly unsuccessful , and the competition was put on indefinite hiatus . In the same year , the first Women 's Rugby League World Cup was held . The World Cup returned in 2008 with a 10-team format . Australia hosted the tournament and New Zealand were crowned champions for the first time . 2009–present : Regular competition The 2013 tournament , hosted by England and Wales , expanded to 14 teams and was considered the most successful competition to date in terms of attendances , exposure and financial output . Following this tournament , the World Cup is scheduled to take place every four years , with the next competition in 2017 . Trophy The World Cup trophy was commissioned by French Fédération Française de Rugby à XIII president Paul Barrière at a cost of eight million francs , and then donated to the International Rugby League Board to be used for the inaugural competition in 1954 . This trophy was used and presented to the winning nation for the first four tournaments , before being stolen in 1970 . After its recovery , the trophy was reinstated for the 2000 tournament . Format The Rugby League World Cup has followed a varied range of formats throughout its history as the number of teams participating has increased . Qualification The teams that are hosting the tournament automatically qualify for the finals . Qualifying groups have varied over the years with more teams playing in qualifiers . Teams reaching a certain point of the last World Cup automatically qualify and there are i.e . Pacific , European/African and American qualifying groups . Final tournament The current format has been in use since 2013 featuring 14 teams split into four groups ; two groups of four and two groups of three . Three teams from the groups of four qualify for the knockout stage and one team from the groups of three qualify . Each team is awarded two points for a win and one point for a draw . After the group stage the qualifying teams progress to the knockout stages into the quarter finals . The eight teams in the quarter finals play each other with the four winners progressing to the semi finals before the World Cup Final . If the teams are draw after 80 minutes extra time will be played and if the two teams are still level after extra time golden point will be played . In 2017 the final tournament will follow the same format as the 2013 event . Results A final has decided the champions of every World Cup tournament apart from three , in 1957 and 1960 when the tournaments were decided by league leaders . This also happened in 1975 with no actual final held , but even though Australia had already won the World Cup , as they had not beaten England in the tournament a special `` Final Challenge Match '' was held which Australia easily won . Australia have won the most final games with nine wins ( a tenth came as 1957 league leaders ) and appeared in every single one but the first in 1954 which was contested by Great Britain and France . Great Britain have been runners-up more times than any other team with four final losses while England and France are the teams with the most losses without winning the tournament with two losses each . New Zealand have appeared in four finals and won once in 2008 . The highest attendance in a final was in 2013 , when 74,468 people watched Australia defeat New Zealand at Old Trafford in Manchester , England , this becoming the highest attended match in the Rugby League World Cup ever . The lowest attended final was in 1972 , when just 4,231 people watched Great Britain and Australia draw 10-all after extra time at the Stade de Gerland in Lyon , France with Great Britain awarded the cup after having finished at the top of the table after the preliminary round ; the final was in fact the lowest attendance of the 1972 tournament as the French public seemed disinterested in any game not involving France . The highest attended final in the southern hemisphere was in 1968 , when 54,290 people attended the game between Australia and France , with Australia coming out on top ; this game took place at the Sydney Cricket Ground . Only 4 out of 12 finals have taken place in the southern hemisphere with a 5th due to take place in 2017 . Group Format The original format of the World Cup saw 4 or 5 teams take part in a single group . Each nation played each other once for a total of 3 games per team . After the group stage , the top two teams then took part in a final which decided the world champions . On the three occasions that the tournament was hosted worldwide with no one country hosting , the tournament was contested by 5 teams rather than the usual 4 and each team playing each other twice for a total of 8 games per team ; these teams were Wales in 1975 and Papua New Guinea in 1985-1988 and 1989-1992 . Expanded Format For the 1995 tournament , the tournament took the form of a group stage followed by knockouts rounds , bringing the format in line with other sports World Cups such as Football World Cup and Rugby Union World Cup . This format has been used in all subsequent world cups and is due to be used for future tournaments . Also in 1995 , the number of teams was expanded to 10 teams , and the number has fluctuated since then between 10–16 teams . * ( * - Highest ranked team during Round Robin round won ) * * ( * * - Challenge Match , played as Australia won the 1975 World Cup , decided by ranking in Round Robin round , without beating England ) Successful nations Up to and including the 2013 tournament only Australia , New Zealand and Great Britain have been crowned World Champions with Australia easily the most successful , winning ten of the fourteen tournaments . Great Britain have won three times , and New Zealand once . New Zealand have also finished runners-up in three World Cups , while France have been runners-up on two occasions , including the inaugural cup where they were captained by Puig Aubert . England have also finished runners-up on two occasions while the Great Britain team were runners-up four times . Fiji have reached the semi-finals on two occasions , while Wales also made the semi-final in 2000 . Ireland and Samoa have twice made it past the qualifying pool stages . Other nations to have proceeded to the knock-out stages are Papua New Guinea , Scotland and the United States . * Tournaments from 1954-1989 did not feature semi-final and quarter-final rounds . Participants Successful Qualification Australia , France and New Zealand are the only nations who have appeared at every Rugby League World Cup from 1954 to 2013 . England has also been at all , but participated under the banner of Great Britain in the majority of the earlier tournaments . Wales , including as Great Britain , has competed in all but the 2008 tournament . In total , 19 different teams have taken part in the world cup . While 18 of these teams represented nations , 1 did not ; in 2000 , the Aotearoa Māori team was granted entry to the competition . This team is made up of New Zealand Māori players and was knocked out of the world cup in the pool stage . Along with this team , 4 others have appeared in only 1 World Cup ; United States , Italy , Russia and Lebanon although United States and Lebanon are set to take part in the 2017 World Cup . It is yet to be determined whether the other 2 teams will qualify as the relevant qualifying tournaments are yet to take place . Unsuccessful Qualification While 19 teams have taken part in the tournament , 12 other teams have taken part in qualification but have been unsuccessful or may still qualify for 2017 tournament meaning that 31 nations have entered the tournament . Of these teams , Serbia have attempted to qualify the most times with three attempts in 2008 , 2013 and 2017 . Apart from South Africa , the only other African nation to attempt to qualify is Morocco who took part in the 2000 qualifying . Japan also took part in only the 2000 qualifying and are the only Asian team to take part other than Lebanon who successfully qualified in 2000 and 2017 . Nations * Morocco ( 2000 ) * Japan ( 2000 ) * Canada ( 2000 , 2017 ) * Georgia ( 2008 ) * Netherlands ( 2008 ) * Jamaica ( 2013 , 2017 ) * Ukraine ( 2017 ) * Malta ( 2017 ) * Greece ( 2017 ) * Latvia ( 2017 ) Pending Qualification Serbia 's bid for the 2017 tournament is still pending with the final stages of qualifying taking place in October 2016 . Spain are also still able to qualify for the 2017 tournament . Host nations Seven teams have officially hosted and co-hosted the World Cup . Only 1975 , 1985-88 and 1989-92 were held internationally and not in a specific country . Scotland hosted games in the 2000 world cup but these games were considered to have been hosted by Great Britain rather than the specific home nations . Although games were played in Papua New Guinea during the 1985-88 and 1989-92 World Cups , they are due to officially become the eighth nation to host games in 2017 alongside Australia and New Zealand . Stadiums In total , 81 stadiums have hosted world cup games over the 14 different tournaments . Headingley Stadium in Leeds has hosted the tournament the most times , having had games in 7 different world cups with Central Park , Wigan and Lang Park , Brisbane having hosted 6 tournaments . 52 stadiums have hosted matches in just 1 tournament . The most stadiums used in a single tournament was in 2000 when an incredible 26 different stadiums were used ; the overall stadium capacity was the highest ever at 704,400 however the occupancy was also the lowest ever at just 37.46 % . The largest stadium in terms of capacity ever used was Wembley Stadium , London with a seating capacity of 90,000 ; the stadium was used in the 2013 tournament as the venue for the semi-final double-header . The smallest stadium ever used was also in 2013 when The Gnoll , Neath , with a capacity of just 5,000 hosted a game between Wales and Cook Islands . Despite this , it was not the lowest attended game ; this was in the 2000 world cup when just 1,497 attended the game between Wales and Lebanon at Stradey Park , Llanelli . The city with the most different stadiums used is Sydney with 4 stadiums . Hull and Auckland are the cities with the next highest number with 3 stadiums each . Records Attendance Attendance records Top 10 match attendances .

sfq_16684--Rugby_League_World_Cup.txt

In which country are the 2019 Rugby Union World Cup finals to be held?

Anthracite is a hard , compact variety of coal that has a submetallic luster . It has the highest carbon content , the fewest impurities , and the highest calorific content of all types of coal except for graphite . Anthracite is the most metamorphosed type of coal ( but still represents low-grade metamorphism ) , in which the carbon content is between 92.1 % and 98 % . The term is applied to those varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other hydrocarbon vapours when heated below their point of ignition . Anthracite ignites with difficulty and burns with a short , blue , and smokeless flame . Anthracite is categorized into standard grade , which is used mainly in power generation , and high grade ( HG ) and ultra high grade ( UHG ) , the principal uses of which are in the metallurgy sector . Anthracite accounts for about 1 % of global coal reserves , and is mined in only a few countries around the world . China accounts for the majority of global production ; other producers are Russia , Ukraine , North Korea , South Africa , Vietnam , the UK , Australia and the US . Total production in 2010 was 670 million tons . Names Anthracite derives from the Greek anthrakítēs ( ) , literally `` coal-like '' . `` anthracite '' , The Oxford English Dictionary . 2nd ed . 1989 . OED Online . Oxford University Press . Retrieved 2010-06-26 . [ http : //dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50009392 ] Other terms which refer to anthracite are black coal , hard coal , stone coal , dark coal , coffee coal , blind coal ( in Scotland ) , Kilkenny coal ( in Ireland ) , crow coal or craw coal , and black diamond . `` Blue Coal '' is the term for a once-popular and trademarked brand of anthracite , mined by the Glen Alden Coal Company in Pennsylvania , and sprayed with a blue dye at the mine before shipping to its northeastern U.S. markets to distinguish it from its competitors . Culm has different meanings in British and American English . In England , culm is the imperfect anthracite of north Devon and Cornwall , which was used as a pigment . It is also used to refer to the rock strata those deposits are found in , both in Britain and in the Rhenish hill countries ( the Culm Measures ) , and to coal exported from Britain during the 19th century . In America , culm refers to the waste or slack from anthracite mining , mostly dust and small pieces not suitable for use in home furnaces . Properties Anthracite is similar in appearance to the mineraloid jet and is sometimes used as a jet imitation . Anthracite differs from ordinary bituminous coal by its greater hardness ( 2.75–3 on the Mohs scale ) , its higher relative density of 1.3–1.4 , and luster , which is often semi-metallic with a mildly brown reflection . It contains a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter . It is also free from included soft or fibrous notches and does not soil the fingers when rubbed . Anthracitization is the transformation of bituminous coal into anthracite . The moisture content of fresh-mined anthracite generally is less than 15 percent . The heat content of anthracite ranges from 22 to 28 million Btu per short ton ( 26 to 33 MJ/kg ) on a moist , mineral-matter-free basis . The heat content of anthracite coal consumed in the United States averages 25 million Btu/ton ( 29 MJ/kg ) , on the as-received basis ( i.e. , containing both inherent moisture and mineral matter ) . Since the 1980s , anthracite refuse or mine waste has been used for coal power generation in a form of recycling . The practice known as reclamation is being applied to culm piles antedating laws requiring mine owners to restore lands to their approximate original condition . Chemically , anthracite may be considered as a transition stage between ordinary bituminous coal and graphite , produced by the more or less complete elimination of the volatile constituents of the former , and it is found most abundantly in areas that have been subjected to considerable earth-movement metamorphic stresses and pressures , such as the flanks of great mountain ranges . Anthracite is associated with strongly deformed sedimentary rocks that were subjected to higher pressures and temperatures ( but short of metamorphic conditions ) just as bituminous coal is generally associated with less deformed or flat-lying sedimentary rocks . For example , the compressed layers of anthracite that are deep mined in the folded Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachian Mountains of the Coal Region of East-central Pennsylvania are extensions of the same layers of bituminous coal that are mined on the generally flat lying and undeformed sedimentary rocks further west on the Allegheny Plateau of Kentucky and West Virginia , Eastern Ohio , and Western Pennsylvania . In the same way the anthracite region of South Wales is confined to the contorted portion west of Swansea and Llanelli , the central and eastern portions producing steam coal , coking coal and domestic house coals . Structurally , anthracite shows some alteration by the development of secondary divisional planes and fissures so that the original stratification lines are not always easily seen . The thermal conductivity is also higher ; a lump of anthracite feels perceptibly colder when held in the warm hand than a similar lump of bituminous coal at the same temperature . The chemical composition of some typical anthracites is given in the article coal . Anthracite has a history of use in blast furnaces for iron smelting ; however , it lacked the pore space of metallurgical coke , which eventually replaced anthracite . History of mining and use In southwest Wales , anthracite has been burned as a domestic fuel since at least medieval times , when it was mined near Saundersfoot . More recently , large scale mining of anthracite took place right across the western part of the South Wales Coalfield until the late 20th century . Mining continues but now on a smaller scale . In the United States , anthracite coal history began in 1790 in Pottsville , Pennsylvania , with the discovery of coal made by the hunter Necho Allen in what is now known as the Coal Region . Legend has it that Allen fell asleep at the base of Broad Mountain and woke to the sight of a large fire because his campfire had ignited an outcropping of anthracite coal . By 1795 , an anthracite-fired iron furnace had been built on the Schuylkill River . Anthracite was first experimentally burned as a residential heating fuel in the US on 11 February 1808 , by Judge Jesse Fell in Wilkes-Barre , Pennsylvania , on an open grate in a fireplace . Anthracite differs from wood in that it needs a draft from the bottom , and Judge Fell proved with his grate design that it was a viable heating fuel . In spring 1808 , John and Abijah Smith shipped the first commercially mined load of anthracite down the Susquehanna River from Plymouth , Pennsylvania , marking the birth of commercial anthracite mining in the United States . From that first mine , production rose to an all-time high of over 100 million tons in 1917 . Anthracite usage was inhibited by the difficulty of igniting it . This was a particular concern in smelting iron using a blast furnace . With the invention of hot blast in 1828 , which used waste heat to preheat combustion air , anthracite became a preferred fuel , accounting for 45 % of US pig iron production within 15 years . Anthracite for iron smelting was later displaced by coke . From the late 19th century until the 1950s , anthracite was the most popular fuel for heating homes and other buildings in the northern US , until it was supplanted by oil burning systems and more recently natural gas systems . Many large public buildings , such as schools , were heated with anthracite-burning furnaces through the 1980s . During the American Civil War , Confederate blockade runners used anthracite as a smokeless fuel for their boilers to avoid giving away their position to the blockaders . The invention of the Wootten firebox enabled locomotives to directly burn anthracite efficiently , particularly waste culm . In the early 20th century US , the Delaware , Lackawanna & Western Railroad started using only the more expensive anthracite coal in its passenger locomotives , dubbed themselves `` The Road of Anthracite , '' and advertised widely that travelers on their line could make railway journeys without getting their clothing stained with soot . The advertisements featured a white-clad woman named Phoebe Snow and poems containing lines like `` My gown stays white / From morn till night / Upon the road of Anthracite '' . Similarly , the Great Western Railway in the UK was able to use its access to anthracite ( it dominated the anthracite region ) to earn a reputation for efficiency and cleanliness unmatched by other UK companies . Internal combustion motors driven by the so-called `` mixed '' , `` poor '' , `` semi-water '' or `` Dowson gas '' produced by the gasification of anthracite with air ( and a small proportion of steam ) were at one time the most economical method of obtaining power - consuming 1 pound of fuel per horsepower-hour , or less . Large quantities of anthracite for power purposes were formerly exported from South Wales to France , Switzerland and parts of Germany . Widespread commercial anthracite mining in Wales has now ceased although a few large open cast sites remain , along with some relatively small drift mining operations . Anthracite today Anthracite generally costs two to three times as much as regular coal . In June 2008 , the wholesale cost of anthracite was US $ 150/short ton . The principal use of anthracite today is for a domestic fuel in either hand-fired stoves or automatic stoker furnaces . It delivers high energy per its weight and burns cleanly with little soot , making it ideal for this purpose . Its high value makes it prohibitively expensive for power plant use . Other uses include the fine particles used as filter media , and as an ingredient in charcoal briquettes . Anthracite is an authorised fuel in terms of the United Kingdom 's Clean Air Act 1993 , meaning that it can be used within a designated Smoke Control Area such as the central London boroughs . Mining China today mines by far the largest share of global anthracite production , accounting for more than three-quarters of global output . Most Chinese production is of standard-grade anthracite , which is used in power generation . Increased demand in China has made that country into a net importer of the fuel , mostly from Vietnam , another major producer of anthracite for power generation , although increasing domestic consumption in Vietnam means that exports may be scaled back . Current U.S. anthracite production averages around 5 million tons per year . Of that , about 1.8 million tons were mined in the state of Pennsylvania . Mining of anthracite coal continues to this day in eastern Pennsylvania , and contributes up to 1 % to the gross state product . More than 2,000 people were employed in the mining of anthracite coal in 1995 . Most of the mining as of that date involved reclaiming coal from slag heaps ( waste piles from past coal mining ) at nearby closed mines . Some underground anthracite coal is also being mined . As petroleum and natural gas have become more expensive , anthracite coal may grow in its importance as an energy source . Countries producing HG and UHG anthracite include Russia and South Africa . HG and UHG anthracite are used as a coke or coal substitute in various metallurgical applications ( sintering , PCI , direct BF charge , pelletizing ) . It plays an important role in cost reduction in the steel making process and is also used in production of ferro-alloys , silicon-manganese , calcium-carbide and silicon-carbide . South Africa exports lower-quality , higher-ash anthracite to Brazil to be used in steel-making . Sizing and grading Anthracite is processed into different sizes by what is commonly referred to as a breaker ( see coal ) . The large coal is raised from the mine and passed through breakers with toothed rolls to reduce the lumps to smaller pieces . The smaller pieces are separated into different sizes by a system of graduated sieves , placed in descending order . Sizing is necessary for different types of stoves and furnaces . Anthracite is classified into three grades , depending on its carbon content . Standard grade is used as a domestic fuel and in industrial power-generation . The rarer higher grades of anthracite are purer – i.e. , they have a higher carbon content – and are used in steel-making and other segments of the metallurgical industries . Technical characteristics of the various grades of anthracite are as follows : Anthracite is divided by size mainly into applications that need lumps ( typically larger than 10 mm ) - various industrial processes where it replaces metallurgical coke , and domestic fuel - and those that need fines ( less than 10 mm ) , such as sintering and pelletising . The common American classification by size is as follows : Lump , steamboat , egg and stove coals , the latter in two or three sizes , all three being above in ( 38 mm ) size on round-hole screens . High grade High grade ( HG ) and ultra high grade ( UHG ) anthracite are the highest grades of anthracite coal . They are the purest forms of coal , having the highest degree of coalification , the highest carbon count and energy content and the fewest impurities ( moisture , ash and volatiles ) . High grade and ultra high grade anthracite are harder than standard grade anthracite , and have a higher relative density . An example of a chemical formula for high-grade anthracite would be C240H90O4NS , representing 93.5 % carbon . UHG anthracite typically has a minimum carbon content of 95 % . They also differ in usage from standard grade anthracite ( used mainly for power generation ) , being employed mainly in metallurgy as a cost-efficient substitute for coke in processes such as sintering and pelletising , as well as pulverised coal injection ( PCI ) and direct injection into blast furnaces . They can also be used in water purification and domestically as a smokeless fuel . HG and UHG anthracite account for a small percentage of the total anthracite market . The major producing countries are Russia , Ukraine , Vietnam , South Africa and the US . The primary sizes used in the United States for domestic heating are Chestnut , Pea , Buckwheat and Rice , with Chestnut and Rice being the most popular . Chestnut and Pea are used in hand fired furnaces while the smaller Rice and Buckwheat are used in automatic stoker furnaces . Rice is currently the most sought after size due to the ease of use and popularity of that type of furnace . In South Wales a less elaborate classification is adopted , but great care is exercised in hand-picking and cleaning the coal from particles of pyrites in the higher qualities known as best malting coals , which are used for kiln-drying malt . Anthracite dust can be made into briquettes and is sold in the United Kingdom under trade names such as Phurnacite , Ancit and Taybrite . Underground fires Historically from time to time , underground seams of coal have caught fire , often from careless or unfortunate mining activities . The pocket of ignited coal is fed oxygen by vent paths that have not yet been discovered . These can smolder for years . Commonly , exhaust vents in populated areas are soon sensed and are sealed while vents in uninhabited areas remain undiscovered . Occasionally , vents are discovered via fumes sensed by passers-by , often in forested areas . Attempts to extinguish those remaining have at times been futile , and several such combustion areas exist today . The existence of an underground combustion site can sometimes be identified in the winter where fallen snow is seen to be melted by the warmth conducted from below . Proposals for harnessing this heat as geothermal energy have not been successful . A vein of anthracite that caught fire in Centralia , Pennsylvania in 1962 has been burning ever since , turning the once thriving borough into a ghost town . Major reserves Among current producers , Russia , China and Ukraine have the largest estimated recoverable reserves of anthracite . Other countries with substantial reserves include Vietnam and North Korea . Geologically , the largest most concentrated anthracite deposit in the world is found in northeastern Pennsylvania , United States . Locally called the Coal Region , the deposit contains 480 square miles of coal bearing rock which originally held 22.8 billion short tons ( 20.68 billion tonnes ) of anthracite . ( The geographic region is roughly 100 miles ( 161 km ) in length and 30 miles ( 48 km ) in width . ) Because of historical mining and development of the lands overlying the coal , it is estimated that 7 billion short tons ( 6.3 billion tonnes ) of minable reserves remain . The United States also contains several smaller deposits of anthracite , such as those historically mined in Crested Butte , Colorado . The Groundhog Anthracite Deposit , located in British Columbia , Canada , is the largest previously undeveloped anthracite deposit in the world . It is owned by Australian publicly listed company , Atrum Coal and boasts 1.57 billion tonnes of high grade anthracite . Anthracites of newer Tertiary or Cretaceous age are found in the Crowsnest Pass part of the Rocky Mountains in Canada and at various places in the Andes in Peru .

sfq_18559--Anthracite.txt

What element is the main constituent of anthracite?

A distilled beverage , spirit , liquor , hard liquor or hard alcohol is an alcoholic beverage produced by distillation of a mixture produced from alcoholic fermentation . This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water , for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content ( commonly expressed as alcohol by volume , ABV ) . As distilled beverages contain more alcohol , they are considered `` harder '' – in North America , the term hard liquor is used to distinguish distilled beverages from undistilled ones , which are implicitly weaker . As examples , this does not include beverages such as beer , wine , and cider , as they are fermented but not distilled . These all have relatively low alcohol content , typically less than 15 % . Brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine , and has an ABV over 35 % . Other examples of distilled beverages include vodka , gin , rum , and whisky . Nomenclature The term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20 % alcohol by volume ( ABV ) . Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings , such as Grand Marnier , Frangelico , and American schnapps , are known instead as liqueurs . In common usage , the distinction between spirits and liqueurs is widely unknown or ignored ; as a consequence , in general , all alcoholic beverages other than beer and wine are referred to as spirits . Beer and wine , which are not distilled beverages , are limited to a maximum alcohol content of about 20 % ABV , as most yeasts can not reproduce when the concentration of alcohol is above this level ; as a consequence , fermentation ceases at that point . Etymology The origin of `` liquor '' and its close relative `` liquid '' was the Latin verb liquere , meaning `` to be fluid '' . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , an early use of the word in the English language , meaning simply `` a liquid '' , can be dated to 1225 . The first use the OED mentions of its meaning `` a liquid for drinking '' occurred in the 14th century . Its use as a term for `` an intoxicating alcoholic drink '' appeared in the 16th century . The term `` spirit '' in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy . These alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold . The vapor given off and collected during an alchemical process ( as with distillation of alcohol ) was called a spirit of the original material . History of distillation Precursors The first clear evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in Alexandria in the 1st century AD , although the Chinese may have independently developed the process around the same time . Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias . The Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD . The medieval Arabs learned the distillation process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively , but there is no evidence that they distilled alcohol . Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice . The freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use . True distillation The earliest evidence of true distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century . Again , the Chinese may not have been far behind , with archaeological evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties . A still has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong , Hebei , dating to the 12th century . Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century . The production method was written in code , suggesting that it was being kept secret . In 1437 , `` burned water '' ( brandy ) was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany . It was served in a tall , narrow glass called a Goderulffe . Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial , often invoking national pride , but they are plausible after the 12th century AD , when Irish whiskey and German brandy became available . These spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content ( about 40 % ABV ) than the alchemists ' pure distillations , and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs . Consumption of distilled beverages rose dramatically in Europe in and after the mid-14th century , when distilled liquors were commonly used as remedies for the Black Death . Around 1400 , methods to distill spirits from wheat , barley , and rye beers , a cheaper option than grapes , were discovered . Thus began the `` national '' drinks of Europe : jenever ( Belgium and the Netherlands ) , gin ( England ) , Schnaps ( Germany ) , grappa ( Italy ) , horilka ( Ukraine ) , akvavit/snaps ( Scandinavia ) , vodka ( Poland and Russia ) , ouzo ( Greece ) , rakia ( the Balkans ) , and poitín ( Ireland ) . The actual names emerged only in the 16th century , but the drinks were well known prior to then . Government regulation It is legal to distill beverage alcohol as a hobby for personal use in some countries , including Italy , New Zealand , and the Netherlands . In the United States , all states allow unlicensed individuals to make their own beer , and some also allow unlicensed individuals to make their own wine , although in some places that do not prohibit home manufacture at the state level , local governments may prohibit it . However , it is illegal to distill beverage alcohol without a license anywhere in the US . In some jurisdictions , it is also illegal to sell a still without a license . Microdistilling Microdistilling ( also known as craft distilling ) as a trend began to develop in the United States following the emergence and immense popularity of microbrewing and craft beer in the last decades of the 20th century . It is different from megadistilling in the quantity and quality of output . Flammability Liquor that contains 40 % ABV ( 80 US proof ) will catch fire if heated to about 26 °C and if an ignition source is applied to it . This temperature is called its flash point . The flash point of pure alcohol is , less than average room temperature . The flash points of alcohol concentrations from 10 % ABV to 96 % ABV are : * 10 % — 49 °C — ethanol-based water solution * 12.5 % — about 52 °C — wine * 20 % — 36 °C — fortified wine * 30 % — 29 °C * 40 % — 26 °C — typical vodka , whisky or brandy * 50 % — 24 °C — strong whisky * 60 % — 22 °C — normal tsikoudia ( called mesoraki or middle raki ) * 70 % — 21 °C — absinthe , Slivovitz * 80 % — 20 °C * 90 % or more — 17 °C — neutral grain spirit Serving Distilled beverages can be served : * Neat — at room temperature without any additional ingredient ( s ) * Up — shaken or stirred with ice , strained , and served in a stemmed glass . * On the rocks — over ice cubes * Blended or frozen — blended with ice * With a simple mixer , such as club soda , tonic water , juice , or cola * As an ingredient of a cocktail * As an ingredient of a shooter * With water * With water poured over sugar ( as with absinthe ) Alcohol consumption by country The World Health Organization measures and publishes alcohol consumption patterns in different countries . The WHO measures alcohol consumed by persons 15 years of age or older and reports it on the basis of liters of pure alcohol consumed per capita in a given year in a country . Health effects Short-term effects Distilled spirits contain ethyl alcohol , the same chemical that is present in beer and wine and as such , spirit consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user . Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person . The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk , the percentage of alcohol in the spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place , the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription , over-the-counter or street drugs , among other factors . Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration ( BAC ) of 0.03 % -0.12 % typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria , increased self-confidence and sociability , decreased anxiety , a flushed , red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination . A BAC of 0.09 % to 0.25 % causes lethargy , sedation , balance problems and blurred vision . A BAC from 0.18 % to 0.30 % causes profound confusion , impaired speech ( e.g. , slurred speech ) , staggering , dizziness and vomiting . A BAC from 0.25 % to 0.40 % causes stupor , unconsciousness , anterograde amnesia , vomiting , and respiratory depression ( potentially life-threatening ) . Death may occur due to inhalation of vomit ( pulmonary aspiration ) while unconscious . A BAC from 0.35 % to 0.80 % causes a coma ( unconsciousness ) , life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning . As with all alcoholic beverages , driving under the influence , operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident ; many countries have penalties against drunk driving . Long-term effects The main active ingredient of distilled spirits is alcohol , and therefore , the health effects of alcohol apply to spirits . Drinking small quantities of alcohol ( less than one drink in women and two in men ) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease , stroke , diabetes mellitus , and early death . Drinking more than this amount ; however , increases the risk of heart disease , high blood pressure , atrial fibrillation , and stroke . Risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents . About 3.3 million deaths ( 5.9 % of all deaths ) are believed to be due to alcohol each year . Alcoholism also known as `` alcohol use disorder '' is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems . It was previously divided into two types : alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence . In a medical context , alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present : a person drinks large amounts over a long time period , has difficulty cutting down , acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time , alcohol is strongly desired , usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities , usage results in social problems , usage results in health problems , usage results in risky situations , withdrawal occurs when stopping , and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use . Alcoholism reduces a person 's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States . No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine . While lower quality evidence suggest a cardioprotective effect , no controlled studies have been completed on the effect of alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke . Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism . The American Heart Association `` cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol . Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation . ''

sfq_25451--Distilled_beverage.txt

Which spirit is the base of the cocktails Planter’s Punch and Sundowner?

Green is the color between blue and yellow on the spectrum of visible light . It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 495570 nm . In the subtractive color system , used in painting and color printing , it is created by a combination of yellow and blue , or yellow and cyan ; in the RGB color model , used on television and computer screens , it is one of the additive primary colors , along with red and blue , which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors . The modern English word green comes from the Middle English and Anglo-Saxon word grene , from the same Germanic root as the words `` grass '' and `` grow '' . It is the color of living grass and leaves and as a result is the color most associated with springtime , growth and nature . By far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll , the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy . Many creatures have adapted to their green environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage . Several minerals have a green color , including the emerald , which is colored green by its chromium content . In surveys made in Europe and the United States , green is the color most commonly associated with nature , life , health , youth , spring , hope and envy . In Europe and the U.S. green is sometimes associated with death ( green has several seemingly contrary associations ) , sickness , or the devil , but in China its associations are very positive , as the symbol of fertility and happiness . In the Middle Ages and Renaissance , when the color of clothing showed the owner 's social status , green was worn by merchants , bankers and the gentry , while red was the color of the nobility . The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci wears green , showing she is not from a noble family ; the benches in the British House of Commons are green , while those in the House of Lords are red . Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission ; a green light means go ahead , a green card permits permanent residence in the United States . It is the most important color in Islam . It was the color of the banner of Muhammad , and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries , and represents the lush vegetation of Paradise . It is also often associated with the culture of Gaelic Ireland , and is a color of the flag of Ireland . Because of its association with nature , it is the color of the environmental movement . Political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement , some naming themselves Green parties . This has led to similar campaigns in advertising , as companies have sold green , or environmentally friendly , products . Etymology and linguistic definitions The word green comes from the Middle English and Old English word grene , which , like the German word grün , has the same root as the words grass and grow . It is from a Common Germanic * gronja- , which is also reflected in Old Norse grænn , Old High German gruoni ( but unattested in East Germanic ) , ultimately from a PIE root * `` to grow '' , and root-cognate with grass and to grow . The first recorded use of the word as a color term in Old English dates to ca . AD 700 . Latin with viridis also has a genuine and widely used term for `` green '' . Related to virere `` to grow '' and ver `` spring '' , it gave rise to words in several Romance languages , French vert , Italian verde ( and English vert , verdure etc . ) . Likewise the Slavic languages with zelenъ . Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish , pale green – χλωρός , chloros ( cf . the color of chlorine ) , cognate with χλοερός `` verdant '' and χλόη `` the green of new growth '' . Thus , the languages mentioned above ( Germanic , Romance , Slavic , Greek ) have old terms for `` green '' which are derived from words for fresh , sprouting vegetation . However , comparative linguistics makes clear that these terms were coined independently , over the past few millennia , and there is no identifiable single Proto-Indo-European or word for `` green '' . For example , the Slavic zelenъ is cognate with Sanskrit hari `` yellow , ochre , golden '' . The Turkic languages also have jašɨl `` green '' or `` yellowish green '' , compared to a Mongolian word for `` meadow '' . Languages where green and blue are one color In some languages , including old Chinese , Thai , old Japanese , and Vietnamese , the same word can mean either blue or green . The Chinese character 青 ( pronounced qīng in Mandarin , ao in Japanese , and thanh in Sino-Vietnamese ) has a meaning that covers both blue and green ; blue and green are traditionally considered shades of `` 青 '' . In more contemporary terms , they are 藍 ( lán , in Mandarin ) and 綠 ( lǜ , in Mandarin ) respectively . Japanese also has two terms that refer specifically to the color green , 緑 ( midori , which is derived from the classical Japanese descriptive verb midoru `` to be in leaf , to flourish '' in reference to trees ) and グリーン ( guriin , which is derived from the English word `` green '' ) . However , in Japan , although the traffic lights have the same colors that other countries have , the green light is described using the same word as for blue , `` aoi '' , because green is considered a shade of aoi ; similarly , green variants of certain fruits and vegetables such as green apples , green shiso ( as opposed to red apples and red shiso ) will be described with the word `` aoi '' . Vietnamese uses a single word for both blue and green , xanh , with variants such as xanh da trời ( azure , lit . `` sky blue '' ) , lam ( blue ) , and lục ( green ; also xanh lá cây , lit . `` leaf green '' ) . `` Green '' in modern European languages corresponds to about 520–570 nm , but many historical and non-European languages make other choices , e.g . using a term for the range of ca . 450–530 nm ( `` blue/green '' ) and another for ca . 530–590 nm ( `` green/yellow '' ) . In the comparative study of color terms in the world 's languages , green is only found as a separate category in languages with the fully developed range of six colors ( white , black , red , green , yellow , and blue ) , or more rarely in systems with five colors ( white , red , yellow , green , and black/blue ) . ( See distinction of green from blue ) These languages have introduced supplementary vocabulary to denote `` green '' , but these terms are recognizable as recent adoptions that are not in origin color terms ( much like the English adjective orange being in origin not a color term but the name of a fruit ) . Thus , the Thai word เขียว kheīyw , besides meaning `` green '' , also means `` rank '' and `` smelly '' and holds other unpleasant associations . The Celtic languages had a term for `` blue/green/grey '' , Proto-Celtic * glasto- , which gave rise to Old Irish glas `` green , grey '' and to Welsh glas `` blue '' . This word is cognate with the Ancient Greek γλαυκός `` bluish green '' , contrasting with χλωρός `` yellowish green '' discussed above . In modern Japanese , the term for green is 緑 , while the old term for `` blue/green '' , now means `` blue '' . But in certain contexts , green is still conventionally referred to as 青 , as in and , reflecting the absence of blue-green distinction in old Japanese ( more accurately , the traditional Japanese color terminology grouped some shades of green with blue , and others with yellow tones ) . The Persian language is traditionally lacking a black/blue/green distinction . The Persian word سبز sabz can mean `` green '' , `` black '' , or `` dark '' . Thus , Persian erotic poetry , dark-skinned women are addressed as sabz-eh , as in phrases like سبز گندم گون sabz-eh-gandom-gun ( literally `` dark wheat colored '' ) or سبز مليح sabz-eh-malih ( `` a dark beauty '' ) . Similarly , in Sudanese Arabic , dark-skinned people are described as أخضر akhḍar , the term which in Standard Arabic stands unambiguously for `` green '' . In nature and culture File : Gachala Emerald 3526711557 849c4c7367.jpg|Emerald green . The Gachala Emerald from the National Museum of Natural History , Washington . File : Han jade dragen.JPG|Jade . A jade dragon from the Han Dynasty , China . Jade can be many different shades of green . File : Pot tripode Musée Guimet 2418.jpg|A 10th-century celadon pot from China ( Musee Guimet , Paris ) . Celadon is a pale greyish green which takes its name from a character in the French romance Astrée by d'Urfe ( 1610 ) . File : Ermitáž.jpg|Malachite green . A giant malachite vase in the Hermitage Museum , Saint Petersburg , Russia . File : Limes.jpg|Lime green , Named for the lime fruit , inclines toward yellow . File : NCI 2 green olives.jpg|Olive or olive green . File : M1943 Field Jacket.jpg|Olive drab was the standard color of U.S. Army combat uniforms from World War II through the Vietnam War . File : Saihouji-kokedera01.jpg|Moss green . Saihō-ji ( Kyoto ) , also known as the `` Moss Garden '' , in Kyoto , Japan , begun in 1339 File : Anas carolinensis ( Green-winged Teal ) male.jpg|Teal takes its name from the color around the eyes of the Teal duck . In science Color vision and colorimetry In optics , the perception of green is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 495570nm . The sensitivity of the dark-adapted human eye is greatest at about 507nm , a blue-green color , while the light-adapted eye is most sensitive about 555nm , a yellow-green ; these are the peak locations of the rod and cone ( scotopic and photopic , respectively ) luminosity functions . The perception of greenness ( in opposition to redness forming one of the opponent mechanisms in human color vision ) is evoked by light which triggers the medium-wavelength M cone cells in the eye more than the long-wavelength L cones . Light which triggers this greenness response more than the yellowness or blueness of the other color opponent mechanism is called green . A green light source typically has a spectral power distribution dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 487570 nm . Human eyes have color receptors known as cone cells , of which there are three types . In some cases , one is missing or faulty , which can cause color blindness , including the common inability to distinguish red and yellow from green , known as deuteranopia or redgreen color blindness.The New Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago : Encyclopædia Britannica , 2002 . ISBN 0-85229-787-4 Green is restful to the eye . Studies show that a green environment can reduce fatigue . In the subtractive color system , used in painting and color printing , green is created by a combination of yellow and blue , or yellow and cyan ; in the RGB color model , used on television and computer screens , it is one of the additive primary colors , along with red and blue , which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors . On the HSV color wheel , also known as the RGB color wheel , the complement of green is magenta ; that is , a color corresponding to an equal mixture of red and blue light ( one of the purples ) . On a traditional color wheel , based on subtractive color , the complementary color to green is considered to be red . In additive color devices such as computer displays and televisions , one of the primary light sources is typically a narrow-spectrum yellowish-green of dominant wavelength ~550nm ; this `` green '' primary is combined with an orangish-red `` red '' primary and a purplish-blue `` blue '' primary to produce any color in betweenthe RGB color model . A unique green ( green appearing neither yellowish nor bluish ) is produced on such a device by mixing light from the green primary with some light from the blue primary . Lasers Lasers emitting in the green part of the spectrum are widely available to the general public in a wide range of output powers . Green laser pointers outputting at 532nm ( 563.5 THz ) are relatively inexpensive compared to other wavelengths of the same power , and are very popular due to their good beam quality and very high apparent brightness . The most common green lasers use diode pumped solid state ( DPSS ) technology to create the green light . An infrared laser diode at 808nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide ( Nd : YVO4 ) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet ( Nd : YAG ) and induces it to emit 281.76 THz ( 1064 nm ) . This deeper infrared light is then passed through another crystal containing potassium , titanium and phosphorus ( KTP ) , whose non-linear properties generate light at a frequency that is twice that of the incident beam ( 563.5 THz ) ; in this case corresponding to the wavelength of 532nm ( `` green '' ) . Other green wavelengths are also available using DPSS technology ranging from 501 nm to 543 nm . Green wavelengths are also available from gas lasers , including the helium–neon laser ( 543nm ) , the Argon-ion laser ( 514nm ) and the Krypton-ion laser ( 521nm and 531nm ) , as well as liquid dye lasers . Green lasers have a wide variety of applications , including pointing , illumination , surgery , laser light shows , spectroscopy , interferometry , fluorescence , holography , machine vision , non-lethal weapons and bird control . As of mid-2011 , direct green laser diodes at 510nm and 500nm have become generally available , although the price remains relatively prohibitive for widespread public use . The efficiency of these lasers ( peak 3 % ) compared to that of DPSS green lasers ( peak 35 % ) may also be limiting adoption of the diodes to niche uses . Pigments , food coloring and fireworks Many minerals provide pigments which have been used in green paints and dyes over the centuries . Pigments , in this case , are minerals which reflect the color green , rather that emitting it through luminescent or phosphorescent qualities . The large number of green pigments makes it impossible to mention them all . Among the more notable green minerals , however is the emerald , which is colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium . Chromium ( III ) oxide ( Cr2O3 ) , is called chrome green , also called viridian or institutional green when used as a pigment . For many years , the source of amazonite 's color was a mystery . Widely thought to have been due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors , the blue-green color is likely to be derived from small quantities of lead and water in the feldspar . Copper is the source of the green color in malachite pigments , chemically known as basic copper ( II ) carbonate . Verdigris is made by placing a plate or blade of copper , brass or bronze , slightly warmed , into a vat of fermenting wine , leaving it there for several weeks , and then scraping off and drying the green powder that forms on the metal . The process of making verdigris was described in ancient times by Pliny . It was used by the Romans in the murals of Pompeii , and in Celtic medieval manuscripts as early as the 5th century AD . It produced a blue-green which no other pigment could imitate , but it had drawbacks ; it was unstable , it could not resist dampness , it did not mix well with other colors , it could ruin other colors with which it came into contact. , and it was toxic . Leonardo da Vinci , in his treatise on painting , warned artists not to use it . It was widely used in miniature paintings in Europe and Persia in the 16th and 17th centuries . Its use largely ended in the late 19th century , when it was replaced by the safer and more stable chrome green . Viridian , also called chrome green , is a pigment made with chromium oxide dihydrate , was patented in 1859 . It became popular with painters , since , unlike other synthetic greens , it was stable and not toxic . Vincent van Gogh used it , along with Prussian blue , to create a dark blue sky with a greenish tint in his painting Cafe terrace at night . Green earth is a natural pigment used since the time of the Roman Empire . It is composed of clay colored by iron oxide , magnesium , aluminum silicate , or potassium . Large deposits were found in the South of France near Nice , and in Italy around Verona , on Cyprus , and in Bohemia . The clay was crushed , washed to remove impurities , then powdered . It was sometimes called Green of Verona . Mixtures of oxidized cobalt and zinc were also used to create green paints as early as the 18th century . Cobalt green , sometimes known as Rinman 's green or Zinc Green , is a translucent green pigment made by heating a mixture of cobalt ( II ) oxide and zinc oxide . Sven Rinman , a Swedish chemist , discovered this compound in 1780 . Green chrome oxide was a new synthetic green created by a chemist named Pannetier in Paris in about 1835 . Emerald green was a synthetic deep green made in the 19th century by hydrating chrome oxide . It was also known as Guignet Green . There is no natural source for green food colorings which has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration . Chlorophyll , the E numbers E140 and E141 , is the most common green chemical found in nature , and only allowed in certain medicines and cosmetic materials . Quinoline Yellow ( E104 ) is a commonly used coloring in the United Kingdom but is banned in Australia , Japan , Norway and the United States . Green S ( E142 ) is prohibited in many countries , for it is known to cause hyperactivity , asthma , urticaria , and insomnia . To create green sparks , fireworks use barium salts , such as barium chlorate , barium nitrate crystals , or barium chloride , also used for green fireplace logs . Copper salts typically burn blue , but cupric chloride ( also known as `` campfire blue '' ) can also produce green flames . Green pyrotechnic flares can use a mix ratio 75:25 of boron and potassium nitrate . Smoke can be turned green by a mixture : solvent yellow 33 , solvent green 3 , lactose , magnesium carbonate plus sodium carbonate added to potassium chlorate . Biology File : Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|The chloroplasts of plant cells contain a high concentration of chlorophyll , making them appear green . File : Caerulea3 crop.jpg|Frogs often appear green because light reflects off of a blue underlayer through a yellow upperlayer , filtering the light to be primarily green . File : Yellow-naped Amazon.jpg|A yellow-naped Amazon parrot , colored green for camouflage in the jungle File : Micrommata virescens ( Arcugnano ) .jpg|The green huntsman spider is green due to the presence of bilin pigments in the spider 's hemolymph and tissue fluids Green is common in nature , as many plants are green because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll , which is involved in photosynthesis . Chlorophyll absorbs the long wavelengths of light ( red ) and short wavelengths of light ( blue ) much more efficiently than the wavelengths that appear green to the human eye , so light reflected by plants is enriched in green . Chlorophyll absorbs green light poorly because it first arose in organisms living in oceans where purple halobacteria were already exploiting photosynthesis . Their purple color arose because they extracted energy in the green portion of the spectrum using bacteriorhodopsin . The new organisms that then later came to dominate the extraction of light were selected to exploit those portions of the spectrum not used by the halobacteria . Animals typically use the color green as camouflage , blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment . Green animals include , especially , amphibians , reptiles , and some fish , birds and insects . Most fish , reptiles , amphibians , and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment . Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment . For example , broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light . Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds , especially . Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments , sometimes caused by diet . This can causes their feces to look green as well . Other chemicals which generally contribute to greenness among organisms are flavins ( lychochromes ) and hemanovadin . Humans have imitated this by wearing green clothing as a camouflage in military and other fields . Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one 's skin include biliverdin , the green pigment in bile , and ceruloplasmin , a protein that carries copper ions in chelation . The green huntsman spider is green due to the presence of bilin pigments in the spider 's hemolymph ( circulatory system fluids ) and tissue fluids . It hunts insects in green vegetation , where it is well camouflaged . Green eyes There is no green pigment in green eyes ; like the color of blue eyes , it is an optical illusion ; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma , given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin , with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light . Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe . They can also be found in Southern Europe , West Asia , Central Asia , and South Asia . In Iceland , 89 % of women and 87 % of men have either blue or green eye color . A study of Icelandic and Dutch adults found green eyes to be much more prevalent in women than in men . Among European Americans , green eyes are most common among those of recent Celtic and Germanic ancestry , about 16 % . In history and art Prehistoric history Neolithic cave paintings do not have traces of green pigments , but neolithic peoples in northern Europe did make a green dye for clothing , made from the leaves of the birch tree . it was of very poor quality , more brown than green . Ceramics from ancient Mesopotamia show people wearing vivid green costumes , but it is not known how the colors were produced . Ancient history File : Gardens of Nakh 1.JPG|The gardens of ancient Egypt were symbols of rebirth . Tomb painting of the gardens of Amon at the temple of Karnak , from the tomb of Nakh , the chief gardener . Early 14th century BC . File : Osiris-tomb-of-Nefertari.jpg|The Ancient Egyptian god Osiris , ruler of the underworld and of rebirth and regeneration , was typically shown with a green face . ( Tomb of Nefertari , 12951253 BC ) . File : Primavera di Stabiae.jpg|Ancient Roman fresco of Flora , or Spring , from Stabiae ( 2nd century AD ) In Ancient Egypt green was the symbol of regeneration and rebirth , and of the crops made possible by the annual flooding of the Nile . For painting on the walls of tombs or on papyrus , Egyptian artists used finely-ground malachite , mined in the west Sinai and the eastern desert- A paintbox with malachite pigment was found inside the tomb of King Tutankhamun . They also used less expensive green earth pigment , or mixed yellow ochre and blue azurite . To dye fabrics green , they first colored them yellow with dye made from saffron and then soaked them in blue dye from the roots of the woad plant . For the ancient Egyptians , green had very positive associations . The hieroglyph for green represented a growing papyrus sprout , showing the close connection between green , vegetation , vigor and growth . In wall paintings , the ruler of the underworld , Osiris , was typically portrayed with a green face , because green was the symbol of good health and rebirth . Palettes of green facial makeup , made with malachite , were found in tombs . It was worn by both the living and dead , particularly around the eyes , to protect them from evil . Tombs also often contained small green amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite , which would protect and give vigor to the deceased . It also symbolized the sea , which was called the `` Very Green . '' In Ancient Greece , green and blue were sometimes considered the same color , and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees . The philosopher Democritus described two different greens ; cloron , or pale green , and prasinon , or leek green . Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black , symbolizing the earth , and white , symbolizing water . However , green was not counted among of the four classic colors of Greek painting ; red , yellow , black and white , and is rarely found in Greek art . The Romans had a greater appreciation for the color green ; it was the color of Venus , the goddess of gardens , vegetables and vineyards.The Romans made a fine green earth pigment , which was widely used in the wall paintings of Pompeii , Herculaneum , Lyon , Vaison-la-Romaine , and other Roman cities . They also used the pigment verdigris , made by soaking copper plates in fermenting wine . By the Second Century AD , the Romans were using green in paintings , mosaics and glass , and there were ten different words in Latin for varieties of green . Postclassical history File : Van Eyck - Arnolfini Portrait.jpg|In the Arnolfini portrait by Jan van Eyck ( 1434 ) , the rich green fabric of the dress showed the wealth and status of the family . File : Duccio di Buoninsegna 068.jpg|Duccio di Buoninsegna painted the faces in this painting ( 1308–1311 ) with an undercoat of green earth pigment . The surface pink has faded , making the faces look green today . File : Mona Lisa , by Leonardo da Vinci , from C2RMF retouched.jpg|The green costume of the Mona Lisa shows she was from the gentry , not from the nobility . File : Michael Pacher 004.jpg|In the 15th century `` Saint Wolfgang and the Devil '' by Michael Pacher , the Devil is green . Poets such as Chaucer also drew connections between the color green and the devil . File : Pietro Perugino cat67a.jpg|In this 1503 painting by Perugino , malachite pigment was used to paint the bright green garments of the worshippers , while the background greens

wh_925--Green.txt

Which other colour, along with yellow and green appears on the flag of Gabon?

A samovar ( , ; literally `` self-boil '' , Persian : Samāvar , Turkish : semaver ) is a heated metal container traditionally used to heat and boil water in and around Russia , as well as in countries in Central Europe , South-Eastern Europe , Eastern Europe , and the Middle-East . Since the heated water is typically used to make tea , many samovars have a ring-shaped attachment ( ) around the chimney to hold and heat a teapot filled with tea concentrate . Though traditionally heated with coal or charcoal , many newer samovars use electricity to heat water in a manner similar to an electric water boiler . Antique samovars are often prized for their beautiful workmanship . Description Samovars are typically crafted out of plain iron , copper , polished brass , bronze , silver , gold , tin , or nickel . A typical samovar consists of a body , base and chimney , cover and steam vent , handles , faucet and key , crown and ring , chimney extension and cap , drip-bowl , and teapot . The body shape can be an urn , krater , barrel , cylinder , or sphere . Sizes and designs vary , from large , `` 40-pail '' ones holding 400 L to those of a modest 1 L size . A traditional samovar consists of a large metal container with a faucet near the bottom and a metal pipe running vertically through the middle . The pipe is filled with solid fuel which is ignited to heat the water in the surrounding container . A small ( 6 to 8 inches ) smoke-stack is put on the top to ensure draft . After the water boils and the fire is extinguished , the smoke-stack can be removed and a teapot placed on top to be heated by the rising hot air . The teapot is used to brew a strong concentrate of tea known as заварка ( zavarka ) . The tea is served by diluting this concentrate with кипяток ( kipyatok ) ( boiled water ) from the main container , usually at a water : tea ratio of 10:1 , although tastes vary . Image:1989_CPA_6043.jpg|Baroque samovar , 18th century Image:1989_CPA_6044.jpg|Barrel type samovar , early 1800s Image:1989_CPA_6045.jpg| '' Squash '' type samovar , c. 1830 Image:1989 CPA 6046.jpg|Samovar in the form of a classical vase , c. 1840 History An owner of a unique collection of samovars , Shakhid Gabibullaev , has a modern-type samovar manufactured in 1717 , the first known samovar . The first historically recorded samovar-makers in Russia were the Lisitsyn brothers , Ivan Fyodorovich and Nazar Fyodorovich . From their childhood they were engaged in metalworking at the brass factory of their father , Fyodor Ivanovich Lisitsyn . In 1778 they made a samovar , and the same year Nazar Lisitsyn registered the first samovar-making factory in Russia . They may not have been the inventors of the samovar , but they were the first documented samovar-makers , and their various and beautiful samovar designs became very influential throughout the later history of samovar-making . These and other early producers lived in Tula , a city known for its metalworkers and arms-makers . Since the 18th century Tula has been also the main center of Russian samovar production , with tul'sky samovar being the brand mark of the city . A Russian saying equivalent to `` carrying coal to Newcastle '' is `` to travel to Tula with one 's own samovar '' . By the 19th century samovars were already a common feature of Russian tea culture . They were produced in large numbers and exported to Central Asia and other regions . Image : Golden samovar.jpg|Russian silver & enamel samovar , late 19th century Image : Golsen samovar with cup.jpg|Russian silver & enamel samovar with cup & tray , late 19th century Russia The samovar was an important attribute of a Russian household and particularly well-suited to tea-drinking in a communal setting over a protracted time period . The Russian expression `` to have a sit by the samovar '' means to have a leisurely talk while drinking tea from a samovar . This compares with the German Kaffeeklatsch , Swedish fika or Turkish nargile culture . In everyday use samovars were an economical permanent source of hot water in older times . Various slow-burning items could be used for fuel , such as charcoal or dry pinecones . When not in use , the fire in the samovar pipe faintly smouldered . As needed it could be quickly rekindled with the help of bellows . Although a Russian jackboot сапог ( sapog ) could be used for this purpose , bellows were manufactured specifically for use on samovars . Iran Samovar culture has an analog in Iran and is maintained by expatriates around the world . In Iran , samovars have been used for at least two centuries ( roughly since the era of close political and ethnic contact between Russia and Iran started ) , and electrical , oil-burning or natural gas-consuming samovars are still common . Samovar is pronounced samāvar in Persian . Iranian craftsmen used Persian art motifs in their samovar production . The Iranian city of Borujerd has been the main centre of samovar production and a few workshops still produce hand-made samovars . Borujerd ’ s samovars are often made with German silver , in keeping with the famous Varsho-Sazi artistic style . The art samovars of Borujerd are often displayed in Iranian and Western museums as illustrations of Iranian art and handicraft . Kashmir A samovar ( ) is a traditional Kashmiri kettle used to brew , boil and serve Kashmiri salted tea ( Noon Chai ) and kahwa . Kashmiri samovars are made of copper with engraved or embossed calligraphic motifs.In fact in Kashmir , there were two variants of Samovar.The copper Samovar was used by Muslims and that of Brass was used by local Hindus called Kashmiri Pandit.The brass Samovars were nickle plated inside . Inside a samovar there is a fire-container in which charcoal and live coals are placed . Around the fire-container there is a space for water to boil . Tea leaves , sugar , cardamom , and cinnamon are put into the water . Turkey File : Samovar 2.jpg File : Samovar 3.jpg File : Samovar 4.jpg File : Turkish samovar 2-1.jpg File : Turkish samovar 2-2.jpg File : Turkish samovar 2-3.jpg File : Turkish samovar 3-1.jpg File : Turkish samovar 3-2.jpg File : Turkish samovar 3-3.jpg Footnotes

odql_3536--Samovar.txt

Used when making tea, and deriving from the Russian for 'self brewer', what name is given to the heated metal container traditionally used to heat and boil water in Russia, Iran and Turkey?

Frankenstein ; or , The Modern Prometheus is a novel written by the English author Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley that tells the story of a young science student Victor Frankenstein , who creates a grotesque but sentient creature in an unorthodox scientific experiment . Shelley started writing the story when she was 18 , and the first edition of the novel was published anonymously in London in 1818 , when she was 20 . Shelley 's name first appeared on the second edition , published in France in 1823 . Shelley traveled through Europe in 1814 , journeying along the River Rhine in Germany with a stop in Gernsheim which is just 17 km ( 10 mi ) away from Frankenstein Castle , where , two centuries before , an alchemist was engaged in experiments . Later , she traveled in the region of Geneva ( Switzerland ) —where much of the story takes place—and the topic of galvanism and other similar occult ideas were themes of conversation among her companions , particularly her lover and future husband , Percy Shelley . Mary , Percy , Lord Byron and John Polidori decided to have a competition to see who could write the best horror story . After thinking for days , Shelley dreamt about a scientist who created life and was horrified by what he had made ; her dream later evolved into the novel 's story . Frankenstein is infused with elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement . At the same time , it is an early example of science fiction . Brian Aldiss has argued that it should be considered the first true science fiction story because , in contrast to previous stories with fantastical elements resembling those of later science fiction , the central character `` makes a deliberate decision '' and `` turns to modern experiments in the laboratory '' to achieve fantastic results . It has had a considerable influence in literature and popular culture and spawned a complete genre of horror stories , films and plays . Since the novel 's publication , the name `` Frankenstein '' has often been used to refer to the monster itself , as it is in the stage adaptation by Peggy Webling . This usage is sometimes considered erroneous , but usage commentators regard it as well-established and acceptable . In the novel , the monster is identified by words such as `` wretch '' , `` creature '' , `` monster '' , `` demon '' , and `` it '' . Speaking to Victor Frankenstein , the wretch refers to himself as `` the Adam of your labours '' , and elsewhere as someone who `` would have '' been `` your Adam '' , but is instead `` your fallen angel . '' Summary Frankenstein is written in the form of a frame story that starts with Captain Robert Walton writing letters to his sister . It takes place at an unspecified time in the 18th century , as the letters ' dates are given as `` 17— '' . Captain Walton 's introductory frame narrative The novel Frankenstein is written in epistolary form , documenting a fictional correspondence between Captain Robert Walton and his sister , Margaret Walton Saville . Walton is a failed writer who sets out to explore the North Pole and expand his scientific knowledge in hopes of achieving fame . During the voyage , the crew spots a dog sled driven by a gigantic figure . A few hours later , the crew rescues a nearly frozen and emaciated man named Victor Frankenstein . Frankenstein has been in pursuit of the gigantic man observed by Walton 's crew . Frankenstein starts to recover from his exertion ; he sees in Walton the same over-ambitiousness , and recounts a story of his life 's miseries to Walton as a warning . The recounted story serves as the frame for Frankenstein 's narrative . Victor Frankenstein 's narrative Victor begins by telling of his childhood . Born in Naples , into a wealthy Genevan family , Victor and his brothers , Ernest and William , all three being sons of Alphonse Frankenstein by the former Caroline Beaufort , are encouraged to seek a greater understanding of the world through science . As a young boy , Victor is obsessed with studying outdated theories that focus on simulating natural wonders . When Victor is five years old , his parents adopt the orphan daughter of an expropriated Italian nobleman , Elizabeth Lavenza , with whom Victor later falls in love . ( During this period , Victor 's parents , Alphonse and Caroline , take in yet another orphan , Justine Moritz , who becomes William 's nanny . ) Weeks before he leaves for the University of Ingolstadt in Germany , his mother dies of scarlet fever contracted from treating Elizabeth ( who had been infected first but survived ) , creating further impetus towards his experiments . At university , he excels at chemistry and other sciences , soon developing a secret technique to impart life to non-living matter , which eventually leads to his creation of the Creature . Because of the difficulty in replicating the minute parts of the human body , Victor makes the Creature large , about 8 ft in height . Despite his intentions , the beautiful creation of his dreams is instead hideous , with yellow eyes and skin that barely conceals the muscle tissue and blood vessels underneath . Repulsed by his work , Victor flees and dismisses him . While wandering the streets , he meets his childhood friend , Henry Clerval , and tries to show him his creation , but the Creature has escaped , saddened by his rejection . Victor falls ill from the experience and is nursed back to health by Henry . After a four-month recovery , he returns home when he learns of the murder of his brother William . Upon arriving in Geneva , Victor sees the Creature ( now called a Monster ) at the crime scene , leading him to believe he ( the Monster ) is responsible . Justine Moritz , William 's nanny , is convicted of the crime after William 's locket , which had contained a miniature portrait of Caroline , is found in her pocket . Victor doubts anyone would believe his story , which could stop Justine 's hanging . Ravaged by grief and guilt , Victor retreats into the mountains . The Monster finds him and pleads for Victor to hear his tale . Intelligent and articulate , the Creature says that his encounters with people led to his fear of them , driving him into the wilderness . While living in an abandoned structure connected to a cottage , he grew fond of the family living there . The Creature learned to speak by listening to them and he taught himself to read after discovering a lost satchel of books . When he saw his reflection in a pool , he realized his physical appearance was hideous , and it terrified him as it terrifies normal humans . Nevertheless , he approached the family in hopes of becoming their friend . Initially he was able to befriend the blind father figure of the family , but the rest were frightened and they all fled their home . The Creature then burned the cottage in a fit of rage , and murdered Victor 's brother William , framing Justine for the murder . The Creature demands that Victor create a female companion like himself . He argues that as a living being , he has a right to happiness . The Creature promises that he and his mate will vanish into the South American wilderness , never to reappear , if Victor grants his request . Fearing for his family , Victor reluctantly agrees . Clerval accompanies him to England , but they separate in Perth , Scotland . Victor suspects that the Creature is following him . Working on the female creature on the Orkney Islands , he is plagued by premonitions of disaster , particularly the idea that creating a mate for the Creature might lead to the breeding of a race that could plague mankind . He destroys the female creature after he sees the Creature watching through a window . The Creature confronts him , vowing to be with Victor and Elizabeth on their upcoming wedding night . The Creature then kills Clerval , leaving the corpse to be found where Victor lands in Ireland . Victor is imprisoned for Clerval 's murder and suffers another mental breakdown in prison . After being acquitted , he returns home with his father , who has restored to Elizabeth some of her father 's fortune . In Geneva , Victor is about to marry Elizabeth and prepares to fight the Creature . Believing the Creature threatened his life , the night before their wedding Victor asks Elizabeth to stay in her room while he looks for `` the fiend . '' While Victor searches the house and grounds , the Creature murders Elizabeth . From the window , Victor sees the Creature , who taunts Victor with Elizabeth 's corpse . Grief-stricken by the deaths of William , Justine , Clerval , and Elizabeth , Victor 's father dies . Seeking revenge , Victor pursues the Creature to the North Pole , but he does not manage to kill his creation . Captain Walton 's concluding frame narrative At the end of Victor 's narrative , Captain Walton resumes the telling of the story , closing the frame around Victor 's reaccounting . A few days after the creature vanishes , the ship becomes trapped in pack ice and Walton 's crew insists on returning south once it is freed . In spite of a passionate speech from Victor , encouraging the crew to push further north , Walton realizes that he must accede to his men 's demands and agrees to head for home . Victor becomes agitated , insisting on continuing to search for the Creature , but is too weak from his exertions and dies shortly thereafter . Walton discovers the Creature on his ship , mourning over Victor 's body . Walton hears the Creature 's reasons for his vengeance and expressions of remorse . Victor 's death has not brought him peace . Rather , his crimes have increased his misery and alienation , and his words are almost exactly identical to Victor 's own in describing himself . The Creature vows to kill himself on his own funeral pyre so that no others will ever know of his existence . Walton watches as he drifts away on an ice raft that is soon lost in darkness , never to be seen again . Composition During the rainy summer of 1816 , the `` Year Without a Summer '' , the world was locked in a long cold volcanic winter caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815 . Mary Shelley , aged 18 , and her lover ( and later husband ) Percy Bysshe Shelley , visited Lord Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva in Switzerland . The weather was consistently too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor holiday activities they had planned , so the group retired indoors until dawn . Sitting around a log fire at Byron 's villa , the company amused themselves by reading German ghost stories translated into French from the book Fantasmagoriana , then Byron proposed that they `` each write a ghost story '' . Unable to think of a story , young Mary became anxious : `` Have you thought of a story ? I was asked each morning , and each morning I was forced to reply with a mortifying negative . '' During one evening in the middle of summer , the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life . `` Perhaps a corpse would be re-animated '' , Mary noted , `` galvanism had given token of such things '' . It was after midnight before they retired , and unable to sleep , she became possessed by her imagination as she beheld the grim terrors of her `` waking dream '' . In September 2011 , astronomer Donald Olson , after a visit to the Lake Geneva villa the previous year , and inspecting data about the motion of the moon and stars , concluded that her `` waking dream '' took place `` between 2 a.m. and 3 a.m. '' on 16 June 1816 , several days after the initial idea by Lord Byron that they each write a ghost story . She began writing what she assumed would be a short story . With Percy Shelley 's encouragement , she expanded the tale into a full-fledged novel . She later described that summer in Switzerland as the moment `` when I first stepped out from childhood into life '' . Shelley wrote the first four chapters in the weeks following the suicide of her half-sister Fanny . Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the vampire legends he heard while travelling the Balkans , and from this John Polidori created The Vampyre ( 1819 ) , the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary genre . Thus two legendary horror tales originated from the conclave . The group talked about Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment ideas as well . Shelley believed the Enlightenment idea that society could progress and grow if political leaders used their powers responsibly ; however , she also believed the Romantic ideal that misused power could destroy society ( Bennett 36–42 ) . Mary 's and Percy Bysshe Shelley 's manuscripts for the first three-volume edition in 1818 ( written 1816–1817 ) , as well as Mary Shelley 's fair copy for her publisher , are now housed in the Bodleian Library in Oxford . The Bodleian acquired the papers in 2004 , and they belong now to the Abinger Collection . In 2008 , the Bodleian published a new edition of Frankenstein , edited by Charles E. Robinson , that contains comparisons of Mary Shelley 's original text with Percy Shelley 's additions and interventions alongside . Publication Shelley completed her writing in May 1817 , and Frankenstein ; or , The Modern Prometheus was first published on March 11 , 1818 by the small London publishing house Lackington , Hughes , Harding , Mavor , & Jones . It was issued anonymously , with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin , her father . It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes , the standard `` triple-decker '' format for 19th-century first editions . The second edition of Frankenstein was published on August 11 , 1822 in two volumes ( by G. and W. B. Whittaker ) following the success of the stage play Presumption ; or , the Fate of Frankenstein by Richard Brinsley Peake ; this edition credited Mary Shelley as the author . On October 31 , 1831 , the first `` popular '' edition in one volume appeared , published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley . This edition was heavily revised by Mary Shelley , partially because of pressure to make the story more conservative . It included a new , longer preface by herself , presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story . This edition tends to be the one most widely read now , although editions containing the original 1818 text are still published . Many scholars prefer the 1818 text , arguing that it preserves the spirit of Shelley 's original publication ( see Anne K. Mellor 's `` Choosing a Text of Frankenstein to Teach '' in the W. W. Norton Critical edition ) . Frankenstein and the Monster The creature Part of Frankenstein 's rejection of his creation is the fact that he does not give it a name , which causes a lack of identity . Instead it is referred to by words such as `` wretch '' , `` monster '' , `` creature '' , `` demon '' , `` devil '' , `` fiend '' , and `` it '' . When Frankenstein converses with the creature in Chapter 10 , he addresses it as `` vile insect '' , `` abhorred monster '' , `` fiend '' , `` wretched devil '' , and `` abhorred devil '' . During a telling of Frankenstein , Shelley referred to the creature as `` Adam '' . Shelley was referring to the first man in the Garden of Eden , as in her epigraph : Did I request thee , Maker , from my clay To mould Me man ? Did I solicit thee From darkness to promote me ? : John Milton , Paradise Lost ( X . 743–5 ) Although the monster would be described in later works as a composite of whole body parts grafted together from cadavers and reanimated by the use of electricity , this description is not entirely consistent with Shelley 's work ; both the use of electricity and the cobbled-together image of Frankenstein 's monster were more the result of James Whale 's popular 1931 film adaptation of the story , and other early motion-picture works based upon the creature . In Shelley 's original work , Dr. Frankenstein discovers a previously unknown but elemental principle of life , and that insight allows him to develop a method to imbue vitality into inanimate matter , though the exact nature of the process is left largely ambiguous . After a great deal of hesitation in exercising this power , the doctor spends two years painstakingly constructing the creature 's body ( one anatomical feature at a time , from raw materials supplied by `` the dissecting room and the slaughter-house '' ) , which he then brings to life using his unspecified process . The creature has often been mistakenly called `` Frankenstein '' . In 1908 one author said `` It is strange to note how well-nigh universally the term `` Frankenstein '' is misused , even by intelligent people , as describing some hideous monster '' . Edith Wharton 's The Reef ( 1916 ) describes an unruly child as an `` infant Frankenstein . '' David Lindsay 's `` The Bridal Ornament '' , published in The Rover , 12 June 1844 , mentioned `` the maker of poor Frankenstein . '' After the release of Whale 's cinematic Frankenstein , the public at large began speaking of the creature itself as `` Frankenstein '' . This also occurs in Frankenstein films , including Bride of Frankenstein ( 1935 ) and several subsequent films , as well as in film titles such as Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein . Furthermore , future renditions and adaptations of the story include an evil laboratory assistant Igor/Ygor , who does not actually exist within the original narrative . Victor Frankenstein 's surname Mary Shelley maintained that she derived the name Frankenstein from a dream-vision . Despite her public claims of originality , however , a number of other sources have been suggested as Shelley 's actual inspiration . The German name Frankenstein means `` stone of the Franks '' , and it is associated with various places in Germany , including Frankenstein Castle ( Burg Frankenstein ) in Darmstadt , Hesse , and Frankenstein Castle in Frankenstein , a town in the Palatinate . There is also a castle called Frankenstein in Bad Salzungen , Thuringia , and a municipality called Frankenstein in Saxony . Until 1945 , Ząbkowice Śląskie , now a city in Silesia , Poland , was named Frankenstein in German , and was the site of a scandal involving gravediggers in 1606 , which has been suggested as an inspiration to the author . Finally , the name is borne by the aristocratic House of Franckenstein from Franconia . Radu Florescu argues that Mary and Percy Shelley visited Frankenstein Castle near Darmstadt in 1814 during their return to England from their elopement to Switzerland . It was at this castle that a notorious alchemist , Conrad Dippel , had experimented with human bodies , and Florescu reasons that Mary suppressed mention of her visit in order to maintain her public claim of originality . A literary essay by A. J . Day supports Florescu 's position that Mary Shelley knew of and visited Frankenstein Castle before writing her debut novel . Day includes details of an alleged description of the Frankenstein castle that exists in Mary Shelley 's 'lost ' journals . According to Jörg Heléne , the 'lost journals ' , as well as Florescu 's claims , can not be verified . Victor Frankenstein 's given name A possible interpretation of the name Victor is derived from Paradise Lost by John Milton , a great influence on Shelley ( a quotation from Paradise Lost is on the opening page of Frankenstein and Shelley even has the monster himself read it ) . Milton frequently refers to God as `` the Victor '' in Paradise Lost , and Shelley sees Victor as playing God by creating life . In addition , Shelley 's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of Satan in Paradise Lost ; indeed , the monster says , after reading the epic poem , that he empathizes with Satan 's role in the story . There are many similarities between Victor and Percy Shelley , Mary 's husband . Victor was a pen name of Percy Shelley 's , as in the collection of poetry he wrote with his sister Elizabeth , Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire . There is speculation that one of Mary Shelley 's models for Victor Frankenstein was Percy , who at Eton had `` experimented with electricity and magnetism as well as with gunpowder and numerous chemical reactions '' , and whose rooms at Oxford were filled with scientific equipment . Percy Shelley was the first-born son of a wealthy country squire with strong political connections and a descendant of Sir Bysshe Shelley , 1st Baronet of Castle Goring , and Richard Fitzalan , 10th Earl of Arundel . Victor 's family is one of the most distinguished of that republic and his ancestors were counselors and syndics . Percy had a sister named Elizabeth ; Victor had an adopted sister named Elizabeth . On 22 February 1815 , Mary Shelley gave birth to a baby two months prematurely , and the baby died two weeks later . Percy did not care about the condition of this premature infant and left with Claire , Mary 's stepsister , for a lurid affair . When Victor saw the creature come to life he fled the apartment , though the newborn creature approached him , as a child would a parent . The question of Victor 's responsibility to the creature is one of the main themes of the book . Modern Prometheus The Modern Prometheus is the novel 's subtitle ( though some modern editions now drop the subtitle , mentioning it only in an introduction ) . Prometheus , in later versions of Greek mythology , was the Titan who created mankind at the behest of Zeus . He made a being in the image of the gods that could have a spirit breathed into it . Prometheus taught man to hunt , read , and heal their sick , but after he tricked Zeus into accepting poor-quality offerings from humans , Zeus kept fire from mankind . Prometheus , being the creator , took back the fire from Zeus to give to man . When Zeus discovered this , he sentenced Prometheus to be eternally punished by fixing him to a rock of Caucasus , where each day an eagle would peck out his liver , only for the liver to regrow the next day because of his immortality as a god . He was intended to suffer alone for eternity , but eventually Heracles ( Hercules ) released him . Prometheus was also a myth told in Latin , but was a very different story . In this version Prometheus makes man from clay and water , again a very relevant theme to Frankenstein , as Victor rebels against the laws of nature ( how life is naturally made ) and as a result is punished by his creation . The Titan in the Greek mythology of Prometheus parallels Victor Frankenstein . Victor 's work by creating man by new means reflects the same innovative work of the Titan in creating humans . Some have claimed that Mary Shelley saw Prometheus not as a hero but rather as something of a devil , and blamed him for bringing fire to man and thereby seducing the human race to the vice of eating meat ( fire brought cooking which brought hunting and killing ) . Byron was particularly attached to the play Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus , and Percy Shelley would soon write his own Prometheus Unbound ( 1820 ) . The term `` Modern Prometheus '' was actually coined by Immanuel Kant in reference to Benjamin Franklin and his experiments with electricity . Shelley 's sources Shelley incorporated a number of different sources into her work , one of which was the Promethean myth from Ovid . The influence of John Milton 's Paradise Lost , and Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner , are also clearly evident within the novel . Mary is likely to have acquired some ideas for Frankenstein 's character from Humphry Davy 's book Elements of Chemical Philosophy , in which he had written that `` science has ... bestowed upon man powers which may be called creative ; which have enabled him to change and modify the beings around him ... '' . References to the French Revolution run through the novel ; a possible source may lie in François-Félix Nogaret 's Le Miroir des événemens actuels , ou la Belle au plus offrant ( 1790 ) : a political parable about scientific progress featuring an inventor named Frankénsteïn who creates a life-sized automaton . Within the past thirty years or so , many writers and historians have attempted to associate several then popular natural philosophers ( now called physical scientists ) with Shelley 's work on account of several notable similarities . Two of the most notable natural philosophers among Shelley 's contemporaries were Giovanni Aldini , who made many public attempts at human reanimation through bio-electric Galvanism in London and Johann Konrad Dippel , who was supposed to have developed chemical means to extend the life span of humans . While Shelley was obviously aware of both these men and their activities , she makes no mention of or reference to them or their experiments in any of her published or released notes . Reception The initial critical reception of the book was mostly unfavorable , compounded by confused speculation as to the identity of the author . Sir Walter Scott wrote that `` upon the whole , the work impresses us with a high idea of the author 's original genius and happy power of expression '' , but the Quarterly Review described it `` a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity '' . Mary Shelley had contact with some of the most influential minds of her time . Shelley 's father , William Godwin , was very progressive and encouraged his daughter to participate in the conversations that took place in his home with various scientific minds , many of whom were actively engaged in the study of anatomy . She was familiar with the ideas of using dead bodies for study , the newer theory of using electricity to animate the dead , and the concerns of religion and the general public regarding the morality of tampering with God 's work . Despite the reviews , Frankenstein achieved an almost immediate popular success . It became widely known especially through melodramatic theatrical adaptations—Mary Shelley saw a production of Presumption ; or The Fate of Frankenstein , a play by Richard Brinsley Peake , in 1823 . A French translation appeared as early as 1821 ( Frankenstein : ou le Prométhée Moderne , translated by Jules Saladin ) . Frankenstein has been both well received and disregarded since its anonymous publication in 1818 . Critical reviews of that time demonstrate these two views . The Belle Assemblee described the novel as `` very bold fiction '' ( 139 ) . The Quarterly Review stated that `` the author has the power of both conception and language '' ( 185 ) . Sir Walter Scott , writing in Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine congratulated `` the author 's original genius and happy power of expression ''

qz_2384--Frankenstein.txt

Who played Frankenstein in the 1994 film of the same name?

A flower , sometimes known as a bloom or blossom , is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral ( plants of the division Magnoliophyta , also called angiosperms ) . The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction , usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs . Flowers may facilitate outcrossing ( fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population ) or allow selfing ( fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower ) . Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization ( parthenocarpy ) . Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop . Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals , so as to cause them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen . After fertilization , the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds . In addition to facilitating the reproduction of flowering plants , flowers have long been admired and used by humans to beautify their environment , and also as objects of romance , ritual , religion , medicine and as a source of food . Morphology Floral parts The essential parts of a flower can be considered in two parts : the vegetative part , consisting of petals and associated structures in the perianth , and the reproductive or sexual parts . A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk . Each of these kinds of parts is arranged in a whorl on the receptacle . The four main whorls ( starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards ) are as follows : Vegetative ( Perianth ) Collectively the calyx and corolla form the perianth ( see diagram ) . * Calyx : the outermost whorl consisting of units called sepals ; these are typically green and enclose the rest of the flower in the bud stage , however , they can be absent or prominent and petal-like in some species . * Corolla : the next whorl toward the apex , composed of units called petals , which are typically thin , soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination . Reproductive * Androecium ( from Greek andros oikia : man 's house ) : the next whorl ( sometimes multiplied into several whorls ) , consisting of units called stamens . Stamens consist of two parts : a stalk called a filament , topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis and eventually dispersed . * Gynoecium ( from Greek gynaikos oikia : woman 's house ) : the innermost whorl of a flower , consisting of one or more units called carpels . The carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary , which produces ovules internally . Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes . These give rise to egg cells . The gynoecium of a flower is also described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl ( consisting of an ovary , style and stigma ) is called a pistil . A pistil may consist of a single carpel or a number of carpels fused together . The sticky tip of the pistil , the stigma , is the receptor of pollen . The supportive stalk , the style , becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma . The relationship to the gynoecium on the receptacle is described as hypogynous ( beneath a superior ovary ) , perigynous ( surrounding a superior ovary ) , or epigynous ( above inferior ovary ) . Structure Although the arrangement described above is considered `` typical '' , plant species show a wide variation in floral structure . These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species . The four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function . Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part . In some families , like Ranunculaceae , the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like . Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like ; the double flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens . Flowers show great variation and plant scientists describe this variation in a systematic way to identify and distinguish species . Specific terminology is used to describe flowers and their parts . Many flower parts are fused together ; fused parts originating from the same whorl are connate , while fused parts originating from different whorls are adnate ; parts that are not fused are free . When petals are fused into a tube or ring that falls away as a single unit , they are sympetalous ( also called gamopetalous ) . Connate petals may have distinctive regions : the cylindrical base is the tube , the expanding region is the throat and the flaring outer region is the limb . A sympetalous flower , with bilateral symmetry with an upper and lower lip , is bilabiate . Flowers with connate petals or sepals may have various shaped corolla or calyx , including campanulate , funnelform , tubular , urceolate , salverform or rotate . Referring to `` fusion , '' as it is commonly done , appears questionable because at least some of the processes involved may be non-fusion processes . For example , the addition of intercalary growth at or below the base of the primordia of floral appendages such as sepals , petals , stamens and carpels may lead to a common base that is not the result of fusion . Many flowers have a symmetry . When the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point , symmetrical halves are produced , forming a radial symmetry . These flowers are also known to be actinomorphic or regular , e.g . rose or trillium . When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic , e.g . snapdragon or most orchids . Flowers may be directly attached to the plant at their base ( sessile—the supporting stalk or stem is highly reduced or absent ) . The stem or stalk subtending a flower is called a peduncle . If a peduncle supports more than one flower , the stems connecting each flower to the main axis are called pedicels . The apex of a flowering stem forms a terminal swelling which is called the torus or receptacle . Inflorescence In those species that have more than one flower on an axis , the collective cluster of flowers is termed an inflorescence . Some inflorescences are composed of many small flowers arranged in a formation that resembles a single flower . The common example of this is most members of the very large composite ( Asteraceae ) group . A single daisy or sunflower , for example , is not a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence composed of numerous flowers ( or florets ) . An inflorescence may include specialized stems and modified leaves known as bracts . Floral diagrams and floral formulae A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters , numbers and symbols , presenting substantial information about the flower in a compact form . It can represent a taxon , usually giving ranges of the numbers of different organs , or particular species . Floral formulae have been developed in the early 19th century and their use has declined since . Prenner et al . ( 2010 ) devised an extension of the existing model to broaden the descriptive capability of the formula . The format of floral formulae differs in different parts of the world , yet they convey the same information . The structure of a flower can also be expressed by the means of floral diagrams . The use of schematic diagrams can replace long descriptions or complicated drawings as a tool for understanding both floral structure and evolution . Such diagrams may show important features of flowers , including the relative positions of the various organs , including the presence of fusion and symmetry , as well as structural details . Development A flower develops on a modified shoot or axis from a determinate apical meristem ( determinate meaning the axis grows to a set size ) . It has compressed internodes , bearing structures that in classical plant morphology are interpreted as highly modified leaves . Detailed developmental studies , however , have shown that stamens are often initiated more or less like modified stems ( caulomes ) that in some cases may even resemble branchlets . Taking into account the whole diversity in the development of the androecium of flowering plants , we find a continuum between modified leaves ( phyllomes ) , modified stems ( caulomes ) , and modified branchlets ( shoots ) . Flowering transition The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle . The transition must take place at a time that is favorable for fertilization and the formation of seeds , hence ensuring maximal reproductive success . To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in levels of plant hormones and seasonable temperature and photoperiod changes . Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernalization to flower . The molecular interpretation of these signals is through the transmission of a complex signal known as florigen , which involves a variety of genes , including CONSTANS , FLOWERING LOCUS C and FLOWERING LOCUS T. Florigen is produced in the leaves in reproductively favorable conditions and acts in buds and growing tips to induce a number of different physiological and morphological changes . The first step of the transition is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia . This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of leaf , bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs . Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end . These protuberances develop into the sepals , petals , stamens , and carpels . Once this process begins , in most plants , it can not be reversed and the stems develop flowers , even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent of some environmental cue . Once the process begins , even if that cue is removed the stem will continue to develop a flower . Organ development The molecular control of floral organ identity determination appears to be fairly well understood in some species . In a simple model , three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the organ primordia within the floral meristem . These gene functions are called A , B and C-gene functions . In the first floral whorl only A-genes are expressed , leading to the formation of sepals . In the second whorl both A- and B-genes are expressed , leading to the formation of petals . In the third whorl , B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C-genes alone give rise to carpels . The model is based upon studies of homeotic mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana and snapdragon , Antirrhinum majus . For example , when there is a loss of B-gene function , mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual , but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation . In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of C-function mimics the fourth whorl , leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl . See also The ABC Model of Flower Development . Most genes central in this model belong to the MADS-box genes and are transcription factors that regulate the expression of the genes specific for each floral organ . Floral function The principal purpose of a flower is the reproduction of the individual and the species . All flowering plants are heterosporous , producing two types of spores . Microspores are produced by meiosis inside anthers while megaspores are produced inside ovules , inside an ovary . In fact , anthers typically consist of four microsporangia and an ovule is an integumented megasporangium . Both types of spores develop into gametophytes inside sporangia . As with all heterosporous plants , the gametophytes also develop inside the spores ( are endosporic ) . In the majority of species , individual flowers have both functional carpels and stamens . Botanists describe these flowers as being perfect or bisexual and the species as hermaphroditic . Some flowers lack one or the other reproductive organ and called imperfect or unisexual . If unisex flowers are found on the same individual plant but in different locations , the species is said to be monoecious . If each type of unisex flower is found only on separate individuals , the plant is dioecious . Flower specialization and pollination Flowering plants usually face selective pressure to optimize the transfer of their pollen , and this is typically reflected in the morphology of the flowers and the behaviour of the plants . Pollen may be transferred between plants via a number of 'vectors ' . Some plants make use of abiotic vectors — namely wind ( anemophily ) or , much less commonly , water ( hydrophily ) . Others use biotic vectors including insects ( entomophily ) , birds ( ornithophily ) , bats ( chiropterophily ) or other animals . Some plants make use of multiple vectors , but many are highly specialised . Cleistogamous flowers are self-pollinated , after which they may or may not open . Many Viola and some Salvia species are known to have these types of flowers . The flowers of plants that make use of biotic pollen vectors commonly have glands called nectaries that act as an incentive for animals to visit the flower . Some flowers have patterns , called nectar guides , that show pollinators where to look for nectar . Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and color . Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators . Some species of orchids , for example , produce flowers resembling female bees in color , shape , and scent . Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant ( such as nectar , pollen , or a mate ) . In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species , the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits . Anemophilous flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next . Examples include grasses , birch trees , ragweed and maples . They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be `` showy '' flowers . Male and female reproductive organs are generally found in separate flowers , the male flowers having a number of long filaments terminating in exposed stamens , and the female flowers having long , feather-like stigmas . Whereas the pollen of animal-pollinated flowers tends to be large-grained , sticky , and rich in protein ( another `` reward '' for pollinators ) , anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained , very light , and of little nutritional value to animals . Pollination The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction . Since the flowers are the reproductive organs of plant , they mediate the joining of the sperm , contained within pollen , to the ovules — contained in the ovary . Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma . The joining of the sperm to the ovules is called fertilization . Normally pollen is moved from one plant to another , but many plants are able to self pollinate . The fertilized ovules produce seeds that are the next generation . Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring , allowing for adaptation . Flowers have specific designs which encourages the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species . Many plants are dependent upon external factors for pollination , including : wind and animals , and especially insects . Even large animals such as birds , bats , and pygmy possums can be employed . The period of time during which this process can take place ( the flower is fully expanded and functional ) is called anthesis . The study of pollination by insects is called anthecology . Pollen The types of pollen that most commonly cause allergic reactions are produced by the plain-looking plants ( trees , grasses , and weeds ) that do not have showy flowers . These plants make small , light , dry pollen grains that are custom-made for wind transport . The type of allergens in the pollen is the main factor that determines whether the pollen is likely to cause hay fever . For example , pine tree pollen is produced in large amounts by a common tree , which would make it a good candidate for causing allergy . It is , however , a relatively rare cause of allergy because the types of allergens in pine pollen appear to make it less allergenic . Among North American plants , weeds are the most prolific producers of allergenic pollen . Ragweed is the major culprit , but other important sources are sagebrush , redroot pigweed , lamb 's quarters , Russian thistle ( tumbleweed ) , and English plantain . There is much confusion about the role of flowers in allergies . For example , the showy and entomophilous goldenrod ( Solidago ) is frequently blamed for respiratory allergies , of which it is innocent , since its pollen can not be airborne . Instead the allergen is usually the pollen of the contemporary bloom of anemophilous ragweed ( Ambrosia ) , which can drift for many kilometers . Scientists have collected samples of ragweed pollen 400 miles out at sea and 2 miles high in the air . A single ragweed plant can generate a million grains of pollen per day . It is common to hear people say they are allergic to colorful or scented flowers like roses . In fact , only florists , gardeners , and others who have prolonged , close contact with flowers are likely to be sensitive to pollen from these plants . Most people have little contact with the large , heavy , waxy pollen grains of such flowering plants because this type of pollen is not carried by wind but by insects such as butterflies and bees . Attraction methods Plants can not move from one location to another , thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations . Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called entomophilous ; literally `` insect-loving '' in Greek . They can be highly modified along with the pollinating insects by co-evolution . Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar . Birds and bees have color vision , enabling them to seek out `` colorful '' flowers . Some flowers have patterns , called nectar guides , that show pollinators where to look for nectar ; they may be visible only under ultraviolet light , which is visible to bees and some other insects . Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and some of those scents are pleasant to our sense of smell . Not all flower scents are appealing to humans ; a number of flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals , often called Carrion flowers , including Rafflesia , the titan arum , and the North American pawpaw ( Asimina triloba ) . Flowers pollinated by night visitors , including bats and moths , are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and most such flowers are white . Other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators . Some species of orchids , for example , produce flowers resembling female bees in color , shape , and scent . Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate . Pollination mechanism The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what method of pollination is utilized . Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination methods : Entomophilous : flowers attract and use insects , bats , birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next . Often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant ( such as nectar , pollen , or a mate ) . In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species , the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits . Many flowers rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination . Others , such as the Sarracenia or lady-slipper orchids , have elaborate designs to ensure pollination while preventing self-pollination . Anemophilous : flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next , examples include the grasses , Birch trees , Ragweed and Maples . They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to grow large blossoms . Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained , sticky , and rich in protein ( another `` reward '' for pollinators ) , anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained , very light , and of little nutritional value to insects , though it may still be gathered in times of dearth . Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn ( maize ) pollen , though it is of little value to them . Some flowers are self-pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self-pollinated before the flowers open , these flowers are called cleistogamous . Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers . Flower-pollinator relationships Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms . Many flowers , for example , attract only one specific species of insect , and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction . This close relationship is often given as an example of coevolution , as the flower and pollinator are thought to have developed together over a long period of time to match each other 's needs . This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction . The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean almost certain extinction of the other member as well . Some endangered plant species are so because of shrinking pollinator populations . Fertilization and dispersal Some flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization , which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation . The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize , such as many dandelions . Conversely , many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization . Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time , or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules . The latter flower types , which have chemical barriers to their own pollen , are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible . Evolution While land plants have existed for about 425 million years , the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts : spores . In the sea , plants—and some animals—can simply scatter out genetic clones of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere . This is how early plants reproduced . But plants soon evolved methods of protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even more likely on land than in the sea . The protection became the seed , though it had not yet evolved the flower . Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo and conifers . The earliest fossil of a flowering plant , Archaefructus liaoningensis , is dated about 125 million years old . Several groups of extinct gymnosperms , particularly seed ferns , have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved . The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an `` abominable mystery '' by Charles Darwin . Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus , along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms , suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps . Recent DNA analysis ( molecular systematics ) shows that Amborella trichopoda , found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia , is the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants , and morphological studies suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants . The general assumption is that the function of flowers , from the start , was to involve animals in the reproduction process . Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes , which would therefore be a liability , using the plant 's resources , unless they provide some other benefit . One proposed reason for the sudden , fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island , or chain of islands , where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal ( a wasp , for example ) , the way many island species develop today . This symbiotic relationship , with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today , could have eventually resulted in both the plant ( s ) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization . Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation , especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms . Note that the wasp example is not incidental ; bees , apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships , are descended from wasps . Likewise , most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower . This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it , and thus scattering the seeds it contains . While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland organisms , flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production , spreading ( whatever their actual origin ) to become the dominant form of land plant life . While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million years ago , there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250 million years ago . A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers , oleanane , has been detected in fossil plants that old , including gigantopterids , which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern , flowering plants , though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves , because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail ; one of the earliest examples of petrification . The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important , because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants , a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots . The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts , often separate from ( but in contact with ) each other . The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern , to be bisexual ( in plants , this means both male and female parts on the same flower ) , and to

sfq_22941--Flower.txt

The laburnum tree has what colour flowers?

Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe ( from , ultimately from ferre to bear or carry ) and atomic number 26 . It is a metal in the first transition series . It is by mass the most common element on Earth , forming much of Earth 's outer and inner core . It is the fourth most common element in the Earth 's crust . Its abundance in rocky planets like Earth is due to its abundant production by fusion in high-mass stars , where the production of nickel-56 ( which decays to the most common isotope of iron ) is the last nuclear fusion reaction that is exothermic . Consequently , radioactive nickel is the last element to be produced before the violent collapse of a supernova , which scatters this precursor radionuclide of stable iron into space . Like the other group 8 elements , ruthenium and osmium , iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states , −2 to +6 , although +2 and +3 are the most common . Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments , but is reactive to oxygen and water . Fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray , but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides , commonly known as rust . Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers , iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off , exposing fresh surfaces for corrosion . Iron metal has been used since ancient times , although copper alloys , which have lower melting temperatures , were used even earlier in human history . Pure iron is relatively soft , but is unobtainable by smelting . The material is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities , in particular carbon , from the smelting process . A certain proportion of carbon ( between 0.002 % and 2.1 % ) produces steel , which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron . Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces , where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron , which has a high carbon content . Further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel . Steels and iron alloys formed with other metals ( alloy steels ) are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties and iron-bearing rock is abundant . Iron chemical compounds have many uses . Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction , used in welding and purifying ores . Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens . Among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene , the first sandwich compound discovered . Iron plays an important role in biology , forming complexes with molecular oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin ; these two compounds are common oxygen transport proteins in vertebrates . Iron is also the metal at the active site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants and animals . A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body , a female about 3.5 grams . This iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin , tissues , muscles , bone marrow , blood proteins , enzymes , ferritin , hemosiderin , and transport in plasma . Characteristics Mechanical properties The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests , including the Brinell test , Rockwell test and the Vickers hardness test . The data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests . However , the mechanical properties of iron are significantly affected by the sample 's purity : pure , single crystals of iron are actually softer than aluminium , and the purest industrially produced iron ( 99.99 % ) has a hardness of 20–30 Brinell . An increase in the carbon content will cause a significant increase in the iron 's hardness and tensile strength . Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0.6 % carbon content , although the alloy has low tensile strength . Because of the softness of iron , it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium.Greenwood and Earnshaw , pp . 1074–5 Because of its significance for planetary cores , the physical properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively . The form of iron that is stable under standard conditions can be subjected to pressures up to ca . 15 GPa before transforming into a high-pressure form , as described in the next section . Phase diagram and allotropes Iron represents an example of allotropy in a metal . There are at least four allotropic forms of iron , known as α , γ , δ , and ε ; at very high pressures , some controversial experimental evidence exists for a phase β stable at very high pressures and temperatures . As molten iron cools it crystallizes at 1538 °C into its δ allotrope , which has a body-centered cubic ( bcc ) crystal structure . As it cools further to 1394 °C , it changes to its γ-iron allotrope , a face-centered cubic ( fcc ) crystal structure , or austenite . At 912 °C and below , the crystal structure again becomes the bcc α-iron allotrope , or ferrite . Finally , at 770 °C ( the Curie point , Tc ) iron becomes magnetic . As the iron passes through the Curie temperature there is no change in crystalline structure , but there is a change in `` domain structure '' , where each domain contains iron atoms with a particular electronic spin . In unmagnetized iron , all the electronic spins of the atoms within one domain have the same axis orientation ; however , the electrons of neighboring domains have other orientations with the result of mutual cancellation and no magnetic field . In magnetized iron , the electronic spins of the domains are aligned and the magnetic effects are reinforced . Although each domain contains billions of atoms , they are very small , about 10 micrometres across . At pressures above approximately 10 GPa and temperatures of a few hundred kelvin or less , α-iron changes into a hexagonal close-packed ( hcp ) structure , which is also known as ε-iron ; the higher-temperature γ-phase also changes into ε-iron , but does so at higher pressure . The β-phase , if it exists , would appear at pressures of at least 50 GPa and temperatures of at least 1500 K and have an orthorhombic or a double hcp structure . Iron is of greatest importance when mixed with certain other metals and with carbon to form steels . There are many types of steel , all with different properties , and an understanding of the properties of the allotropes of iron is key to the manufacture of good quality steels.Greenwood and Earnshaw , pp . 1071–2 α-iron , also known as ferrite , is the most stable form of iron at normal temperatures . It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon ( no more than 0.021 % by mass at 910 °C ) . Above 912 °C and up to 1400 °C α-iron undergoes a phase transition from bcc to the fcc configuration of γ-iron , also called austenite . This is similarly soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon ( as much as 2.04 % by mass at 1146 °C ) . This form of iron is used in the type of stainless steel used for making cutlery , and hospital and food-service equipment . The high-pressure phases of iron are important as endmember models for the solid parts of planetary cores . The inner core of the Earth is generally presumed to be an iron-nickel alloy with ε ( or β ) structure . The melting point of iron is experimentally well defined for pressures less than 50 GPa . For greater pressures , studies put the γ-ε-liquid triple point at pressures that differ by tens of gigapascals and 1000 K in the melting point . Generally speaking , molecular dynamics computer simulations of iron melting and shock wave experiments suggest higher melting points and a much steeper slope of the melting curve than static experiments carried out in diamond anvil cells . The melting and boiling points of iron , along with its enthalpy of atomization , are lower than those of the earlier 3d elements from scandium to chromium , showing the lessened contribution of the 3d electrons to metallic bonding ; however , they are higher than the values for the previous element manganese because that element has a half-filled 3d subshell and consequently its d-electrons are not easily delocalized . Isotopes Naturally occurring iron consists of four stable isotopes : 5.845 % of 54Fe , 91.754 % of 56Fe , 2.119 % of 57Fe and 0.282 % of 58Fe . Of these stable isotopes , only 57Fe has a nuclear spin ( − ) . The nuclide 54Fe theoretically can undergo double beta decay , but the process has never been observed and only a lower limit on the half-life of 3.1×1022 years has been established . 60Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life ( 2.6 million years ) . It is not found on Earth , but its ultimate decay product is its granddaughter , the stable nuclide nickel-60 . Much of the past work on isotopic composition of iron has focused on the nucleosynthesis of 60Fe through studies of meteorites and ore formation . In the last decade , advances in mass spectrometry have allowed the detection and quantification of minute , naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron . Much of this work is driven by the Earth and planetary science communities , although applications to biological and industrial systems are emerging . In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut , a correlation between the concentration of 60Ni , the granddaughter of 60Fe , and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes provided evidence for the existence of 60Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System . Possibly the energy released by the decay of 60Fe , along with that released by 26Al , contributed to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago . The abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may bring further insight into the origin and early history of the Solar System . The most abundant iron isotope 56Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists because it represents the most common endpoint of nucleosynthesis . It is often cited , falsely , as the isotope of highest binding energy , a distinction which actually belongs to nickel-62 . Since 56Ni is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae ( see silicon burning process ) , nickel-56 ( 14 alpha particles ) is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars , since addition of another alpha particle would result in zinc-60 , which requires a great deal more energy . This nickel-56 , which has a half-life of about 6 days , is created in quantity in these stars , but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in the supernova remnant gas cloud , first to radioactive cobalt-56 , and then to stable iron-56 . This last nuclide is therefore common in the universe , relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight . Nuclei of iron atoms have some of the highest binding energies per nucleon , surpassed only by the nickel isotope 62Ni . It is formed by nuclear fusion in stars . Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing 62Ni , conditions in stars are unsuitable for this process . Element production in supernovas and distribution on Earth greatly favor iron over nickel . Iron-56 is the heaviest stable isotope produced by the alpha process in stellar nucleosynthesis ; elements heavier than iron and nickel require a supernova for their formation . Iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants , and is the most abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth.Greenwood and Earnshaw , p. 12 Nucleosynthesis Iron is created by extremely large stars with extremely hot ( over 2.5 billion kelvin ) cores through the silicon burning process . It is the heaviest stable element to be produced in this manner . The process starts with the second largest stable nucleus created by silicon burning , which is calcium . One stable nucleus of calcium fuses with one helium nucleus , creating unstable titanium . Before the titanium decays , it can fuse with another helium nucleus , creating unstable chromium . Before the chromium decays , it can fuse with another helium nucleus , creating unstable iron . Before the iron decays , it can fuse with another helium nucleus , creating unstable nickel-56 . Any further fusion of nickel-56 consumes energy instead of producing energy , so after the production of nickel-56 , the star does not produce the energy necessary to keep the core from collapsing . Eventually , the nickel-56 decays to unstable cobalt-56 , which in turn decays to stable iron-56 . When the core of the star collapses , it creates a supernova . Supernovas also create additional stable iron isotopes via the r-process . Occurrence Planetary occurrence Iron is the sixth most abundant element in the Universe , and the most common refractory element . It is formed as the final exothermic stage of stellar nucleosynthesis , by silicon fusion in massive stars . Metallic or native iron is rarely found on the surface of the Earth because it tends to oxidize , but its oxides are pervasive and represent the primary ores . While it makes up about 5 % of the Earth 's crust , both the Earth 's inner and outer core are believed to consist largely of an iron-nickel alloy constituting 35 % of the mass of the Earth as a whole . Iron is consequently the most abundant element on Earth , but only the fourth most abundant element in the Earth 's crust . Most of the iron in the crust is found combined with oxygen as iron oxide minerals such as hematite ( Fe2O3 ) and magnetite ( Fe3O4 ) . Large deposits of iron are found in banded iron formations . These geological formations are a type of rock consisting of repeated thin layers of iron oxides alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert . The banded iron formations were laid down in the time between and About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite ( 35–80 % iron ) and kamacite ( 90–95 % iron ) . Although rare , iron meteorites are the main form of natural metallic iron on the Earth 's surface . The red color of the surface of Mars is derived from an iron oxide-rich regolith . This has been proven by Mössbauer spectroscopy . Stocks in use in society According to the International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report , the global stock of iron in use in society is 2200 kg per capita . Much of this is in more-developed countries ( 7000–14000 kg per capita ) rather than less-developed countries ( 2000 kg per capita ) . Chemistry and compounds Iron forms compounds mainly in the +2 and +3 oxidation states . Traditionally , iron ( II ) compounds are called ferrous , and iron ( III ) compounds ferric . Iron also occurs in higher oxidation states , an example being the purple potassium ferrate ( K2FeO4 ) which contains iron in its +6 oxidation state , although this is very easily reduced . Iron ( IV ) is a common intermediate in many biochemical oxidation reactions . Numerous organometallic compounds contain formal oxidation states of +1 , 0 , −1 , or even −2 . The oxidation states and other bonding properties are often assessed using the technique of Mössbauer spectroscopy . There are also many mixed valence compounds that contain both iron ( II ) and iron ( III ) centers , such as magnetite and Prussian blue ( Fe4 ( Fe [ CN ] 6 ) 3 ) . The latter is used as the traditional `` blue '' in blueprints . Iron is the first of the transition metals that can not reach its group oxidation state of +8 , although its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium can , with ruthenium having more difficulty than osmium . While iron 's most common oxidation states are +2 and +3 , ruthenium 's is +3 and osmium 's is +4 . Iron also commonly forms aqueous cations in the +2 and +3 oxidation states , which is possible for ruthenium but not osmium . The iron compounds produced on the largest scale in industry are iron ( II ) sulfate ( FeSO4·7H2O ) and iron ( III ) chloride ( FeCl3 ) . The former is one of the most readily available sources of iron ( II ) , but is less stable to aerial oxidation than Mohr 's salt ( ( NH4 ) 2Fe ( SO4 ) 2·6H2O ) . Iron ( II ) compounds tend to be oxidized to iron ( III ) compounds in the air . Unlike many other metals , iron does not form amalgams with mercury . As a result , mercury is traded in standardized 76 pound flasks ( 34 kg ) made of iron . Iron is by far the most reactive element in its group ; it is pyrophoric when finely divided and dissolves easily in dilute acids , giving Fe2+ . However , it does not react with concentrated nitric acid and other oxidizing acids due to the formation of an impervious oxide layer , which can nevertheless react with hydrochloric acid . The standard reduction potentials in acidic aqueous solution for some common iron ions are given below : Greenwood and Earnshaw , pp . 1075–9 The red-purple ferrate ( VI ) anion is such a strong oxidizing agent that it oxidizes nitrogen and ammonia at room temperature , and even water itself in acidic or neutral solutions : Greenwood and Earnshaw , p. 1082–4 4 + 10 → 4 + 20 + 3 O2 Binary compounds Iron reacts with oxygen in the air to form various oxide and hydroxide compounds ; the most common are iron ( II , III ) oxide ( Fe3O4 ) , and iron ( III ) oxide ( Fe2O3 ) . Iron ( II ) oxide also exists , though it is unstable at room temperature . These oxides are the principal ores for the production of iron ( see bloomery and blast furnace ) . They are also used in the production of ferrites , useful magnetic storage media in computers , and pigments . The best known sulfide is iron pyrite ( FeS2 ) , also known as fool 's gold owing to its golden luster . The binary ferrous and ferric halides are well-known , with the exception of ferric iodide . The ferrous halides typically arise from treating iron metal with the corresponding hydrohalic acid to give the corresponding hydrated salts . Fe + 2 HX → FeX2 + H2 Iron reacts with fluorine , chlorine , and bromine to give the corresponding ferric halides , ferric chloride being the most common . 2 Fe + 3 X2 → 2 FeX3 ( X = F , Cl , Br ) Ferric iodide is an exception , being thermodynamically unstable due to the oxidizing power of Fe3+ and the high reducing power of I− . 2 I− + 2 Fe3+ → I2 + 2 Fe2+ ( E0 = +0.23 V ) Coordination compounds Many coordination compounds of iron are known . A typical six-coordinate anions is hexachloroferrate ( III ) , [ FeCl6 ] 3− , found in the mixed salt tetrakis ( methylammonium ) hexachloroferrate ( III ) chloride . Complexes with multiple bidentate ligands have geometric isomers . For example , the trans-chlorohydridobis ( bis-1,2- ( diphenylphosphino ) ethane ) iron ( II ) complex is used as a starting material for compounds with the Fe ( dppe ) 2 moiety . The ferrioxalate ion with three oxalate ligands ( shown at right ) displays helical chirality with its two non-superposable geometries labelled Λ ( lambda ) for the left-handed screw axis and Δ ( delta ) for the right-handed screw axis , in line with IUPAC conventions . Potassium ferrioxalate is used in chemical actinometry and along with its sodium salt undergoes photoreduction applied in old-style photographic processes . The dihydrate of iron ( II ) oxalate has a polymeric structure with co-planar oxalate ions bridging between iron centres with the water of crystallisation located forming the caps of each octahedron , as illustrated below . Prussian blue , Fe4 [ Fe ( CN ) 6 ] 3 is the most famous of the cyanide complexes of iron . Its formation can be used as a simple wet chemistry test to distinguish between aqueous solutions of Fe2+ and Fe3+ as they react ( respectively ) with potassium ferricyanide and potassium ferrocyanide to form Prussian blue . It can be used as an antidote for thallium and radioactive caesium poisoning . Prussian blue can be used in laundry bluing to correct the yellowish tint left by ferrous salts in water . Organometallic compounds Cyanide complexes are technically organometallic but more important are carbonyl complexes and sandwich and half-sandwich compounds . The premier iron ( 0 ) compound is iron pentacarbonyl , Fe ( CO ) 5 , which is used to produce carbonyl iron powder , a highly reactive form of metallic iron . Thermolysis of iron pentacarbonyl gives the trinuclear cluster , triiron dodecacarbonyl . Collman 's reagent , disodium tetracarbonylferrate , is a useful reagent for organic chemistry ; it contains iron in the −2 oxidation state . Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer contains iron in the rare +1 oxidation state . Ferrocene was first synthesised in 1951 during an attempt to prepare the fulvalene ( C10H8 ) by oxidative dimerization of cyclopentadiene ; the resultant product was found to have molecular formula C10H10Fe and reported to exhibit `` remarkable stability '' . The discovery sparked substantial interest in the field of organometallic chemistry , in part because the structure proposed by Pauson and Kealy ( shown at right ) was inconsistent with then-existing bonding models and did not explain its unexpected stability . Consequently , the initial challenge was to definitively determine the structure of ferrocene in the hope that its bonding and properties would then be understood . The shockingly novel sandwich structure , [ Fe ( η5-C5H5 ) 2 ] , was deduced and reported independently by three groups in 1952 : Robert Burns Woodward and Geoffrey Wilkinson investigated the reactivity in order to determine the structure and demonstrated that ferrocene undergoes similar reactions to a typical aromatic molecule ( such as benzene ) , Ernst Otto Fischer deduced the sandwich structure and also began synthesising other metallocenes including cobaltocene ; Eiland and Pepinsky provided X-ray crystallographic confirmation of the sandwich structure . Applying valence bond theory to ferrocene by considering an Fe2+ centre and two cyclopentadienide anions ( C5H5− ) , which are known to be aromatic according to Hückel 's rule and hence highly stable , allowed correct prediction of the geometry of the molecule . Once molecular orbital theory was successfully applied and the Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson model proposed , the reasons for ferrocene 's remarkable stability became clear . Ferrocene was not the first organometallic compound known – Zeise 's salt , K [ PtCl3 ( C2H4 ) ] ·H2O was reported in 1831 and Mond 's discovery of Ni ( CO ) 4 occurred in 1888 but it was ferrocene 's discovery that began organometallic chemistry as a separate area of chemistry . It was so important that Wilkinson and Fischer shared the 1973 Nobel Prize for Chemistry `` for their pioneering work , performed independently , on the chemistry of the organometallic , so called sandwich compounds '' . Ferrocene itself can be used as the backbone of a ligand , e.g . dppf . Ferrocene can itself be oxidized to the ferrocenium cation ( Fc+ ) ; the ferrocene/ferrocenium couple is often used as a reference in electrochemistry . Metallocenes like ferrocene can be prepared by reaction of Freshly-cracked cyclopentadiene with iron ( II ) chloride and a weak base . It is an aromatic substance and undergoes substitution reactions rather than addition reactions on the cyclopentadienyl ligands . For example , Friedel-Crafts acylation of ferrocene with acetic anhydride yields acetylferrocene just as acylation of benzene yields acetophenone under similar conditions . Iron-centred organometallic species are used as catalysts . The Knölker complex , for example , is a transfer hydrogenation catalyst for ketones . History Wrought iron Iron has been worked , or wrought , for millennia . However , iron objects of great age are much rarer than objects made of gold or silver due to the ease of corrosion of iron . Beads made from meteoric iron in 3500 BCE or earlier were found in Gerzah , Egypt by G. A. Wainwright . The beads contain 7.5 % nickel , which is a signature of meteoric origin since iron found in the Earth 's crust has very little to no nickel content . Meteoric iron was highly regarded due to its origin in the heavens and was often used to forge weapons and tools or whole specimens placed in churches . Items that were likely made of iron by Egyptians date from 2500 to 3000 BCE . Iron had a distinct advantage over bronze in warfare implements . It was much harder and more durable than bronze , although susceptible to rust . However , this is contested . Hittitologist Trevor Bryce argues that before advanced iron-working techniques were developed in India , meteoritic iron weapons used by early Mesopotamian armies had a tendency to shatter in combat , due to their high carbon content . The first iron production started in the Middle Bronze Age but it took several centuries before iron displaced bronze . Samples of smelted iron from Asmar , Mesopotamia and Tall Chagar Bazaar in northern Syria were made sometime between 2700 and 3000 BCE . The Hittites appear to be the first to understand the production of iron from its ores and regard it highly in their society . They began to smelt iron between 1500 and 1200 BCE and the practice spread to the rest of the Near East after their empire fell in 1180 BCE . The subsequent period is called the Iron Age . Iron smelting , and thus the Iron Age , reached Europe two hundred years later and arrived in Zimbabwe , Africa by the 8th century . In China , iron only appears circa 700–500 BCE . Iron smelting may have been introduced into China through Central Asia . The earliest evidence of the use of a blast furnace in China dates to the 1st century AD , and cupola furnaces were used as early as the Warring States period ( 403–221 BCE ) . Usage of the blast and cupola furnace remained widespread during the Song and Tang Dynasties . Artifacts of smelted iron are found in India dating from 1800 to 1200 BCE , and in the Levant from about 1500 BCE ( suggesting smelting in Anatolia or the Caucasus ) . The Book of Genesis , fourth chapter , verse 22 contains the first mention of iron in the Old Testament of the Bible ; `` Tubal-cain , an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron . '' Other verses allude to iron mining ( Job 28:2 ) , iron used as a stylus ( Job 19:24 ) , furnace ( Deuteronomy 4:20 ) , chariots ( Joshua 17:16 ) , nails ( I Chron . 22:3 ) , saws and axes ( II Sam . 12:31 ) , and cooking utensils ( Ezekiel 4:3 ) . The metal is also mentioned in the New Testament , for example in Acts chapter 12 verse 10 , `` [ Peter passed through ] the iron gate that leadeth unto the city '' of Antioch . Iron working was introduced to Greece in the late 11th century BCE . The spread of ironworking in Central and Western Europe is associated with Celtic expansion . According to Pliny the Elder , iron use was common

qw_3127--Iron.txt

What is the term for the reddish-brown hydrated oxide formed on iron?

Piccadilly Circus is a road junction and public space of London 's West End in the City of Westminster , built in 1819 to connect Regent Street with Piccadilly . In this context , a circus , from the Latin word meaning `` circle '' , is a round open space at a street junction . Piccadilly now links directly to the theatres on Shaftesbury Avenue , as well as the Haymarket , Coventry Street ( onwards to Leicester Square ) , and Glasshouse Street . The Circus is close to major shopping and entertainment areas in the West End . Its status as a major traffic junction has made Piccadilly Circus a busy meeting place and a tourist attraction in its own right . The Circus is particularly known for its video display and neon signs mounted on the corner building on the northern side , as well as the Shaftesbury memorial fountain and statue which is popularly , though mistakenly , believed to be of Eros . It is surrounded by several notable buildings , including the London Pavilion and Criterion Theatre . Directly underneath the plaza is Piccadilly Circus tube station , part of the London Underground system . History Piccadilly Circus connects to Piccadilly , a thoroughfare whose name first appeared in 1626 as Piccadilly Hall , named after a house belonging to one Robert Baker , a tailor famous for selling piccadills , or piccadillies , a term used for various kinds of collars . The street was known as Portugal Street in 1692 in honour of Catherine of Braganza , the queen consort of King Charles II of England but was known as Piccadilly by 1743 . Piccadilly Circus was created in 1819 , at the junction with Regent Street , which was then being built under the planning of John Nash on the site of a house and garden belonging to a Lady Hutton . Around 1858 it was briefly known as Regent 's Circus The circus lost its circular form in 1886 with the construction of Shaftesbury Avenue . The junction has been a very busy traffic interchange since construction , as it lies at the centre of Theatreland and handles exit traffic from Piccadilly , which Charles Dickens , Jr. described in 1879 : `` Piccadilly , the great thoroughfare leading from the Haymarket and Regent-street westward to Hyde Park-corner , is the nearest approach to the Parisian boulevard of which London can boast . '' The Piccadilly Circus tube station was opened 10 March 1906 , on the Bakerloo line , and on the Piccadilly line in December of that year . In 1928 , the station was extensively rebuilt to handle an increase in traffic . The junction 's first electric advertisements appeared in 1910 , and , from 1923 , electric billboards were set up on the façade of the London Pavilion . Traffic lights were first installed on 3 August 1926 , at the junction . During World War II many servicemen 's clubs in the West End served American soldiers based in Britain . So many prostitutes roamed the area approaching the soldiers that they received the nickname `` Piccadilly Commandos '' , and both Scotland Yard and the Foreign Office discussed possible damage to Anglo-American relations . At the start of the 1960s , it was determined that the Circus needed to be redeveloped to allow for greater traffic flow . In 1962 , Lord Holford presented a plan which would have created a `` double-decker '' Piccadilly Circus ; the upper deck would have been an elevated pedestrian concourse linking the buildings around the perimeter of the Circus , with the lower deck being solely for traffic , most of the ground-level pedestrian areas having been removed to allow for greater vehicle flow . This concept was kept alive throughout the rest of the 1960s . A final scheme in 1972 proposed three octagonal towers ( the highest 240 ft tall ) to replace the Trocadero , the Criterion and the `` Monico '' buildings . The plans were permanently rejected by Sir Keith Joseph and Ernest Marples ; the key reason given was that Holford 's scheme only allowed for a 20 % increase in traffic , and the Government required 50 % . The Holford plan is referenced in the short-form documentary film `` Goodbye , Piccadilly '' , produced by the Rank Organisation in 1967 as part of their Look at Life series when it was still seriously expected that Holford 's recommendations would be acted upon . Piccadilly Circus has since escaped major redevelopment , apart from extensive ground-level pedestrianisation around its south side in the 1980s . The Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain in Piccadilly Circus was erected in 1893 to commemorate the philanthropic works of Anthony Ashley Cooper , 7th Earl of Shaftesbury . During the Second World War , the statue atop the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain was removed and was replaced by advertising hoardings . It was returned in 1948 . When the Circus underwent reconstruction work in the late 1980s , the entire fountain was moved from the centre of the junction at the beginning of Shaftesbury Avenue to its present position at the southwestern corner . Location and sights Piccadilly Circus is surrounded by several major tourist attractions , including the Shaftesbury Memorial , Criterion Theatre , London Pavilion and several major retail stores . Numerous nightclubs , restaurants and bars are located in the area and neighbouring Soho , including the former Chinawhite club . Illuminated signs Piccadilly Circus was surrounded by illuminated advertising hoardings on buildings , starting in 1908 with a Perrier sign , but only one building now carries them , the one in the northwestern corner between Shaftesbury Avenue and Glasshouse Street . The site is unnamed ( usually referred to as `` Monico '' after the Café Monico , which used to be on the site ) ; its addresses are 44/48 Regent Street , 1/6 Sherwood Street , 17/22 Denman Street and 1/17 Shaftesbury Avenue , and it has been owned by property investor Land Securities Group since the 1970s . The earliest signs used incandescent light bulbs ; these were replaced with neon lights and with moving signs ( there was a large Guinness clock at one time ) . The first Neon sign was for the British meat extract Bovril . From December 1998 , digital projectors were briefly used for the Coke sign , the first to be computerised , while in the 2000s there was a gradual move to LED displays , which completely replaced neon lamps by 2011 . The number of signs has reduced over the years as the rental costs have increased . As of 2014 , the site has six illuminated advertising screens above three large retail units facing Piccadilly Circus on the north side , occupied by Boots , Gap and a mix of smaller retail , restaurant and office premises fronting the other streets . A Burger King located under the Samsung advert , which had been a Wimpy Bar until 1989 , closed in early 2008 and was converted into a Barclays Bank . * Coca-Cola has had a sign at Piccadilly Circus since 1954 . The current placed sign dates from September 2003 , when the previous digital projector board and the site that had been occupied by Nescafé was replaced with a state-of-the-art LED video display that curves round with the building . Before Nescafé , a neon advertisement for Foster 's occupied the spot from 1987 until 1999 , and from 1978 to 1987 it was used by Philips Electronics . On 23 November 2007 , the first film was broadcast through the board . The screen also displays information about line closures and delays on the London Underground . Paul Atherton 's film The Ballet of Change : Piccadilly Circus was allowed five minutes to show the first non-commercial film depicting the history of Piccadilly Circus and the lights . The former , for several months in 2002 , replacing the Nescafé sign , was a sign featuring the quote `` Imagine all the people living life in peace '' by Beatle John Lennon . This was paid for by his widow Yoko Ono , who spent an estimated £150,000 to display an advert at this location . * Hyundai Motors sign is the newest of the six , launching on 29 September 2011 . It replaced a sign for Sanyo which had occupied the space since around early 1988 ( slightly modified in 2004 ) , the last to be run by traditional neon lights rather than Hyundai 's computerised LED screen . Earlier Sanyo signs with older logos had occupied the position since 1978 , although these were only half the size of the current space . * McDonald 's added its sign in 1987 , replacing one for BASF . The sign was changed from neon to LED in 2001 . A bigger , brighter screen was installed by Daktronics in 2008 . * Samsung added its sign in November 1994 , the space having been previously occupied by Canon ( 1978–84 ) and Panasonic ( 1984–94 ) . The sign was changed from neon to LED in summer 2005 . The screen was upgraded and improved in autumn 2011 . * One Piccadilly was added in late 2013 , underneath the Samsung and McDonald 's signs . It allows other companies to advertise for both short- and long-term leases , increasing the amount of advertising space but using the same screen for multiple brands . Prior to this an earlier , smaller LED screen called Piccadilly Lite occupied the space from 3 December 2007 to 2013 . The space has also been occupied by JVC ( 1978–84 ) , Carlsberg ( 1984–2003 ) and Budweiser ( 2003–07 ) . * The Curve , a similar space to One Picadilly , was added in 2015 , even though the space had been used solely by Schweppes ( 1920–61 ) , BP ( 1961–67 ) , Cinzano ( 1967–78 ) , Fujifilm ( 1978–86 ) , Kodak ( 1986–90 ) and TDK ( 1990-2015 ) . Burberry is currently using the space as of December 2015 . * LG were added in February 2007 on the roof of Coventry House , which diagonally faces Piccadilly Circus . Their sign is a large LED video advertising display for LGE , the British arm of the South Korean electronics group . The new display also incorporates a scrolling ticker of Sky News headlines . Before LG , Vodafone had a neon sign installed on that spot , which displayed both their logo and personal messages that could be submitted on a special website and displayed at a certain time and date . On special occasions the lights are switched off , such as the deaths of Winston Churchill in 1965 and Diana , Princess of Wales in 1997 . On 21 June 2007 , they were switched off for one hour as part of the Lights Out London campaign . [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/6225108.stm BBC NEWS | England | London | London lights out for environment ] They were also switched off as part of Earth Hour from 8.30 pm til 9.30 pm on 28 March 2009 . Other companies and brands that have had signs on the site were Guinness , Max Factor , Wrigley 's Spearmint , Skol , Air India and Gold Flake ( as Will 's Gold Flake Cigarettes ) . Shaftesbury Memorial and the statue of Anteros At the southeastern side of the Circus , moved after World War II from its original position in the centre , stands the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain , erected in 1892–1893 to commemorate the philanthropic works of Lord Shaftesbury , a Victorian politician , philanthropist and social reformer . The subject of the Memorial is the Greek god Anteros and was given the name The Angel of Christian Charity but is generally mistaken for his brother Eros . Criterion Theatre The Criterion Theatre , a Grade II * listed building , stands on the south side of Piccadilly Circus . Apart from the box office area , the entire theatre , with nearly 600 seats , is underground and is reached by descending a tiled stairway . Columns are used to support both the dress circle and the upper circle , restricting the views of many of the seats inside . The theatre was designed by Thomas Verity and opened as a theatre on 21 March 1874 , although original plans were for it to become a concert hall . In 1883 , it was forced to close to improve ventilation and to replace gaslights with electric lights and was reopened the following year . The theatre closed in 1989 and was extensively renovated , reopening in October 1992 . London Pavilion On the northeastern side of Piccadilly Circus , on the corner between Shaftesbury Avenue and Coventry Street , is the London Pavilion . The first building bearing the name was built in 1859 and was a music hall . In 1885 , Shaftesbury Avenue was built through the former site of the Pavilion , and a new London Pavilion was constructed , which also served as a music hall . In 1924 electric billboards were erected on the side of the building . In 1934 , the building underwent significant structural alteration and was converted into a cinema . In 1986 , the building was rebuilt , preserving the 1885 facade , and converted into a shopping arcade . In 2000 , the building was connected to the neighbouring Trocadero Centre , and signage on the building was altered in 2003 to read `` London Trocadero '' . The basement of the building connects with Piccadilly Circus tube station . Major shops The former Swan & Edgar department store on the west side of the circus between Piccadilly and Regent Street was built in 1928–29 to a design by Reginald Blomfield . Since the closure of the department store in the early 1980s , the building has been successively the flagship London store of music chains Tower Records , Virgin Megastore and Zavvi . The current occupier is clothing brand The Sting . Lillywhites is a major retailer of sporting goods located on the corner of the circus and Lower Regent Street , next to the Shaftesbury fountain . It moved to its present site in 1925 . Lillywhites is popular with tourists , and they regularly offer sale items , including international football jerseys up to 90 % off . Nearby Fortnum & Mason is often considered to be part of the Piccadilly Circus shopping area and is known for its expansive food hall . Underground station and the Bakerloo and Piccadilly lines The Piccadilly Circus station on the London Underground is located directly beneath Piccadilly Circus itself , with entrances at every corner . It is one of the few stations which have no associated buildings above ground and is fully underground . The below ground concourse and subway entrances are Grade II listed . The station is on the Piccadilly line between Green Park and Leicester Square , and the Bakerloo line between Charing Cross and Oxford Circus . Demonstrations The Circus ' status as a high-profile public space has made it the destination for numerous political demonstrations , including the February 15 , 2003 anti-war protest and the `` Carnival Against Capitalism '' protest against the 39th G8 summit in 2013 . In popular culture The phrase it 's like Piccadilly Circus is commonly used in the UK to refer to a place or situation which is extremely busy with people . It has been said that a person who stays long enough at Piccadilly Circus will eventually bump into everyone they know . Probably because of this connection , during World War II , `` Piccadilly Circus '' was the code name given to the Allies ' D-Day invasion fleet 's assembly location in the English Channel . Piccadilly Circus has inspired artists and musicians . Piccadilly Circus ( 1912 ) is the name and subject of a painting by British artist Charles Ginner , part of the Tate Britain collection . Sculptor Paul McCarthy also has a 320-page two-volume edition of video stills by the name of Piccadilly Circus . Bob Marley mentioned Piccadilly Circus in his song `` Kinky Reggae '' , on the Catch a Fire album from 1973 . L. S. Lowry R.A painting 'Piccadilly Circus , London ' ( 1960 ) , part of Lord Charles Forte 's collection for almost three decades , sold for £5,641,250 when auctioned for the first time at Christie 's 20th Century British & Irish Art sale on 16 November 2011 .

bb_1288--Piccadilly_Circus.txt

Who is the nude bow-carrying statue in London's Piccadilly Circus?

Angela Dorothea Merkel ( born 17 July 1954 ) is a German stateswoman and former research scientist . Merkel has been the Chancellor of Germany since 2005 , and the leader of the Christian Democratic Union ( CDU ) since 2000 . Having earned a doctorate as a physical chemist , Merkel entered politics in the wake of the Revolutions of 1989 , briefly serving as a deputy spokesperson for the first democratically-elected East German Government in 1990 . Following German reunification in 1990 , Merkel was elected to the Bundestag for Stralsund-Nordvorpommern-Rügen in the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern , a seat she has held ever since . Merkel was later appointed as the Minister for Women and Youth in 1991 under Chancellor Helmut Kohl , later becoming the Minister for the Environment in 1994 . After Kohl was defeated in 1998 , Merkel was elected Secretary-General of the CDU before becoming the party 's first woman leader two years later in the aftermath of a donations scandal that toppled Wolfgang Schäuble . Following the 2005 federal election , Merkel was appointed Germany 's first woman Chancellor at the head of a grand coalition consisting of the CDU , its Bavarian sister party , the Christian Social Union ( CSU ) , and the Social Democratic Party of Germany ( SPD ) . In the 2009 federal election , the CDU obtained the largest share of the vote and Merkel was able to form a coalition government with the support of the Free Democratic Party ( FDP ) . At the 2013 federal election , Merkel won a landslide victory with 41.5 % of the vote , falling just short of an overall majority , and formed a second grand coalition with the SPD , after the FDP lost all of its representation in the Bundestag . In 2007 , Merkel was President of the European Council and chaired the G8 , the second woman to do so . Merkel played a central role in the negotiation of the Treaty of Lisbon and the Berlin Declaration . One of Merkel 's priorities was also to strengthen transatlantic economic relations by signing the agreement for the Transatlantic Economic Council on 30 April 2007 . It has been said that Merkel played a crucial role in managing the financial crisis at the European and international level , and has been referred to as `` the decider . '' In domestic policy , health care reform and problems concerning future energy development have been major issues during her Chancellorship , and more recently her government 's approach to the ongoing refugee crisis . Merkel has been described as the de facto leader of the European Union . Merkel appeared on the Forbes Magazine 's List of The World 's Most Powerful People as the world 's second most powerful person , selected by Forbes magazine in 2012 and 2015 . In December 2015 , Merkel was named as Time magazine 's Person of the Year , with the magazine 's cover declaring her to be the `` Chancellor of the Free World . '' On 26 March 2014 , Merkel became the longest-serving incumbent head of government in the European Union . Merkel is currently the Senior G7 leader . In May 2016 , Merkel was named the most powerful woman in the world for a record tenth time by Forbes . Early life and education Merkel was born Angela Dorothea Kasner in 1954 , in Hamburg , Germany , the daughter of Horst Kasner ( 1926–2011 ) , a native of Berlin , and his wife Herlind , born in 1928 in Danzig ( now Gdańsk , Poland ) as Herlind Jentzsch , a teacher of English and Latin . Her mother was the daughter of the Danzig politician Willi Jentzsch and maternal granddaughter of the city clerk of Elbing ( now Elbląg , Poland ) Emil Drange . Herlind Jentzsch was once a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany and briefly served as a member of the municipal council in Templin following the German reunification . Merkel has Polish ancestry through her paternal grandfather , Ludwig Kasner , a German national of Polish origin from Posen ( now Poznań ) . The family 's original name Kaźmierczak was Germanized to Kasner in 1930 . Religion played a key role in Angela Merkel 's migration to East Germany . Her father was born a Catholic , but the Kasner family eventually converted to Lutheranism , and he studied Lutheran theology in Heidelberg and afterwards in Hamburg . In 1954 , Angela 's father received a pastorate at the church in Quitzow ( a quarter of Perleberg in Brandenburg ) , which was then in East Germany , and so the family moved to Templin . Merkel thus grew up in the countryside 80 km north of East Berlin . Like most young people in the German Democratic Republic ( East Germany ) , Merkel was a member of the Free German Youth ( FDJ ) , the official youth movement sponsored by the ruling Socialist Unity Party . Membership was nominally voluntary , but those who did not join found it all but impossible to gain admission to higher education . She did not participate in the secular coming of age ceremony Jugendweihe , however , which was common in East Germany . Instead , she was confirmed . Later , at the Academy of Sciences , she became a member of the FDJ district board and secretary for `` Agitprop '' ( Agitation and Propaganda ) . Merkel claimed that she was secretary for culture . When Merkel 's one-time FDJ district chairman contradicted her , she insisted that : `` According to my memory , I was secretary for culture . But what do I know ? I believe I wo n't know anything when I 'm 80 . '' Merkel 's progress in the compulsory Marxism–Leninism course was graded only genügend ( sufficient , passing grade ) in 1983 and 1986 . At school , she learned to speak Russian fluently , and was awarded prizes for her proficiency in Russian and Mathematics . Merkel was educated in Templin and at the University of Leipzig , where she studied physics from 1973 to 1978 . While a student , she participated in the reconstruction of the ruin of the Moritzbastei , a project students initiated to create their own club and recreation facility on campus . Such an initiative was unprecedented in the GDR of that period , and initially resisted by the University of Leipzig ; however , with backing of the local leadership of the SED party , the project was allowed to proceed . Merkel worked and studied at the Central Institute for Physical chemistry of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin-Adlershof from 1978 to 1990 . After being awarded a doctorate ( Dr. rer . nat . ) for her thesis on quantum chemistry , she worked as a researcher and published several papers . In 1989 , Merkel got involved in the growing democracy movement after the fall of the Berlin Wall , joining the new party Democratic Awakening . Following the first ( and only ) multi-party election of the East German state , she became the deputy spokesperson of the new pre-unification caretaker government under Lothar de Maizière . In April 1990 , the Democratic Awakening merged with the East German CDU , which in turn merged with its western counterpart after reunification . Early political career Merkel stood for election at the 1990 federal election , the first since reunification , and was elected to the Bundestag for the constituency of Stralsund – Nordvorpommern – Rügen , which is in the district of Vorpommern-Rügen . She has won re-election for this constituency at the six federal elections since . After her first election , she was almost immediately appointed to the Cabinet , serving as Minister for Women and Youth under Chancellor Helmut Kohl . In 1994 , she was promoted to becoming Minister for the Environment and Nuclear Safety , which gave her greater political visibility and a platform from which to build her political career . As one of Kohl 's protégées and his youngest Cabinet Minister , she was frequently referred to by Kohl as `` mein Mädchen '' ( `` my girl '' ) . Leader of the Opposition After the Kohl Government was defeated at the 1998 election , Merkel was appointed Secretary-General of the CDU , a key position as the party was no longer part of the federal government . Merkel oversaw a string of CDU election victories in six out of seven state elections in 1999 , breaking the long-standing SPD-Green hold on the Bundesrat . Following a party funding scandal that compromised many leading figures of the CDU—including Kohl himself and his successor as CDU Leader , Wolfgang Schäuble , Merkel criticised her former mentor publicly and advocated a fresh start for the party without him . She was subsequently elected to replace Schäuble , becoming the first female leader of a German party on 10 April 2000 . Her election surprised many observers , as her personality offered a contrast to the party she had been elected to lead ; Merkel is a centrist Protestant originating from predominantly Protestant northern Germany , while the CDU is a male-dominated , socially conservative party with strongholds in western and southern Germany , and its Bavarian sister party , the CSU , has deep Catholic roots . Following Merkel 's election as CDU Leader , she enjoyed considerable popularity among the German population and polls indicated that many Germans would like to see her become Chancellor Gerhard Schröder 's main challenger in the 2002 election . However , she was subsequently outmaneuvered politically by CSU Leader Edmund Stoiber , to whom she eventually ceded the privilege of challenging Schröder . He went on to squander a large lead in opinion polls to lose the election by a razor-thin margin . After Stoiber 's defeat in 2002 , in addition to her role as CDU Leader , Merkel became Leader of the Opposition in the Bundestag ; Friedrich Merz , who had held the post prior to the 2002 election , was eased out to make way for Merkel . Merkel supported a substantial reform agenda concerning Germany 's economic and social system , and was considered more pro-market than her own party ( the CDU ) . She advocated German labour law changes , specifically removing barriers to laying off employees and increasing the allowed number of work hours in a week . She argued that existing laws made the country less competitive , because companies can not easily control labour costs when business is slow . Merkel argued that Germany should phase out nuclear power less quickly than the Schröder administration had planned . Merkel advocated a strong transatlantic partnership and German-American friendship . In the spring of 2003 , defying strong public opposition , Merkel came out in favour of the U.S. invasion of Iraq , describing it as `` unavoidable '' and accusing Chancellor Gerhard Schröder of anti-Americanism . She criticised the government 's support for the accession of Turkey to the European Union and favoured a `` privileged partnership '' instead . In doing so , she reflected public opinion that grew more hostile toward Turkish membership of the European Union . On 30 May 2005 , Merkel won the CDU/CSU nomination as challenger to Chancellor Gerhard Schröder of the SPD in the 2005 national elections . Her party began the campaign with a 21-point lead over the SPD in national opinion polls , although her personal popularity lagged behind that of the incumbent . However , the CDU/CSU campaign suffered when Merkel , having made economic competence central to the CDU 's platform , confused gross and net income twice during a televised debate . She regained some momentum after she announced that she would appoint Paul Kirchhof , a former judge at the German Constitutional Court and leading fiscal policy expert , as Minister of Finance . Merkel and the CDU lost ground after Kirchhof proposed the introduction of a flat tax in Germany , again undermining the party 's broad appeal on economic affairs and convincing many voters that the CDU 's platform of deregulation was designed to benefit only the rich . This was compounded by Merkel 's proposing to increase VAT to reduce Germany 's deficit and fill the gap in revenue from a flat tax . The SPD were able to increase their support simply by pledging not to introduce flat taxes or increase VAT . Although Merkel 's standing recovered after she distanced herself from Kirchhof 's proposals , she remained considerably less popular than Schröder , and the CDU 's lead was down to 9 % on the eve of the election . On 18 September 2005 , Merkel 's CDU/CSU and Schröder 's SPD went head-to-head in the national elections , with the CDU/CSU winning 35.3 % ( CDU 27.8 % /CSU 7.5 % ) of the second votes to the SPD 's 34.2 % . Neither the SPD-Green coalition nor the CDU/CSU and its preferred coalition partners , the Free Democratic Party , held enough seats to form a majority in the Bundestag , and both Schröder and Merkel claimed victory . A grand coalition between the CDU/CSU and SPD faced the challenge that both parties demanded the chancellorship . However , after three weeks of negotiations , the two parties reached a deal whereby Merkel would become Chancellor and the SPD would hold 8 of the 16 seats in the cabinet . The coalition deal was approved by both parties at party conferences on 14 November 2005 . Merkel was elected Chancellor by the majority of delegates ( 397 to 217 ) in the newly assembled Bundestag on 22 November 2005 , but 51 members of the governing coalition voted against her . Reports had indicated that the grand coalition would pursue a mix of policies , some of which differ from Merkel 's political platform as leader of the opposition and candidate for Chancellor . The coalition 's intent was to cut public spending whilst increasing VAT ( from 16 to 19 % ) , social insurance contributions and the top rate of income tax . Merkel had stated that the main aim of her government would be to reduce unemployment , and that it is this issue on which her government will be judged . Chancellor of Germany On 22 November 2005 , Merkel assumed the office of Chancellor of Germany following a stalemate election that resulted in a grand coalition with the SPD . Her party was re-elected in 2009 with an increased number of seats , and could form a governing coalition with the FDP . In the election of September 2013 the CDU/CSU parties emerged as winners , but formed another grand coalition with the SPD due to the FDP 's failure to obtain the minimum of 5 % of votes required to enter parliament . Domestic policy In October 2010 , Merkel told a meeting of younger members of her conservative Christian Democratic Union ( CDU ) party at Potsdam that attempts to build a multicultural society in Germany had `` utterly failed '' , stating that : `` The concept that we are now living side by side and are happy about it '' does not work and `` we feel attached to the Christian concept of mankind , that is what defines us . Anyone who does n't accept that is in the wrong place here . '' She continued to say that immigrants should integrate and adopt Germany 's culture and values . This has added to a growing debate within Germany on the levels of immigration , its effect on Germany and the degree to which Muslim immigrants have integrated into German society . Asylum and inward migration In the context of the current European migration crisis the Austrian political scientist Arno Tausch , using econometric outward migration estimates in the tradition of Harvard economist Robert Barro , has accused Merkel of having underestimated the magnitude of the immediate labour migration potential of 2.6 million Arabs and more than 6 million inhabitants of the countries of the Islamic Cooperation and to have redirected in a reckless fashion global labour oriented migration flows into Europe from summer 2015 onwards , with Europe now becoming the main destination of Arab and Muslim outward labour migration . Before the current crisis the old and rich EU Member States before the 2004 enlargement ( i.e . the `` EU-15 '' ) had a share of only 24 % of global total Arab outward migration ; and a share of only 20 % in the total global outward migration from the Member States of the countries of the Islamic Cooperation . Chancellor Angela Merkel , the argument runs , has contributed by her policy failure of summer 2015 to a drastic and irresponsible redirection of global migration flows into Europe . Foreign affairs On 25 September 2007 , Merkel met the 14th Dalai Lama for `` private and informal talks '' in the Chancellery in Berlin amid protest from China . China afterwards cancelled separate talks with German officials , including talks with Justice Minister Brigitte Zypries . One of Merkel 's priorities was strengthening transatlantic economic relations – she signed the agreement for the Transatlantic Economic Council on 30 April 2007 at the White House . The Council , co-chaired by an EU and a US official , aims at removing barriers to trade in a further integrated transatlantic free-trade area . This project has been described as ultra-liberal by the French left-wing politician Jean-Luc Mélenchon , fearing a transfer of sovereignty from citizens to multinationals and an alignment of the European Union on the American foreign policy and institutions . Der Spiegel reported that tensions between Chancellor Merkel and President Barack Obama eased during a meeting between the two leaders in June 2009 . Commenting on a White House press conference held after the meeting , Der Spiegel stated , `` Of course the rather more reserved chancellor could n't really keep up with [ Obama 's ] ... charm offensive , '' but to reciprocate for Obama 's `` good natured '' diplomacy , `` she gave it a go ... by mentioning the experiences of Obama 's sister in Heidelberg , making it clear that she had read his autobiography '' . In 2006 Merkel expressed concern about overreliance on Russian energy , but she received little support from others in Berlin . Merkel favors the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union ; but stated in December 2012 that its implementation depends on reforms in Ukraine . Merkel has visited Israel four times . On 16 March 2008 , Merkel arrived in Israel to mark the 60th anniversary of the Jewish state . She was greeted at the airport by Prime Minister Ehud Olmert , an honor guard and many of the country 's political and religious leaders , including most of the Israeli Cabinet . Until then , US President George W. Bush had been the only world leader Olmert had honored by greeting at the airport . Merkel spoke before Israel 's parliament , the only foreigner who was not a head of state to have done so , but this provoked rumbles of opposition from Israeli MPs on the far right . At the time , Merkel was also both the President of the European Council and the chair of the G8 . Merkel has supported Israeli diplomatic initiatives , opposing the Palestinian bid for membership at the UN . However , Merkel requested that continued building of settlements beyond the Green Line should stop , and disagreed with the Israeli government 's behavior . Merkel 's latest visit to Israel was on 25–27 February 2014 . During her visit , Merkel was awarded Israel 's highest civilian award by President Shimon Peres , for her `` unwavering commitment to Israel 's security and the fight against anti-Semitism and racism . '' Merkel and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh made a `` Joint Declaration '' emphasising the Indo-German strategic partnership in 2006 . It turned the focus of future cooperation onto the fields of energy , science and technology , and defence . A similar Declaration , signed during Merkel 's visit to India in 2007 , noted the substantial progress made in Indo-German relations and set ambitious goals for their development in the future . The relationship with India on the basis of cooperation and partnership was further strengthened with Merkel 's visit to India in 2011 . At the invitation of the Indian government , the two countries held their first intergovernmental consultations in New Delhi . These consultations set a new standard in the implementation of the strategic partnership , as India became only the third non-European country with which Germany has had this nature of comprehensive consultations . India became the first Asian country to hold a joint cabinet meeting with Germany during Merkel 's state visit . The Indian government presented the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding for the year 2009 to Merkel . A statement issued by the Government of India stated that the award `` recognises her personal devotion and enormous efforts for sustainable and equitable development , for good governance and understanding and for the creation of a world better positioned to handle the emerging challenges of the 21st century . '' In recognition of the importance of China to the German economy , by 2014 Merkel had led seven trade delegations to China since assuming office in 2005 . The same year , in March , China 's President Xi visited Germany . Eurozone crisis Following major falls in worldwide stock markets in September 2008 , the German government stepped in to assist the mortgage company Hypo Real Estate with a bailout , which was agreed on 6 October , with German banks to contribute €30 billion and the Bundesbank €20 billion to a credit line . On 4 October 2008 , a Saturday , following the Irish Government 's decision to guarantee all deposits in private savings accounts , a move she strongly criticised , Merkel said there were no plans for the German Government to do the same . The following day , Merkel stated that the government would guarantee private savings account deposits , after all . However , two days later , on 6 October 2008 , it emerged that the pledge was simply a political move that would not be backed by legislation . Other European governments eventually either raised the limits or promised to guarantee savings in full . Social expenditure At the World Economic Forum in Davos , 2013 , she started to say that Europe nowadays has only 7 % of the global population and produces only 25 % of the global GDP , but that it spends almost 50 % of the global social expenditure . The solution to the economic ills of the continent only can consist in raising its competitiveness . Since then , this comparison has become a central element in major speeches . The international financial press has widely commented on her thesis , with The Economist saying that : adding that : The Financial Times commented : Approval ratings Midway through her second term , Merkel 's approval plummeted in Germany , resulting in heavy losses in state elections for her party . An August 2011 poll found her coalition had only 36 % support compared to a rival potential coalition 's 51 % . However , she scored well on her handling of the recent euro crisis ( 69 % rated her performance as good rather than poor ) , and her approval rating reached an all-time high of 77 % in February 2012 and again in July 2014 . Merkel 's approval rating dropped to 54 % in October 2015 , during the European migrant crisis , the lowest since 2011 . Cabinets The first Cabinet of Angela Merkel was sworn in at 16:00 CET on 22 November 2005 . On 31 October 2005 , after the defeat of his favoured candidate for the position of Secretary General of the SPD , Franz Müntefering indicated that he would resign as party chairman , which he did in November . Ostensibly responding to this , Edmund Stoiber ( CSU ) , who was originally nominated as Minister for Economics and Technology , announced his withdrawal on 1 November 2005 . While this was initially seen as a blow to Merkel 's attempt at forming a viable coalition , the manner in which Stoiber withdrew earned him much ridicule and severely undermined his position as a Merkel rival . Separate conferences of the CDU , CSU , and SPD approved the proposed Cabinet on 14 November 2005 . The second Cabinet of Angela Merkel was sworn in on 28 October 2009 . In 2013 , Merkel won one of the most decisive victories in German history , achieving the best result for the CDU/CSU since reunification and coming within five seats of the first absolute majority in the Bundestag since 1957 . However , with their preferred coalition partner , the FDP , failing to enter parliament for the first time since 1949 , the CDU/CSU turned to the SPD to form the third grand coalition in postwar German history and the second under Merkel 's leadership . The third Cabinet of Angela Merkel was sworn in on 17 December 2013 . At the beginning of August 2015 , ' reported that Merkel had `` evidently decided to run again in 2017 '' . Personal life In 1977 , Angela Kasner married physics student Ulrich Merkel and took his surname . The marriage ended in divorce in 1982 . Her second and current husband is quantum chemist and professor Joachim Sauer , who has largely remained out of the media spotlight . They first met in 1981 , became a couple later and married privately on 30 December 1998 . She has no children , but Sauer has two adult sons from a previous marriage . She is a fervent football fan and has been known to listen to games while in the Bundestag and to attend games of the national team in her official capacity . On 6 January 2014 , Merkel fractured a bone in her pelvis in a cross-country skiing accident in Switzerland . Merkel has a fear of dogs after being attacked by one in 1995 . Vladimir Putin brought in his pet Labrador during a press conference in 2007 . Putin claims he did not mean to scare her , though Merkel later observed , `` I understand why he has to do this -- to prove he 's a man . ... He 's afraid of his own weakness . '' Religion Angela Merkel is a Lutheran member of the Evangelical Church in Berlin , Brandenburg and Silesian Upper Lusatia ( ) , a United Protestant ( i.e . both Reformed and Lutheran ) church body under the umbrella of the Evangelical Church in Germany ( EKD ) . The EKBO is a church of the Prussian Union . Before the 2004 merger of the Evangelical Church in Berlin-Brandenburg and the Evangelical Church in Silesian Upper Lusatia ( both also being a part of the EKD ) , she belonged to the former . Ancestry Honours and awards National honours * Germany : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany , Special Class * India : Recipient of the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding * Israel : Recipient of the President 's Medal * Italy : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic * Norway : Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit * Peru : Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun of Peru * Portugal : Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry * Saudi Arabia : Knight Grand Officer of the Order of Abdulaziz al Saud * United States : Recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom Honorary degrees * In 2007 , Merkel was awarded an honorary doctorate from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem . * In June 2008 , she was awarded the honorary doctorate from Leipzig University . * University of Technology in Wrocław ( Poland ) in September 2008 and Babeş-Bolyai University from Cluj-Napoca , Romania on 12 October 2010 for her historical contribution to the European unification and for her global role in renewing international cooperation . * On 23 May 2013 , she was awarded an honorary doctorate from the Radboud University Nijmegen . * In November 2013 ,

odql_10502--Angela_Merkel.txt

Of which European country did Gro Harlem Bruntland become the first female Prime Minister in 1981, serving three terms between 1981 and 1996?

Confectionery , also called sweets or candy is sweet food . The term varies among English-speaking countries . In general , though , confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories , bakers ' confections and sugar confections . Bakers ' confectionery , also called flour confections , includes principally sweet pastries , cakes , and similar baked goods . In the Middle East and Asia , flour-based confections are more dominant . Sugar confectionery includes sweets , candied nuts , chocolates , chewing gum , sweetmeats , pastillage , and other confections that are made primarily of sugar . In some cases , chocolate confections ( confections made of chocolate ) are treated as a separate category , as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections . The words candy ( US and Canada ) , sweets ( UK and Ireland ) , and lollies ( Australia and New Zealand ) are common words for the most common varieties of sugar confectionery . The confectionery industry also includes specialized training schools and extensive historical records . Traditional confectionery goes back to ancient times , and continued to be eaten through the Middle Ages into the modern era . Nutrition Generally , confections are low in micronutrients and protein but high in calories . They may be fat-free foods , although some confections , especially fried doughs , are high-fat foods . Many confections are considered empty calories . Specially formulated chocolate has been manufactured in the past for military use as a high-density food energy source . Sweetening agents Confections are defined by the presence of sweeteners . These are usually sugars , but it is possible to buy sugar-free sweets , such as sugar-free peppermints . The most common sweetener for home cooking is table sugar , which is chemically a disaccharide called sucrose . Hydrolysis of sucrose gives a mixture called invert sugar , which is sweeter and is also a common commercial ingredient . Finally confections , especially commercial ones , are sweetened by a variety of syrups obtained by hydrolysis of starch . These sweeteners include all types of corn syrup.Terry Richardson , Geert Andersen , `` Confectionery '' in Ullmann 's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005 Wiley-VCH , Weinheim . Bakers ' confectionery Bakers ' confectionery includes sweet baked goods , especially those that are served for the dessert course . Bakers ' confections are sweet foods that feature flour as a main ingredient and are baked . Major categories include cakes , sweet pastries , doughnuts , scones , and cookies . Sugar confectionery Sugar confections include sweet , sugar-based foods , which are usually eaten as snack food . This includes sugar candies , chocolates , candied fruits and nuts , chewing gum , and sometimes ice cream . The United Nations ' International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities ( ISIC ) scheme ( revision 4 ) classifies both chocolate and sugar confectionery as ISIC 1073 , which includes the manufacture of chocolate and chocolate confectionery ; sugar confectionery proper ( caramels , cachous , nougats , fondant , white chocolate ) , chewing gum , preserving fruit , nuts , fruit peels , and making confectionery lozenges and pastilles . In the European Union , the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community ( NACE ) scheme ( revision 2 ) matches the UN classification , under code number 10.82 . In the United States , the North American Industry Classification System ( NAICS 2012 ) splits sugar confectionery across three categories : National industry code 311340 for all non-chocolate confectionery manufacturing , 311351 for chocolate and confectionery manufacturing from cacao beans , and national industry 311352 for confectionery manufacturing from purchased chocolate . Ice cream and sorbet are classified with dairy products under ISIC 1050 , NACE 10.52 , and NAICS 311520 . Different dialects of English use regional terms for sugar confections : * In Britain , Ireland , and some Commonwealth countries , sweets or , more colloquially , sweeties ( particularly used by children , the Scottish Gaelic word suiteis is a derivative ) . * In Australia and New Zealand , lollies . Chewy and Chuddy are Australian slang for chewing gum . * In North America , candy , although this term generally refers to a specific range of confectionery and does not include some items of sugar confectionery ( e.g . ice cream ) . Sweet is occasionally used , as well as treat . Examples Sugar confectionery items include sweets , lollipops , candy bars , chocolate , cotton candy , and other sweet items of snack food . Some of the categories and types of sugar confectionery include the following : * Caramels : Derived from a mixture of sucrose , glucose syrup , and milk products . The mixture does not crystallize , thus remains tacky . * Chocolates : Bite-sized confectioneries generally made with chocolate . * Divinity : A nougat-like confectionery based on egg whites with chopped nuts . * Dodol : A toffee-like food delicacy popular in Indonesia , Malaysia , and the Philippines * Dragée : Sugar-coated almonds and other types of sugar panned candy . * Fondant : Prepared from a warm mixture of glucose syrup and sucrose , which is partially crystallized . The fineness of the crystallites results in a creamy texture . * Fudge : Made by boiling milk and sugar to the soft-ball stage . In the US , it tends to be chocolate-flavored . * Halvah : Confectionery based on tahini , a paste made from ground sesame seeds . * Hard candy : Based on sugars cooked to the hard-crack stage . Examples include suckers ( known as boiled sweets in British English ) , lollipops , jawbreakers ( or gobstoppers ) , lemon drops , peppermint drops and disks , candy canes , rock candy , etc . Also included are types often mixed with nuts such as brittle . Others contain flavorings including coffee such as Kopiko . * Ice cream : Frozen , flavoured cream , often containing small pieces of chocolate , fruits and/or nuts . * Jelly candies : Including those based on sugar and starch , pectin , gum , or gelatin such as Turkish delight ( lokum ) , jelly beans , gumdrops , jujubes , gummies , etc . * Liquorice : Containing extract of the liquorice root . Chewier and more resilient than gum/gelatin candies , but still designed for swallowing . For example , Liquorice allsorts . Has a similar taste to star anise . * Marshmallow : `` Peeps '' ( a trade name ) , circus peanuts , fluffy puff , Jet-Puffed Marshmallows etc . * Marzipan : An almond-based confection , doughy in consistency , served in several different ways . * Mithai : A generic term for confectionery in India , typically made from dairy products and/or some form of flour . Sugar or molasses are used as sweeteners . * Tablet : A crumbly milk-based soft and hard candy , based on sugars cooked to the soft ball stage . Comes in several forms , such as wafers and heart shapes . Not to be confused with tableting , a method of candy production . * Taffy or chews : A candy that is folded many times above 120 °F ( 50 °C ) , incorporating air bubbles thus reducing its density and making it opaque . Cultural roles Both bakers ' and sugar confections are used to offer hospitality to guests . Confections are used to mark celebrations or events , such as a wedding cake , birthday cake or Halloween . Tourists commonly eat confections as part of their travels . The indulgence in rich , sugary foods is seen as a special treat , and choosing local specialties is popular . For example , visitors to Vienna eat Sachertorte and visitors to seaside resorts in the UK eat Blackpool rock candy . Transportable confections like fudges and tablet may be purchased as souvenirs . Risks Excessive consumption of confectionery has been associated with increased incidences of type 2 diabetes , obesity , and tooth decay.Magee , Elaine ; [ http : //men.webmd.com/features/sugar-what-kinds-eat-when `` Sugar : What Kinds to Eat and When '' ] WebMD.com ( Health & Cooking ) , 28 January 2009 ( Retrieved : 11 July 2009 ) Contaminants and coloring agents in confectionery can be particularly harmful to children . Therefore , confectionery contaminants , such as high levels of lead , have been restricted to 1 ppm in the US . There is no specific maximum in the EU . Candy colorants , particularly yellow colorants such as E102 Tartrazine , E104 Quinoline Yellow and E110 Sunset Yellow FCF , do have many restrictions around the world . Tartrazine , for example , can cause allergic and asthmatic reactions and was once banned in Austria , Germany , and Norway . Some countries such as the UK have asked the food industry to phase out the use of these colorants , especially for products marketed to children .

dpql_1447--Confectionery.txt

Which confectionary manufacturer markets Galaxy milk chocolate?

A car is a wheeled , self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry . Most definitions of the term specify that cars are designed to run primarily on roads , to have seating for one to eight people , to typically have four wheels with tyres , and to be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods . The year 1886 is regarded as the birth year of the modern car . In that year , German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen . Cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century . One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T , an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company . Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America , where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts , but took much longer to be accepted in Western Europe and other parts of the world . Cars are equipped with controls used for driving , parking , passenger comfort and safety , and controlling a variety of lights . Over the decades , additional features and controls have been added to vehicles , making them progressively more complex . Examples include rear reversing cameras , air conditioning , navigation systems , and in car entertainment . Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by an internal combustion engine , fueled by deflagration of gasoline ( also known as petrol ) or diesel . Both fuels cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming . Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries . Electric cars , which were invented early in the history of the car , began to become commercially available in 2008 . There are costs and benefits to car use . The costs of car usage include the cost of : acquiring the vehicle , interest payments ( if the car is financed ) , repairs and auto maintenance , fuel , depreciation , driving time , parking fees , taxes , and insurance . The costs to society of car use include : maintaining roads , land use , road congestion , air pollution , public health , health care , and disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life . Road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide . The benefits may include on-demand transportation , mobility , independence , and convenience . The societal benefits may include : economic benefits , such as job and wealth creation from car production , sales and maintenance , transportation provision , society well-being derived from leisure and travel opportunities , and revenue generation from the tax opportunities . The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies . It was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles , up from the 500 million of 1986 . The numbers are increasing rapidly , especially in China , India and other newly industrialized countries . Etymology The word `` car '' is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum ( `` wheeled vehicle '' ) , or the Middle English word carre ( meaning cart , from Old North French ) . In turn , these originated from the Gaulish word karros ( a Gallic chariot ) . The Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr ; the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh ( and Gaelic ) where 'Car llusg ' ( a drag cart or sledge ) and 'car rhyfel ' ( war chariot ) still survive . [ http : //www.lib.wayne.edu/resources/special_collections/local/cfai/index.php 'Car ' derived from 'carrus ' ] It originally referred to any wheeled horse-drawn vehicle , such as a cart , carriage , or wagon . `` Motor car '' is attested from 1895 , and is the usual formal name for cars in British English . `` Autocar '' is a variant that is also attested from 1895 , but that is now considered archaic . It literally means `` self-propelled car '' . The term `` horseless carriage '' was used by some to refer to the first cars at the time that they were being built , and is attested from 1895 . The word `` automobile '' is a classical compound derived from the Ancient Greek word autós ( αὐτός ) , meaning `` self '' , and the Latin word mobilis , meaning `` movable '' . It entered the English language from French , and was first adopted by the Automobile Club of Great Britain in 1897 . Over time , the word `` automobile '' fell out of favour in Britain , and was replaced by `` motor car '' . It remains a chiefly North American usage . An abbreviated form , `` auto '' , was formerly a common way to refer to cars in English , but is now considered old-fashioned . The word is still used in some compound formations in American English , like `` auto industry '' and `` auto mechanic '' . History The first working steam-powered vehicle was designed—and most likely built—by Ferdinand Verbiest , a Flemish member of a Jesuit mission in China around 1672 . It was a 65-cm-long scale-model toy for the Chinese Emperor that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger . – Note that the vehicle pictured is the 20th century diecast model made by Brumm , of a later vehicle , not a model based on Verbiest 's plans . It is not known if Verbiest 's model was ever built . Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is widely credited with building the first full-scale , self-propelled mechanical vehicle or car in about 1769 ; he created a steam-powered tricycle . He also constructed two steam tractors for the French Army , one of which is preserved in the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts . His inventions were , however , handicapped by problems with water supply and maintaining steam pressure . In 1801 , Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive , believed by many to be the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle . It was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods , and was of little practical use . The development of external combustion engines is detailed as part of the history of the car , but often treated separately from the development of true cars . A variety of steam-powered road vehicles were used during the first part of the 19th century , including steam cars , steam buses , phaetons , and steam rollers . Sentiment against them led to the Locomotive Acts of 1865 . In 1807 , Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude created what was probably the world 's first internal combustion engine ( which they called a Pyréolophore ) , but they chose to install it in a boat on the river Saone in France . Coincidentally , in 1807 the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed his own 'de Rivaz internal combustion engine ' and used it to develop the world 's first vehicle to be powered by such an engine . The Niépces ' Pyréolophore was fuelled by a mixture of Lycopodium powder ( dried spores of the Lycopodium plant ) , finely crushed coal dust and resin that were mixed with oil , whereas de Rivaz used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen . Neither design was very successful , as was the case with others , such as Samuel Brown , Samuel Morey , and Etienne Lenoir with his hippomobile , who each produced vehicles ( usually adapted carriages or carts ) powered by internal combustion engines . In November 1881 , French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity , Paris . Although several other German engineers ( including Gottlieb Daimler , Wilhelm Maybach , and Siegfried Marcus ) were working on the problem at about the same time , Karl Benz generally is acknowledged as the inventor of the modern car . In 1879 , Benz was granted a patent for his first engine , which had been designed in 1878 . Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle . His first Motorwagen was built in 1885 in Mannheim , Germany . He was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on 29 January 1886 ( under the auspices of his major company , Benz & Cie. , which was founded in 1883 ) . Benz began promotion of the vehicle on 3 July 1886 , and about 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893 , when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a model intended for affordability . They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design . Emile Roger of France , already producing Benz engines under license , now added the Benz car to his line of products . Because France was more open to the early cars , initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany . In August 1888 Bertha Benz , the wife of Karl Benz , undertook the first road trip by car , to prove the road-worthiness of her husband 's invention . In 1896 , Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine , called boxermotor . During the last years of the nineteenth century , Benz was the largest car company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and , because of its size , Benz & Cie. , became a joint-stock company . The first motor car in central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in the world , was produced by Czech company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau ( later renamed to Tatra ) in 1897 , the Präsident automobil . Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft ( DMG ) in Cannstatt in 1890 , and sold their first car in 1892 under the brand name Daimler . It was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer , which they retrofitted with an engine of their design . By 1895 about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach , either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann , where they set up shop after disputes with their backers . Benz , Maybach and the Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each other 's early work . They never worked together ; by the time of the merger of the two companies , Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG . Daimler died in 1900 and later that year , Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes that was placed in a specially ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek . This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country . Two years later , in 1902 , a new model DMG car was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine , which generated 35 hp . Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own . Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers . Karl Benz proposed co-operation between DMG and Benz & Cie. when economic conditions began to deteriorate in Germany following the First World War , but the directors of DMG refused to consider it initially . Negotiations between the two companies resumed several years later when these conditions worsened and , in 1924 they signed an Agreement of Mutual Interest , valid until the year 2000 . Both enterprises standardized design , production , purchasing , and sales and they advertised or marketed their car models jointly , although keeping their respective brands . On 28 June 1926 , Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the Daimler-Benz company , baptizing all of its cars Mercedes Benz , as a brand honoring the most important model of the DMG cars , the Maybach design later referred to as the 1902 Mercedes-35 hp , along with the Benz name . Karl Benz remained a member of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz until his death in 1929 , and at times his two sons also participated in the management of the company . In 1890 , Émile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines , and so laid the foundation of the automotive industry in France . In 1891 , Auguste Doriot and his Peugeot colleague Louis Rigoulot completed the longest trip by a gasoline-powered vehicle when their self-designed and built Daimler powered Peugeot Type 3 completed 2100 km from Valentigney to Paris and Brest and back again . They were attached to the first Paris–Brest–Paris bicycle race , but finished 6 days after the winning cyclist , Charles Terront . The first design for an American car with a gasoline internal combustion engine was made in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester , New York . Selden applied for a patent for a car in 1879 , but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built . After a delay of sixteen years and a series of attachments to his application , on 5 November 1895 , Selden was granted a United States patent ( ) for a two-stroke car engine , which hindered , more than encouraged , development of cars in the United States . His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others , and overturned in 1911 . In 1893 , the first running , gasoline-powered American car was built and road-tested by the Duryea brothers of Springfield , Massachusetts . The first public run of the Duryea Motor Wagon took place on 21 September 1893 , on Taylor Street in Metro Center Springfield . The Studebaker Automobile Company , subsidiary of a long-established wagon and coach manufacturer , started to build cars in 1897 and commenced sales of electric vehicles in 1902 and gasoline vehicles in 1904 . In Britain , there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success , with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860 . Santler from Malvern is recognized by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first gasoline-powered car in the country in 1894 followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895 , but these were both one-offs . The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Company , a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896 , after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines . Lawson 's company made its first car in 1897 , and they bore the name Daimler . In 1892 , German engineer Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a `` New Rational Combustion Engine '' . In 1897 , he built the first diesel engine . Steam- , electric- , and gasoline-powered vehicles competed for decades , with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s . Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design , only Mazda 's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success . Mass production The large-scale , production-line manufacturing of affordable cars was debuted by Ransom Olds in 1901 at his Oldsmobile factory located in Lansing , Michigan and based upon stationary assembly line techniques pioneered by Marc Isambard Brunel at the Portsmouth Block Mills , England , in 1802 . The assembly line style of mass production and interchangeable parts had been pioneered in the U.S. by Thomas Blanchard in 1821 , at the Springfield Armory in Springfield , Massachusetts . This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford , beginning in 1913 with the world 's first moving assembly line for cars at the Highland Park Ford Plant . As a result , Ford 's cars came off the line in fifteen-minute intervals , much faster than previous methods , increasing productivity eightfold , while using less manpower ( from 12.5-man-hours to 1 hour 33 minutes ) . It was so successful , paint became a bottleneck . Only Japan Black would dry fast enough , forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1913 , until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926 . This is the source of Ford 's apocryphal remark , `` any color as long as it 's black '' . In 1914 , an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months ' pay . Ford 's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury . The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called `` Fordism , '' and was copied by most major industries . The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the United States . The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods . In the automotive industry , its success was dominating , and quickly spread worldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911 , Ford Denmark 1923 , Ford Germany 1925 ; in 1921 , Citroen was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method . Soon , companies had to have assembly lines , or risk going broke ; by 1930 , 250 companies which did not , had disappeared . Development of automotive technology was rapid , due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world 's attention . Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter ( both by Charles Kettering , for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910–1911 ) , independent suspension , and four-wheel brakes . Since the 1920s , nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs , so marketing plans often have heavily influenced car design . It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company , called the General Motors Companion Make Program , so that buyers could `` move up '' as their fortunes improved . Reflecting the rapid pace of change , makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range . For example , in the 1930s , LaSalles , sold by Cadillac , used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile ; in the 1950s , Chevrolet shared hood , doors , roof , and windows with Pontiac ; by the 1990s , corporate powertrains and shared platforms ( with interchangeable brakes , suspension , and other parts ) were common . Even so , only major makers could afford high costs , and even companies with decades of production , such as Apperson , Cole , Dorris , Haynes , or Premier , could not manage : of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920 , only 43 survived in 1930 , and with the Great Depression , by 1940 , only 17 of those were left . In Europe much the same would happen . Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924 , and soon outsold Ford , while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford 's practice of vertical integration , buying Hotchkiss ( engines ) , Wrigley ( gearboxes ) , and Osberton ( radiators ) , for instance , as well as competitors , such as Wolseley : in 1925 , Morris had 41 % of total British car production . Most British small-car assemblers , from Abbey to Xtra , had gone under . Citroen did the same in France , coming to cars in 1919 ; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault 's 10CV and Peugeot 's 5CV , they produced 550,000 cars in 1925 , and Mors , Hurtu , and others could not compete . Germany 's first mass-manufactured car , the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch ( Tree Frog ) , came off the line at Russelsheim in 1924 , soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany , with 37.5 % of the market . In Japan , car production was very limited before World War II . Only a handful of companines were producing vehicles in limited numbers , and the vehicles were small , and three-wheeled for commercial uses , like Daihatsu , or were the result of partnering with European companies , like Isuzu building the Wolseley A-9 in 1922 . Mitsubishi was also partnered with Fiat and built the Mitsubishi Model A based on a Fiat vehicle . Toyota , Nissan , Suzuki , Mazda , and Honda began as companies producing non-automotive products before the war , switching to car production during the 1950s . Kiichiro Toyoda 's decision to take Toyoda Loom Works into automobile manufacturing would create what would eventually become Toyota Motor Corporation , the largest automobile manufacturer in the world . Subaru , meanwhile , was formed from a conglomerate of six companies who banded together as Fuji Heavy Industries , as a result of having been broken up under keiretsu legislation . Fuel and propulsion technologies Most cars in use today are propelled by an internal combustion engine , fueled by deflagration of gasoline or diesel . Both fuels are known to cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming . Rapidly increasing oil prices , concerns about oil dependence , tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for cars . Efforts to improve or replace existing technologies include the development of hybrid vehicles , plug-in electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles . Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries . Cars for racing or speed records have sometimes employed jet or rocket engines , but these are impractical for common use . Oil consumption in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been abundantly pushed by car growth ; the 1985–2003 oil glut even fuelled the sales of low-economy vehicles in OECD countries . The BRIC countries are adding to this consumption ; in December 2009 China was briefly the largest car market . User interface Cars are equipped with controls used for driving , passenger comfort and safety , normally operated by a combination of the use of feet and hands , and occasionally by voice on 2000s-era cars . These controls include a steering wheel , pedals for operating the brakes and controlling the car 's speed ( and , in a manual transmission car , a clutch pedal ) , a shift lever or stick for changing gears , and a number of buttons and dials for turning on lights , ventilation and other functions . Modern cars ' controls are now standardised , such as the location for the accelerator and brake , but this was not always the case . Controls are evolving in response to new technologies , for example the electric car and the integration of mobile communications . Since the car was first invented , its controls have become fewer and simpler through automation . For example , all cars once had a manual controls for the choke valve , clutch , ignition timing , and a crank instead of an electric starter . However new controls have also been added to vehicles , making them more complex . Examples include air conditioning , navigation systems , and in car entertainment . Another trend is the replacement of physical knob and switches for secondary controls with touchscreen controls such as BMW 's iDrive and Ford 's MyFord Touch . Another change is that while early cars ' pedals were physically linked to the brake mechanism and throttle , in the 2010s , cars have increasingly replaced these physical linkages with electronic controls . Lighting Cars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights . These include headlights , which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make the car visible to other users , so that the vehicle can be used at night ; in some jurisdictions , daytime running lights ; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied ; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver ; white-coloured reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car ( and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing ) ; and on some vehicles , additional lights ( e.g. , side marker lights ) to increase the visibility of the car . Interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers . Some vehicles also have a trunk light and , more rarely , an engine compartment light . Weight In the United States , `` from 1975 to 1980 , average [ car ] weight dropped from , likely in response to rising gasoline prices '' and new fuel efficiency standards . The average new car weighed 3221 lb in 1987 but 4009 lb in 2010 , due to modern steel safety cages , anti-lock brakes , airbags , and `` more-powerful—if more-efficient—engines . '' Heavier cars are safer for the driver , from an accident perspective , but more dangerous for other vehicles and road users . The weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance , with more weight resulting in increased fuel consumption and decreased performance . The SmartFortwo , a small city car , weighs 750 - . Heavier cars include full-size cars , SUVs and extended-length SUVs like the Suburban . According to research conducted by Julian Allwood of the University of Cambridge , global energy use could be heavily reduced by using lighter cars , and an average weight of 500 kg has been said to be well achievable . In some competitions such as the Shell Eco Marathon , average car weights of 45 kg have also been achieved . These cars are only single-seaters ( still falling within the definition of a car , although 4-seater cars are more common ) , but they nevertheless demonstrate the amount by which car weights could still be reduced , and the subsequent lower fuel use ( i.e . up to a fuel use of 2560 km/l ) . Seating and body style Most cars are designed to carry multiple occupants , often with four or five seats . Cars with five seats typically seat two passengers in the front and three in the rear . Full-size cars and large sport utility vehicles can often carry six , seven , or more occupants depending on the arrangement of the seats . In the other hand , sports cars are most often designed with only two seats . The differing needs for passenger capacity and their luggage or cargo space has resulted in the availability of a large variety of body styles to meet individual consumer requirements that include , among others , the sedan/saloon , hatchback , station wagon/estate , and minivan . Safety Road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide . Mary Ward became one of the first documented car fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown , Ireland , and Henry Bliss one of the United States ' first pedestrian car casualties in 1899 in New York City . There are now standard tests for safety in new cars , such as the EuroNCAP and the US NCAP tests , and insurance-industry-backed tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety ( IIHS ) . Worldwide , road traffic is becoming ever safer , in part due to efforts by the government to implement safety features in cars ( e.g. , seat belts , air bags , etc . ) , reduce unsafe driving practices ( e.g. , speeding , drinking and driving and texting and driving ) and make road design more safe by adding features such as speed bumps , which reduce vehicle speed , and roundabouts , which reduce the likelihood of a head-on-collision ( as compared with an intersection ) . Costs and benefits The costs of car usage , which may include the cost of : acquiring the vehicle , repairs and auto maintenance , fuel , depreciation , driving time , parking fees , taxes , and insurance , are weighed against the cost of the alternatives , and the value of the benefits – perceived and real – of vehicle usage

sfq_9736--Car.txt

Which car company makes the 'X-Trail'?

Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven players on a cricket field , at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard-long pitch with a wicket , a set of three wooden stumps sited at each end . One team , designated the batting team , attempts to score as many runs as possible , whilst their opponents field . Each phase of play is called an innings . After either ten batsmen have been dismissed or a set number of overs have been completed , the innings ends and the two teams then swap roles . The winning team is the one that scores the most runs , including any extras gained , during their period batting . At the start of each game , two batsmen and eleven fielders enter the field of play . The play begins when a designated member of the fielding team , known as the bowler , delivers the ball from one end of the pitch to the other , towards a set of wooden stumps , in front of which stands one of the batsmen , known as the striker . The striker 's role is to prevent the ball from hitting the stumps through use of his bat , and simultaneously strike it sufficiently well to score runs . The other batsman , known as the non-striker , waits at the opposite end of the pitch by the bowler . The bowler 's intention is to both prevent the scoring of runs and to dismiss the batsman , at which point the dismissed batsman has to leave the field and another teammate replaces him at the crease . The most common forms of dismissal are bowled , when the bowler hits the stumps directly with the ball , leg before wicket , when the batsman prevents the ball from hitting the stumps with his body instead of his bat , and caught , when the batsman hits the ball into the air and it is intercepted by a fielder before touching the ground . Runs are scored through two main methods : either hitting the ball sufficiently powerfully that it crosses the boundary , or through the two batsmen swapping ends by each simultaneously running the length of the pitch in opposite directions whilst the fielders are retrieving the ball . If a fielder is able to retrieve the ball sufficiently quickly and put down the wicket with either batsman out of his ground , a run-out occurs . Adjudication is performed on-field by two umpires . The laws of cricket are maintained by the International Cricket Council ( ICC ) and Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) . There are various formats ranging from Twenty20 , played over a few hours with each team having a single innings of 20 overs , to Test cricket , played over five days with unlimited overs and the teams playing two innings apiece . Traditionally , cricketers play in all-white kit but in limited overs cricket they wear club or team colours . In addition to the basic kit , some players wear protective gear to prevent injury caused by the ball which is a hard , solid object made of compressed leather enclosing a cork core . Although cricket 's origins are uncertain , it is first recorded in south-east England in the 16th century . It spread globally with the expansion of the British Empire , leading to the first international matches in the mid-19th century . ICC , the game 's governing body , has over 100 members , ten of which are full members who play Test cricket . Women 's cricket , which is organised and played separately , has also achieved international standard . Cricket is the world 's second most popular spectator sport , after association football , and is followed primarily in Australasia , Great Britain and Ireland , the Indian subcontinent , southern Africa and the West Indies . Etymology A number of words have been suggested as sources for the term `` cricket '' . In the earliest definite reference to the sport in 1598 it is called creckett . One possible source for the name is the Old English cricc or cryce meaning a crutch or staff.Birley , p. 3 . In Samuel Johnson 's Dictionary , he derived cricket from `` cryce , Saxon , a stick '' . In Old French , the word criquet seems to have meant a kind of club or stick . Given the strong medieval trade connections between south-east England and the County of Flanders when the latter belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy , the name may have been derived from the Middle Dutch krick ( -e ) , meaning a stick ( crook ) . Another possible source is the Middle Dutch word krickstoel , meaning a long low stool used for kneeling in church and which resembled the long low wicket with two stumps used in early cricket . According to Heiner Gillmeister , a European language expert of Bonn University , `` cricket '' derives from the Middle Dutch phrase for hockey , met de ( krik ket ) sen ( i.e. , `` with the stick chase '' ) . Dr Gillmeister believes that not only the name but the sport itself is of Flemish origin . History Cricket can definitely be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th-century England though there have been a number of claims , many of them spurious and/or lacking evidence , supporting earlier dates from 1301 . The earliest definite reference to cricket being played comes from evidence given at a 1598 court case which mentions that `` creckett '' ( sic ) was played on common land in Guildford around 1550 . The court in Guildford heard on Monday , 17 January 1597 ( Julian date , equating to the year 1598 in the Gregorian calendar ) from a 59-year-old coroner , John Derrick , who gave witness that when he was a scholar at the `` Free School at Guildford '' , fifty years earlier , `` hee and diverse of his fellows did runne and play [ on the common land ] at creckett and other plaies . '' Altham , p. 21 . It is believed that cricket was originally a children 's game but references around 1610 indicate that adults had started playing it and the earliest reference to inter-parish or village cricket occurs soon afterwards . In 1624 , a player called Jasper Vinall died after he was struck on the head during a match between two parish teams in Sussex.McCann , pp . xxxiii–xxxiv . During the 17th century , numerous references indicate the growth of cricket in the south-east of England . By the end of the century , it had become an organised activity being played for high stakes and it is believed that the first professionals appeared in the years following the Restoration in 1660 . A newspaper report survives of `` a great cricket match '' with eleven players a side that was played for high stakes in Sussex in 1697 , and this is the earliest known reference to a cricket match of such importance . The game underwent major development in the 18th century . Betting played a key part in that development with rich patrons forming their own `` select XIs '' . Cricket was prominent in London as early as 1707 and , in the middle years of the century , large crowds flocked to matches on the Artillery Ground in Finsbury . The single wicket form of the sport attracted huge crowds and wagers to match , its popularity peaking in the 1748 season . Bowling underwent an evolution around 1760 when bowlers began to pitch the ball instead of rolling or skimming it towards the batsman . This caused a revolution in bat design because , to deal with the bouncing ball , it was necessary to introduce the modern straight bat in place of the old `` hockey stick '' shape . The Hambledon Club was founded in the 1760s and , for the next twenty years until the formation of Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) and the opening of Lord 's Old Ground in 1787 , Hambledon was both the game 's greatest club and its focal point . MCC quickly became the sport 's premier club and the custodian of the Laws of cricket . New Laws introduced in the latter part of the 18th century included the three stump wicket and leg before wicket ( lbw ) . The 19th century saw underarm bowling superseded by first roundarm and then overarm bowling . Both developments were controversial . Organisation of the game at county level led to the creation of the county clubs , starting with Sussex in 1839 , which ultimately formed the official County Championship in 1890 . Meanwhile , the British Empire had been instrumental in spreading the game overseas and by the middle of the 19th century it had become well established in India , North America , the Caribbean , South Africa , Australia and New Zealand . In 1844 , the first-ever international match took place between the United States and Canada . In 1859 , a team of English players went to North America on the first overseas tour . The first Australian team to tour overseas was a team of Aboriginal stockmen who travelled to England in 1868 to play matches against county teams . In 1862 , an English team made the first tour of Australia . The most famous player of the 19th century was W. G. Grace , who started his long and influential career in 1865 . In 1876–77 , an England team took part in what was retrospectively recognised as the first-ever Test match at the Melbourne Cricket Ground against Australia . The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to The Ashes in 1882 and this has remained Test cricket 's most famous contest . Test cricket began to expand in 1888–89 when South Africa played England . The last two decades before the First World War have been called the `` Golden Age of cricket '' . It is a nostalgic name prompted by the collective sense of loss resulting from the war , but the period did produce some great players and memorable matches , especially as organised competition at county and Test level developed . The inter-war years were dominated by one player : Australia 's Don Bradman , statistically the greatest batsman of all time . Test cricket continued to expand during the 20th century with the addition of the West Indies , India and New Zealand before the Second World War and then Pakistan , Sri Lanka , and Bangladesh in the post-war period . South Africa was banned from international cricket from 1970 to 1992 because of its government 's apartheid policy . Cricket entered a new era in 1963 when English counties introduced the limited overs variant . As it was sure to produce a result , limited overs cricket was lucrative and the number of matches increased . The first Limited Overs International was played in 1971 . The governing International Cricket Council ( ICC ) saw its potential and staged the first limited overs Cricket World Cup in 1975 . In the 21st century , a new limited overs form , Twenty20 , has made an immediate impact . Rules and game-play Cricket is a bat and ball game , played between two teams of eleven players each . One team bats , attempting to score runs , while the other bowls and fields the ball , attempting to restrict the scoring and dismiss the batsmen . The objective of the game is for a team to score more runs than its opponent . In some forms of cricket , it may also be necessary to dismiss the opposition in order to win the match , which would otherwise be drawn . Format of the game A cricket match is divided into periods called innings ( which ends with `` s '' in both singular and plural form ) . It is decided before the match whether the teams will have one innings or two innings each . During an innings one team fields and the other bats . The two teams switch between fielding and batting after each innings . All eleven members of the fielding team take the field , but only two members of the batting team ( two batsmen ) are on the field at any given time . The order of batsmen is usually announced just before the match , but it can be varied . A coin toss is held by the team captains ( who are also players ) just before the match starts : the winner decides whether to bat or field first . The cricket field is usually circular or oval in shape , with a rectangular pitch at the center . The edge of the playing field is marked with a boundary , which could be a fence , part of the stands , a rope or a painted line . At each end of the pitch is a wooden target called a wicket , placed 22 yards apart . The pitch is marked with painted lines : a bowling crease in line with the wicket , and a batting or popping crease four feet in front of it . The wicket is made of three vertical stumps supporting two small horizontal bails . A wicket is put down if at least one bail is dislodged , or one stump is knocked down ( usually by the ball , but also if the batsman does it with his body , clothing or equipment ) . This is also described as breaking , knocking down , or hitting the wicket - though if the ball hits the wicket but does not dislodge a bail or stump then it is not considered to be down . At any instant each batsman owns a particular wicket ( usually the one closer to him ) and , except when actually batting , is safe when he is in his ground . This means that at least one part of his body or bat is touching the ground behind the popping crease . If his wicket is put down while the ball is live and he is out of his ground then he is dismissed , but the other batsman is safe . The two batsmen take positions at opposite ends of the pitch . One designated member of the fielding team , called the bowler , bowls the ball from one end of the pitch to the striking batsman at the other end . The batsman at the bowling end is called the non-striker , and stands to the side of his wicket , behind his crease . The batsman are allowed to step forward of their creases , though at some risk . Another member of the fielding team , the wicket keeper , is positioned behind the striker 's wicket . The fielding team 's other nine members stand outside the pitch , spread out across the field . The fielding captain often strategically changes their position between balls . There is always an umpire at each end of the pitch . The bowler usually retreats a few yards ( metres ) behind the wicket , runs towards it ( his run-up ) , and then releases the ball over-hand as he reaches the bowling crease . ( If he crosses the crease before he releases the ball , or if he flexes his elbow too much in a throw , then it is a no ball , and the batting team gets a penalty or extra run . If the ball passes the far wicket out of reach of the batsman then it is called a wide , also with an extra run . ) The ball can be bowled so that it bounces on the pitch , lands exactly on the crease ( a yorker ) , or crosses the crease without bouncing ( a full toss ) . The batsman tries to prevent the ball from hitting the wicket by striking the ball with his bat . ( This includes the handle of the bat , and his gloves . ) If the bowler succeeds in putting down the wicket the batsman is dismissed and is said to be bowled out . If the batsman misses the ball , but any part of his body prevents it from reaching the wicket , then he is out leg before wicket , or `` LBW '' . If the batsman hits the ball but it is caught by a fielder without bouncing then he is caught out . If it is caught by the bowler then he is caught and bowled ; by the wicket keeper , caught behind . If the batsman is successful in striking the ball and it is not caught without bouncing , then the two batsmen may try to score points ( runs ) for their team . Both batsmen run the length of the pitch , exchanging positions , and grounding their bats behind the opposite crease . Each crossing and grounding by both batsmen is worth one run . The batsmen may attempt one run , multiple runs , or elect not to run at all . By attempting runs , the batsmen risk dismissal . This happens if the fielding team retrieves the ball and hits either wicket with the ball ( either by throwing it , or while holding it ) before the batsman who owns that wicket reaches his ground behind the crease . The dismissed batsman is run out . Batsmen will sometimes start to run , change their mind , and return to their original positions . If the batsman hits the ball over the field boundary without the ball touching the field , the batting team scores six runs . If the ball touches the ground and then reaches the boundary , the batting team scores four runs . The batsmen might start running before the ball reaches the boundary , but those runs do n't count . If the batsman misses the ball they can still attempt extra runs : these are called byes . If the ball bounces off his body then it is called a leg bye . If the striking batsman leaves his ground and misses the ball , then the wicket keeper can catch it and put down the wicket – stumped . In case of a no ball or a wide the batsman can choose to strike the ball , earning runs in addition to the fixed penalty . If he does so he can only be dismissed by being run out . When the batsmen have finished attempting their runs the ball is dead , and is returned to the bowler to be bowled again . The ball becomes live when he starts his run up . The bowler continues to bowl toward the same wicket , regardless of any switch of the batsmen 's positions . A batsman may retire from an innings without being dismissed , usually after reaching a milestone like a hundred runs ( a century ) . A dismissed batsman leaves the field , to be replaced by another batsman from the batting team . However , even though the wicket may have been put down , or the ball caught , the batsman is not actually dismissed until the fielding team appeal to the umpires for a decision , traditionally using the expression `` How 's that '' ( or `` Howzat '' ) . In some matches , particularly test matches , either team may request a review by a third umpire who can use a decision review system ( DRS ) , which includes TV replays and other electronic equipment such as Hawk-Eye , Hot Spot and the Snickometer . After a bowler has bowled six times ( an over ) , another member of the fielding team is designated as the new bowler , the old bowler taking up a fielding position . The batsmen stay in place , and the new bowler bowls to the opposite wicket , so the role of striker and non-striker reverse . The wicket keeper and the two umpires always change positions , as do many of the fielders , and play continues . Fielding team members may bowl multiple times during an innings , but may not bowl two overs in succession . The innings is complete when 10 of the 11 members of the batting team have been dismissed ( all out - although one always remaining `` not out '' ) , when a set number of overs has been played , or when the batting team declares that they have enough runs . The number of innings and the number of overs per innings vary depending on the format of the match . In a match which is not a limited overs format the umpires will usually specify that the last session of the last innings will have a specified number of overs . The match always ends when all innings have been completed . The umpires can also call an end to the match in case of bad light or weather . But in many cases the match ends immediately when the first team to bat has played all of its innings , and the last team to bat has more runs . In four-innings games the last team may not even need to play its second innings : this team is said to win by an innings . If this winning team has not completed its last innings , and still has , for example , five batsmen who are not out or have not even batted , then they are said to `` win by five wickets '' . If the last team to bat is losing , is all out , and has 10 fewer runs than the other team , then the winning team `` wins by 10 runs '' . If the two teams both play all their innings and they have the same number of runs , then it is a tie . In four-innings matches there is also the possibility of a draw : the team with fewer runs still has batsmen on the field when the game ends . This has a major effect on strategy : a team will often declare an innings when they have accumulated enough runs , in the hope that they will have enough time left to dismiss the other team and thus avoid a draw , but risking a loss if the other team scores enough runs . Pitch , wickets and creases Playing surface Cricket is played on a grassy field . The Laws of Cricket do not specify the size or shape of the field , but it is often oval . In the centre of the field is a rectangular strip , known as the pitch . The pitch is a flat surface 10 ft wide , with very short grass that tends to be worn away as the game progresses . At either end of the pitch , 22 yd apart , are placed wooden targets , known as the wickets . These serve as a target for the bowling ( also known as the fielding ) side and are defended by the batting side , which seeks to accumulate runs . Stumps , bails and creases Each wicket on the pitch consists of three wooden stumps placed vertically , in line with one another . They are surmounted by two wooden crosspieces called bails ; the total height of the wicket including bails is and the combined width of the three stumps , including small gaps between them is 9 in . Four lines , known as creases , are painted onto the pitch around the wicket areas to define the batsman 's `` safe territory '' and to determine the limit of the bowler 's approach . These are called the `` popping '' ( or batting ) crease , the bowling crease and two `` return '' creases . The stumps are placed in line on the bowling creases and so these creases must be 22 yd apart . A bowling crease is 8 ft long , with the middle stump placed dead centre . The popping crease has the same length , is parallel to the bowling crease and is 4 ft in front of the wicket . The return creases are perpendicular to the other two ; they are adjoined to the ends of the popping crease and are drawn through the ends of the bowling crease to a length of at least 8 ft . When bowling the ball , the bowler 's back foot in his `` delivery stride '' must land within the two return creases while at least some part of his front foot must land on or behind the popping crease . If the bowler breaks this rule , the umpire calls `` No ball '' . The importance of the popping crease to the batsman is that it marks the limit of his safe territory . He can be dismissed stumped or run out ( see Dismissals below ) if the wicket is broken while he is `` out of his ground '' . Bat and ball The essence of the sport is that a bowler delivers the ball from his end of the pitch towards the batsman who , armed with a bat is `` on strike '' at the other end . The bat is made of wood ( usually White Willow ) and has the shape of a blade topped by a cylindrical handle . The blade must not be more than wide and the total length of the bat not more than 38 in . The ball is a hard leather-seamed spheroid , with a circumference of 9 in . The hardness of the ball , which can be delivered at speeds of more than 90 mph , is a matter for concern and batsmen wear protective clothing including pads ( designed to protect the knees and shins ) , batting gloves for the hands , a helmet for the head and a box inside the trousers ( to protect the crotch area ) . Some batsmen wear additional padding inside their shirts and trousers such as thigh pads , arm pads , rib protectors and shoulder pads . The ball has a `` seam '' : six rows of stitches attaching the leather shell of the ball to the string and cork interior . The seam on a new ball is prominent , and helps the bowler propel it in a less predictable manner . During cricket matches , the quality of the ball changes to a point where it is no longer usable , and during this decline its properties alter and thus influence the match . Players will therefore attempt to changes the properties of the ball in order to influence its flight . Polishing the ball and wetting it with sweat or saliva is legal , even when the polishing is deliberately done on one side only to increase the ball 's swing , while rubbing other substances into the ball , scratching the surface or picking at the seam is illegal ball tampering . Umpires and scorers The game on the field is regulated by two umpires , one of whom stands behind the wicket at the bowler 's end , the other in a position called `` square leg '' , a position 15–20 metres to the side of the `` on strike '' batsman . The main role of the umpires is to adjudicate on whether a ball is correctly bowled ( not a no ball or a wide ) , when a run is scored , and whether a batsman is out ( the fielding side must appeal to the umpire , usually with the phrase How 's That ? ) . Umpires also determine when intervals start and end , decide on the suitability of the playing conditions and can interrupt or even abandon the match due to circumstances likely to endanger the players , such as a damp pitch or deterioration of the light . Off the field and in televised matches , there is often a third umpire who can make decisions on certain incidents with the aid of video evidence . The third umpire is mandatory under the playing conditions for Test matches and limited overs internationals played between two ICC full members . These matches also have a match referee whose job is to ensure that play is within the Laws of cricket and the spirit of the game

sfq_9311--Cricket.txt

In cricket what is the term used for a ball bowled as an off break but designed to make the batsman think it's a leg break?

A zombie ( Haitian French : zombi , Haitian Creole : zonbi ) is a fictional undead being created through the reanimation of a human corpse . Zombies are most commonly found in horror and fantasy genre works . The term comes from Haitian folklore , where a zombie is a dead body reanimated through various methods , most commonly magic . Modern depictions of zombies do not necessarily involve magic but often invoke science fictional methods such as radiation , mental diseases , viruses , scientific accidents , etc . The English word `` zombie '' is first recorded in 1819 , in a history of Brazil by the poet Robert Southey , in the form of `` zombi '' . The Oxford English Dictionary gives the origin of the word as West African , and compares it to the Kongo words nzambi ( god ) and zumbi ( fetish ) . One of the first books to expose Western culture to the concept of the voodoo zombie was The Magic Island by W.B . Seabrook in 1929 . This is the sensationalized account of a narrator who encounters voodoo cults in Haiti and their resurrected thralls . Time claimed that the book `` introduced 'zombi ' into U.S. speech '' . Zombies have a complex literary heritage , with antecedents ranging from Richard Matheson and H. P. Lovecraft to Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein drawing on European folklore of the undead . In 1932 , Victor Halperin directed White Zombie , a horror film starring Bela Lugosi . Here zombies are depicted as mindless , unthinking henchmen under the spell of an evil magician . Zombies , often still using this voodoo-inspired rationale , were initially uncommon in cinema , but their appearances continued sporadically through the 1930s to the 1960s , with notable films including I Walked with a Zombie ( 1943 ) and Plan 9 from Outer Space ( 1959 ) . A new version of the zombie , distinct from that described in Haitian folklore , has also emerged in popular culture in recent decades . This `` zombie '' is taken largely from George A. Romero 's seminal film Night of the Living Dead , which was in turn partly inspired by Richard Matheson 's 1954 novel I Am Legend . The word zombie is not used in Night of the Living Dead , but was applied later by fans . The monsters in the film and its sequels , such as Dawn of the Dead and Day of the Dead , as well as its many inspired works , such as Return of the Living Dead and Zombi 2 , are usually hungry for human flesh , although Return of the Living Dead introduced the popular concept of zombies eating brains . The `` zombie apocalypse '' concept , in which the civilized world is brought low by a global zombie infestation , became a staple of modern popular art . Etymology The English word `` zombie '' is first recorded in 1819 , in a history of Brazil by the poet Robert Southey , in the form of `` zombi '' , actually referring to the Afro-Brazilian rebel leader named Zumbi and the etymology of his name in `` nzambi '' . The Oxford English Dictionary gives the origin of the word as West African , and compares it to the Kongo words `` nzambi '' ( god ) and `` zumbi '' ( fetish ) . In Haitian folklore , a zombie ( Haitian French : zombi , Haitian Creole : zonbi ) is an animated corpse raised by magical means , such as witchcraft . The concept has been popularly associated with the religion of voodoo , but it plays no part in that faith 's formal practices . How the creatures in contemporary zombie films came to be called `` zombies '' is not fully clear . The film Night of the Living Dead made no spoken reference to its undead antagonists as `` zombies '' , describing them instead as `` ghouls '' ( though ghouls , which derive from Arabic folklore , are demons , not undead ) . Although George Romero used the term `` ghoul '' in his original scripts , in later interviews he used the term `` zombie '' . The word `` zombie '' is used exclusively by Romero in his 1978 script for his sequel Dawn of the Dead , including once in dialog . According to George Romero , film critics were influential in associating the term `` zombie '' to his creatures , and especially the French magazine `` Cahiers du Cinéma '' . He eventually accepted this linkage even though he remained convinced at the time that `` zombies '' corresponded to the undead slaves of Haitian voodoo as depicted in Bela Lugosi 's White Zombie . Folk beliefs Haitian tradition Zombies are featured widely in Haitian rural folklore as dead persons physically revived by the act of necromancy of a bokor , a sorcerer or witch . The bokor is opposed by the houngan or priest and the mambo or priestess of the formal voodoo religion . A zombie remains under the control of the bokor as a personal slave , having no will of its own . The Haitian tradition also includes an incorporeal type of zombie , the `` zombie astral '' , which is a part of the human soul . A bokor can capture a zombie astral to enhance his spiritual power . A zombie astral can also be sealed inside a specially decorated bottle by a bokor and sold to a client to bring luck , healing or business success . It is believed that God eventually will reclaim the zombie 's soul , so the zombie is a temporary spiritual entity . * McAlister , Elizabeth . 1995. “ [ http : //wesscholar.wesleyan.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi ? article 1016 & context=div2facpubs A Sorcerer 's Bottle : The Visual Art of Magic in Haiti. ” In Donald J. Cosentino , ed. , Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou . UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History , 1995 : 304–321 . ] ” It has been suggested that the two types of zombie reflect soul dualism , a belief of Haitian voodoo . Each type of legendary zombie is therefore missing one half of its soul ( the flesh or the spirit ) . The zombie belief has its roots in traditions brought to Haiti by enslaved Africans , and their subsequent experiences in the New World . It was thought that the voodoo deity Baron Samedi would gather them from their grave to bring them to a heavenly afterlife in Africa ( `` Guinea '' ) , unless they had offended him in some way , in which case they would be forever a slave after death , as a zombie . A zombie could also be saved by feeding them salt . A number of scholars have pointed out the significance of the zombie figure as a metaphor for the history of slavery in Haiti . While most scholars have associated the Haitian zombie with African cultures , a connection has also been suggested to the island 's indigenous Taíno people , partly based on an early account of native shamanist practices written by the Hieronymite monk Ramón Pané , a companion of Christopher Columbus . The Haitian zombie phenomenon first attracted widespread international attention during the United States occupation of Haiti ( 1915–1934 ) , when a number of case histories of purported `` zombies '' began to emerge . The first popular book covering the topics was William Seabrook 's The Magic Island ( 1929 ) . Seabrooke cited Article 246 of the Haitian criminal code which was passed in 1864 , asserting that it was an official recognition of zombies . This passage was later used in promotional materials for the 1932 film White Zombie . In 1937 , while researching folklore in Haiti , Zora Neale Hurston encountered the case of a woman who appeared in a village . A family claimed she was Felicia Felix-Mentor , a relative who had died and been buried in 1907 at the age of 29 . The woman was examined by a doctor ; X-rays indicated that she did not have a leg fracture that Felix-Mentor was known to have had . Hurston pursued rumors that affected persons were given a powerful psychoactive drug , but she was unable to locate individuals willing to offer much information . She wrote , `` What is more , if science ever gets to the bottom of Vodou in Haiti and Africa , it will be found that some important medical secrets , still unknown to medical science , give it its power , rather than gestures of ceremony . '' African and related legends A Central or West African origin for the Haitian zombie has been postulated based on two etymologies in the Kongo language , nzambi ( `` god '' ) and zumbi ( `` fetish '' ) . This root helps form the names of several deities , including the Kongo creator deity Nzambi a Mpungu and the Louisiana serpent deity Li Grand Zombi ( a local version of the Haitian Damballa ) , but it is in fact a generic word for a divine spirit . The common African conception of beings under these names is more similar to the incorporeal `` zombie astral '' , as in the Kongo Nkisi spirits . A related , but also often incorporeal , undead being is the jumbee of the English-speaking Caribbean , considered to be of the same etymology ; in the French West Indies also , local `` zombies '' are recognized , but these are of a more general spirit nature . The idea of physical zombie-like creatures is present in some South African cultures , where they are called xidachane in Sotho/Tsonga and maduxwane in Venda . In some communities , it is believed that a dead person can be zombified by a small child . It is said that the spell can be broken by a powerful enough sangoma . It is also believed in some areas of South Africa that witches can zombify a person by killing and possessing the victim 's body in order to force it into slave labor . After rail lines were built to transport migrant workers , stories emerged about `` witch trains '' . These trains appeared ordinary , but were staffed by zombified workers controlled by a witch . The trains would abduct a person boarding at night , and the person would then either be turned into a zombified worker , or beaten and thrown from the train a distance away from the original location . Evolution of the zombie archetype Pulliam and Fonseca ( 2014 ) and Walz ( 2006 ) trace the zombie lineage back to the Epic of Gilgamesh Frankenstein by Mary Shelley , while not a zombie novel in particular , prefigures many 20th-century ideas about zombies in that the resurrection of the dead is portrayed as a scientific process rather than a mystical one , and that the resurrected dead are degraded and more violent than their living selves . Frankenstein , published in 1818 , has its roots in European folklore , whose tales of vengeful dead also informed the evolution of the modern conception of the vampire . Later notable 19th-century stories about the avenging undead included Ambrose Bierce 's `` The Death of Halpin Frayser '' , and various Gothic Romanticism tales by Edgar Allan Poe . Though their works could not be properly considered zombie fiction , the supernatural tales of Bierce and Poe would prove influential on later writers such as H. P. Lovecraft , by Lovecraft 's own admission . In the 1920s and early 1930s , the American horror author H. P. Lovecraft wrote several novellae that explored the undead theme . `` Cool Air '' , `` In the Vault '' , and `` The Outsider '' all deal with the undead , but Lovecraft 's Herbert West–Reanimator ( 1921 ) `` helped define zombies in popular culture '' . This series of short stories featured Herbert West , a mad scientist who attempts to revive human corpses with mixed results . Notably , the resurrected dead are uncontrollable , mostly mute , primitive and extremely violent ; though they are not referred to as zombies , their portrayal was prescient , anticipating the modern conception of zombies by several decades . Edgar Rice Burroughs similarly depicted animated corpses in the second book of his Venus series , again without ever using the terms `` zombie '' or `` undead '' . Avenging zombies would feature prominently in the early 1950s EC Comics , which George A. Romero would later claim as an influence . The comics , including Tales from the Crypt , Vault of Horror and Weird Science , featured avenging undead in the Gothic tradition quite regularly , including adaptations of Lovecraft 's stories , which included `` In the Vault '' , `` Cool Air '' and Herbert West–Reanimator . Richard Matheson 's 1954 novel I Am Legend , although classified as a vampire story would nonetheless have definitive impact on the zombie genre by way of George A. Romero . The novel and its 1964 film adaptation , The Last Man on Earth , which concern a lone human survivor waging war against a world of vampires , would by Romero 's own admission greatly influence his 1968 low-budget film Night of the Living Dead ; a work that would prove to be more influential on the concept of zombies than any literary or cinematic work before it . Origins of zombie beliefs Chemical hypothesis Several decades after Hurston 's work , Wade Davis , a Harvard ethnobotanist , presented a pharmacological case for zombies in a 1983 paper in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology , and later in two popular books , The Serpent and the Rainbow ( 1985 ) and Passage of Darkness : The Ethnobiology of the Haitian Zombie ( 1988 ) . Davis traveled to Haiti in 1982 and , as a result of his investigations , claimed that a living person can be turned into a zombie by two special powders being introduced into the blood stream ( usually via a wound ) . The first , coup de poudre ( French : `` powder strike '' ) , includes tetrodotoxin ( TTX ) , a powerful and frequently fatal neurotoxin found in the flesh of the pufferfish ( order Tetraodontidae ) . The second powder consists of deliriant drugs such as datura . Together , these powders were said to induce a deathlike state in which the will of the victim would be entirely subjected to that of the bokor . Davis also popularized the story of Clairvius Narcisse , who was claimed to have succumbed to this practice . The most ethically questioned and least scientifically explored ingredient of the powders , is part of a recently buried child 's brain . The process described by Davis was an initial state of deathlike suspended animation , followed by re-awakening — typically after being buried — into a psychotic state . The psychosis induced by the drug and psychological trauma was hypothesised by Davis to reinforce culturally learned beliefs and to cause the individual to reconstruct their identity as that of a zombie , since they `` knew '' they were dead , and had no other role to play in the Haitian society . Societal reinforcement of the belief was hypothesized by Davis to confirm for the zombie individual the zombie state , and such individuals were known to hang around in graveyards , exhibiting attitudes of low affect . Davis 's claim has been criticized , particularly the suggestion that Haitian witch doctors can keep `` zombies '' in a state of pharmacologically induced trance for many years . Symptoms of TTX poisoning range from numbness and nausea to paralysis — particularly of the muscles of the diaphragm — unconsciousness , and death , but do not include a stiffened gait or a deathlike trance . According to psychologist Terence Hines , the scientific community dismisses tetrodotoxin as the cause of this state , and Davis ' assessment of the nature of the reports of Haitian zombies is viewed as overly credulous . Social hypothesis Scottish psychiatrist R. D. Laing highlighted the link between social and cultural expectations and compulsion , in the context of schizophrenia and other mental illness , suggesting that schizogenesis may account for some of the psychological aspects of zombification . Particularly , this suggests cases where schizophrenia manifests a state of catatonia . Roland Littlewood , professor of anthropology and psychiatry , published a study supporting a social explanation of the zombie phenomenon in the medical journal The Lancet in 1997 . The social explanation sees observed cases of people identified as zombies as a culture-bound syndrome , with a particular cultural form of adoption practiced in Haiti that unites the homeless and mentally ill with grieving families who see them as their `` returned '' lost loved ones , as Littlewood summarizes his findings in an article in Times Higher Education : Modern fiction In film and television Films featuring zombies have been a part of cinema since the 1930s , with White Zombie ( directed by Victor Halperin in 1932 ) being one of the earliest examples . With George A. Romero 's Night of the Living Dead ( 1968 ) , the zombie trope began to be increasingly linked to consumerism and consumer culture . Today , zombie films are released with such regularity ( at least 55 titles were released in 2014 alone ) that they can be viewed as a separate subgenre of Horror film . Voodoo-related zombie themes have also appeared in espionage or adventure themed works outside the horror genre . For example , the original `` Jonny Quest '' series ( 1964 ) and the James Bond novel and movie Live and Let Die both feature Caribbean villains who falsely claim the voodoo power of zombification in order to keep others in fear of them . George A. Romero and the modern zombie film The modern conception of the zombie owes itself almost entirely to George A. Romero 's 1968 film Night of the Living Dead . In his films , Romero `` bred the zombie with the vampire , and what he got was the hybrid vigour of a ghoulish plague monster '' . This entailed an apocalyptic vision of monsters that have come to be known as Romero zombies . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times chided theater owners and parents who allowed children access to the film . `` I do n't think the younger kids really knew what hit them , '' complained Ebert . `` They were used to going to movies , sure , and they 'd seen some horror movies before , sure , but this was something else . '' According to Ebert , the film affected the audience immediately : '' The kids in the audience were stunned . There was almost complete silence . The movie had stopped being delightfully scary about halfway through , and had become unexpectedly terrifying . There was a little girl across the aisle from me , maybe nine years old , who was sitting very still in her seat and crying . '' Romero 's reinvention of zombies is notable in terms of its thematics ; he used zombies not just for their own sake , but as a vehicle `` to criticize real-world social ills—such as government ineptitude , bioengineering , slavery , greed and exploitation—while indulging our post-apocalyptic fantasies '' . Night was the first of six films in Romero 's Living Dead series . Its first sequel , Dawn of the Dead , was released in 1978 . Lucio Fulci 's Zombi 2 was released just months after Dawn of the Dead as an ersatz sequel ( Dawn of the Dead was released in several other countries as Zombi or Zombie ) . 1980s and 1990s The 1981 film Hell of the Living Dead referenced a mutagenic gas as a source of zombie contagion : an idea also used in Dan O'Bannon 's 1985 film Return of the Living Dead . Return of the Living Dead featured zombies that hungered specifically for brains . The mid-1980s produced few zombie films of note . Perhaps the most notable entry , The Evil Dead series , while highly influential are not technically zombie films but films about demonic possession , despite the presence of the undead . 1985 's Re-Animator , loosely based on the Lovecraft story , stood out in the genre , achieving nearly unanimous critical acclaim , and becoming a modest success , nearly outstripping Romero 's Day of the Dead for box office returns . After the mid-1980s , the subgenre was mostly relegated to the underground . Notable entries include director Peter Jackson 's ultra-gory film Braindead ( 1992 ) ( released as Dead Alive in the U.S. ) , Bob Balaban 's comic 1993 film My Boyfriend 's Back where a self-aware high school boy returns to profess his love for a girl and his love for human flesh , and Michele Soavi 's Dellamorte Dellamore ( 1994 ) ( released as Cemetery Man in the U.S. ) . Several years later , zombies experienced a renaissance in low-budget Asian cinema , with a sudden spate of dissimilar entries including Bio Zombie ( 1998 ) , Wild Zero ( 1999 ) , Junk ( 1999 ) , Versus ( 2000 ) and Stacy ( 2001 ) . 2000s and 2010s Japanese zombie films There are not many Japanese films related to what may be considered in the West as a zombie film . Early films such as The Discarnates features little gore and no cannibalism but is about the dead returning to life looking for love rather than a story of apocalyptic destruction . The zombie themed video game Resident Evil ( 1996 ) was released to sales of 24 million copies worldwide . Most Japanese zombie films emerged in the wake of Resident Evil , such as Versus , Wild Zero , Junk all from 2000 . The zombies film released after Resident Evil behave similarly to the Zombie films of the 1970s . Western zombie films The turn of the millennium coincided with a decade of box-office successes in which the zombie subgenre experienced a resurgence : the Resident Evil movies ( 2002 , 2004 , 2007 , 2010 , 2012 ) , the British films 28 Days Later and 28 Weeks Later ( 2002 , 2007 ) , the Dawn of the Dead remake and the comedy/pastiche Shaun of the Dead ( both 2004 ) . The new interest allowed Romero to create the fourth entry in his zombie series : Land of the Dead , released in the summer of 2005 . Romero returned to the series with the films Diary of the Dead ( 2008 ) and Survival of the Dead ( 2010 ) . Generally , the zombies in these shows are the slow , lumbering and unintelligent kind first made popular in Night of the Living Dead . Motion pictures created within the 2000s , however , like the Dawn of the Dead remake , and House of the Dead , have featured zombies that are more agile , vicious , intelligent , and stronger than the traditional zombie . An alternate take on the zombie was 2013 's film ( and book ) Warm Bodies , where the zombie has consciousness and some intelligence . In 2013 , the AMC series The Walking Dead had the highest audience ratings in the United States for any show on broadcast or cable with an average of 5.6 million viewers in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic . Zombie apocalypse Intimately tied to the concept of the modern zombie is the `` zombie apocalypse '' ; the breakdown of society as a result of an initial zombie outbreak that spreads . This archetype has emerged as a prolific subgenre of apocalyptic fiction and has been portrayed in many zombie-related media after Night of the Living Dead . In a zombie apocalypse , a widespread ( usually global ) rise of zombies hostile to human life engages in a general assault on civilization . Victims of zombies may become zombies themselves . This causes the outbreak to become an exponentially growing crisis : the spreading phenomenon swamps normal military and law enforcement organizations , leading to the panicked collapse of civilized society until only isolated pockets of survivors remain , scavenging for food and supplies in a world reduced to a pre-industrial hostile wilderness . Possible causes for zombie behavior in a modern population can be attributed to viruses , bacteria or other phenomena that reduce the mental capacity of humans causing them to behave in a very primitive and destructive fashion . Subtext The usual subtext of the zombie apocalypse is that civilization is inherently vulnerable to the unexpected , and that most individuals if desperate enough can not be relied on to comply with the author 's ethos . The narrative of a zombie apocalypse carries strong connections to the turbulent social landscape of the United States in the 1960s , when Night of the Living Dead provided an indirect commentary on the dangers of conformity , a theme also explored in the novel The Body Snatchers ( 1954 ) and associated film Invasion of the Body Snatchers ( 1956 ) . Many also feel that zombies allow people to deal with their own anxieties about the end of the world . One scholar concluded that `` more than any other monster , zombies are fully and literally apocalyptic ... they signal the end of the world as we have known it . '' While zombie apocalypse scenarios are secular , they follow a religious pattern based on Christian ideas of an end-times war and messiah . Due to a large number of thematic films and video games , the idea of a zombie apocalypse has entered the mainstream , and many fans have begun making efforts to prepare for the hypothetical future zombie apocalypse . Such efforts include creating weapons and selling educational material informing people how to survive a zombie outbreak ; while most of these are tongue-in-cheek and do not represent an authentic belief that a zombie apocalypse in the near future is likely , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) have used the fictional scenario to demonstrate survival and emergency-preparedness techniques that may be useful in a `` real-world '' setting . Likewise , `` Death and Taxes and Zombies ” is a `` playful examination of serious tax-code issues from a refreshing perspective . '' Story elements # Initial contacts with zombies are extremely dangerous and traumatic , causing shock , panic , disbelief and possibly denial , hampering survivors ' ability to deal with hostile encounters . # The response of authorities to the threat is slower than its rate of growth , giving the zombie plague time to expand beyond containment . This results in the collapse of the given society . Zombies take full control , while small groups of the living must fight for their survival . The stories usually follow a single group of survivors , caught up in the sudden rush of the crisis . The narrative generally progresses from the onset of the zombie plague , then initial attempts to seek the aid of authorities , the failure of those authorities , through to the sudden catastrophic collapse of all large-scale organization and the characters ' subsequent attempts to survive on their own . Such stories are often squarely focused on the way their characters react to such an extreme catastrophe , and how their personalities are changed by the stress , often acting on more primal motivations ( fear , self-preservation ) than they would display in normal life . In anime and manga There has been a growth in the number of zombie manga in the last decade , and in a list of `` 10 Great Zombie Manga '' , Anime News Network 's Jason Thompson placed I Am a Hero at number 1 , considering it `` probably the greatest zombie manga ever '' . In second place was Living Corpse and in third , Biomega , which he called `` the greatest science-fiction virus zombie manga ever '' . Z ~Zed~ was adapted into a live action film in 2014 . In art Artist Jillian McDonald has made several works of video art involving zombies , and exhibited them in her 2006 show ,

tb_361--Zombie.txt

In the 2014 zombie comedy Life After Beth, a character takes offense when asked about zombies just because she is from what country?

A trajectory or flight path is the path that a moving object follows through space as a function of time . The object might be a projectile or a satellite . For example , it can be an orbit—the path of a planet , an asteroid , or a comet as it travels around a central mass . A trajectory can be described mathematically either by the geometry of the path or as the position of the object over time . In control theory a trajectory is a time-ordered set of states of a dynamical system ( see e.g . Poincaré map ) . In discrete mathematics , a trajectory is a sequence ( f^k ( x ) ) _ { k \in \mathbb { N } } of values calculated by the iterated application of a mapping f to an element x of its source . Physics of trajectories A familiar example of a trajectory is the path of a projectile , such as a thrown ball or rock . In a significantly simplified model , the object moves only under the influence of a uniform gravitational force field . This can be a good approximation for a rock that is thrown for short distances , for example at the surface of the moon . In this simple approximation , the trajectory takes the shape of a parabola . Generally when determining trajectories , it may be necessary to account for nonuniform gravitational forces and air resistance ( drag and aerodynamics ) . This is the focus of the discipline of ballistics . One of the remarkable achievements of Newtonian mechanics was the derivation of the laws of Kepler . In the gravitational field of a point mass or a spherically-symmetrical extended mass ( such as the Sun ) , the trajectory of a moving object is a conic section , usually an ellipse or a hyperbola . This agrees with the observed orbits of planets , comets , and artificial spacecraft to a reasonably good approximation , although if a comet passes close to the Sun , then it is also influenced by other forces such as the solar wind and radiation pressure , which modify the orbit and cause the comet to eject material into space . Newton 's theory later developed into the branch of theoretical physics known as classical mechanics . It employs the mathematics of differential calculus ( which was also initiated by Newton in his youth ) . Over the centuries , countless scientists have contributed to the development of these two disciplines . Classical mechanics became a most prominent demonstration of the power of rational thought , i.e . reason , in science as well as technology . It helps to understand and predict an enormous range of phenomena ; trajectories are but one example . Consider a particle of mass m , moving in a potential field V. Physically speaking , mass represents inertia , and the field V represents external forces of a particular kind known as `` conservative '' . Given V at every relevant position , there is a way to infer the associated force that would act at that position , say from gravity . Not all forces can be expressed in this way , however . The motion of the particle is described by the second-order differential equation m \frac { \mathrm { d } ^2 \vec { x } ( t ) } { \mathrm { d } t^2 } -\nabla V ( \vec { x } ( t ) ) with \vec { x } ( x , y , z ) . On the right-hand side , the force is given in terms of \nabla V , the gradient of the potential , taken at positions along the trajectory . This is the mathematical form of Newton 's second law of motion : force equals mass times acceleration , for such situations . Examples Uniform gravity , neither drag nor wind The ideal case of motion of a projectile in a uniform gravitational field in the absence of other forces ( such as air drag ) was first investigated by Galileo Galilei . To neglect the action of the atmosphere in shaping a trajectory would have been considered a futile hypothesis by practical-minded investigators all through the Middle Ages in Europe . Nevertheless , by anticipating the existence of the vacuum , later to be demonstrated on Earth by his collaborator Evangelista Torricelli , Galileo was able to initiate the future science of mechanics . In a near vacuum , as it turns out for instance on the Moon , his simplified parabolic trajectory proves essentially correct . In the analysis that follows , we derive the equation of motion of a projectile as measured from an inertial frame at rest with respect to the ground . Associated with the frame is a right-hand coordinate system with its origin at the point of launch of the projectile . The x-axis is parallel to the ground , and the yaxis is perpendicular to it ( parallel to the gravitational field lines ) . Let g be the acceleration of gravity . Relative to the flat terrain , let the initial horizontal speed be v_h v \cos ( \theta ) and the initial vertical speed be v_v v \sin ( \theta ) . It will also be shown that the range is 2v_h v_v/g , and the maximum altitude is v_v^2/2g . The maximum range for a given initial speed v is obtained when v_h=v_v , i.e . the initial angle is 45^\circ . This range is v^2/g , and the maximum altitude at the maximum range is v^2/ ( 4g ) . Derivation of the equation of motion Assume the motion of the projectile is being measured from a Free fall frame which happens to be at ( x , y ) ( 0,0 ) at t 0 . The equation of motion of the projectile in this frame ( by the principle of equivalence ) would be y x \tan ( \theta ) . The co-ordinates of this free-fall frame , with respect to our inertial frame would be y - gt^2/2 . That is , y = - g ( x/v_h ) ^2/2 . Now translating back to the inertial frame the co-ordinates of the projectile becomes y = x \tan ( \theta ) - g ( x/v_h ) ^2/2 That is : y=- { g\sec^2\theta\over 2v_0^2 } x^2+x\tan\theta , ( where v0 is the initial velocity , \theta is the angle of elevation , and g is the acceleration due to gravity ) . Range and height The range , R , is the greatest distance the object travels along the x-axis in the I sector . The initial velocity , vi , is the speed at which said object is launched from the point of origin . The initial angle , θi , is the angle at which said object is released . The g is the respective gravitational pull on the object within a null-medium . R= { v_i^2\sin2\theta_i\over g } The height , h , is the greatest parabolic height said object reaches within its trajectory h= { v_i^2\sin^2\theta_i\over 2g } Angle of elevation In terms of angle of elevation \theta and initial speed v : v_hv \cos \theta , \quad v_v v \sin \theta \ ; giving the range as R2 v^2 \cos ( \theta ) \sin ( \theta ) / g v^2 \sin ( 2\theta ) / g\ , . This equation can be rearranged to find the angle for a required range { \theta } = \frac 1 2 \sin^ { -1 } \left ( { { g R } \over { v^2 } } \right ) ( Equation II : angle of projectile launch ) Note that the sine function is such that there are two solutions for \theta for a given range d_h . The angle \theta giving the maximum range can be found by considering the derivative or R with respect to \theta and setting it to zero . { \mathrm { d } R\over \mathrm { d } \theta } { 2v^2\over g } \cos ( 2\theta ) 0 which has a nontrivial solution at 2\theta\pi/2 90^\circ , or \theta=45^\circ . The maximum range is then R_\mathrm { max } v^2/g\ , . At this angle \sin ( \pi/2 ) 1 , so the maximum height obtained is { v^2 \over 4g } . To find the angle giving the maximum height for a given speed calculate the derivative of the maximum height H=v^2 \sin^2 ( \theta ) / ( 2g ) with respect to \theta , that is { \mathrm { d } H\over \mathrm { d } \theta } =v^2 2\cos ( \theta ) \sin ( \theta ) / ( 2g ) which is zero when \theta\pi/2 90^\circ . So the maximum height H_\mathrm { max } = { v^2\over 2g } is obtained when the projectile is fired straight up . Uphill/downhill in uniform gravity in a vacuum Given a hill angle \alpha and launch angle \theta as before , it can be shown that the range along the hill R_s forms a ratio with the original range R along the imaginary horizontal , such that : \frac { R_s } { R } = ( 1-\cot \theta \tan \alpha ) \sec \alpha ( Equation 11 ) In this equation , downhill occurs when \alpha is between 0 and -90 degrees . For this range of \alpha we know : \tan ( -\alpha ) -\tan \alpha and \sec ( - \alpha ) \sec \alpha . Thus for this range of \alpha , R_s/R= ( 1+\tan \theta \tan \alpha ) \sec \alpha . Thus R_s/R is a positive value meaning the range downhill is always further than along level terrain . The lower level of terrain causes the projectile to remain in the air longer , allowing it to travel further horizontally before hitting the ground . While the same equation applies to projectiles fired uphill , the interpretation is more complex as sometimes the uphill range may be shorter or longer than the equivalent range along level terrain . Equation 11 may be set to R_s/R=1 ( i.e . the slant range is equal to the level terrain range ) and solving for the `` critical angle '' \theta_ { cr } : 1= ( 1-\tan \theta \tan \alpha ) \sec \alpha \quad \ ; \theta_ { cr } =\arctan ( ( 1-\csc \alpha ) \cot \alpha ) \quad \ ; Equation 11 may also be used to develop the `` rifleman 's rule '' for small values of \alpha and \theta ( i.e . close to horizontal firing , which is the case for many firearm situations ) . For small values , both \tan \alpha and \tan \theta have a small value and thus when multiplied together ( as in equation 11 ) , the result is almost zero . Thus equation 11 may be approximated as : \frac { R_s } { R } = ( 1-0 ) \sec \alpha And solving for level terrain range , R R=R_s \cos \alpha \ `` Rifleman 's rule '' Thus if the shooter attempts to hit the level distance R , s/he will actually hit the slant target . `` In other words , pretend that the inclined target is at a horizontal distance equal to the slant range distance multiplied by the cosine of the inclination angle , and aim as if the target were really at that horizontal position . `` [ http : //www.snipertools.com/article4.htm ] Derivation based on equations of a parabola The intersect of the projectile trajectory with a hill may most easily be derived using the trajectory in parabolic form in Cartesian coordinates ( Equation 10 ) intersecting the hill of slope m in standard linear form at coordinates ( x , y ) : ymx+b \ ; ( Equation 12 ) where in this case , y d_v , xd_h and b 0 Substituting the value of d_v=m d_h into Equation 10 : m x=-\frac { g } { 2v^2 { \cos } ^2 \theta } x^2 + \frac { \sin \theta } { \cos \theta } x x=\frac { 2v^2\cos^2\theta } { g } \left ( \frac { \sin \theta } { \cos \theta } -m\right ) ( Solving above x ) This value of x may be substituted back into the linear equation 12 to get the corresponding y coordinate at the intercept : ymx m \frac { 2v^2\cos^2\theta } { g } \left ( \frac { \sin \theta } { \cos \theta } -m\right ) Now the slant range R_s is the distance of the intercept from the origin , which is just the hypotenuse of x and y : R_s\sqrt { x^2+y^2 } \sqrt { \left ( \frac { 2v^2\cos^2\theta } { g } \left ( \frac { \sin \theta } { \cos \theta } -m\right ) \right ) ^2+\left ( m \frac { 2v^2\cos^2\theta } { g } \left ( \frac { \sin \theta } { \cos \theta } -m\right ) \right ) ^2 } : =\frac { 2v^2\cos^2\theta } { g } \sqrt { \left ( \frac { \sin \theta } { \cos \theta } -m\right ) ^2+m^2 \left ( \frac { \sin \theta } { \cos \theta } -m\right ) ^2 } : =\frac { 2v^2\cos^2\theta } { g } \left ( \frac { \sin \theta } { \cos \theta } -m\right ) \sqrt { 1+m^2 } Now \alpha is defined as the angle of the hill , so by definition of tangent , m=\tan \alpha . This can be substituted into the equation for R_s : R_s=\frac { 2v^2\cos^2\theta } { g } \left ( \frac { \sin \theta } { \cos \theta } -\tan \alpha\right ) \sqrt { 1+\tan^2 \alpha } Now this can be refactored and the trigonometric identity for \sec \alpha = \sqrt { 1 + \tan^2 \alpha } may be used : R_s=\frac { 2v^2\cos\theta\sin\theta } { g } \left ( 1-\frac { \cos\theta } { \sin\theta } \tan\alpha\right ) \sec\alpha Now the flat range Rv^2\sin 2 \theta / g 2v^2\sin\theta\cos\theta / g by the previously used trigonometric identity and \cos\theta/\sin\theta = \cot\theta so : R_s=R ( 1-\cot\theta\tan\alpha ) \sec\alpha \ ; \frac { R_s } { R } = ( 1-\cot\theta\tan\alpha ) \sec\alpha Orbiting objects If instead of a uniform downwards gravitational force we consider two bodies orbiting with the mutual gravitation between them , we obtain Kepler 's laws of planetary motion . The derivation of these was one of the major works of Isaac Newton and provided much of the motivation for the development of differential calculus . Catching balls If a projectile , such as a baseball or cricket ball , travels in a parabolic path , with negligible air resistance , and if a player is positioned so as to catch it as it descends , he sees its angle of elevation increasing continuously throughout its flight . The tangent of the angle of elevation is proportional to the time since the ball was sent into the air , usually by being struck with a bat . Even when the ball is really descending , near the end of its flight , its angle of elevation seen by the player continues to increase . The player therefore sees it as if it were ascending vertically at constant speed . Finding the place from which the ball appears to rise steadily helps the player to position himself correctly to make the catch . If he is too close to the batsman who has hit the ball , it will appear to rise at an accelerating rate . If he is too far from the batsman , it will appear to slow rapidly , and then to descend . Notes

qw_3641--Trajectory.txt

What is an open plane curve formed by the intersection of a cone with a plane parallel to its side, resembling the path of a projectile under the action of gravity?

Tranquility Base ( Latin : Statio Tranquillitatis ) is the site on the Moon where , in 1969 , humans landed and walked on another celestial body for the first time . On July 20 , 1969 , Apollo 11 crewmembers Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Apollo Lunar Module Eagle at approximately 20:17:40 UTC . Six hours later , the two astronauts exited the spacecraft and spent 2 hours 31 minutes on the lunar surface , examining and photographing it , setting up some scientific experiment packages , and collecting of dirt and rock samples for return to Earth . They lifted off the surface on July 21 at 17:54 UTC . Tranquility Base has remained unvisited since then . Its lunar coordinates are [ http : //www.google.com/moon/ # lat16.130262 & lon 6.416015 & apollo & q tranquility % 20base 00°41′15″N , 23°26′00″E ] , in the south-western corner of the lunar lava-plain called Mare Tranquillitatis ( `` Sea of Tranquility '' ) , east of the craters Sabine and Ritter , north of the crater Moltke , and near a rille unofficially called `` U.S. Highway Number 1 '' . Site selection For more than two years , NASA planners considered a collection of 30 potential sites for the first manned landing . Based on high-resolution photographs taken by the Lunar Orbiter spacecraft , and photos and data taken by the unmanned Surveyor landers , this list was narrowed down to five sites located near the lunar equator , ranging between 45 degrees east and west , and 5 degrees north and south of the center of the Moon 's facing side ; these were numbered 1 to 5 going from east to west . Site number 2 , centered at , was the Sea of Tranquility site ultimately chosen . Since a precision landing was not expected on the first mission , the target area was an ellipse measuring east-west by north-south . On the actual landing , a combination of thrust from residual pressure in the docking tunnel that connected the Lunar Module with the Command Module in orbit , and an imperfect understanding of the Moon 's uneven gravitational field , resulted in navigation errors which pushed the powered descent initiation point about 3 mi , and thus the computer-targeted landing spot about 4 mi , downrange ( west ) of the planned target . The automated targeting system was taking Eagle toward what Armstrong described as a `` football-field sized crater , with a large number of big boulders and rocks for about one or two crater diameters around it '' , which he avoided by assuming manual control and flying a bit further downstream . Thus the landing was still within the target ellipse . Name Armstrong named the site at 20:17:58 UTC , approximately 18 seconds after his and Aldrin 's successful landing , as he announced : `` Houston , Tranquility Base here . The Eagle has landed . '' During training , Armstrong and Aldrin had exclusively used the callsign `` Eagle '' in simulated ground conversations , both before and after landing . Armstrong and Aldrin decided on using Tranquility Base just before the flight , telling only CAPCOM Charles Duke before the mission , so Duke would not be taken by surprise . The name has become a permanent designation for the site . Unlike most names given to lunar landmarks by Apollo astronauts , the International Astronomical Union officially recognizes the designation `` Tranquility Base '' . It is listed on lunar maps as Statio Tranquillitatis , conforming to the standard use of Latin names for lunar place names . Status About 100 man-made objects and footprints left by Armstrong and Aldrin remain at Tranquility Base . The descent stage of the Lunar Module remains at the original point of landing . According to Aldrin ( with apparent confirmation from later Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter photos ) , the US flag planted at the site during their moonwalk was blown over by the ascent rocket exhaust , but ostensibly remains there . A laser reflector was placed at the site to allow precise ongoing measurements of the distance to the Moon from Earth . A solar-powered seismometer was also left to measure moonquakes , but this stopped functioning after 21 days . Various gear that was no longer needed for the return phase of the mission – including Aldrin 's boots – was left behind to lighten the craft for return to lunar orbit . As the site of the first human landing on an extraterrestrial body , Tranquility Base has cultural and historic significance . The U.S. states of California and New Mexico have listed it on their heritage registers , since their laws require only that listed sites have some association with the state . Despite the location of Mission Control in Houston , Texas has not granted similar status to the site , as its historic preservation laws limit such designations to properties located within the state . The U.S. National Park Service has declined to grant it National Historic Landmark status to avoid violating the Outer Space Treaty 's prohibition on any nation claiming sovereignty over any extraterrestrial body . It has not been proposed as a World Heritage Site since the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) , which oversees that program , limits nations to submitting sites within their own borders . Interest in according the site some formal protection grew in the early 21st century with the announcement of the Google Lunar X Prize for private corporations to successfully build spacecraft and reach the Moon ; a $ 1 million bonus was offered for any competitor that visited a historic site on the Moon . One team , led by Astrobotic Technology , announced it would attempt to land a craft at Tranquility Base . Although it canceled those plans , the ensuing controversy led NASA to request that any other missions to the Moon , private or governmental , human or robotic , keep a distance of at least 75 m from the site . Gallery File : Apollo 11 landing site 5076 med.jpg|Lunar Orbiter 5 image from 1967 , cropped to show the vicinity of the landing site of Apollo 11 , used in mission planning . The image is centered precisely on a small crater called West crater ( 190 m in diameter ) , and the lunar module Eagle touched down about 550 m west of West Crater . The area shown is approximately 25 km x 25 km across . File : Apollo 11 landing site 5076 h3.jpg|High-resolution Lunar Orbiter 5 image cropped to show the landing site of Apollo 11 . The landing site is indicated by a red dot . The prominent crater at right is called West crater and is about 190 m in diameter . File : Apollo11-LRO-March2012.jpg|Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter photo taken March 7 , 2012 . The Lunar Module descent stage , Laser Ranging RetroReflector , and Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package can be clearly seen .

jp_189--Tranquility_Base.txt

Fill in the blank: Houston, Tranquility Base here. The _____ has landed

Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland ( commonly shortened to Alice in Wonderland ) is an 1865 novel written by English mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll . It tells of a girl named Alice falling through a rabbit hole into a fantasy world populated by peculiar , anthropomorphic creatures . The tale plays with logic , giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children . It is considered to be one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre . Its narrative course and structure , characters and imagery have been enormously influential in both popular culture and literature , especially in the fantasy genre . Background Alice was published in 1865 , three years after Charles Lutwidge Dodgson and the Reverend Robinson Duckworth rowed a boat up the Isis on 4 July 1862 ( this popular date of the `` golden afternoon '' might be a confusion or even another Alice-tale , for that particular day was cool , cloudy , and rainy ) with the three young daughters of Henry Liddell ( the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University and Dean of Christ Church ) : Lorina Charlotte Liddell ( aged 13 , born 1849 , `` Prima '' in the book 's prefatory verse ) ; Alice Pleasance Liddell ( aged 10 , born 1852 , `` Secunda '' in the prefatory verse ) ; Edith Mary Liddell ( aged 8 , born 1853 , `` Tertia '' in the prefatory verse ) . The journey began at Folly Bridge in Oxford and ended 3 miles ( 5 km ) north-west in the village of Godstow . During the trip , Dodgson told the girls a story that featured a bored little girl named Alice who goes looking for an adventure . The girls loved it , and Alice Liddell asked Dodgson to write it down for her . He began writing the manuscript of the story the next day , although that earliest version no longer exists . The girls and Dodgson took another boat trip a month later when he elaborated the plot to the story of Alice , and in November he began working on the manuscript in earnest.Carpenter , p. 57 To add the finishing touches , he researched natural history for the animals presented in the book , and then had the book examined by other children—particularly the children of George MacDonald . He added his own illustrations but approached John Tenniel to illustrate the book for publication , telling him that the story had been well liked by children . On 26 November 1864 , he gave Alice the handwritten manuscript of Alice 's Adventures Under Ground , with illustrations by Dodgson himself , dedicating it as `` A Christmas Gift to a Dear Child in Memory of a Summer 's Day '' . Some , including Martin Gardner , speculate that there was an earlier version that was destroyed later by Dodgson when he wrote a more elaborate copy by hand . But before Alice received her copy , Dodgson was already preparing it for publication and expanding the 15,500-word original to 27,500 words , most notably adding the episodes about the Cheshire Cat and the Mad Tea-Party . Plot Chapter One – Down the Rabbit Hole : Alice is feeling bored and drowsy while sitting on the riverbank with her older sister , who is reading a book with no pictures or conversations . She then notices a White Rabbit wearing a waistcoat and pocket watch , talking to itself as it runs past . She follows it down a rabbit hole , but suddenly falls a long way to a curious hall with many locked doors of all sizes . She finds a small key to a door too small for her to fit through , but through it she sees an attractive garden . She then discovers a bottle on a table labelled `` DRINK ME '' , the contents of which cause her to shrink too small to reach the key , which she has left on the table . She eats a cake with `` EAT ME '' written on it in currants as the chapter closes . Chapter Two – The Pool of Tears : Chapter Two opens with Alice growing to such a tremendous size that her head hits the ceiling . Alice is unhappy and , as she cries , her tears flood the hallway . After shrinking down again due to a fan she had picked up , Alice swims through her own tears and meets a Mouse , who is swimming as well . She tries to make small talk with him in elementary French ( thinking he may be a French mouse ) but her opening gambit `` Où est ma chatte ? '' ( `` Where is my cat ? '' ) offends the mouse and he tries to escape her . Chapter Three – The Caucus Race and a Long Tale : The sea of tears becomes crowded with other animals and birds that have been swept away by the rising waters . Alice and the other animals convene on the bank and the question among them is how to get dry again . The Mouse gives them a very dry lecture on William the Conqueror . A Dodo decides that the best thing to dry them off would be a Caucus-Race , which consists of everyone running in a circle with no clear winner . Alice eventually frightens all the animals away , unwittingly , by talking about her ( moderately ferocious ) cat . Chapter Four – The Rabbit Sends a Little Bill : The White Rabbit appears again in search of the Duchess 's gloves and fan . Mistaking her for his maidservant , Mary Ann , he orders Alice to go into the house and retrieve them , but once she gets inside she starts growing . The horrified Rabbit orders his gardener , Bill the Lizard , to climb on the roof and go down the chimney . Outside , Alice hears the voices of animals that have gathered to gawk at her giant arm . The crowd hurls pebbles at her , which turn into little cakes . Alice eats them , and make her smaller again . Chapter Five – Advice from a Caterpillar : Alice comes upon a mushroom ; sitting on it is a blue Caterpillar smoking a hookah . The Caterpillar questions Alice and she admits to her current identity crisis , compounded by her inability to remember a poem . Before crawling away , the caterpillar tells Alice that one side of the mushroom will make her taller and the other side will make her shorter . She breaks off two pieces from the mushroom . One side makes her shrink smaller than ever , while another causes her neck to grow high into the trees , where a pigeon mistakes her for a serpent . With some effort , Alice brings herself back to her normal height . She stumbles upon a small estate and uses the mushroom to reach a more appropriate height . Chapter Six – Pig and Pepper : A Fish-Footman has an invitation for the Duchess of the house , which he delivers to a Frog-Footman . Alice observes this transaction and , after a perplexing conversation with the frog , lets herself into the house . The Duchess 's Cook is throwing dishes and making a soup that has too much pepper , which causes Alice , the Duchess , and her baby ( but not the cook or grinning Cheshire Cat ) to sneeze violently . Alice is given the baby by the Duchess and to her surprise , the baby turns into a pig . The Cheshire Cat appears in a tree , directing her to the March Hare 's house . He disappears , but his grin remains behind to float on its own in the air , prompting Alice to remark that she has often seen a cat without a grin but never a grin without a cat . Chapter Seven – A Mad Tea-Party : Alice becomes a guest at a `` mad '' tea party along with the March Hare , the Hatter , and a very tired Dormouse who falls asleep frequently , only to be violently woken up moments later by the March Hare and the Hatter . The characters give Alice many riddles and stories , including the famous `` Why is a raven like a writing desk ? `` . The Hatter reveals that they have tea all day because Time has punished him by eternally standing still at 6 pm ( tea time ) . Alice becomes insulted and tired of being bombarded with riddles and she leaves , claiming that it was the stupidest tea party that she had ever been to . Chapter Eight – The Queen 's Croquet Ground : Alice leaves the tea party and enters the garden , where she comes upon three living playing cards painting the white roses on a rose tree red because The Queen of Hearts hates white roses . A procession of more cards , kings and queens and even the White Rabbit enters the garden . Alice then meets the King and Queen . The Queen , a figure difficult to please , introduces her trademark phrase `` Off with his head ! `` , which she utters at the slightest dissatisfaction with a subject . Alice is invited ( or some might say ordered ) to play a game of croquet with the Queen and the rest of her subjects , but the game quickly descends into chaos . Live flamingos are used as mallets and hedgehogs as balls , and Alice once again meets the Cheshire Cat . The Queen of Hearts then orders the Cat to be beheaded , only to have her executioner complain that this is impossible since the head is all that can be seen of him . Because the cat belongs to the Duchess , the Queen is prompted to release the Duchess from prison to resolve the matter . Chapter Nine – The Mock Turtle 's Story : The Duchess is brought to the croquet ground at Alice 's request . She ruminates on finding morals in everything around her . The Queen of Hearts dismisses her with the threat of execution and she introduces Alice to the Gryphon , who takes her to the Mock Turtle . The Mock Turtle is very sad , even though he has no sorrow . He tries to tell his story about how he used to be a real turtle in school , which the Gryphon interrupts so that they can play a game . Chapter Ten – : The Mock Turtle and the Gryphon dance to the Lobster Quadrille , while Alice recites ( rather incorrectly ) `` 'T is the Voice of the Lobster '' . The Mock Turtle sings them `` '' during which the Gryphon drags Alice away for an impending trial . Chapter Eleven – Who Stole the Tarts ? : Alice attends a trial in which the Knave of Hearts is accused of stealing the Queen 's tarts . The jury is composed of various animals , including Bill the Lizard ; the White Rabbit is the court 's trumpeter ; and the judge is the King of Hearts . During the proceedings , Alice finds that she is steadily growing larger . The dormouse scolds Alice and tells her she has no right to grow at such a rapid pace and take up all the air . Alice scoffs and calls the dormouse 's accusation ridiculous because everyone grows and she can not help it . Meanwhile , witnesses at the trial include the Hatter , who displeases and frustrates the King through his indirect answers to the questioning , and the Duchess 's cook . Chapter Twelve – Alice 's Evidence : Alice is then called up as a witness . She accidentally knocks over the jury box with the animals inside , and the King orders the animals to be placed back into their seats before the trial continues . The King and Queen order Alice to be gone , citing Rule 42 ( `` All persons more than a mile high to leave the court '' ) , but Alice disputes their judgement and refuses to leave . She argues with the King and Queen of Hearts over the ridiculous proceedings , eventually refusing to hold her tongue . The Queen shouts her familiar `` Off with her head ! '' but Alice is unafraid , calling them out as just a pack of cards , just as they start to swarm over her . Alice 's sister wakes her up from a dream , brushing what turns out to be some leaves , and not a shower of playing cards , from Alice 's face . Alice leaves her sister on the bank to imagine all the curious happenings for herself . Characters Lists of characters The following is a list of main characters in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . Character allusions In The Annotated Alice , Martin Gardner provides background information for the characters . The members of the boating party that first heard Carroll 's tale show up in Chapter 3 ( `` A Caucus-Race and a Long Tale '' ) : * Alice Liddell ( portrayed as the character Alice ) herself is there * Carroll is caricatured as the Dodo ( Dodgson stuttered when he spoke , and common lore suggests that he sometimes pronounced his last name as Dodo-Dodgson ) * The Duck refers to Canon Duckworth * The Lory and Eaglet refer to Alice Liddell 's sisters Lorina and Edith . * Bill the Lizard may be a play on the name of British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli . One of Tenniel 's illustrations in Through the Looking-Glass — the 1871 sequel to Alice — depicts the character referred to as the `` Man in White Paper '' ( whom Alice meets as a fellow passenger riding on the train with her ) as a caricature of Disraeli , wearing a paper hat . * The illustrations of the Lion and the Unicorn ( also in Looking-Glass ) bear a striking resemblance to Tenniel 's Punch illustrations of Gladstone and Disraeli . * It has been suggested by some writers that The Hatter is a reference to Theophilus Carter , a furniture dealer known in Oxford . Tenniel apparently drew the Hatter to resemble Carter , on a suggestion of Carroll 's . However , it is unlikely that Carter was the model for The Hatter , and there is no evidence that Carroll ever invited Tenniel to Oxford for any purpose . * The Dormouse tells a story about three little sisters named Elsie , Lacie , and Tillie . These are the Liddell sisters : Elsie is L.C . ( Lorina Charlotte ) , Tillie is Edith ( her family nickname is Matilda ) , and Lacie is an anagram of Alice . * The Mock Turtle speaks of a drawling-master , `` an old conger eel '' , who came once a week to teach `` Drawling , Stretching , and Fainting in Coils '' . This is a reference to art critic John Ruskin , who came once a week to the Liddell house to teach the children drawing , sketching , and painting in oils . ( The children did , in fact , learn well ; Alice Liddell , for one , produced a number of skilful watercolours . ) Poems and songs Carroll wrote multiple poems and songs for Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , including : * `` All in the golden afternoon ... '' —the prefatory verse , an original poem by Carroll that recalls the rowing expedition on which he first told the story of Alice 's adventures underground * `` Beautiful Soup '' also known as `` Turtle Soup '' , sung by the Mock Turtle—a parody of James M. Sayles 's song `` Star of the Evening , Beautiful Star '' , which was performed as a trio by Lorina , Alice , and Edith Liddell for Lewis Carroll in the Liddell home during the same summer in which he first told the story of Alice 's Adventures Under Ground . * `` How Doth the Little Crocodile '' —a parody of Isaac Watts ' nursery rhyme , `` Against Idleness and Mischief '' * `` Speak roughly to your little boy ... '' —the Duchess ' lullaby , is a parody of David Bates ' `` Speak Gently '' * `` The Lobster Quadrille '' —a parody of Mary Botham Howitt 's `` The Spider and the Fly '' * `` The Mouse 's Tale '' —an example of concrete poetry * `` The Queen of Hearts '' —an actual nursery rhyme * `` They told me you had been to her ... '' —the White Rabbit 's evidence * `` 'T is the Voice of the Lobster '' —a parody of Isaac Watts ' `` The Sluggard '' * `` Twinkle , Twinkle , Little Bat '' —a parody of Jane Taylor 's `` Twinkle Twinkle Little Star '' * `` You Are Old , Father William '' —a parody of Robert Southey 's `` The Old Man 's Comforts and How He Gained Them '' Writing style and themes Symbolism Some of the book 's adventures may have been based on or influenced by people , situations , and buildings in Oxford and at Christ Church . For example , the `` Rabbit Hole '' might have been inspired by the actual stairs in the back of the main hall in Christ Church . A carving of a griffon and rabbit may have provided inspiration for the tale , as seen in Ripon Cathedral , where Carroll 's father was a canon . Carroll was a mathematician at Christ Church , and it has been suggested that there are many references and mathematical concepts in both this story and Through the Looking-Glass ; examples include : * In chapter 1 , `` Down the Rabbit-Hole '' , in the midst of shrinking , Alice waxes philosophical concerning what final size she will end up as , perhaps `` going out altogether , like a candle '' ; this pondering reflects the concept of a limit . * In chapter 7 , `` A Mad Tea-Party '' , the March Hare , the Hatter , and the Dormouse give several examples in which the semantic value of a sentence A is not the same value of the converse of A ( for example , `` Why , you might just as well say that ' I see what I eat ' is the same thing as ' I eat what I see ' ! `` ) ; in logic and mathematics , this is discussing an inverse relationship . * Also in chapter 7 , Alice ponders what it means when changing seats around the circular table places them back at the beginning . This echoes a classic circular combinatorics problem , possibly dating from antiquity . * Again in chapter 7 , Alice is asked whether she wants `` more tea '' , and objects that she ca n't have more because she has n't had any . The Hatter corrects her : `` You mean you ca n't take less : it 's very easy to take more than nothing . '' This is a play on the allowability of inference in comparatives without `` than '' . * The Cheshire cat fades until it disappears entirely , leaving only its wide grin suspended in the air , leading Alice to marvel and note that she has seen a cat without a grin , but never a grin without a cat . This echoes ancient questions in logic about substances and predicates . There have been attempts to reinterpret Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland as having a coded submersive layer of meaning , as is common in other examples of children 's literature ( such as the infamous gold standard reading of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz ( 1900 ) ) . For example , literary scholar Melanie Bayley asserted in the magazine New Scientist that Dodgson wrote Alice in Wonderland in its final form as a scathing satire on new modern mathematics that were emerging in the mid-19th century . However , such views are not widely held . Several people have suggested that Dodgson had an interest in the French language ( e.g. , Martin Gardner and Selwyn Goodacre , ) , choosing to make references and puns about it in the story . It is most likely that these are references to French lessons—a common feature of a Victorian middle-class girl 's upbringing . For example , in the second chapter , Alice posits that the mouse may be French . She therefore chooses to speak the first sentence of her French lesson-book to it : `` Où est ma chatte ? '' ( `` Where is my cat ? `` ) . In Henri Bué 's French translation , Alice posits that the mouse may be Italian and speaks Italian to it . Pat 's `` Digging for apples '' could be a cross-language pun , as pomme de terre ( literally ; `` apple of the earth '' ) means potato and pomme means apple , which little English girls studying French would easily guess . In the second chapter , Alice initially addresses the mouse as `` O Mouse '' , based on her memory of the noun declensions `` in her brother 's Latin Grammar , ' A mouse – of a mouse – to a mouse – a mouse – O mouse ! ' '' These words correspond to the first five of Latin 's six cases , in a traditional order established by medieval grammarians : mus ( nominative ) , muris ( genitive ) , muri ( dative ) , murem ( accusative ) , ( O ) mus ( vocative ) . The sixth case mure ( ablative ) is absent from Alice 's recitation . In the eighth chapter , three cards are painting the roses red on a rose tree , because they had accidentally planted a white-rose tree that The Queen of Hearts hates . Red roses symbolised the English House of Lancaster , while white roses were the symbol for their rival House of York . This scene is an allusion to the Wars of the Roses . Eating and devouring Carina Garland notes how the world is `` expressed via representations of food and appetite '' , naming Alice 's frequent desire for consumption ( of both food and words ) her `` Curious Appetites '' . Often , the idea of eating coincides to make gruesome images . After the riddle `` Why is a raven like a writing-desk ? `` , the Hatter claims that Alice might as well say , `` I see what I eat… I eat what I see '' and so the riddle 's solution , put forward by Boe Birns , could be that `` A raven eats worms ; a writing desk is worm-eaten '' ; this idea of food encapsulates the idea of life feeding on life , for the worm is being eaten and then becomes the eater - a horrific image of mortality . Nina Auerbach discusses how the novel revolves around eating and drinking , which `` motivates much of [ Alice 's ] behaviour '' , for the story is essentially about things `` entering and leaving her mouth '' . The animals of Wonderland are of particular interest , for Alice 's relation to them shifts constantly because , as Lovell-Smith states , Alice 's size-changes continually reposition her in the food chain , serving as a way to make her acutely aware of the `` eat or be eaten '' attitude that permeates Wonderland . Illustrations The manuscript was illustrated by Dodgson himself who added 37 illustrations—printed in a facsimile edition in 1887 . John Tenniel provided 42 wood engraved illustrations for the published version of the book . The first print run was destroyed ( or sold to the United States ) at Carroll 's request because he was dissatisfied with the quality . The book was reprinted and published in 1866 . John Tenniel 's illustrations of Alice do not portray the real Alice Liddell , who had dark hair and a short fringe . Alice has provided a challenge for other illustrators , including those of 1907 by Charles Pears and the full series of colour plates and line-drawings by Harry Rountree published in the ( inter-War ) Children 's Press ( Glasgow ) edition . Other significant illustrators include : Arthur Rackham ( 1907 ) , Willy Pogany ( 1929 ) , Mervyn Peake ( 1946 ) , Ralph Steadman ( 1967 ) , Salvador Dalí ( 1969 ) , Graham Overden ( 1969 ) , Max Ernst ( 1970 ) , Peter Blake ( 1970 ) , Tove Jansson ( 1977 ) , Anthony Browne ( 1988 ) , Helen Oxenbury ( 1999 ) , Lisbeth Zwerger ( 1999 ) , DeLoss McGraw ( 2001 ) , and Robert Ingpen ( 2009 ) . Reception by reviewers The book Alice in Wonderland failed to be named in an 1888 poll of the most popular children 's stories . Generally , it received poor reviews , with reviewers giving more credit to Tenniel 's illustrations than to Carroll 's story . At the release of Through the Looking-Glass , the first Alice tale gained in popularity and , by the end of the 19th century , Sir Walter Besant wrote that Alice in Wonderland `` was a book of that extremely rare kind which will belong to all the generations to come until the language becomes obsolete '' . Publication history Dodgson 's tale was published in 1865 as Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland by `` Lewis Carroll '' with illustrations by John Tenniel . The first print run of 2,000 was held back because Tenniel objected to the print quality . A new edition was quickly printed , released in December of the same year but carrying an 1866 date . The text blocks of the original edition were removed from the binding and sold with Dodgson 's permission to the New York publishing house of D. Appleton & Company . The binding for the Appleton Alice was virtually identical to the 1866 Macmillan Alice , except for the publisher 's name at the foot of the spine . The title page of the Appleton Alice was an insert cancelling the original Macmillan title page of 1865 , and bearing the New York publisher 's imprint and the date 1866 . The entire print run sold out quickly . Alice was a publishing sensation , beloved by children and adults alike . Among its first avid readers were Queen Victoria and the young Oscar Wilde . The book has never been out of print . Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland has been translated into at least 174 languages . There have now been over a hundred English-language editions of the book , as well as countless adaptations in other media , especially theatre and film . The book is commonly referred to by the abbreviated title Alice in Wonderland , which has been popularised by the numerous stage , film , and television adaptations of the story produced over the years . Some printings of this title contain both Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and its sequel Through the Looking-Glass , and What Alice Found There . Publication timeline The following list is a timeline of major publication events related to Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland : * 1865 : First UK edition ( the second printing ) . * 1865 : First US edition ( the first printing of above ) . * 1869 : Alice 's Abenteuer im Wunderland is published in German translation by Antonie Zimmermann . * 1869 : Aventures d'Alice au pays des merveilles is published in French translation by Henri Bué . * 1870 : Alice ’ s äfventyr i sagolandet is published in Swedish translation by Emily Nonnen . * 1871 : Dodgson meets another Alice during his time in London , Alice Raikes , and talks with her about her reflection in a mirror , leading to another book , Through the Looking-Glass , and What Alice Found There , which sells even better . * 1872 : Le Avventure di Alice nel Paese delle Meraviglie is published in Italian translation by Teodorico

sfq_342--Alice's_Adventures_in_Wonderland.txt

How did Alice get into Wonderland?

An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element . Every solid , liquid , gas , and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms . Atoms are very small ; typical sizes are around 100 pm ( a ten-billionth of a meter , in the short scale ) . However , atoms do not have well-defined boundaries , and there are different ways to define their size that give different but close values . Atoms are small enough that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics - as if they were billiard balls , for example - gives noticeably incorrect predictions due to quantum effects . Through the development of physics , atomic models have incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict the behavior . Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus . The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons . Protons and neutrons are called nucleons . More than 99.94 % of an atom 's mass is in the nucleus . The protons have a positive electric charge , the electrons have a negative electric charge , and the neutrons have no electric charge . If the number of protons and electrons are equal , that atom is electrically neutral . If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons , then it has an overall negative or positive charge , respectively , and it is called an ion . The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by this electromagnetic force . The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by a different force , the nuclear force , which is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling the positively charged protons from one another . Under certain circumstances the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force , and nucleons can be ejected from the nucleus , leaving behind a different element : nuclear decay resulting in nuclear transmutation . The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs : for example , all copper atoms contain 29 protons . The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element . The number of electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom . Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules . The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature , and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry . History of atomic theory Atoms in philosophy The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old idea , appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India . The word `` atom '' was coined by ancient Greek philosophers . However , these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation . As a result , their views on what atoms look like and how they behave were incorrect . They also could not convince everybody , so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter . It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists , when the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that only the concept of atoms could explain . First evidence-based theory In the early 1800s , John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers ( the law of multiple proportions ) . For instance , there are two types of tin oxide : one is 88.1 % tin and 11.9 % oxygen and the other is 78.7 % tin and 21.3 % oxygen ( tin ( II ) oxide and tin dioxide respectively ) . This means that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen . 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2 , a ratio of small whole numbers . This common pattern in chemistry suggested to Dalton that elements react in whole number multiples of discrete units—in other words , atoms . In the case of tin oxides , one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms . Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbs different gases in different proportions . For example , he found that water absorbs carbon dioxide far better than it absorbs nitrogen.Dalton , John . `` [ http : //web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/dalton52.html On the Absorption of Gases by Water and Other Liquids ] '' , in Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester . 1803 . Retrieved on August 29 , 2007 . Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences between the masses and configurations of the gases ' respective particles , and carbon dioxide molecules ( CO2 ) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules ( N2 ) . Brownian motion In 1827 , botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically , a phenomenon that became known as `` Brownian motion '' . This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about . In 1905 Albert Einstein proved the reality of these molecules and their motions by producing the first Statistical physics analysis of Brownian motion . French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein 's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms , thereby conclusively verifying Dalton 's atomic theory . Discovery of the electron The physicist J. J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays , showing they were made of particles , but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom , hydrogen . Therefore , they were not atoms , but a new particle , the first subatomic particle to be discovered , which he originally called `` corpuscle '' but was later named electron , after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874 . He also showed they were identical to particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials . It was quickly recognized that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires , and carry the negative electric charge within atoms . Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work . Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are the indivisible , ultimate particles of matter . Thomson also incorrectly postulated that the low mass , negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the atom in a uniform sea of positive charge . This became known as the plum pudding model . Discovery of the nucleus In 1909 , Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden , under the direction of Ernest Rutherford , bombarded a metal foil with alpha particles to observe how they scattered . They expected all the alpha particles to pass straight through with little deflection , because Thomson 's model said that the charges in the atom are so diffuse that their electric fields could not affect the alpha particles much . However , Geiger and Marsden spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90° , which was supposed to be impossible according to Thomson 's model . To explain this , Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom . Discovery of isotopes While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay , in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table . The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that belong to the same element . J.J. Thomson created a technique for separating atom types through his work on ionized gases , which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes . Bohr model In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits , and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon . This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable ( given that normally , charges in acceleration , including circular motion , lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation , see synchrotron radiation ) and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra . Later in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of Niels Bohr 's theory . These results refined Ernest Rutherford 's and Antonius Van den Broek 's model , which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its ( atomic ) number in the periodic table . Until these experiments , atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity . That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today . Chemical bonding explained Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained , by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916 , as the interactions between their constituent electrons . As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law , in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner . Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus . Further developments in quantum physics The Stern–Gerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of the atom . When a beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially shaped magnetic field , the beam was split based on the direction of an atom 's angular momentum , or spin . As this direction is random , the beam could be expected to spread into a line . Instead , the beam was split into two parts , depending on whether the atomic spin was oriented up or down . In 1924 , Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles behave to an extent like waves . In 1926 , Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms rather than point particles . A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time ; this became known as the uncertainty principle , formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1926 . In this concept , for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum , and vice versa . This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not , such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen . Thus , the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed . Discovery of the neutron The development of the mass spectrometer allowed the mass of atoms to be measured with increased accuracy . The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions , and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atom 's mass to its charge . The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to show that isotopes had different masses . The atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts , called the whole number rule . The explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron , an uncharged particle with a mass similar to the proton , by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932 . Isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons , but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus . Fission , high-energy physics and condensed matter In 1938 , the German chemist Otto Hahn , a student of Rutherford , directed neutrons onto uranium atoms expecting to get transuranium elements . Instead , his chemical experiments showed barium as a product . A year later , Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch verified that Hahn 's result were the first experimental nuclear fission . In 1944 , Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry . Despite Hahn 's efforts , the contributions of Meitner and Frisch were not recognized . In the 1950s , the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies . Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons , or composites of smaller particles called quarks . The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions . Structure Subatomic particles Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that can not be cut into smaller particles , in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles . The constituent particles of an atom are the electron , the proton and the neutron ; all three are fermions . However , the hydrogen-1 atom has no neutrons and the hydron ion has no electrons . The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at , with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques . It is the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured . Under ordinary conditions , electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges . If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number , then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole ; a charged atom is called an ion . Electrons have been known since the late 19th century , mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson ; see history of subatomic physics for details . Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron , at . The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number . Ernest Rutherford ( 1919 ) observed that nitrogen under alpha-particle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei . By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton . Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the mass of the electron , or , the heaviest of the three constituent particles , but it can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy . Neutrons and protons ( collectively known as nucleons ) have comparable dimensions—on the order of —although the 'surface ' of these particles is not sharply defined . The neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick . In the Standard Model of physics , electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure . However , both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks . There are two types of quarks in atoms , each having a fractional electric charge . Protons are composed of two up quarks ( each with charge + ) and one down quark ( with a charge of − ) . Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks . This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles . The quarks are held together by the strong interaction ( or strong force ) , which is mediated by gluons . The protons and neutrons , in turn , are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force , which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range-properties ( see the article on the nuclear force for more ) . The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons , which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces . Nucleus All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus , and are collectively called nucleons . The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to 1.07 fm , where A is the total number of nucleons . This is much smaller than the radius of the atom , which is on the order of 105 fm . The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force . At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other . Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons , called the atomic number . Within a single element , the number of neutrons may vary , determining the isotope of that element . The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide . The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus , with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay . The proton , the electron , and the neutron are classified as fermions . Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle which prohibits identical fermions , such as multiple protons , from occupying the same quantum state at the same time . Thus , every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other protons , and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud . However , a proton and a neutron are allowed to occupy the same quantum state . For atoms with low atomic numbers , a nucleus that has more neutrons than protons tends to drop to a lower energy state through radioactive decay so that the neutron–proton ratio is closer to one . However , as the atomic number increases , a higher proportion of neutrons is required to offset the mutual repulsion of the protons . Thus , there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number Z 20 ( calcium ) and as Z increases , the neutron–proton ratio of stable isotopes increases . The stable isotope with the highest proton–neutron ratio is lead-208 ( about 1.5 ) . The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified , although this can require very high energies because of the strong force . Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus , such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei . For example , at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single nucleus . Nuclear fission is the opposite process , causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay . The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons . If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus , the atom changes to a different chemical element . If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles , then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy ( such as a gamma ray , or the kinetic energy of a beta particle ) , as described by Albert Einstein 's mass–energy equivalence formula , E = mc2 , where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light . This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus , and it is the non-recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate . The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel—a total nucleon number of about 60—is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together . It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction . For heavier nuclei , the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease . That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26 , and atomic masses higher than about 60 , is an endothermic process . These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star . Electron cloud The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force . This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus , which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape . The closer an electron is to the nucleus , the greater the attractive force . Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations . Electrons , like other particles , have properties of both a particle and a wave . The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus . This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital , a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured . Only a discrete ( or quantized ) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus , as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form . Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures , and differ from each other in size , shape and orientation . Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron . The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state . Likewise , through spontaneous emission , an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon . These characteristic energy values , defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states , are responsible for atomic spectral lines . The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the electron binding energy—is far less than the binding energy of nucleons . For example , it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom , compared to 2.23 million eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus . Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons . Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions . Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms . By this mechanism , atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals . Properties Nuclear properties By definition , any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element . Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element . For example , all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton , but isotopes exist with no neutrons ( hydrogen-1 , by far the most common form , also called protium ) , one neutron ( deuterium ) , two neutrons ( tritium ) and more than two neutrons . The known elements form a set of atomic numbers , from the single proton element hydrogen up to the 118-proton element ununoctium . All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive . About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth , of which 254 ( about 75 % ) have not been observed to decay , and are referred to as `` stable isotopes '' . However , only 90 of these nuclides are stable to all decay , even in theory . Another 164 ( bringing the total to 254 ) have not been observed to decay , even though in theory it is energetically possible . These are also formally classified as `` stable '' . An additional 34 radioactive nuclides have half-lives longer than 80 million years , and are long-lived enough to be present from the birth of the solar system . This collection of 288 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides . Finally , an additional 51 short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally , as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay ( such as radium from uranium ) , or else as products of natural energetic processes on Earth , such as cosmic ray bombardment ( for example , carbon-14 ) .For more recent updates see [ http : //www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart Interactive Chart of Nuclides ( Brookhaven National Laboratory ) ] . For 80 of the chemical elements , at least one stable isotope exists . As a rule , there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements , the average being 3.2 stable isotopes per element . Twenty-six elements have only a single stable isotope , while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten , for the element tin . Elements 43 , 61 , and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes.CRC Handbook ( 2002 ) . Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons , and also by the presence of certain `` magic numbers '' of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells . These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus ; filled shells , such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin , confers unusual stability on the nuclide . Of the 254 known stable nuclides , only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons : hydrogen-2 ( deuterium ) , lithium-6 , boron-10 and nitrogen-14 . Also , only four naturally occurring , radioactive odd–odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years : potassium-40 , vanadium-50 , lanthanum-138 and tantalum-180m . Most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay , because the decay products are even–even , and are therefore more strongly bound , due to nuclear pairing effects . Mass The large majority of an atom 's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up . The total number of these particles ( called `` nucleons '' ) in a given atom is called the mass number . It is a positive integer and dimensionless ( instead of having dimension of mass ) , because it expresses a count . An example of use of a mass number is `` carbon-12 , '' which has 12 nucleons ( six protons and six neutrons ) . The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit ( u ) , also called dalton ( Da ) . This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12 , which is approximately . Hydrogen-1 ( the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass ) has an atomic weight of 1.007825 u . The value of this number is called the atomic mass . A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal ( within 1 % ) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit ( for example the mass of a nitrogen-14 is roughly 14 u ) . However , this number will not be exactly an integer except in the case of carbon-12 ( see below ) . The heaviest stable atom is lead-208 , with a mass of . As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly , chemists instead use the unit of moles . One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms ( about Avogadro constant| ) . This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u , a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram . Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit , each carbon-12 atom

odql_5176--Atom.txt

In 1932 which British physicist discovered the part of the nucleus of an atom which was later called the neutron?

William Tecumseh Sherman ( February 8 , 1820 – February 14 , 1891 ) was an American soldier , businessman , educator and author . He served as a General in the Union Army during the American Civil War ( 1861–65 ) , for which he received recognition for his outstanding command of military strategy as well as criticism for the harshness of the `` scorched earth '' policies that he implemented in conducting total war against the Confederate States . Sherman began his Civil War career serving in the First Battle of Bull Run and Kentucky in 1861 . He served under General Ulysses S. Grant in 1862 and 1863 during the battles of Forts Henry and Donelson , the Battle of Shiloh , the campaigns that led to the fall of the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg on the Mississippi River , and the Chattanooga Campaign , which culminated with the routing of the Confederate armies in the state of Tennessee . In 1864 , Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the Western Theater of the war . He proceeded to lead his troops to the capture of the city of Atlanta , a military success that contributed to the re-election of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln . Sherman 's subsequent march through Georgia and the Carolinas further undermined the Confederacy 's ability to continue fighting . He accepted the surrender of all the Confederate armies in the Carolinas , Georgia , and Florida in April 1865 , after having been present at most major military engagements in the Western Theater . When Grant assumed the U.S. presidency in 1869 , Sherman succeeded him as Commanding General of the Army , in which capacity he served from 1869 until 1883 . As such , he was responsible for the U.S. Army 's engagement in the Indian Wars over the next 15 years , in the western United States . He steadfastly refused to be drawn into politics and in 1875 published his Memoirs , one of the best-known first-hand accounts of the Civil War . British military historian B. H. Liddell Hart famously declared that Sherman was `` the first modern general '' . Early life Sherman was born in 1820 in Lancaster , Ohio , near the banks of the Hocking River . His father Charles Robert Sherman , a successful lawyer who sat on the Ohio Supreme Court , died unexpectedly in 1829 . He left his widow , Mary Hoyt Sherman , with eleven children and no inheritance . After his father 's death , the nine-year-old Sherman was raised by a Lancaster neighbor and family friend , attorney Thomas Ewing , Sr. , a prominent member of the Whig Party who served as senator from Ohio and as the first Secretary of the Interior . Sherman was distantly related to American founding father Roger Sherman and grew to admire him . Sherman 's older brother Charles Taylor Sherman became a federal judge . One of his younger brothers , John Sherman , served as a U.S. senator and Cabinet secretary . Another younger brother , Hoyt Sherman , was a successful banker . Two of his foster brothers served as major generals in the Union Army during the Civil War : Hugh Boyle Ewing , later an ambassador and author , and Thomas Ewing , Jr. , who would serve as defense attorney in the military trials of the Lincoln conspirators . Sherman would marry his foster sister , Ellen Boyle Ewing , at age 30 and have eight children with her . Sherman 's given names Sherman 's unusual given name has always attracted considerable attention . Sherman reported that his middle name came from his father having `` caught a fancy for the great chief of the Shawnees , 'Tecumseh . '' Since an account in a 1932 biography about Sherman , it has often been reported that , as an infant , Sherman was named simply Tecumseh . According to these accounts , Sherman only acquired the name `` William '' at age nine or ten , after being taken into the Ewing household . His foster mother , Maria Willis Boyle ( Maria Ewing ) , was of Irish ancestry and a devout Roman Catholic . Sherman was raised in a Roman Catholic household , though he later left the church , citing the effect of the Civil War on his religious views . According to a story that may be myth , Sherman was baptized in the Ewing home by a Dominican priest , who named him William for the saint 's day : possibly June 25 , the feast day of Saint William of Montevergine . The story is contested , however . Sherman wrote in his Memoirs that his father named him William Tecumseh ; Sherman was baptized by a Presbyterian minister as an infant and given the name William at that time . As an adult , Sherman signed all his correspondence – including to his wife – `` W.T . Sherman . '' His friends and family always called him `` Cump . '' Military training and service Senator Ewing secured an appointment for the 16-year-old Sherman as a cadet in the United States Military Academy at West Point , where he roomed and became good friends with another important future Civil War General , George H. Thomas . There Sherman excelled academically , but he treated the demerit system with indifference . Fellow cadet William Rosecrans would later remember Sherman at West Point as `` one of the brightest and most popular fellows '' and `` a bright-eyed , red-headed fellow , who was always prepared for a lark of any kind . '' About his time at West Point , Sherman says only the following in his Memoirs : Upon graduation in 1840 , Sherman entered the Army as a second lieutenant in the 3rd U.S . Artillery and saw action in Florida in the Second Seminole War against the Seminole tribe . He was later stationed in Georgia and South Carolina . As the foster son of a prominent Whig politician , in Charleston , the popular Lt. Sherman moved within the upper circles of Old South society . While many of his colleagues saw action in the Mexican–American War , Sherman performed administrative duties in the captured territory of California . Along with fellow Lieutenants Henry Halleck and Edward Ord , Sherman embarked from New York on the 198-day journey around Cape Horn aboard the converted sloop USS Lexington . Due to the confined spaces aboard-ship , Sherman grew close to Halleck and Ord , and in his Memoirs references a hike with Halleck to the summit of Corcovado , notable as the future spot of the Cristo Redentor statue . Sherman and Ord reached the town of Yerba Buena , in California , two days before its name was changed to San Francisco . In 1848 , Sherman accompanied the military governor of California , Col. Richard Barnes Mason , in the inspection that officially confirmed that gold had been discovered in the region , thus inaugurating the California Gold Rush . Sherman , along with Ord , assisted in surveys for the sub-divisions of the town that would become Sacramento . Sherman earned a brevet promotion to captain for his `` meritorious service '' , but his lack of a combat assignment discouraged him and may have contributed to his decision to resign his commission . He would eventually become one of the few high-ranking officers during the Civil War who had not fought in Mexico . Marriage and business career In 1850 , Sherman was promoted to the substantive rank of Captain and married his foster sister , Ellen Boyle Ewing , four years younger , in a Washington ceremony attended by President Zachary Taylor and other political luminaries . Thomas Ewing was serving as the Secretary of the Interior at the time . Like her mother , Ellen Ewing Sherman was a devout Roman Catholic , and the Shermans ' eight children were reared in that faith . In 1864 , Ellen took up temporary residence in South Bend , Indiana , to have her young family educated at the University of Notre Dame and St. Mary 's College . In 1874 , with Sherman having become world famous , their eldest child , Marie Ewing ( `` Minnie '' ) Sherman , also had a politically prominent wedding , attended by President Ulysses S. Grant and commemorated by a generous gift from the Khedive of Egypt . ( Eventually , one of Minnie 's daughters married a grandson of Confederate general Lewis Addison Armistead . ) Another of the Sherman daughters , Eleanor , was married to Alexander Montgomery Thackara at General Sherman 's home in Washington , D.C. , on May 5 , 1880 . To Sherman 's great displeasure and sorrow , his oldest surviving son , Thomas Ewing Sherman , joined the religious order of the Jesuits in 1878 and was ordained as a priest in 1889 . In 1853 , Sherman resigned his captaincy and became manager of the San Francisco branch of the St. Louis-based bank , Lucas , Turner & Co . He returned to San Francisco at a time of great turmoil in the West . He survived two shipwrecks and floated through the Golden Gate on the overturned hull of a foundering lumber schooner . Sherman suffered from stress-related asthma because of the city 's aggressive business culture . Late in life , regarding his time in a San Francisco experiencing a frenzy of real estate speculation , Sherman recalled : `` I can handle a hundred thousand men in battle , and take the City of the Sun , but am afraid to manage a lot in the swamp of San Francisco . '' In 1856 , during the vigilante period , he served briefly as a major general of the California militia . Sherman 's San Francisco branch closed in May 1857 , and he relocated to New York on behalf of the same bank . When the bank failed during the financial Panic of 1857 , he closed the New York branch . In early 1858 , he returned to California to wrap-up the bank 's affairs there . Later in 1858 , he moved to Leavenworth , Kansas , where he tried his hand at law practice and other ventures without much success . Military college superintendent In 1859 , Sherman accepted a job as the first superintendent of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning & Military Academy in Pineville , a position he sought at the suggestion of Major D. C. Buell and secured because of General George Mason Graham . He proved an effective and popular leader of the institution , which later became Louisiana State University ( LSU ) . Colonel Joseph P. Taylor , the brother of the late President Zachary Taylor , declared that `` if you had hunted the whole army , from one end of it to the other , you could not have found a man in it more admirably suited for the position in every respect than Sherman . '' Although his brother John was well known as an antislavery congressman , Sherman did not oppose slavery and was sympathetic to Southerners ' defense of the institution . He opposed , however , any attempt at dissolving the Union . On hearing of South Carolina 's secession from the United States , Sherman observed to a close friend , Professor David F. Boyd of Virginia , an enthusiastic secessionist : He thus very accurately described the four years of war to come . In January 1861 , as more Southern states were seceding from the Union , Sherman was required to accept receipt of arms surrendered to the State Militia by the U.S. Arsenal at Baton Rouge , Louisiana . Instead of complying , he resigned his position as superintendent and returned to the North , declaring to the governor of Louisiana , `` On no earthly account will I do any act or think any thought hostile ... to the ... United States . '' St. Louis interlude Immediately following his departure from Louisiana , Sherman traveled to Washington , D.C. , possibly in the hope of securing a position in the army , and met with Abraham Lincoln in the White House during inauguration week . Sherman expressed concern about the North 's poor state of preparedness but found Lincoln unresponsive . Thereafter , Sherman became president of the St. Louis Railroad , a streetcar company , a position he would hold for only a few months . Thus , he was living in border-state Missouri as the secession crisis came to a climax . While trying to hold himself aloof from controversy , he observed firsthand the efforts of Congressman Frank Blair , who later served under Sherman , to hold Missouri in the Union . In early April , he declined an offer from the Lincoln administration to take a position in the War Department as a prelude to his becoming Assistant Secretary of War . After the bombardment of Fort Sumter , Sherman hesitated about committing to military service and ridiculed Lincoln 's call for 75,000 three-month volunteers to quell secession , reportedly saying : `` Why , you might as well attempt to put out the flames of a burning house with a squirt-gun . '' However , in May , he offered himself for service in the regular army , and his brother ( Senator John Sherman ) and other connections maneuvered to get him a commission in the regular army . On June 3 , he wrote that `` I still think it is to be a long war – very long – much longer than any Politician thinks . '' He received a telegram summoning him to Washington on June 7 . Civil War service First commissions and Bull Run Sherman was first commissioned as colonel of the 13th U.S. Infantry Regiment , effective May 14 , 1861 . This was a new regiment yet to be raised , and Sherman 's first command was actually of a brigade of three-month volunteers , at the head of which he became one of the few Union officers to distinguish himself at the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21 , 1861 , where he was grazed by bullets in the knee and shoulder . The disastrous Union defeat at Bull Run led Sherman to question his own judgment as an officer and the capacities of his volunteer troops . President Lincoln , however , was impressed by Sherman while visiting the troops on July 23 and promoted him to brigadier general of volunteers ( effective May 17 , 1861 , with seniority in rank to Ulysses S. Grant , his future commander ) . He was assigned to serve under Robert Anderson in the Department of the Cumberland in Louisville , Kentucky , and in October Sherman succeeded Anderson in command of the department . Sherman considered that his new assignment broke a promise from Lincoln that he would not be given such a prominent position . Breakdown Having succeeded Anderson at Louisville , Sherman now had principal military responsibility for Kentucky , a border state in which Confederate troops held Columbus and Bowling Green and were present near the Cumberland Gap . He became exceedingly pessimistic about the outlook for his command and he complained frequently to Washington , D.C. about shortages while providing exaggerated estimates of the strength of the rebel forces . Very critical press reports appeared about him after an October visit to Louisville by the Secretary of War , Simon Cameron , and in early November 1861 Sherman insisted that he be relieved . He was promptly replaced by Brigadier General Don Carlos Buell and transferred to St. Louis , Missouri . In December , he was put on leave by Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck , commander of the Department of the Missouri , who considered him unfit for duty . Sherman went to Lancaster , Ohio , to recuperate . While he was at home , his wife Ellen wrote to his brother , Senator John Sherman , seeking advice . She complained of `` that melancholy insanity to which your family is subject . '' Sherman later wrote that the concerns of command `` broke me down '' , and he admitted contemplating suicide . His problems were compounded when the Cincinnati Commercial described him as `` insane . '' By mid-December 1861 Sherman had recovered sufficiently to return to service under Halleck in the Department of the Missouri . ( In March , Halleck 's command was redesignated the Department of the Mississippi and enlarged to unify command in the West ) . Sherman 's initial assignments were rear-echelon commands , first of an instructional barracks near St. Louis and then in command of the District of Cairo . Operating from Paducah , Kentucky , he provided logistical support for the operations of Brig . Gen. Ulysses S. Grant to capture Fort Donelson ( February 1862 ) . Grant , the previous commander of the District of Cairo , had recently won a major victory at Fort Henry ( February 6 , 1862 ) and been given command of the ill-defined District of West Tennessee . Although Sherman was technically the senior officer at this time , he wrote to Grant , `` I feel anxious about you as I know the great facilities [ the Confederates ] have of concentration by means of the River and R Road , but [ I ] have faith in you—Command me in any way . '' Shiloh After Grant captured Fort Donelson , Sherman got his wish to serve under Grant when he was assigned on March 1 , 1862 , to the Army of West Tennessee as commander of the 5th Division . His first major test under Grant was at the Battle of Shiloh . The massive Confederate attack on the morning of April 6 , 1862 , took most of the senior Union commanders by surprise . Sherman had dismissed the intelligence reports received from militia officers , refusing to believe that Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston would leave his base at Corinth . He took no precautions beyond strengthening his picket lines , and refused to entrench , build abatis , or push out reconnaissance patrols . At Shiloh , he may have wished to avoid appearing overly alarmed in order to escape the kind of criticism he had received in Kentucky . He had written to his wife that , if he took more precautions , `` they 'd call me crazy again '' . Despite being caught unprepared by the attack , Sherman rallied his division and conducted an orderly , fighting retreat that helped avert a disastrous Union rout . Finding Grant at the end of the day sitting under an oak tree in the darkness and smoking a cigar , Sherman felt , in his words , `` some wise and sudden instinct not to mention retreat '' . In what would become one of the most notable conversations of the war , Sherman said simply : `` Well , Grant , we 've had the devil 's own day , have n't we ? '' After a puff of his cigar , Grant replied calmly : `` Yes . Lick 'em tomorrow , though . '' Sherman proved instrumental to the successful Union counterattack of April 7 , 1862 . At Shiloh , Sherman was wounded twice—in the hand and shoulder—and had three horses shot out from under him . His performance was praised by Grant and Halleck and after the battle , and he was promoted to major general of volunteers , effective May 1 , 1862 . Beginning in late April , a Union force of 100,000 moved slowly against Corinth , under Halleck 's command with Grant relegated to second-in-command ; Sherman commanded the division on the extreme right of the Union 's right wing ( under George H. Thomas ) . Shortly after the Union forces occupied Corinth on May 30 , Sherman persuaded Grant not to leave his command , despite the serious difficulties he was having with Halleck . Sherman offered Grant an example from his own life , `` Before the battle of Shiloh , I was cast down by a mere newspaper assertion of 'crazy ' , but that single battle gave me new life , and I 'm now in high feather . '' He told Grant that , if he remained in the army , `` some happy accident might restore you to favor and your true place . '' In July , Grant 's situation improved when Halleck left for the East to become general-in-chief , and Sherman became the military governor of occupied Memphis . Vicksburg The careers of both officers ascended considerably after that time . In Sherman 's case , this was in part because he developed close personal ties to Grant during the two years they served together in the West . During the long and complicated campaign against Vicksburg , one newspaper complained that the `` army was being ruined in mud-turtle expeditions , under the leadership of a drunkard [ Grant ] , whose confidential adviser [ Sherman ] was a lunatic . '' Sherman 's military record in 1862–63 was mixed . In December 1862 , forces under his command suffered a severe repulse at the Battle of Chickasaw Bayou , just north of Vicksburg , Mississippi . Soon after , his XV Corps was ordered to join Maj. Gen. John A. McClernand in his successful assault on Arkansas Post , generally regarded as a politically motivated distraction from the effort to capture Vicksburg . Before the Vicksburg Campaign in the spring of 1863 , Sherman expressed serious reservations about the wisdom of Grant 's unorthodox strategy , but he went on to perform well in that campaign under Grant 's supervision . The historian John D. Winters in The Civil War in Louisiana ( 1963 ) describes Sherman : Chattanooga After the surrender of Vicksburg to the Union forces under Grant on July 4 , 1863 , Sherman was given the rank of brigadier general in the regular army , in addition to his rank as a major general of volunteers . Sherman 's family came from Ohio to visit his camp near Vicksburg ; his nine-year-old son , Willie , the Little Sergeant , died from typhoid fever contracted during the trip . Command in the West was unified under Grant ( Military Division of the Mississippi ) , and Sherman succeeded Grant in command of the Army of the Tennessee . Following the defeat of the Army of the Cumberland at the Battle of Chickamauga by Confederate General Braxton Bragg 's Army of Tennessee , the army was besieged in Chattanooga , Tennessee . Sherman 's troops were sent to relieve them . While traveling to Chattanooga , Sherman departed Memphis on a train that arrived at the Battle of Collierville , Tenn. , while the Union garrison there was under attack on October 11 , 1863 . General Sherman took command of the 550 men and successfully defended against an attack of 3,500 Confederate cavalry . During the Chattanooga Campaign in November , under Grant 's overall command , Sherman quickly took his assigned target of Billy Goat Hill at the north end of Missionary Ridge , only to discover that it was not part of the ridge at all , but rather a detached spur separated from the main spine by a rock-strewn ravine . When he attempted to attack the main spine at Tunnel Hill , his troops were repeatedly repulsed by Patrick Cleburne 's heavy division , the best unit in Bragg 's army . Sherman 's efforts were assisted by George Henry Thomas 's army 's successful assault on the center of the Confederate line , a movement originally intended as a diversion . Subsequently , Sherman led a column to relieve Union forces under Ambrose Burnside thought to be in peril at Knoxville . In February 1864 , he led an expedition to Meridian , Mississippi , to disrupt Confederate infrastructure . Atlanta Despite this mixed record , Sherman enjoyed Grant 's confidence and friendship . When Lincoln called Grant east in the spring of 1864 to take command of all the Union armies , Grant appointed Sherman ( by then known to his soldiers as `` Uncle Billy '' ) to succeed him as head of the Military Division of the Mississippi , which entailed command of Union troops in the Western Theater of the war . As Grant took overall command of the armies of the United States , Sherman wrote to him outlining his strategy to bring the war to an end concluding that `` if you can whip Lee and I can march to the Atlantic I think ol ' Uncle Abe will give us twenty days leave to see the young folks . '' Sherman proceeded to invade the state of Georgia with three armies : the 60,000-strong Army of the Cumberland under George Henry Thomas , the 25,000-strong Army of the Tennessee under James B. McPherson , and the 13,000-strong Army of the Ohio under John M. Schofield . He fought a lengthy campaign of maneuver through mountainous terrain against Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston 's Army of Tennessee , attempting a direct assault only at the disastrous Battle of Kennesaw Mountain . In July , the cautious Johnston was replaced by the more aggressive John Bell Hood , who played to Sherman 's strength by challenging him to direct battles on open ground . Meanwhile , in August , Sherman `` learned that I had been commissioned a major-general in the regular army , which was unexpected , and not desired until successful in the capture of Atlanta . '' Sherman 's Atlanta Campaign concluded successfully on September 2 , 1864 , with the capture of the city , which Hood had been forced to abandon . This success made Sherman a household name and helped ensure Lincoln 's presidential re-election in November . In August , the Democratic Party had nominated as its candidate George B. McClellan , the popular former Union army commander , and it had seemed likely that Lincoln would lose to McClellan . Lincoln 's defeat could well have meant the victory of the Confederacy , as the Democratic Party platform called for peace negotiations based on the acknowledgment of the Confederacy 's independence . Thus the capture of Atlanta , coming when it did , may have been Sherman 's greatest contribution to the Union cause . After ordering almost all civilians to leave the city in September , Sherman gave instructions that all military and government buildings in Atlanta be burned , although many private homes and shops were burned as well . This was to set a precedent for future behavior by his armies . March to the Sea During September and October , Sherman and Hood played cat-and-mouse in north Georgia ( and Alabama ) as Hood threatened Sherman 's communications to the north . Eventually , Sherman won approval from his superiors for a plan to cut loose from his communications and march south , having advised Grant that he could `` make Georgia howl . '' This created the threat that Hood would move north into Tennessee . Trivializing that threat , Sherman reportedly said that he would `` give [ Hood ] his rations '' to go in that direction as `` my business is down south . '' However , Sherman left forces under Maj. Gens . George H. Thomas and John M. Schofield to deal with Hood ; their forces eventually smashed Hood 's army in the battles of Franklin ( November 30 ) and Nashville ( December 15–16 ) . Meanwhile , after the November elections , Sherman began a march with 62,000 men to the port of Savannah , Georgia , living off the land and causing , by his own estimate , more than $ 100 million in property damage . Sherman called this harsh tactic of material war `` hard war , '' often seen as a species of total war . At the end of this campaign , known as Sherman 's March to the Sea , his troops captured Savannah on December 21 , 1864 . Sherman then dispatched a famous message to Lincoln , offering him the city as a Christmas present . Sherman 's success in Georgia received ample coverage in the Northern press at a time when Grant seemed to be making little progress in his fight against Confederate General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia . A bill was introduced in Congress to promote Sherman to Grant 's rank of lieutenant general , probably with a view towards having him replace Grant as commander of the Union Army

bt_1934--William_Tecumseh_Sherman.txt

Which city in Georgia was burned by General Sherman during the American Civil War

A polygraph , popularly referred to as a lie detector , measures and records several physiological indices such as blood pressure , pulse , respiration , and skin conductivity while the subject is asked and answers a series of questions . The belief underpinning the use of the polygraph is that deceptive answers will produce physiological responses that can be differentiated from those associated with non-deceptive answers ; the polygraph is one of several devices used for lie detection . The polygraph was invented in 1921 by John Augustus Larson , a medical student at the University of California at Berkeley and a police officer of the Berkeley Police Department in Berkeley , California . The polygraph was on the Encyclopædia Britannica 2003 list of greatest inventions , described as inventions that `` have had profound effects on human life for better or worse . '' The efficacy of polygraphs is debated in the scientific community . In 2001 , a significant fraction of the scientific community considered polygraphy to be pseudoscience . In 2002 , a review by the National Academies of Science found that in populations untrained in countermeasures , polygraph testing can discriminate lying from truth telling at rates above chance , though below perfection . These results apply only to specific events and not to screening where it is assumed that polygraph would work less well . Effectiveness may also be worsened by countermeasures . In some countries polygraphs are used as an interrogation tool with criminal suspects or candidates for sensitive public or private sector employment . US law enforcement and federal government agencies such as the FBI and the CIA and many police departments such as the LAPD use polygraph examinations to interrogate suspects and screen new employees . Within the US federal government , a polygraph examination is also referred to as a psychophysiological detection of deception ( PDD ) examination . Polygraph testing is designed to analyze the physiological reactions of subjects . However , research has indicated that there is no specific physiological reaction associated with lying and that the brain activity and mechanisms associated with lying are unknown , making it difficult to identify factors that separate liars from truth tellers . Polygraph examiners also prefer to use their own individual scoring method , as opposed to computerized techniques , as they may more easily defend their own evaluations . The validity of polygraph testing is again called in to question with the relevant-irrelevant testing technique , designed to gauge reactions of subjects against crime questions and other non-crime related questions . Studies have indicated that this questioning technique is not ideal , as many innocent subjects exert a heightened physiological reaction to the crime relevant questions . The control question test , also known as the probable lie test , was developed to combat the issues with the relevant-irrelevant testing method . Although the relevant questions in the probable lie test are used to obtain a reaction from liars , it can also gain a reaction from the innocent subject who is afraid of false detection . The physiological reactions that `` distinguish '' liars , may also occur in individuals who fear a false detection , or feel passionately that they did not commit the crime . Therefore , although a physiological reaction may be occurring , the reasoning behind the response may be different . Further examination of the probable lie test has indicated that it is biased against innocent subjects . Those who are unable to think of a lie related to the relevant question , will automatically fail the test . Polygraph examiners , or polygraphers , are licensed or regulated in some jurisdictions . The American Polygraph Association sets standards for courses of training of polygraph operators , though it does not certify individual examiners . Testing procedure The examiner typically begins polygraph test sessions with a pre-test interview to gain some preliminary information which will later be used to develop diagnostic questions . Then the tester will explain how the polygraph is supposed to work , emphasizing that it can detect lies and that it is important to answer truthfully . Then a `` stim test '' is often conducted : the subject is asked to deliberately lie and then the tester reports that he was able to detect this lie . Guilty subjects are likely to become more anxious when they are reminded of the test 's validity . However , there are risks of innocent subjects being equally or more anxious than the guilty . Then the actual test starts . Some of the questions asked are `` irrelevant '' or IR ( `` Is your name Fred ? `` ) , others are `` diagnostic '' questions , and the remainder are the `` relevant questions '' , or RQ , that the tester is really interested in . The different types of questions alternate . The test is passed if the physiological responses to the diagnostic questions are larger than those during the relevant questions ( RQ ) . Criticisms have been given regarding the validity of the administration of the Control Question Technique ( CQT ) . The CQT may be vulnerable to being conducted in an interrogation-like fashion . This kind of interrogation style would elicit a nervous response from innocent and guilty suspects alike . There are several other ways of administrating the questions . An alternative is the Guilty Knowledge Test ( GKT ) , or the Concealed Information Test ( CIT ) , which is being used in Japan . The administration of this test is given to prevent potential errors that may arise from the questioning style . The test is usually conducted by a tester with no knowledge of the crime or circumstances in question . The administrator tests the participant on their knowledge of the crime that would not be known to an innocent person . For example : `` Was the crime committed with a .45 or a 9 mm ? '' The questions are in multiple choice and the participant is rated on how they react to the correct answer . If they react strongly to the guilty information , then proponents of the test believe that it is likely that they know facts relevant to the case . This administration is considered more valid by supporters of the test because it contains many safeguards to avoid the risk of the administrator influencing the results . Validity Polygraphy is widely criticized . Despite claims of 90 % validity by polygraph advocates , the National Research Council has found no evidence of effectiveness . The utility among sex offenders is also poor with insufficient evidence to support accuracy or improved outcomes in this population . Even using the high estimates of the polygraph 's accuracy , false positives occur , and these people suffer the consequences of `` failing '' the polygraph . In the 1998 Supreme Court case , United States v. Scheffer , the majority stated that `` There is simply no consensus that polygraph evidence is reliable '' and `` Unlike other expert witnesses who testify about factual matters outside the jurors ' knowledge , such as the analysis of fingerprints , ballistics , or DNA found at a crime scene , a polygraph expert can supply the jury only with another opinion ... '' In 2005 the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals stated that `` polygraphy did not enjoy general acceptance from the scientific community '' . In 2001 William Iacono , Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience concluded that Although the CQT [ Control Question Test ] may be useful as an investigative aid and tool to induce confessions , it does not pass muster as a scientifically credible test . CQT theory is based on naive , implausible assumptions indicating ( a ) that it is biased against innocent individuals and ( b ) that it can be beaten simply by artificially augmenting responses to control questions . Although it is not possible to adequately assess the error rate of the CQT , both of these conclusions are supported by published research findings in the best social science journals ( Honts et al. , 1994 ; Horvath , 1977 ; Kleinmuntz & Szucko , 1984 ; Patrick & Iacono , 1991 ) . Although defense attorneys often attempt to have the results of friendly CQTs admitted as evidence in court , there is no evidence supporting their validity and ample reason to doubt it . Members of scientific organizations who have the requisite background to evaluate the CQT are overwhelmingly skeptical of the claims made by polygraph proponents . Summarizing the consensus in psychological research , professor David W. Martin , PhD , from North Carolina State University , states that people have tried to use the polygraph for measuring human emotions , but there is simply no royal road to ( measuring ) human emotions . Therefore , since one can not reliably measure human emotions ( especially when one has an interest in hiding his/her emotions ) , the idea of valid detection of truth or falsehood through measuring respiratory rate , blood volume , pulse rate and galvanic skin response is a mere pretense . Psychologists can not ascertain what emotions one has , with or without the use of polygraph . Polygraphs measure arousal , which can be caused by anxiety , anxiety disorders such as PTSD , nervousness , fear , confusion , hypoglycemia , psychosis , depression , substance induced ( nicotine , stimulants ) , substance withdrawal state ( alcohol withdrawal ) or other emotions ; polygraphs do not measure `` lies . '' A polygraph can not differentiate anxiety caused by dishonesty and anxiety caused by something else . The polygraph is inherently subjective . It relies heavily on interpretation by the examiner , so human error ( which could be caused by examiner inexperience ) and bias can result in the examiner drawing the wrong conclusion . National Academy of Sciences The accuracy of the polygraph has been contested almost since the introduction of the device . In 2003 , the National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) issued a report entitled `` The Polygraph and Lie Detection '' . The NAS found that the majority of polygraph research was `` unreliable , unscientific and biased '' , concluding that 57 of the approximately 80 research studies that the American Polygraph Association relies on to come to their conclusions were significantly flawed . These studies did show that specific-incident polygraph testing , in a person untrained in counter-measures , could discern the truth at `` a level greater than chance , yet short of perfection '' . However , due to several flaws , the levels of accuracy shown in these studies `` are almost certainly higher than actual polygraph accuracy of specific-incident testing in the field '' . When polygraphs are used as a screening tool ( in national security matters and for law enforcement agencies for example ) the level of accuracy drops to such a level that `` Its accuracy in distinguishing actual or potential security violators from innocent test takers is insufficient to justify reliance on its use in employee security screening in federal agencies . '' The NAS concluded that the polygraph `` ... may have some utility '' but that there is `` little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy . `` . ( [ http : //www.nap.edu/openbook.php ? record_id10420 & page 212 Chapter 8 : Conclusions and Recommendations , page 212 ] ) The NAS conclusions paralleled those of the earlier United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment report `` Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing : A Research Review and Evaluation '' . Similarly , a report to Congress by the Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy [ http : //www.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/09ps.pdf IV Personnel Security : Protection Through Detection ] quoting Ralph M. Carney , SSBI Source Yield : An Examination of Sources Contacted During the SSBI ( Monterey : Defense Personnel Security Research Center , 1996 ) , 6 , affirming that in 81 % of cases , the derogatory informations were obtained through questionnaire and/or interrogation . on national security concluded that `` The few Government-sponsored scientific research reports on polygraph validity ( as opposed to its utility ) , especially those focusing on the screening of applicants for employment , indicate that the polygraph is neither scientifically valid nor especially effective beyond its ability to generate admissions .. '' . Countermeasures Several countermeasures designed to pass polygraph tests have been described . Asked how he passed the polygraph test , Aldrich Ames explained that he sought advice from his Soviet handler and received the simple instruction to : `` Get a good night 's sleep , and rest , and go into the test rested and relaxed . Be nice to the polygraph examiner , develop a rapport , and be cooperative and try to maintain your calm . '' Additionally , Ames explained , `` There 's no special magic .... Confidence is what does it . Confidence and a friendly relationship with the examiner ... rapport , where you smile and you make him think that you like him . '' Other suggestions for countermeasures include for the subject to mentally record the control and relevant questions as the examiner reviews them before the interrogation begins . During the interrogation the subject is supposed to carefully control their breathing while answering the relevant questions , and to try to artificially increase their heart rate during the control questions , for example by thinking of something scary or exciting , or by pricking themselves with a pointed object concealed somewhere on their body . In this way the results will not show a significant reaction to any of the relevant questions . There are two types of countermeasures : General State ( intending to alter the physiological or psychological state of the examinee for the length of the test ) , and Specific Point ( intending to alter the physiological or psychological state of the examinee at specific periods during the examination , either to increase or decrease responses during critical examination periods ) . Usage Law enforcement agencies and intelligence agencies in the United States are by far the biggest users of polygraph technology . In the United States alone most federal law enforcement agencies either employ their own polygraph examiners or use the services of examiners employed in other agencies . In 1978 Richard Helms , the 8th Director of Central Intelligence , stated that : `` We discovered there were some Eastern Europeans who could defeat the polygraph at any time . Americans are not very good at it , because we are raised to tell the truth and when we lie it is easy to tell we are lying . But we find a lot of Europeans and Asiatics can handle that polygraph without a blip , and you know they are lying and you have evidence that they are lying . '' Susan McCarthy of Salon said in 2000 that `` The polygraph is an American phenomenon , with limited use in a few countries , such as Canada , Israel and Japan '' North America Canada In Canada , the 1987 decision of R. v. Béland , the Supreme Court of Canada rejected the use of polygraph results as evidence in court . This decision did not , however , affect the use of the polygraph in criminal investigations . The polygraph is regularly used as a forensic tool in the investigation of criminal acts and sometimes employed in the screening of employees for government organizations . In the province of Ontario , the use of polygraphs is not permitted by the use of an employer . A police force does have the authorization to use a polygraph in the course of the investigation of an offence . United States , polygraph testimony was admitted by stipulation in 19 states , and was subject to the discretion of the trial judge in federal court . The use of polygraph in court testimony remains controversial , although it is used extensively in post-conviction supervision , particularly of sex offenders . In Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals ( 1993 ) , the old Frye standard was lifted and all forensic evidence , including polygraph , had to meet the new Daubert standard in which `` underlying reasoning or methodology is scientifically valid and properly can be applied to the facts at issue . '' While polygraph tests are commonly used in police investigations in the US , no defendant or witness can be forced to undergo the test . In United States v. Scheffer ( 1998 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court left it up to individual jurisdictions whether polygraph results could be admitted as evidence in court cases . Nevertheless , it is used extensively by prosecutors , defense attorneys , and law enforcement agencies . In the States of Massachusetts , Maryland , New Jersey , Delaware and Iowa it is illegal for any employer to order a polygraph either as conditions to gain employment , or if an employee has been suspected of wrongdoing . The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 ( EPPA ) generally prevents employers from using lie detector tests , either for pre-employment screening or during the course of employment , with certain exemptions . As of 2013 , about 70,000 job applicants are polygraphed by the federal government on an annual basis.Taylor , Marisa and Cleve R. Wootson Jr. `` [ http : //www.mcclatchydc.com/2013/08/16/199590/seeing-threats-feds-target-instructors.html # .UiIeOn9fuSp Seeing threats , feds target instructors of polygraph-beating methods ] . '' McClatchy . Friday August 16 , 2013 . Retrieved on Friday August 31 , 2013 . In the United States , the State of New Mexico admits polygraph testing in front of juries under certain circumstances . In many other states , polygraph examiners are permitted to testify in front of judges in various types of hearings ( Motion to Revoke Probation , Motion to Adjudicate Guilt ) . In 2010 the NSA produced a video explaining its polygraph process . The video , ten minutes long , is titled `` The Truth About the Polygraph '' and was posted to the website of the Defense Security Service . Jeff Stein of the Washington Post said that the video portrays `` various applicants , or actors playing them -- it ’ s not clear -- describing everything bad they had heard about the test , the implication being that none of it is true . `` Stein , Jeff . `` [ http : //voices.washingtonpost.com/spy-talk/2010/06/facing_nsas_lie_detector_relax.html NSA lie detectors no sweat , video says ] . '' Washington Post . June 14 , 2010 . Retrieved on July 5 , 2013 . AntiPolygraph.org argues that the NSA-produced video omits some information about the polygraph process ; it produced a video responding to the NSA video . George Maschke , the founder of the website , accused the NSA polygraph video of being `` Orwellian '' . In 2013 the U.S. federal government had begun indicting individuals who stated that they were teaching methods on how to defeat a polygraph test . During one of those investigations , upwards of 30 federal agencies were involved in investigations of almost 5000 people who had various degrees of contact with those being prosecuted or who had purchased books or DVDs on the topic of beating polygraph tests . Asia India In 2008 , an Indian court adopted the brain electrical oscillations signature test as evidence to convict a woman , who was accused of murdering her fiance . It is the first time that the result of polygraph was used as evidence in court . On May 5 , 2010 , The Supreme Court of India declared use of narcoanalysis , brain mapping and polygraph tests on suspects as illegal and against the constitution . Article 20 ( 3 ) of the Indian Constitution- '' No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself . '' Polygraph tests are still legal if the defendant requests one . Israel The Supreme Court of Israel , in Civil Appeal 551/89 ( Menora Insurance Vs. Jacob Sdovnik ) , ruled that as the polygraph has not been recognized as a reliable device . In other decisions , polygraph results were ruled inadmissible in criminal trials . It has not been clearly decided if polygraph results are inadmissible as evidence in a civil trial . In the private discipline , some insurance companies attempt to include a clause in insurance contracts , in which the beneficiary agrees that polygraph results be admissible as evidence . In such cases , where the beneficiary has willingly agreed to such a clause , signed the contract , and taken the test , the courts will honor the contract , and take the polygraph results into consideration . However , it is common practice for lawyers to advise people who signed such contracts to refuse to take the test . Depending on whether or not the beneficiary signed an agreements clause , and whether the test was already taken or not , such a refusal usually has no ill effects ; at worst , the court will simply order the person to take the test as agreed . At best , the court will cancel the clause and release the person from taking the test , or rule the evidence inadmissible . Europe In most European jurisdictions , polygraphs are not considered reliable evidence and are not generally used by law enforcement . Courts themselves do not order or facilitate polygraph testing . In most cases , polygraph tests are voluntarily taken by a defendant in order to substantiate his or her defense . Germany The Federal Court of Justice of Germany has ruled that polygraph evidence is inherently inconclusive and not admissible in court . Motions by prosecution or defense for polygraph tests to be exercised will be declined under any circumstance . Lithuania The polygraph was used for the first time in Lithuania in 1992 . From the 2004 surveys on the use of the Ewent Knowledge Test ( new version of the Concealed Information Test ) for criminal investigation . Oceania Australia The High Court of Australia has not yet considered the admissibility of polygraph evidence . However , the New South Wales District Court rejected the use of the device in a criminal trial . In Raymond George Murray 1982 7A Crim R48 Sinclair DCJ refused to admit polygraph evidence tending to support the defense . The judge rejected the evidence because # The veracity of the accused and the weight to be given to his evidence , and other witnesses called in the trial , was a matter for the jury . # The polygraph `` expert '' sought to express an opinion as to ultimate facts in issue , which is peculiarly the province of the jury . # The test purported to be expert evidence by the witness who was not qualified as an expert , he was merely an operator and assessor of a polygraph . The scientific premise upon which his assessment was based had not been proved in any Court in Australia . # Devoid of any proved or accepted scientific basis , the evidence of the operator is hearsay which is inadmissible . The Court cited , with approval , the Canadian case of Phillion v R 1978 1SCR 18 . Lie detector evidence is currently inadmissible in New South Wales courts under the Lie Detectors Act . Under the same act , it is also illegal to use lie detectors for the purpose of granting employment , insurance , financial accommodation , and several other purposes for which lie detectors may be used in other jurisdictions . Security clearances Contrary to popular belief , a security clearance may not be revoked based solely on polygraph results . However , a person 's access to sensitive information may be denied if the polygraph results are not favorable . In addition , persons being considered for a government position or job may be denied the employment , if the position specifically requires successful completion of a polygraph examination . It is difficult to precisely determine the effectiveness of polygraph results for the detection or deterrence of spying . It is inadmissible as evidence in most federal courts and military courts martial . The polygraph is more often used as a deterrent to espionage rather than detection . One exception to this was the case of Harold James Nicholson , a CIA employee later convicted of spying for Russia . In 1995 , Nicholson had undergone his periodic five year reinvestigation where he showed a strong probability of deception on questions regarding relationships with a foreign intelligence unit . This polygraph test later launched an investigation which resulted in his eventual arrest and conviction . In most cases , however , polygraphs are more of a tool to `` scare straight '' those who would consider espionage . Jonathan Pollard was advised by his Israeli handlers that he was to resign his job from American intelligence if he was ever told he was subject to a polygraph test . Likewise , John Anthony Walker was advised by his handlers not to engage in espionage until he had been promoted to the highest position for which a polygraph test was not required , to refuse promotion to higher positions for which polygraph tests were required , and to retire when promotion was mandated . As part of his plea bargain agreement for his case of espionage for the Soviet Union Robert Hanssen would be made to undergo a polygraph at any time as a means of damage assessment . In Hanssen 's 25-year career with the FBI , not once was he made to undergo a polygraph . Alternatively , the use of polygraph testing , where it causes desperation over dismissal for past dishonesty , may encourage spying . For example , Edward Lee Howard was dismissed from the CIA when , during a polygraph screening , he truthfully answered a series of questions admitting to minor crimes such as petty theft and drug abuse . In retaliation for his perceived unjust punishment for minor offenses , he later sold his knowledge of CIA operations to the Soviet Union . It is also worth noting that polygraph tests may not deter espionage . From 1945 to the present , at least six Americans have committed espionage while successfully passing polygraph tests . Notable cases of two men who created a false negative result with the polygraphs were Larry Wu-Tai Chin and Aldrich Ames . Ames was given two polygraph examinations while with the CIA , the first in 1986 and the second in 1991 . The CIA reported that he passed both examinations after experiencing initial indications of deception . According to a Senate investigation , an FBI review of the first examination concluded that the indications of deception were never resolved . The Senate committee reported that the second examination , at a time when Ames was under suspicion , resulted in indications of deception and a retest a few days later with a different examiner . The second examiner concluded that there were no further indications of deception . In the CIA 's analysis of the second exam , they were critical of their failure to convey to the second examiner the existing suspicions . Ana Belen Montes , a Cuban spy , passed a counterintelligence scope polygraph test administered by DIA in 1994 . Despite these errors , in August 2008 , the US Defense Intelligence Agency announced that it would subject each of its 5,700 prospective and current employees to polygraph testing at least once annually . This expansion of polygraph screening at DIA occurred while DIA polygraph managers ignored documented technical problems discovered in the Lafayette computerized polygraph system . DIA uses computerized Lafayette polygraph systems for routine counterintelligence testing . The impact of the technical flaws within the Lafayette system on the analysis of recorded physiology and on the final polygraph test evaluation is currently unknown . In 2012 , a McClatchy investigation found that the National Reconnaissance Office was possibly breaching ethical and legal boundaries by encouraging its polygraph examiners to extract personal and private information from DoD personnel during polygraph tests that purported to be limited to counterintelligence issues . Allegations of abusive polygraph practices were brought forward by former NRO polygraph examiners . Alternative tests Most polygraph researchers have focused more the exam 's predictive value on a subject ’ s guilt . However , there have been no empirical theories established to explain how a polygraph measures deception . Recent research indicates that Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging ( fMRI ) may benefit in explaining

bb_4319--Polygraph.txt

A polygraph is more popularly called a?

Moremi Game Reserve is a Game Reserve in Botswana . It rests on the eastern side of the Okavango Delta and was named after Chief Moremi of the BaTawana tribe . Moremi was designated as a Game Reserve , and not a National Park , when it was created . This designation meant local people , the BaSarwa or Bushmen that lived there were allowed to stay in the reserve . The Moremi Game Reserve covers much of the eastern side of the Okavango Delta and combines permanent water with drier areas , which create some startling and unexpected contrasts . Some prominent geographical features of the Reserve are Chiefs Island and the Moremi Tongue . In the Moremi Reserve one can experience excellent views of Savannah game as well as bird-watching on the lagoons . There are also thickly wooded areas , which are home to the Cape wild dog and leopard . To the northeast lies the Chobe National Park which borders the Moremi Game Reserve . Although just under 5000 km2 in extent , it is a surprisingly diverse Reserve , combining mopane woodland and acacia forests , floodplains and lagoons . Only about 30 % of the Reserve is mainland , with the bulk being within the Okavango Delta itself . The Moremi Game Reserve , although not one of the largest parks , presents insights and views even for the most experienced of travelers . It is home to nearly 500 species of bird ( from water birds to forest dwellers ) , and a vast array of other species of wildlife including Cape buffalo , Angolan giraffe , black rhinoceros , Southwest African lion , elephant , hippopotamus , zebra , South African cheetah , hyena , jackal , impala , and red lechwe . Cape wild dogs ( Lycaon pictus pictus ) inhabit this reserve and has been the subject of a project run in the area since 1989 ; thus this species is often seen wearing collars emplaced by researchers . The Moremi area contains one of the most significant extant habitat areas for L. pictus . Logistics The Reserve offers the opportunity to explore not only in 4x4 's but on foot and by mokoro—a dug-out canoe , hewn from either ebony or sausage-tree , and poled by your personal guide . Although , today most of the mekoro ( plural of mokoro ) , are made from fibreglass , thus helping to preserve the magnificent , and old , trees of the area . Game viewing is at its peak from July to October , when seasonal pans dry up and the wildlife concentrates on the permanent water . From October until the start of the rains in late November or early December , the weather can be extremely hot . Malarial mosquitoes are prevalent throughout the Reserve and it is strongly recommended that visitors should take precautions before , during and after a visit . Botswana has been able to develop its tourism without the urgent need for revenues that face many other African countries . An eco-tourism policy of high yield , but low impact , has resulted in visitors being able to experience an Africa in its most natural , unspoilt and impressive condition . Thus the Reserve itself has very few lodges , and only four areas set-aside for camping ( at South Gate , Third Bridge , Xakanaxa , and Khwai ) . There are a number of lodges on the outskirts of the Reserve , whose guests visit on daily game drives . Travel between lodges is accomplished by light aircraft and helicopter transfers , as most lodges have their own airstrips . Therefore , you can easily combine a number of lodges in a variety of areas . Helicopter game viewing flights are available from most lodges .

odql_8763--Moremi_Game_Reserve.txt

In which country is the Moremi Game Reserve, a National Park, part of the Okavango Delta?

Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock , KBE , ( 13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980 ) was an English film director and producer , at times referred to as `` The Master of Suspense '' . He pioneered many elements of the suspense and psychological thriller genres . He had a successful career in British cinema with both silent films and early talkies and became renowned as England 's best director . Hitchcock moved to Hollywood in 1939 and became a US citizen in 1955 . Over a career spanning more than half a century , Hitchcock fashioned for himself a recognisable directorial style . His stylistic trademarks include the use of camera movement that mimics a person 's gaze , forcing viewers to engage in a form of voyeurism . In addition , he framed shots to maximise anxiety , fear , or empathy , and used innovative forms of film editing . His work often features fugitives on the run alongside `` icy blonde '' female characters . Many of Hitchcock 's films have twist endings and thrilling plots featuring depictions of murder and other violence . Many of the mysteries , however , are used as decoys or `` MacGuffins '' that serve the films ' themes and the psychological examinations of their characters . Hitchcock 's films also borrow many themes from psychoanalysis and sometimes feature strong sexual overtones . Hitchcock became a highly visible public figure through interviews , movie trailers , cameo appearances in his own films , and the ten years in which he hosted the television program Alfred Hitchcock Presents . In 1978 , film critic John Russell Taylor described Hitchcock as `` the most universally recognizable person in the world '' , and `` a straightforward middle-class Englishman who just happened to be an artistic genius . '' Hitchcock directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades and is often regarded as the greatest British filmmaker . He came first in a 2007 poll of film critics in Britain 's Daily Telegraph , which said : `` Unquestionably the greatest filmmaker to emerge from these islands , Hitchcock did more than any director to shape modern cinema , which would be utterly different without him . His flair was for narrative , cruelly withholding crucial information ( from his characters and from viewers ) and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else . '' Prior to 1980 there had long been talk of Hitchcock being knighted for his contribution to film . Critic Roger Ebert wrote : `` Other British directors like Sir Carol Reed and Sir Charlie Chaplin were knighted years ago , while Hitchcock , universally considered by film students to be one of the greatest filmmakers of all time , was passed over '' . Hitchcock was later to receive his knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II in the 1980 New Year Honours . In 2002 , the magazine MovieMaker named Hitchcock the most influential filmmaker of all time . Early life Alfred Hitchcock was born on 13 August 1899 in Leytonstone , which at the time was part of Essex . He was the second son and the youngest of three children of William Hitchcock ( 1862–1914 ) , a greengrocer and poulterer , and Emma Jane Hitchcock ( born Whelan ; 1863–1942 ) . He was named after his father 's brother . Hitchcock was brought up as a Roman Catholic and was sent to Salesian College and the Jesuit Classic school St Ignatius ' College in Stamford Hill , London . His parents were both of half-English and half-Irish ancestry . He often described a lonely and sheltered childhood worsened by his obesity . Around age five , Hitchcock said that he was sent by his father to the local police station with a note asking the officer to lock him away for five minutes as punishment for behaving badly . This incident implanted a lifetime fear of policemen in Hitchcock , and such harsh treatment and wrongful accusations are frequent themes in his films . When Hitchcock was 15 , his father died . In the same year , he left St. Ignatius to study at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar , London . After leaving , he became a draftsman and advertising designer with a cable company called Henley 's . During the First World War , Hitchcock was called up to serve in the British Army . He was excused from military service with a 'C3 ' classification due to his size , height or an unnamed medical condition , but he was `` able to stand service conditions in garrisons at home '' . Hitchcock signed up to a cadet regiment of the Royal Engineers in 1917 . His military stint was limited ; he received theoretical briefings , weekend drills and exercises . Hitchcock would march around London 's Hyde Park and was required to wear puttees , though he never mastered the proper wrapping of them . While working at Henley 's , Hitchcock began to dabble creatively . The company 's in-house publication The Henley Telegraph was founded in 1919 , and he often submitted short articles and eventually became one of its most prolific contributors . His first piece was `` Gas '' ( 1919 ) , published in the first issue , in which a young woman imagines that she is being assaulted one night in London – only for the twist to reveal that it was all just a hallucination in the dentist 's chair induced by the anesthetic . Hitchcock 's second piece was `` The Woman 's Part '' ( 1919 ) , which involves the conflicted emotions that a husband feels as he watches his actress wife perform onstage . `` Sordid '' ( 1920 ) surrounds an attempt to buy a sword from an antiques dealer , with another twist ending . The short story `` And There Was No Rainbow '' ( 1920 ) is Hitchcock 's first brush with possibly censurable material . A young man goes out looking for a brothel , only to stumble into the house of his best friend 's girl . `` What 's Who ? '' ( 1920 ) at first glance seems to be a precursor to Abbott and Costello 's `` Who 's on First ? '' routine . It is a very short dialogue piece that resembles a bit of antic dialogue from a music hall skit . It captures the zany confusion that happens when a group of actors decide to put together a sketch in which they will impersonate themselves . In the story ’ s 40 sentences , confusion regarding the questions “ Who ’ s me ? ” and `` Who ’ s you ? ” rise to comic emotional heights . `` The History of Pea Eating '' ( 1920 ) is a satirical disquisition on the various attempts that people have made over the centuries to eat peas successfully . His final piece , `` Fedora '' ( 1921 ) , is his shortest and most enigmatic contribution . It also gives a strikingly accurate description of his future wife Alma Reville , whom he had not yet met . Inter-war British career Silent films Hitchcock became intrigued by photography and started working in film production , working as a title card designer for the London branch of what became Paramount Pictures . In 1920 , he received a full-time position designing the titles for silent movies at Islington Studios with its American owner Famous Players-Lasky and their British successor Gainsborough Pictures . His rise from title designer to film director took five years . During this period , he became an unusual combination of screenwriter , art director , and assistant director on a series of five films for producer Michael Balcon and director Graham Cutts : Woman to Woman ( 1923 ) , The White Shadow ( 1924 ) , The Passionate Adventure ( 1924 ) , The Blackguard ( 1925 ) , and The Prude 's Fall ( 1925 ) . Hitchcock 's penultimate collaboration with Cutts , The Blackguard ( German : Die Prinzessin und der Geiger , 1925 ) , was produced at the Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam , where Hitchcock observed part of the making of F. W. Murnau 's film The Last Laugh ( 1924 ) . He was very impressed with Murnau 's work and later used many techniques for the set design in his own productions . In a book-length interview with François Truffaut , Hitchcock also said that he was influenced by Fritz Lang 's film Destiny ( 1921 ) . He was likewise influenced by other foreign filmmakers whose work he absorbed as one of the earliest members of the `` seminal '' London Film Society , formed in 1925 . Hitchcock 's first few films faced a string of bad luck . His first directing project came in 1922 with the aptly titled Number 13 , filmed in London . The production was cancelled because of financial problems ; the few scenes that had been finished at that point have been lost . Michael Balcon gave Hitchcock another opportunity for a directing credit with The Pleasure Garden ( 1925 ) , a co-production of Gainsborough and the German firm Emelka , which he made at the Geiselgasteig studio near Munich in the summer of 1925 . The film was a commercial flop . Next , Hitchcock directed a drama called The Mountain Eagle ( 1926 ) , possibly released under the title Fear o ' God , in the United States . This film is lost . Hitchcock 's luck changed with his first thriller , The Lodger : A Story of the London Fog ( 1927 ) , a suspense film about the hunt for a Jack the Ripper type of serial killer in London . Released in January 1927 , it was a major commercial and critical success in the United Kingdom . As with many of his earlier works , this film was influenced by Expressionist techniques Hitchcock had witnessed first-hand in Germany . Some commentators regard this piece as the first truly `` Hitchcockian '' film , incorporating such themes as the `` wrong man '' . Following the success of The Lodger , Hitchcock hired a publicist to help strengthen his growing reputation . On 2 December 1926 , Hitchcock married his assistant director , Alma Reville , at the Brompton Oratory in South Kensington , London . Their only child , daughter Patricia , was born on 7 July 1928 . Alma was to become Hitchcock 's closest collaborator , but her contributions to his films ( some of which were credited on screen ) Hitchcock would discuss only in private , as she was keen to avoid public attention . Early sound films Hitchcock began work on his tenth film Blackmail ( 1929 ) when its production company British International Pictures ( BIP ) decided to convert its Elstree facility to sound , and to utilise that new technology in Blackmail . It was an early 'talkie ' , often cited by film historians as a landmark film , and is often considered to be the first British sound feature film . Blackmail began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences , with the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the British Museum . It also features one of his longest cameo appearances , which shows him being bothered by a small boy as he reads a book on the London Underground . In the PBS series The Men Who Made The Movies , Hitchcock explained how he used early sound recording as a special element of the film , stressing the word `` knife '' in a conversation with the woman suspected of murder . During this period , Hitchcock directed segments for a BIP musical film revue Elstree Calling ( 1930 ) and directed a short film featuring two Film Weekly scholarship winners entitled An Elastic Affair ( 1930 ) . Another BIP musical revue , Harmony Heaven ( 1929 ) , reportedly had minor input from Hitchcock , but his name does not appear in the credits . In 1933 , Hitchcock was once again working for Michael Balcon at Gaumont British . His first film for the company The Man Who Knew Too Much ( 1934 ) was a success and his second The 39 Steps ( 1935 ) is often considered one of the best films from his early period , with the British Film Institute ranking it the fourth best British film of the 20th century . The film was acclaimed in Britain , and it made Hitchcock a star in the United States , and established the quintessential English `` Hitchcock blonde '' Madeleine Carroll as the template for his succession of ice cold and elegant leading ladies . This film was also one of the first to introduce the `` MacGuffin '' . In The 39 Steps , the MacGuffin is a stolen set of design plans . Hitchcock told French director François Truffaut : There are two men sitting in a train going to Scotland and one man says to the other , `` Excuse me , sir , but what is that strange parcel you have on the luggage rack above you ? `` , `` Oh '' , says the other , `` that 's a Macguffin . `` , `` Well '' , says the first man , `` what 's a Macguffin ? `` , The other answers , `` It 's an apparatus for trapping lions in the Scottish Highlands . `` , `` But '' , says the first man , `` there are no lions in the Scottish Highlands . `` , `` Well '' , says the other , `` then that 's no Macguffin . '' Hitchcock 's next major success was The Lady Vanishes ( 1938 ) , a fast-paced film about the search for kindly old Englishwoman Miss Froy ( Dame May Whitty ) who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of Bandrika . The Guardian called the film `` one of the greatest train movies from the genre 's golden era '' , and a contender for the `` title of best comedy thriller ever made '' . In 1939 , Hitchcock received the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director , the only time he received an award for his direction . Hitchcock was lauded in Britain , where he was dubbed `` Alfred the Great '' by Picturegoer magazine , and his reputation was beginning to soar overseas by the end of the 1930s , with a New York Times feature writer stating : `` Three unique and valuable institutions the British have that we in America have not . Magna Carta , the Tower Bridge and Alfred Hitchcock , the greatest director of screen melodramas in the world . '' Variety magazine referred to him as , `` probably the best native director in England . '' Hollywood Selznick contract David O. Selznick signed Hitchcock to a seven-year contract beginning in March 1939 , and the Hitchcocks moved to Hollywood . The suspense and the gallows humour that had become Hitchcock 's trademark in his films continued to appear in his American productions . The working arrangements with Selznick were less than ideal . Selznick suffered from constant financial problems , and Hitchcock was often displeased with Selznick 's creative control over his films . In a later interview , Hitchcock commented : [ Selznick ] was the Big Producer . ... Producer was king , The most flattering thing Mr. Selznick ever said about me—and it shows you the amount of control—he said I was the `` only director '' he 'd `` trust with a film '' . Selznick lent Hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing Hitchcock 's films himself . Selznick made only a few films each year , as did fellow independent producer Samuel Goldwyn , so he did not always have projects for Hitchcock to direct . Goldwyn had also negotiated with Hitchcock on a possible contract , only to be outbid by Selznick . Hitchcock was quickly impressed with the superior resources of the American studios compared with the financial limits that he had often faced in Britain . The Selznick picture Rebecca ( 1940 ) was Hitchcock 's first American film , set in a Hollywood version of England 's Cornwall and based on a novel by English novelist Daphne du Maurier . The film stars Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine . The story concerns a naïve ( and unnamed ) young woman who marries a widowed aristocrat . She goes to live in his huge English country house , and struggles with the lingering reputation of the elegant and worldly first wife , whose name was Rebecca and who died under mysterious circumstances . The film won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940 . The statuette was given to Selznick , as the film 's producer . Hitchcock was nominated for the Best Director award , his first of five such nominations , but did not win . There were additional problems between Selznick and Hitchcock , with Selznick known to impose restrictive rules on Hitchcock . At the same time , Selznick complained about Hitchcock 's `` goddamn jigsaw cutting '' , which meant that the producer did not have nearly the leeway to create his own film as he liked , but had to follow Hitchcock 's vision of the finished product . Hitchcock 's second American film was the European-set thriller Foreign Correspondent ( 1940 ) , based on Vincent Sheean 's Personal History and produced by Walter Wanger . It was nominated for Best Picture that year . Hitchcock and other British subjects felt uneasy living and working in Hollywood while their country was at war ; his concern resulted in a film that overtly supported the British war effort . The movie was filmed in the first year of the Second World War and was inspired by the rapidly changing events in Europe , as fictionally covered by an American newspaper reporter portrayed by Joel McCrea . The film mixed footage of European scenes with scenes filmed on a Hollywood back lot . It avoided direct references to Nazism , Germany and Germans to comply with Hollywood 's Production Code censorship . Early war years Hitchcock 's films were diverse during the 1940s , ranging from the romantic comedy Mr. & Mrs. Smith ( 1941 ) , to the courtroom drama The Paradine Case ( 1947 ) , to the dark and disturbing film noir Shadow of a Doubt ( 1943 ) . In September 1940 the Hitchcocks bought the 200 acre Cornwall Ranch near Scotts Valley in the Santa Cruz Mountains . The ranch became the holiday home of the Hitchcocks . Their primary residence was an English-style home in Bel Air which was purchased in 1942 . Suspicion ( 1941 ) marks Hitchcock 's first film as a producer as well as director . It is set in England , and Hitchcock used the north coast of Santa Cruz , California for the English coastline sequence . This film is the first of four projects on which Cary Grant worked with Hitchcock , and it is one of the rare occasions that Grant was cast in a sinister role . Joan Fontaine won Best Actress Oscar for her performance . Grant plays an irresponsible English con man whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety in his shy young English wife ( Fontaine ) . In one scene Hitchcock uses a lightbulb to illuminate what might be a fatal glass of milk that Grant is bringing to his wife . The character that Grant plays in the film is a killer in the book the film is based on , Before the Fact by Francis Iles , but Hitchcock and the studio felt that Grant 's image would be tarnished by that . So instead Hitchcock settled for an ambiguous finale , though , as he stated to François Truffaut , a murder would have suited him better . Saboteur ( 1942 ) is the first of two films that Hitchcock made for Universal during the decade . Hitchcock was forced to use Universal contract player Robert Cummings and Priscilla Lane ( a freelancer who signed a one-picture deal with Universal ) , both known for their work in comedies and light dramas . Breaking with Hollywood conventions of the time , Hitchcock did extensive location filming , especially in New York City , and depicted a confrontation between a suspected saboteur ( Cummings ) and a real saboteur ( Norman Lloyd ) atop the Statue of Liberty . That year , he also directed Have You Heard ? , a photographic dramatisation of the dangers of rumours during wartime , for Life magazine . Shadow of a Doubt ( 1943 ) was Hitchcock 's personal favourite of all his films and the second of the early Universal films . It is about young Charlotte `` Charlie '' Newton ( Teresa Wright ) , who suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Oakley ( Joseph Cotten ) of being a serial murderer . Hitchcock again filmed extensively on location , this time in the Northern California city of Santa Rosa during the summer of 1942 . The director showcased his personal fascination with crime and criminals when he had two of his characters discuss various ways of killing people , to the obvious annoyance of Charlotte . Working at 20th Century Fox , Hitchcock adapted a script of John Steinbeck 's , which recorded the experiences of the survivors of a German U-boat attack in the film Lifeboat ( 1944 ) . The action sequences were shot in a small boat in the studio water tank . The locale posed problems for Hitchcock 's traditional cameo appearance . That was solved by having Hitchcock 's image appear in a newspaper that William Bendix is reading in the boat , showing the director in a before-and-after advertisement for `` Reduco-Obesity Slayer '' . While at Fox Hitchcock seriously considered directing the film version of A. J. Cronin 's novel about a Catholic priest in China , The Keys of the Kingdom , but the plans for this fell through . John M. Stahl ended up directing the 1944 film , which was produced by Joseph L. Mankiewicz and starred Gregory Peck . Wartime non-fiction films Hitchcock returned to the UK for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944 . While there he made two short films for the British Ministry of Information : Bon Voyage and Aventure Malgache . The two British propaganda films made for the Free French were the only films that Hitchcock made in the French language , and they `` feature typical Hitchcockian touches '' . On his motivation for making the films , Hitchcock stated : `` I felt the need to make a little contribution to the war effort , and I was both overweight and over-age for military service . I knew that if I did nothing , I 'd regret it for the rest of my life . '' From late June to late July 1945 , Hitchcock served as `` treatment advisor '' on a Holocaust documentary which used footage provided by the Allied Forces . It was produced by Sidney Bernstein of the British Ministry of Information , and was assembled in London . Bernstein brought his future 1948–49 production partner Hitchcock on board as a consultant for the film editing process for the British Ministry of Information and the American Office of War Information . The film-makers were commissioned to provide irrefutable evidence of the Nazis ' crimes , and the film recorded the liberation of Nazi concentration camps . It was transferred in 1952 from the British War Office film vaults to London 's Imperial War Museum and remained unreleased until 1985 , when an edited version was broadcast as an episode of the PBS network series Frontline under the title which the Imperial War Museum had given it : Memory of the Camps . The full-length version of the film German Concentration Camps Factual Survey was completed in 2014 , and was restored by film scholars at the Imperial War Museum . Later Selznick films Hitchcock worked for Selznick again when he directed Spellbound ( 1945 ) , which explores psychoanalysis and features a dream sequence designed by Salvador Dalí . Gregory Peck plays amnesiac Dr. Anthony Edwardes under the treatment of analyst Dr. Peterson ( Ingrid Bergman ) , who falls in love with him while trying to unlock his repressed past . The dream sequence as it appears in the film is ten minutes shorter than was originally envisioned , having been edited by Selznick to make it `` play '' more effectively . Two point-of-view shots were achieved by building a large wooden hand ( which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took ) and out-sized props for it to hold : a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun . For added novelty and impact , the climactic gunshot was hand-coloured red on some copies of the black-and-white film . The original musical score by Miklós Rózsa makes use of the theremin , and some of it was later adapted by the composer into a concert piano concerto . Notorious ( 1946 ) followed Spellbound . Hitchcock gave a book-length interview to François Truffaut , in which he said that Selznick had sold the director , the two stars ( Grant and Bergman ) , and the screenplay ( by Ben Hecht ) to RKO Radio Pictures as a `` package '' for $ 500,000 due to cost overruns on Selznick 's Duel in the Sun ( 1946 ) . Notorious stars Hitchcock regulars Ingrid Bergman and Cary Grant , and features a plot about Nazis , uranium and South America . His prescient use of uranium as a plot device led to Hitchcock 's being briefly under FBI surveillance . McGilligan writes that Hitchcock consulted Dr. Robert Millikan of Caltech about the development of an atomic bomb . Selznick complained that the notion was `` science fiction '' , only to be confronted by the news stories of the detonation of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in August 1945 . His last film under his contract with Selznick was The Paradine Case ( 1947 ) , a courtroom drama which critics thought lost momentum because it apparently ran too long and exhausted its resource of ideas . Sidney Bernstein and Transatlantic Pictures Hitchcock formed an independent production company with his friend Sidney Bernstein called Transatlantic Pictures , through which he made two films , his first in colour and making use of long takes . With Rope ( 1948 ) , Hitchcock experimented with marshaling suspense in a confined environment , as he had done earlier with Lifeboat ( 1944 ) . The film appears to have been shot in a single take , but it was actually shot in 10 takes ranging from 4-½ to 10 minutes each , a 10-minute length of film being the maximum that a camera 's film magazine could hold at the time . Some transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment . Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut , and began the next take with the camera in the same place . It features James Stewart in the leading role , and was the first of four films that Stewart made with Hitchcock . It was inspired by the Leopold and Loeb case of the 1920s . Under Capricorn ( 1949 ) , set in 19th century Australia , also uses the short-lived technique of long takes , but to a more limited extent . He again used Technicolor in this production , then returned to black-and-white films for several years . Transatlantic Pictures became inactive after these two unsuccessful films . But Hitchcock continued to produce his own films for the rest of his life . 1950s : Peak years Hitchcock filmed Stage Fright ( 1950 ) at studios in Elstree , England where he had worked during his British International Pictures contract many years before . He matched one of Warner Bros. ' most popular stars , Jane Wyman , with the expatriate German actress Marlene Dietrich and used several prominent British actors , including Michael Wilding , Richard Todd and Alastair Sim . This was Hitchcock 's first proper production for Warner Bros. , which had distributed Rope and Under Capricorn , because Transatlantic Pictures was experiencing financial difficulties . His film Strangers on a Train ( 1951 ) was based on

qw_5867--Alfred_Hitchcock.txt

"What is the setting for the Alfred Hitchcock film ""The Birds""?"

A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent political entities that shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government . Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government , Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside . State citizenship and residency are flexible , and no government approval is required to move between states , except for persons covered by certain types of court orders ( e.g. , paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody ) . States range in population from just under 600,000 ( Wyoming ) to over 38 million ( California ) , and in area from ( Rhode Island ) to ( Alaska ) . Four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names . States are divided into counties or county-equivalents , which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign . County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state . State governments are allocated power by the people ( of each respective state ) through their individual constitutions . All are grounded in republican principles , and each provides for a government , consisting of three branches : executive , legislative , and judicial . States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution ; among them ratifying constitutional amendments . Historically , the tasks of local law enforcement , public education , public health , regulating intrastate commerce , and local transportation and infrastructure have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities , although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well . Over time , the U.S. Constitution has been amended , and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed . The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation , with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did . There is a continuing debate over states ' rights , which concerns the extent and nature of the states ' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals . States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress , a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives . Each state is represented by two Senators , and at least one Representative , while additional representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census . Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College , the body that elects the President of the United States , equal to the total of Representatives and Senators from that state . The Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union . Since the establishment of the United States in 1776 , the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50 . Alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted , both in 1959 . The Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to secede ( withdraw from ) from the Union . Shortly after the Civil War , the U.S. Supreme Court , in Texas v. White , held that a state can not unilaterally do so . States of the United States The 50 U.S. states ( in alphabetical order ) , along with state flag and date each joined the union : Governments As each state is itself a sovereign entity , it reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way ( within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution ) deemed appropriate by its people . As a result , while the governments of the various states share many similar features , they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance . No two state governments are identical . Constitutions The government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution . Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborate than their federal counterpart . The Constitution of Alabama , for example , contains 310,296 words — more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution . In practice , each state has adopted a three-branch system of government , modeled after the federal government , and consisting of three branches ( although the three-branch structure is not required ) : executive , legislative , and judicial . Executive In each state , the chief executive is called the governor , who serves as both head of state and head of government . The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature , as well as push for the passage of bills supported by the party of the Governor . In 43 states , governors have line item veto power . Most states have a `` plural executive '' in which two or more members of the executive branch are elected directly by the people . Such additional elected officials serve as members of the executive branch , but are not beholden to the governor and the governor can not dismiss them . For example , the attorney general is elected , rather than appointed , in 43 of the 50 U.S. states . Legislative The legislatures of 49 of the 50 states are made up of two chambers : a lower house ( termed the House of Representatives , State Assembly , General Assembly or House of Delegates ) and a smaller upper house , always termed the Senate . The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature , which is composed of only a single chamber . Most states have part-time legislatures , while six of the most populated states have full-time legislatures . However , several states with high population have short legislative sessions , including Texas and Florida . In Baker v. Carr ( 1962 ) and Reynolds v. Sims ( 1964 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation ( the one person , one vote standard ) . In practice , most states choose to elect legislators from single-member districts , each of which has approximately the same population . Some states , such as Maryland and Vermont , divide the state into single- and multi-member districts , in which case multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations , e.g. , a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one . If the governor vetoes legislation , all legislatures may override it , usually , but not always , requiring a two-thirds majority . In 2013 , there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies . They earned from $ 0 annually ( New Mexico ) to $ 90,526 ( California ) . There were various per diem and mileage compensation . Judicial States can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary , as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process . Most have a trial level court , generally called a District Court or Superior Court , a first-level appellate court , generally called a Court of Appeal ( or Appeals ) , and a Supreme Court . However , Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals . In New York State the trial court is called the Supreme Court ; appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court 's Appellate Division , and from there to the Court of Appeals . Most states base their legal system on English common law ( with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations ) , with the notable exception of Louisiana , a former French colony , which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law . Only a few states choose to have the judges on the state 's courts serve for life terms . In most of the states the judges , including the justices of the highest court in the state , are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years , and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment . Relationships Among states Each state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on an equal footing with the original States in all respects . With the growth of states ' rights advocacy during the antebellum period , the Supreme Court asserted , in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan ( 1845 ) , that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality . Under Article Four of the United States Constitution , which outlines the relationship between the states , each state is required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other 's legislatures and courts , which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts and criminal judgments , and before 1865 , slavery status . Regardless of the Full Faith and Credit Clause , some legal arrangements , such as professional licensure and marriages , may be state-specific , and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states . Such legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice of comity . States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights , under the Privileges and Immunities Clause . Under the Extradition Clause , a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of `` treason , felony , or other crimes '' in another state if the other state so demands . The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state . With the consent of Congress , states may enter into interstate compacts , agreements between two or more states . Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource , such as transportation infrastructure or water rights . With the federal government Every state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles , such as the consent of the governed . This guarantee has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government . States are also guaranteed protection from invasion , and , upon the application of the state legislature ( or executive , if the legislature can not be convened ) , from domestic violence . This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot , but was not invoked . Since the early 20th century , the Supreme Court has interpreted the Commerce Clause of the Constitution of the United States to allow greatly expanded scope of federal power over time , at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states ' matters . The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says , `` On the whole , especially after the mid-1880s , the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power . '' In Wickard v. Filburn , the court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern . For example , Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines , but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state , based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce . In recent years , the Court has tried to place limits on the Commerce Clause in such cases as United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison . Another example of congressional power is its spending power—the ability of Congress to impose taxes and distribute the resulting revenue back to the states ( subject to conditions set by Congress ) . An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways , which include the Interstate Highway System . The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government , and also serves the interests of the states . By threatening to withhold federal highway funds , Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass a variety of laws . An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21 , enacted by each state , brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act . Although some objected that this infringes on states ' rights , the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution 's Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole . Admission into the Union Article IV , Section 3 , Clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union . Since the establishment of the United States in 1776 , the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50 . Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states . It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress . This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still had Western land claims ( there were 4 in 1787 ) , to have a veto over whether their western counties could become states , and has served this same function since , whenever a proposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress . Most of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 have been created from organized territories established and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV , Section 3 , Clause 2 . The outline for this process was established by the Northwest Ordinance ( 1787 ) , which predates the ratification of the Constitution . In some cases , an entire territory has become a state ; in others some part of a territory has . When the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government , Congress may pass an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step towards admission to the Union . Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers . Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice , a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted . Upon acceptance of that constitution , and upon meeting any additional Congressional stipulations , Congress has always admitted that territory as a state . In addition to the original 13 , six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government , or part of one , before being admitted to the Union . Three were set off from an already existing state , two entered the Union after having been sovereign states , and one was established from unorganized territory : * California , 1850 , from land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . * Kentucky , 1792 , from Virginia ( District of Kentucky : Fayette , Jefferson , and Lincoln counties ) Michael P. Riccards , `` Lincoln and the Political Question : The Creation of the State of West Virginia '' Presidential Studies Quarterly , Vol . 27 , 1997 [ http : //www.questia.com/PM.qst ? a o & d=5000522904 online edition ] * Maine , 1820 , from Massachusetts ( District of Maine ) * Texas , 1845 , previously the Republic of Texas * Vermont , 1791 , previously the Vermont Republic ( also known as the New Hampshire Grants and claimed by New York ) * West Virginia , 1863 , from Virginia ( Trans-Allegheny region counties ) during the Civil War Congress is under no obligation to admit states , even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood . Such has been the case numerous times during the nation 's history . In one instance , Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849 . It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress . In another , leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes ( Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw , Creek , and Seminole ) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905 , as a means to retain control of their lands . The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress . Instead , the Indian Territory , along with Oklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907 . The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation . The State of Franklin existed for several years , not long after the end of the American Revolution , but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress , which ultimately recognized North Carolina 's claim of sovereignty over the area . The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory , and ultimately the state of Tennessee . Additionally , the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors . Among them , Michigan Territory , which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835 , was not admitted to the Union until 1837 , due to a boundary dispute the adjoining state of Ohio . The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837 , but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years . Also , statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years ( 1854–61 ) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions . Possible new states Puerto Rico Puerto Rico referred to itself as the `` Commonwealth of Puerto Rico '' in the English version of its constitution , and as `` Estado Libre Asociado '' ( literally , Associated Free State ) in the Spanish version . As with any non-state territory of the United States , its residents do not have voting representation in the federal government . Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. Congress in the form of a Resident Commissioner , a delegate with limited voting rights in the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union , and no voting rights otherwise . A non-binding referendum on statehood , independence , or a new option for an associated territory ( different from the current status ) was held on November 6 , 2012 . Sixty one percent ( 61 % ) of voters chose the statehood option , while one third of the ballots were submitted blank . On December 11 , 2012 , the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico , held on November 6 , 2012 , to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State . Washington , D.C . The intention of the Founding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site , not giving favor to any existing state ; as a result , the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as the seat of government . The inhabitants of the District do not have full representation in Congress or a sovereign elected government ( they were allotted presidential electors by the 23rd amendment , and have a non-voting delegate in Congress ) . Some residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction—either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part , with the remainder remaining under federal jurisdiction . Others Various proposals to divide California , usually involving splitting the south half from the north or the urban coastline from the rest of the state , have been advanced since the 1850s . Similarly , numerous proposals to divide New York , all of which involve to some degree the separation of New York City from the rest of the state , have been promoted over the past several decades . The partitioning of either state is , at the present , highly unlikely . Other even less likely possible new states are Guam and the Virgin Islands , both of which are unincorporated organized territories of the United States . Also , either the Northern Mariana Islands or American Samoa , an unorganized , unincorporated territory , could seek statehood . Secession from the Union The Constitution is silent on the issue of the secession of a state from the union . However , its predecessor document , the Articles of Confederation , stated that the United States `` shall be perpetual . '' The question of whether or not individual states held the right to unilateral secession remained a difficult and divisive one until the American Civil War . In 1860 and 1861 , eleven southern states seceded , but following their defeat in the American Civil War were brought back into the Union during the Reconstruction Era . The federal government never recognized the secession of any of the rebellious states . Following the Civil War , the United States Supreme Court , in Texas v. White , held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void . Drawing on the Preamble to the Constitution , which states that the Constitution was intended to `` form a more perfect union '' and speaks of the people of the United States in effect as a single body politic , as well as the language of the Articles of Confederation , the Supreme Court maintained that states did not have a right to secede . However , the court 's reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring `` through revolution , or through consent of the States , '' essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union . Commonwealths Four states—Kentucky , Massachusetts , Pennsylvania , and Virginia —adopted Constitutions early in their post-colonial existence identifying themselves as commonwealths , rather than states . These commonwealths are states , but legally , each is a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution . As a result , `` commonwealth '' is used in all public and other state writings , actions or activities within their bounds . The term , which refers to a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people , was first used in Virginia during the Interregnum , the 1649–60 period between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II during which parliament 's Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector established a republican government known as the Commonwealth of England . Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660 , and the word was dropped from the full title . When Virginia adopted its first constitution on June 29 , 1776 , it was reintroduced . Pennsylvania followed suit when it drew up a constitution later that year , as did Massachusetts , in 1780 , and Kentucky , in 1792 . The U.S. territories of the Northern Marianas and Puerto Rico are also referred to as commonwealths . This designation does have a legal status different from that of the 50 states . Both of these commonwealths are unincorporated territories of the United States . Origins of states ' names The 50 states have taken their names from a wide variety of languages . Twenty-four state names originate from Native American languages . Of these , eight are from Algonquian languages , seven are from Siouan languages , three are from Iroquoian languages , one is from Uto-Aztecan languages and five others are from other indigenous languages . Hawaii 's name is derived from the Polynesian Hawaiian language . Of the remaining names , 22 are from European languages : Seven from Latin ( mainly Latinized forms of English names ) , the rest are from English , Spanish and French . Eleven states are named after individual people , including seven named for royalty and one named after an American president . The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed . Several of the states that derive their names from ( corrupted ) names used for Native peoples , have retained the plural ending of `` s '' . Geography Borders The borders of the 13 original states were largely determined by colonial charters . Their western boundaries were subsequently modified as the states ceded their western land claims to the Federal government during the 1780s and 1790s . Many state borders beyond those of the original 13 were set by Congress as it created territories , divided them , and over time , created states within them . Territorial and new state lines often followed various geographic features ( such as rivers or mountain range peaks ) , and were influenced by settlement or transportation patterns . At various times , national borders with territories formerly controlled by other countries ( British North America , New France , New Spain including Spanish Florida , and Russian America ) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states . In the West , relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail , due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River . Once established , most state borders have , with few exceptions , been generally stable . Only two states , Missouri ( Platte Purchase ) and Nevada , grew appreciably after statehood . Several of the original states ceded land , over a several year period , to the Federal government , which in turn became the Northwest Territory , Southwest Territory , and Mississippi Territory . In 1791 Maryland and Virginia ceded land to create the District of Columbia ( Virginia 's portion was returned in 1847 ) . In 1850 , Texas ceded a large swath of land to the federal government . Additionally , Massachusetts and Virginia ( on two occasions ) , have lost land , in each instance to form a new state . There have been numerous other minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys , resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions , or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes . Occasionally the United States Congress or the United States Supreme Court have settled state border disputes . One notable example is the case New Jersey v. New York , in which New Jersey won roughly 90 % of Ellis Island from New York in 1998 . Regional grouping States may be grouped in regions ; there are endless variations and possible groupings . Many are defined in law or regulations by the federal government . For example , the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions , with nine divisions . The Census Bureau region definition is `` widely used … for data collection and analysis , '' '' The National Energy Modeling System : An Overview 2003 '' ( Report # : DOE/EIA-0581 , October 2009 ) . United States Department of Energy , Energy Information Administration . and is the most commonly used classification system . Other multi-state regions are unofficial , and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines .

jp_3497--U.S._state.txt

What U.S. state has the most coastline?

Oh ! What a Lovely War is a 1969 musical film directed by Richard Attenborough ( in his directorial debut ) , with an ensemble cast including Maggie Smith , Dirk Bogarde , John Gielgud , John Mills , Kenneth More , Laurence Olivier , Jack Hawkins , Corin Redgrave , Michael Redgrave , Vanessa Redgrave , Ralph Richardson , Ian Holm , Paul Shelley , Malcolm McFee , Jean-Pierre Cassel , Nanette Newman , Edward Fox , Susannah York , John Clements , Phyllis Calvert and Maurice Roëves . The film is based on the stage musical Oh , What a Lovely War ! , originated by Charles Chilton as a radio play , The Long Long Trail in December 1961 , and transferred to stage by Gerry Raffles in partnership with Joan Littlewood and her Theatre Workshop in 1963 . The title is derived from the music hall song Oh ! It 's a Lovely War , which is one of the major numbers in the film . Synopsis Oh ! What A Lovely War summarises and comments on the events of the First World War using popular songs of the time , many of which were parodies of older popular songs , and using allegorical settings such as Brighton 's West Pier to criticise the manner in which the eventual victory was won . The diplomatic manoeuvrings and events involving those in authority are set in a fantasy location inside the pierhead pavilion , far from the trenches . In the opening scene various Foreign Ministers , generals and Heads of State walk over a huge map of Europe , reciting actual words spoken by these figures at the time . An unnamed photographer takes a picture of Europe 's rulers – after handing two red poppies to the Archduke Ferdinand and his wife , the Duchess of Hohenberg , he takes their picture , 'assassinating ' them as the flash goes off . Many of the heads of state enjoy good personal relations and are reluctant to go to war : a tearful Emperor Franz Josef declares war on Serbia after being deceived by his Foreign Minister , whilst Czar Nicholas II and Kaiser Wilhelm II are shown as unable to overrule their countries ' military mobilisation schedules . The German invasion of Belgium leaves Sir Edward Grey little choice but to get involved . Italy reneges on her alliance with the Central Powers ( she joined the Allies in 1915 ) but Turkey joins them instead . The start of the war in 1914 is shown as a parade of optimism . The protagonists are an archetypal British family of the time , the Smiths , who are shown entering Brighton 's West Pier , with General Haig selling tickets – the film later follows the young Smith men through their experiences in the trenches . A military band rouses holidaymakers from the beach to rally round and follow – some even literally boarding a bandwagon . The first Battle of Mons is similarly cheerfully depicted yet more realistic in portrayal . Both scenes are flooded in pleasant sunshine . When the casualties start to mount , a theatre audience is rallied by singing `` Are We Downhearted ? No ! '' A chorus line dressed in frilled yellow dresses , recruits a volunteer army with `` We do n't want to lose you , but we think you ought to go '' . A music hall star ( Maggie Smith ) then enters a lone spotlight , and lures the still doubtful young men in the audience into `` taking the King 's Shilling '' by singing about how every day she 'walks out ' with different men in uniform , and that `` On Saturday I 'm willing , if you 'll only take the shilling , to make a man of any one of you . '' The young men take to the stage and are quickly moved offstage and into military life , and the initially alluring music hall singer is depicted on close-up as a coarse , over-made-up harridan . The red poppy crops up again as a symbol of impending death , often being handed to a soldier about to be sent to die . These scenes are juxtaposed with the pavilion , now housing the top military brass . There is a scoreboard ( a dominant motif in the original theatre production ) showing the loss of life and 'yards gained ' . Outside , Sylvia Pankhurst ( Vanessa Redgrave ) is shown addressing a hostile crowd on the futility of war , upbraiding them for believing everything they read in the newspapers . She is met with catcalls and jeered off her podium . 1915 is depicted as darkly contrasting in tone . Many shots of a parade of wounded men illustrate an endless stream of grim , hopeless faces . Black humour among these soldiers has now replaced the enthusiasm of the early days . `` There 's a Long , Long Trail a-Winding '' captures the new mood of despair , depicting soldiers filing along in torrential rain in miserable conditions . Red poppies provide the only bright colour in these scenes . In a scene of British soldiers drinking in an estaminet , a chanteuse ( Pia Colombo ) leads them in a jolly chorus of `` The Moon Shines Bright on Charlie Chaplin '' , a reworking of an American song then shifts the mood back to darker tone by singing a soft and sombre version of `` Adieu la vie '' . At the end of the year , amidst more manoeuvres in the pavilion , General ( later Field Marshal ) Douglas Haig replaces Field Marshal Sir John French as Commander-in-Chief of the British Forces . Haig is then mocked by Australian troops who see him inspecting British soldiers ; they sing `` They were only playing Leapfrog '' to the tune of `` John Brown '' . An interfaith religious service is held in a ruined abbey . A priest tells the gathered soldiers that each religion has endorsed the war by way of allowing soldiers to eat pork if Jewish , meat on Fridays if Catholic , and work through the sabbath if in service of the war for all religions . He also says the Dalai Lama has blessed the war effort . 1916 passes and the film 's tone darkens again . The songs contain contrasting tones of wistfulness , stoicism , and resignation ; including `` The Bells of Hell Go Ting-a-ling-a-ling '' , `` If The Sergeant Steals Your Rum , Never Mind '' and `` Hanging on the Old Barbed Wire '' . The wounded are laid out in ranks at the field station , a stark contrast to the healthy rows of young men who entered the War . The camera often lingers on Harry Smith 's silently suffering face . The Americans arrive , but are shown only in the 'disconnected reality ' of the pavilion , interrupting the deliberations of the British generals by singing `` Over There '' with the changed final line : `` And we wo n't come back – we 'll be buried over there ! '' The resolute-looking American captain seizes the map from an astonished Haig . Jack notices with disgust that after three years of fighting , he is literally back where he started , at Mons . As the Armistice is sounding , Jack is the last one to die . There is a splash of red which at first glance appears to be blood , but which turns out to be yet another poppy out of focus in the foreground . Jack 's spirit wanders through the battlefield , and he eventually finds himself in the room where the elder statesmen of Europe are drafting the coming peace - but they are oblivious to his presence . Jack finally finds himself on a tranquil hillside , where he joins his friends for a lie down on the grass , where their figures morph into crosses . The film closes with a long slow pan out that ends in a dizzying aerial view of countless soldiers ' graves , as the voices of the dead sing `` We 'll Never Tell Them '' ( a parody of the Jerome Kern song `` They Did n't Believe Me '' ) . Cast ( in credits order ) Smith family * Wendy Allnutt as Flo Smith * Colin Farrell ( not to be confused with the later-born Irish actor of the same name ) as Harry Smith * Malcolm McFee as Freddie Smith * John Rae as Grandpa Smith * Corin Redgrave as Bertie Smith * Maurice Roëves as George Smith * Paul Shelley as Jack Smith * Kim Smith as Dickie Smith * Angela Thorne as Betty Smith * Mary Wimbush as Mary Smith At the time , the Beatles were also interested in making an anti-war film . At Bertrand Russell ’ s suggestion Paul McCartney met with the producer Len Deighton to discuss the opportunity of the band portraying the Smith family although in the end it was not possible to arrange . Also starring * Vincent Ball as Australian Soldier * Pia Colombo as Estaminet Singer * Paul Daneman as Czar Nicholas II * Isabel Dean as Sir John French 's Lady * Christian Doermer as Fritz * Robert Flemyng as Staff Officer in Gassed Trench * Meriel Forbes as Lady Grey * Ian Holm as President Poincaré * David Lodge as Recruiting Sergeant * Joe Melia as the Photographer * Guy Middleton as Sir William Robertson * Juliet Mills as Nurse * Nanette Newman as Nurse * Cecil Parker as Sir John * Natasha Parry as Sir William Robertson 's Lady * Gerald Sim as Chaplain * Thorley Walters as Staff Officer in Ballroom * Anthzony Ainley as Third Aide * Michael Bates as Drunk Lance Corporal * Fanny Carby as Mill Girl * Cecilia Darby as Sir Henry Wilson 's Lady * Geoffrey Davies as Aide * Edward Fox as Aide * George Ghent as Heckler * Peter Gilmore as Private Burgess * Ben Howard as Private Garbett * Norman Jones as Scottish Soldier * Paddy Joyce as Irish Soldier * Angus Lennie as Scottish Soldier * Harry Locke as Heckler * Clifford Mollison as Heckler * Derek Newark as Shooting Gallery Proprietor * John Owens as Seamus Moore * Ron Pember as Corporal at Station * Dorothy Reynolds as Heckler * Norman Shelley as Staff Officer in Ballroom * Marianne Stone as Mill Girl * John Trigger as Officer at Station * Kathleen Wileman as Emma Smith at Age 4 * Penelope Allen as Solo Chorus Girl * Maurice Arthur as Soldier Singer * Freddie Ascott as 'Whizzbang ' Soldier * Dinny Jones as Chorus Girl * Carole Gray as Chorus Girl * Bernard Jarvis as the whistling blowing soldier in the trench Guest stars * Dirk Bogarde as Stephen * Phyllis Calvert as Lady Haig * Jean-Pierre Cassel as French Colonel * John Clements as General von Moltke * John Gielgud as Count Leopold Berchtold * Jack Hawkins as Emperor Franz Josef I * Kenneth More as Kaiser Wilhelm II * Laurence Olivier as Field Marshal Sir John French * Michael Redgrave as Sir Henry Wilson ( incorrectly shown as a full General , a rank he did not achieve until late 1917 ) * Vanessa Redgrave as Sylvia Pankhurst * Ralph Richardson as Sir Edward Grey * Maggie Smith as Music Hall Star * Susannah York as Eleanor * John Mills as General ( later Field Marshal ) Sir Douglas Haig Production The producers were the novelist Len Deighton , photographer Brian Duffy , and Richard Attenborough , who was making his directorial debut . The Deighton Duffy production company had produced the film adaptation of Deighton ’ s Only When I Larf starring Richard Attenborough . Deighton wrote the screenplay for Oh ! What a Lovely War and the opening title sequence was created by Len Deighton 's lifelong friend Raymond Hawkey , the designer responsible for many of Deighton 's book covers in the 1960s . In an attempt to shame other people whom he thought were claiming credit for things they had n't actually done , Deighton decided not to be listed in the film credits , a gesture he later described as `` stupid and infantile '' . The 1969 film transferred the mise en scène completely into the cinematic domain , with elaborate sequences shot at West Pier , Brighton , elsewhere in Brighton and on the South Downs , interspersed with motifs from the stage production . These included the 'cricket ' scoreboards showing the number of dead , but Deighton did not use the pierrot costumes . However , as many critics , including Pauline Kael , noted , the treatment diminished the effect of the numbers of deaths , which appear only fleetingly . Nonetheless , Deighton ’ s final sequence , ending in a helicopter shot of thousands of war graves is regarded as one of the most memorable moments of the film . According to Attenborough , sixteen thousand white crosses had to be hammered into individually dug holes due to the hardness of the soil . Although this is effective in symbolising the scale of death , the number of crosses was in fact less than the number of deaths in a single battle . The film was shot in the summer of 1968 in Sussex , mostly in the Brighton area . Many of the extras were local folk , but a great many were students from the University of Sussex , Falmer , on the outskirts of the city . The film 's locations included the West Pier ( now virtually demolished ) , Ditchling Beacon , Sheepcote Valley ( the trench sequences ) , Old Bayham Abbey , near Frant ( the church parade ) , Brighton station and Ovingdean ( where hundreds of crosses were erected for the classic finale ) . The song The song was written by J.P. Long and Maurice Scott in 1917 and was part of the repertoire of music hall star and male impersonator Ella Shields . The first verse and the chorus follow : Up to your waist in water , Up to your eyes in slush – Using the kind of language , That makes the sergeant blush ; Who would n't join the army ? That 's what we all inquire , Do n't we pity the poor civilians sitting beside the fire . Chorus Oh ! Oh ! Oh ! it 's a lovely war , Who would n't be a soldier eh ? Oh ! It 's a shame to take the pay . As soon as reveille is gone We feel just as heavy as lead , But we never get up till the sergeant brings Our breakfast up to bed Oh ! Oh ! Oh ! it 's a lovely war , What do we want with eggs and ham When we 've got plum and apple jam ? Form fours ! Right turn ! How shall we spend the money we earn ? Oh ! Oh ! Oh ! it 's a lovely war . Two pre-musical renditions , one from 1918 , can be found at Firstworldwar.com . Almost all of the songs featured in the film also appear on the CD41 album series Oh ! It 's A Lovely War ( four volumes ) . Box office It was the 16th most popular film at the UK box office in 1969 . Awards * Golden Globe , Best Cinematography ( Gerry Turpin ) 1969 * BAFTA Film Award , Best Art Direction ( Donald M. Ashton ) 1970 * BAFTA Film Award , Best Cinematography ( Gerry Turpin ) 1970 * BAFTA Film Award , Best Costume Design ( Anthony Mendleson ) 1970 * BAFTA Film Award , Best Sound Track ( Don Challis and Simon Kaye ) 1970 * BAFTA Film Award , Best Supporting Actor ( Laurence Olivier ) 1970 References in popular culture * BBC Radio 4 's 15 Minute Musical portrayed Tony Blair 's premiership in the style of Oh ! What a Lovely War in a September 2006 episode entitled `` Oh ! What a Lovely Blair '' * James Rado , one of the original writers and creators of Hair stated that `` what a Lovely War '' was what made him want to work on a musical dealing with war at a Google Talks event . * The song The Bells of Hell Go Ting-a-ling-a-ling was used as the play-out music for Ned Sherrin 's 1964 BBC-TV show Not So Much a Programme , More a Way of Life . * Babyshambles named their live album `` oh what a lovely tour '' after this film . Notes =

sfq_6704--Oh!_What_a_Lovely_War.txt

Which 1969 film, based on a stage musical, marked the directorial debut of Richard Attenborough?

The Brontës ( , commonly ) were a nineteenth-century literary family associated with the village of Haworth in the West Riding of Yorkshire , England . The sisters , Charlotte ( 1816–1855 ) , Emily ( 1818–1848 ) , and Anne ( 1820–1849 ) , are well known as poets and novelists . Like many contemporary female writers , they originally published their poems and novels under male pseudonyms : Currer , Ellis , and Acton Bell . Their stories immediately attracted attention , although not always the best , for their passion and originality . Charlotte 's Jane Eyre was the first to know success , while Emily 's Wuthering Heights , Anne 's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall and other works were later to be accepted as masterpieces of literature . The three sisters and their brother , Branwell , were very close and during childhood developed their imaginations first through oral storytelling and play set in an intricate imaginary world , and then through the collaborative writing of increasingly complex stories set therein . The deaths of first their mother , and then of their two older sisters marked them profoundly and influenced their writing , as did the relative isolation in which they were raised . Their home , the parsonage at Haworth in Yorkshire , now the Brontë Parsonage Museum , has become a place of pilgrimage for hundreds of thousands of visitors each year . Origin of the name The Brontë family can be traced to the Irish clan Ó Pronntaigh , which literally means `` son of Pronntach '' . They were a family of hereditary scribes and literary men in Fermanagh . The version Ó Proinntigh , which was first given by Father Woulfe in his Sloinnte Gaedheal is Gall ( Surnames of the Gael and the Foreigner ) and reproduced without question by MacLysaght inter alia can not be accepted as correct , as there were a number of well-known scribes with this name writing in Irish in the 17th and 18th centuries and all of them used the spelling Ó Pronntaigh . The name is derived from the word pronntach or bronntach , which is related to the word bronnadh , meaning giving or bestowal ( pronn is given as an Ulster version of bronn in O'Reilly 's Irish English Dictionary . ) Father Woulfe , the author of Sloinnte Gaedheal is Gall , suggested that it derives from proinnteach ( a refectory of a monastery ) . Ó Pronntaigh was earlier anglicised as Prunty and sometimes Brunty . At some point , the father of the sisters , Patrick Brontë ( born Brunty ) , decided on the alternative spelling with the diaeresis over the terminal e to indicate that the name has two syllables . It is not known for certain what motivated him to do so , and multiple theories exist to account for the change . He may have wished to hide his humble origins . As a man of letters , he would have been familiar with classical Greek and may have chosen the name after the Greek βροντή ( `` thunder '' ) . One view , put forward by the biographer C. K. Shorter in 1896 , is that he adapted his name to associate himself with Admiral Horatio Nelson , who was also Duke of Bronte . Evidence for this may be found in his desire to associate himself with the Duke of Wellington in his form of dress . Members of the Brontë family Patrick Brontë Patrick Brontë ( 17 March 1777 – 7 June 1861 ) , was born in Loughbrickland , County Down , Ireland , of a family of farm workers of moderate means . [ http : //www.haworth-village.org.uk/brontes/patrick/patrick.asp Patrick Bronte biography , Haworth Village ] His birth name was Patrick Prunty or Brunty . His mother Alice McClory , was of the Roman Catholic faith , whilst his father Hugh was a Protestant , and Patrick was brought up in his father 's faith . He eventually became the Church of England perpetual curate of the parish of Haworth , and was also a poet , writer , and polemicist . An Anglican priest of Irish extraction , he was born on St Patrick 's Day , 17 March 1777 . He was a bright young man and after being taught by the Rev . Thomas Tighe , he won a scholarship to St John 's College , Cambridge , where he studied divinity and ancient and modern history . Attending Cambridge may have made him think his name was too Irish , and he changed its spelling to Brontë , perhaps in honour of Horatio Nelson who held the title of Duke of Bronte , whom Patrick admired . However , a more likely reason may have been that his brother was 'on the run ' from the British for his involvement with the United Irishmen and he wanted to distance himself from the name Prunty . Having obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree , he was ordained on 10 August 1806 . He is the author of Cottage Poems ( 1811 ) , The Rural Minstrel ( 1814 ) , numerous pamphlets and newspaper articles , and various rural poems . In 1812 , he met and married 29-year-old Maria Branwell and by 1820 had moved into the parsonage at Haworth where he took up the post of Perpetual curate ( Haworth was an ancient chapelry in the large parish of Bradford , so he could not be rector or vicar . ) They had six children . On the death of his wife in 1821 , his sister in law , Elizabeth Branwell , came from Penzance , Cornwall to help him bring up the children . Open , intelligent , generous , and personally taking care of their education , he bought all the books and toys the children asked for and accorded them great freedom and unconditional love , but nevertheless embittered their lives due to his eccentric habits and peculiar theories of education . After several unlucky attempts to seek a new spouse , Patrick came to terms with widowhood at the age of 47 , and spent his time visiting the sick and the poor , giving sermons , communion , and extreme unction , leaving the three sisters Emily , Charlotte , Anne , and their brother Branwell alone with their aunt and a maid , Tabitha Aykroyd ( Tabby ) , who tirelessly recounted local legends in her Yorkshire dialect while preparing the meals . He survived his entire family , and six years after Charlotte 's death he died in 1861 at the age of 84 . At the end he was helped by his son-in-law , the Rev . Arthur Bell Nicholls . Maria , née Branwell Patrick 's wife Maria Brontë , née Branwell , ( 15 April 1783 – 15 September 1821 ) , originated from Penzance , Cornwall and came from a comfortably well off middle-class family . Her father had a flourishing tea and grocery store and had accumulated considerable wealth . Maria died at the age of 38 from uterine cancer . She married the same day as her younger sister Charlotte , in the church at Guiseley , after her fiancé had celebrated the union of two other couples . She was a literate and pious woman , known for her lively spirit , joyfulness and tenderness , and it was she who designed the samplers that are on display in the museum , and had them embroidered by her children . She left memories with her husband and with Charlotte , the oldest surviving sibling , of a very vivacious woman at the parsonage . The younger ones , particularly Emily and Anne , admitted to retaining only vague images of their mother , especially of her suffering in her sickbed . Elizabeth Branwell Elizabeth Branwell ( 2 December 1776 – 29 October 1842 ) arrived from Penzance in 1821 , aged 45 , after the death of Maria , her younger sister , to help Patrick look after the children , and was known as 'Aunt Branwell ' . Elizabeth Branwell , who raised the children after the death of their mother , was a Methodist . It seems , nevertheless , that her denomination did not exert any influence on the children . It was Aunt Branwell who taught the children arithmetic , the alphabet , how to sew , embroidery and cross-stitching appropriate for ladies . Aunt Branwell also gave them books and subscribed to Fraser 's Magazine , less interesting than Blackwood 's , but , nevertheless , providing plenty of material for discussion . She was a generous person who dedicated her life to her nieces and nephew , neither marrying nor returning to visit her relations in Cornwall . She died from bowel obstruction on October 1842 , after a brief agony , comforted by her beloved nephew Branwell . In her last will , Aunt Branwell , left to her three nieces the considerable sum of £900 , which allowed them to stop their previous , low paid jobs as governesses and teachers . The children Maria , the eldest , was born in Clough House , High Town on 23 April 1814 . She suffered hunger , cold , and privation at Cowan Bridge School . Charlotte describes her as very lively , very sensitive , and particularly advanced in her reading . She returned from school with an advanced case of tuberculosis , and died at Haworth at the age of eleven on 6 May 1825 . Elizabeth ( 1815–1825 ) , the second child , joined her sister Maria at Cowan Bridge where she suffered the same fate . Elizabeth was less vivacious than her brother and her sisters , and apparently less advanced for her age . She died on 15 June 1825 within two weeks of returning home to her father . Charlotte , born in Thornton near Bradford , West Riding of Yorkshire on 21 April 1816 , was a poet and novelist and is the author of Jane Eyre , her best known work , and three other novels . She died on 31 March 1855 just before reaching the age of 39 . Patrick Branwell was born in Thornton on 26 June 1817 . Known as Branwell , he was a painter , writer and casual worker . He became addicted to alcohol and laudanum and died at Haworth on 24 September 1848 at the age of 31 . Emily Jane , born in Thornton , 30 July 1818 , was a poet and novelist . She died in Haworth on 19 December 1848 at the age of 30 . Wuthering Heights was her only novel . Anne , born in Thornton on 17 January 1820 , was a poet and novelist who died at the age of 29 . She wrote a largely autobiographical novel entitled Agnes Grey . Her second novel , The Tenant of Wildfell Hall ( 1848 ) , was far more ambitious . She died on 28 May 1849 in Scarborough , North Riding of Yorkshire . Education Early education Patrick Brontë faced a challenge in arranging for the education of the girls of his family , which was barely middle class . They had no significant connections and he could not afford the fees for them to attend an established school for young ladies . One solution was the schools where the fees were reduced to a minimum – so called `` charity schools '' – with a mission to assist families such as those of the lower clergy . One can not accuse Mr. Brontë of not having done everything possible to find a solution that he thought would be best for his daughters . As Barker comments , he had read in the Leeds Intelligencer of 6 November 1823 the reports of cases in the Court of Commons in Bowes , and he later read other cases decided on 24 November 1824 near Richmond , two towns in the county of Yorkshire , where pupils had been discovered gnawed by rats , and suffering from malnutrition to the extent that some of them had lost their sight . There was nothing to suggest that the Reverend Carus Wilson 's Clergy Daughters ' School would not provide a good education and good care for his daughters . The school was not expensive , and its patrons ( supporters who allowed the school to use their names ) were all respected people , including the daughter of Hannah Moore , an author of recognised works and a close friend of the poet William Cowper , both proponents of a correct education for young girls ; and the offspring of different prelates and even certain acquaintances of Patrick Brontë including William Wilberforce , young women whose fathers had also been educated at St John 's College , Cambridge . Thus Brontë believed Wilson 's school to have a number of the necessary guarantees . Cowan Bridge School In 1824 , the four eldest girls ( excluding Anne ) entered the Clergy Daughters ' School at Cowan Bridge , which educated the children of less prosperous members of the clergy , which had been recommended to Mr Brontë . The following year , Maria and Elizabeth fell gravely ill and were removed from the school , but died shortly afterwards within a few weeks of each other on 6 May and 15 June 1825 . Charlotte and Emily were also withdrawn from the school and returned to Haworth . The loss of their sisters was a trauma that showed in Charlotte 's writing . In Jane Eyre , Cowan Bridge becomes Lowood , Maria is represented by the character of the young Helen Burns , the cruelty of the mistress Miss Andrews by that of Miss Scatcherd , and the tyranny of the headmaster , the Rev . Carus Wilson , by that of Mr Brocklehurst . Tuberculosis , which afflicted Maria and Elizabeth in 1825 , was the eventual cause of death of the surviving Brontës : Branwell in September 1848 , Emily in December 1848 , Anne eight months later in May 1849 , and finally Charlotte in 1855 . Miss Wooler 's school In 1831 , 14-year-old Charlotte was enrolled at the school of Miss Wooler in Roe Head , Mirfield . Patrick could have sent his daughter to a less costly school in Keighley nearer home but Miss Wooler and her sisters had a good reputation and he remembered the building which he passed when strolling around the parishes of Kirklees , Dewsbury , and Hartshead-cum-Clifton where he was vicar . Margaret Wooler showed fondness towards the sisters and she accompanied Charlotte to the altar at her marriage . Patrick 's choice of school was excellent – Charlotte was happy there and studied well . She made many lifelong friends , in particular Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor who later went to New Zealand before returning to England . Charlotte returned from Roe Head in June 1832 , missing her friends , but happy to rejoin her family . Three years later , Miss Wooler offered her former pupil a position as her assistant . The family decided that Emily would accompany her to pursue studies that would otherwise have been unaffordable . Emily 's fees were partly covered by Charlotte 's salary . Emily was 17 and it was the first time she had left Haworth since leaving Cowan Bridge . On 29 July 1835 , the sisters left for Roe Head . The same day , Branwell wrote a letter to the Royal Academy of Art in London , to present several of his drawings as part of his candidature as a probationary student . Charlotte taught , and wrote about her students without much sympathy . Emily did not settle and after three months she seemed to decline and had to be taken home to the parsonage . Anne took her place and stayed until Christmas 1837 . Charlotte avoided boredom by following the development of Angria which she received in letters from her brother . During holidays at Haworth , she wrote long narratives while being reproached by her father who wanted her to become more involved in parish affairs . These were coming to a head over the imposition of the Church rates , a local tax levied on parishes where the majority of the population were dissenters . In the meantime , Miss Wooler moved to Heald 's House , at Dewsbury Moor , where Charlotte complained about the humidity that made her unwell . Upon leaving the establishment in 1838 Miss Wooler presented her with a parting gift of The Vision of Don Roderick and Rokeby , a collection of poems by Walter Scott . Literary evolution The children became interested in writing from an early age , initially as a game which later matured into a passion . Although they all displayed a talent for narrative , it was the younger ones whose pastime it became to develop them . At the centre of the children 's creativity were twelve wooden soldiers which Patrick Brontë gave to Branwell at the beginning of June 1826 . These toy soldiers instantly fired their imaginations and they spoke of them as the Young Men , and gave them names . However , it was not until December 1827 that their ideas took written form , and the imaginary African kingdom of Glass Town came into existence , followed by the Empire of Angria . Emily and Anne created Gondal , an island continuent in the North Pacific , ruled by a woman , after the departure of Charlotte in 1831 . In the beginning , these stories were written in little books , the size of a matchbox , and cursorily bound with thread . The pages were filled with close , minute writing , often in capital letters without punctuation and embellished with illustrations , detailed maps , schemes , landscapes , and plans of buildings , created by the children according to their specialisations . The idea was that the books were of a size for the soldiers to read . The complexity of the stories matured as the children 's imaginations developed , fed by reading the three weekly or monthly magazines to which their father had subscribed , or the newspapers that were bought daily from John Greenwood 's local news and stationery store . Literary and artistic influence These fictional worlds were the product of fertile imagination fed by reading , discussion , and a passion for literature . Far from suffering from the negative influences that never left them and which were reflected in the works of their later , more mature years , the Brontë children absorbed them with open arms . The press The periodicals that Patrick Brontë read were a mine of information for his children . The Leeds Intelligencer and Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine , conservative and well written , but better than the Quarterly Review that defended the same political ideas whilst addressing a less refined readership ( the reason Mr. Brontë did not read it ) , were exploited in every detail . Blackwood 's Magazine in particular , was not only the source of their knowledge of world affairs , but also provided material for the Brontës ' early writing . For instance , an article in the June , 1826 number of Blackwood ’ s , provides commentary on new discoveries from the exploration of central Africa . The map included with the article highlights geographical features the Brontës reference in their tales : the Jibbel Kumera ( the Mountains of the Moon ) , Ashantee , and the rivers Niger and Calabar . The author also advises the British to expand into Africa from Fernando Po , where , Christine Alexander notes , the Brontë children locate the Great Glass Town . Their knowledge of geography was completed by Goldsmith 's Grammar of General Geography , which the Brontës owned and heavily annotated . Lord Byron From 1833 , Charlotte and Branwell 's Angrian tales begin to feature Byronic heroes who have a strong sexual magnetism and passionate spirit , and demonstrate arrogance and even black-heartedness . Again , it is in an article in Blackwood 's Magazine from August 1825 that they discover the poet for the first time ; he had died the previous year . From this moment , the name Byron became synonymous with all the prohibitions and audacities as if it had stirred up the very essence of the rise of those forbidden things . Branwell 's Charlotte Zamorna , one of the heroes of Verdopolis , tends towards increasingly ambiguous behaviour , and the same influence and evolution recur with the Brontës , especially in the characters of Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights , and Mr. Rochester in Jane Eyre , who display the traits of a Byronic hero . Numerous other works have left their mark on the Brontës—the Thousand and One Nights for example , which inspired jinn in which they became themselves in the centre of their kingdoms , while adding a touch of exoticism . John Martin The children 's imagination was also influenced by three prints of engravings in mezzotint by John Martin around 1820 . Charlotte and Branwell made copies of the prints Belshazzar 's Feast , Déluge , and Joshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon ( 1816 ) , which hung on the walls of the parsonage . Martin 's fantastic architecture is reflected in the Glass Town and Angrian writings , where he appears himself among Branwell 's characters and under the name of Edward de Lisle , the greatest painter and portraitist of Verdopolis , the capital of Glass Town . One of Sir Edward de Lisle 's major works , Les Quatre Genii en Conseil , is inspired by Martin 's illustration for John Milton 's Paradise Lost . Together with Byron , John Martin seems to have been one of the artistic influences essential to the Brontës ' universe . Anne 's morals and realism The influence revealed by Agnes Grey and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is much less clear . Anne 's works are largely founded on her experience as a governess and on that of her brother 's decline . Furthermore , they demonstrate her conviction , a legacy from her father , that books should provide moral education . This sense of moral duty and the need to record it , are more evident in The Tenant of Wildfell Hall . The influence of the gothic novels of Ann Radcliffe , Horace Walpole , Gregory `` Monk '' Lewis and Charles Maturin is noticeable , and that of Walter Scott too , if only because the heroine , abandoned and left alone , resists not only by her almost supernatural talents , but mainly due to the power drawn from her temperament . Jane Eyre , Agnes Grey , then The Tenant of Wildfell Hall , Shirley , Villette and even The Professor present a linear structure concerning a character who advances through life after several trials and tribulations , to find a kind of happiness in love and virtue , recalling the works of religious inspiration of the 17th century such as John Bunyan 's Pilgrim 's Progress or his Grace abounding to the Chief of Sinners . In a more profane manner , the hero or heroine follows a picaresque itinerary such as in Miguel de Cervantes ( 1547–16 ) , Daniel Defoe ( 1660–1731 ) , Henry Fielding ( 1707–1764 ) and Tobias Smollett ( 1721–1771 ) . This lively tradition continued into the 19th century with the rags to riches genre to which almost all the great Victorian romancers have contributed . The protagonist is thrown by fate into poverty and after many difficulties achieves a golden happiness . Often an artifice is employed to effect the passage from one state to another such as an unexpected inheritance , a miraculous gift , grand reunions , etc.See Oliver Twist , David Copperfield , Great Expectations , just to mention Charles Dickens and in a sense , it is the route followed by Charlotte 's and Anne 's protagonists , even if the riches they win are more those of the heart than of the wallet . Apart from its Gothic elements , Wuthering Heights moves like a Greek tragedy and possesses its music , the cosmic dimensions of the epics of John Milton , and the power of the Shakespearian theatre . One can hear the echoes of King Lear as well as the completely different characters of Romeo and Juliet . The Brontës were also seduced by the writings of Walter Scott , and in 1834 Charlotte exclaimed , `` For fiction , read Walter Scott and only him – all novels after his are without value . '' Governesses , and Charlotte 's idea Early teaching opportunities Through their father 's influence and their own intellectual curiosity , they were able to benefit from an education that placed them among knowledgeable people , but Mr Brontë 's emoluments were modest . The only options open to the girls were either marriage or a choice between the professions of school mistress or governess . The Brontë sisters found positions in families educating often rebellious young children , or employment as school teachers . The possibility of becoming a paid companion to a rich and solitary woman might have been a fall-back role but one which would have bored any of the sisters intolerably . Janet Todd 's Mary Wollstonecraft , a revolutionary life mentions the predicament , and none of the Brontë girls seems seriously to have considered a similar eventuality . Only Emily never became a governess . Her sole professional experience would be an experiment in teaching during six months of intolerable exile in Miss Patchett 's school at Law Hill ( between Haworth and Halifax ) . In contrast , Charlotte had teaching positions at Miss Margaret Wooler 's school , and in Brussels with the Hegers . She became governess to the Sidgwicks , the Stonegappes , and the Lotherdales where she worked for several months in 1839 , then with Mrs White , at Upperhouse House , Rawdon , from March to September 1841 . Anne became a governess and worked for Mrs Ingham , at Blake Hall , Mirfield from April to December 1839 , then for Mrs Robinson at Thorp Green Hall , Little Ouseburn , near York , where she also obtained employment for her brother in an attempt to stabilise him ; an attempt that proved futile . Working as governesses The family 's finances did not flourish , and Aunt Branwell spent the money with caution . Emily had a visceral need of her home and the countryside that surrounded it , and to leave it would cause her to languish and wither.which had happened whenever she left Haworth for any length of time such as at Miss Wooler 's school , or when teaching in Law Hill , and during her stay in Brussels . Charlotte and Anne , being more realistic , did not hesitate in finding work and from April 1839 to December 1841 the two sisters had several posts as governesses . Not staying long with each family , their employment would last for some months or a single season . However , Anne did stay with the Robinsons in Thorp Green where things went well , from May 1840 to June 1845 . In the meantime , Charlotte had an idea that would place all the advantages on her side . On advice from her father and friends , she thought that she and her sisters had the intellectual capacity to create a school for young girls in the parsonage where their Sunday School classes took place . It was agreed to offer the future pupils the opportunity of correctly learning modern languages and that preparation for this should be done abroad , which led to a further decision . Among the possibilities Paris and Lille were considered , but were rejected due to aversion to the French . Indeed , the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars had not been forgotten by the Tory spirited and deeply conservative girls . On the recommendation of a pastor based in Brussels , who wanted to be of help , Belgium was chosen , where they could also study German , and music . Aunt Branwell provided the funds for the Brussels project . School project and study trip to Brussels Charlotte 's and Emily 's journey to Brussels Emily and Charlotte arrived in Brussels in February 1842 accompanied by their father . Once there , they enrolled at Monsieur and Madame Heger 's boarding school

odql_14620--Brontë_family.txt

What was the first name of the father of the Bronte sisters?

The Neva ( , ) is a river in northwestern Russia flowing from Lake Ladoga through the western part of Leningrad Oblast ( historical region of Ingria ) to the Neva Bay of the Gulf of Finland . Despite its modest length of 74 km , it is the third largest river in Europe in terms of average discharge ( after the Volga and the Danube ) . The Neva is the only river flowing from Lake Ladoga . It flows through the city of Saint Petersburg , three smaller towns of Shlisselburg , Kirovsk and Otradnoye , and dozens of settlements . The river is navigable throughout and is part of the Volga–Baltic Waterway and White Sea – Baltic Canal . It is a site of numerous major historical events , including the Battle of the Neva in 1240 which gave Alexander Nevsky his name , the founding of Saint Petersburg in 1703 , and the Siege of Leningrad by the German army during World War II . Etymology There are at least three versions of the origin of the name Neva : from the ancient Finnish name of Lake Ladoga ( meaning sea ) , from the ( short from ) meaning swamp , or from the – new river . Modern names for the distributaries of the river delta were settled only by the end of the 18th century . Description History of the delta In the Paleozoic , 300–400 million years ago , the entire territory of the modern delta of the Neva River was covered by a sea . Modern relief was formed as a result of glacier activity . Its retreat formed the Littorina Sea , the water level of which was some 7 to higher than the present level of the Baltic Sea . Then , the Tosna River was flowing in the modern bed of the Neva , from east to west into the Litorinal Sea . In the north of the Karelian Isthmus , the Littorina Sea united by a wide strait with Lake Ladoga . The Mga River then flowed to the east , into Lake Ladoga , near the modern source of the Neva River ; the Mga then was separated from the basin of the Tosna . Near the modern Lake Ladoga , land rose faster , and a closed reservoir was formed . Its water level began to rise , eventually flooded the valley of Mga and broke into the valley of the river Tosna . The Ivanovo rapids of the modern Neva were created in the breakthrough area . So about 2000 BC the Neva was created with its tributaries Tosna and Mga . According to some newer data , it happened at 1410–1250 BC making the Neva a rather young river . The valley of Neva is formed by glacial and post-glacial sediments and it did not change much over the past 2500 years . The delta of Neva was formed at that time , which is actually pseudodelta , as it was formed not by accumulation of river material but by plunging into the past sediments.St . Petersburg : Encyclopedia . – Moscow : Russian Political Encyclopedia . 2006 ISBN 5-8110-0107-X Topography and hydrography The Neva flows out of Lake Ladoga near Shlisselburg , flows through the Neva Lowland and discharges into the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland . It has a length of 74 km , and the shortest distance from the source to the mouth is 45 km . The river banks are low and steep , on average about 3 to and 2 to at the mouth . There are three sharp turns : the Ivanovskye rapids , at Nevsky Forest Park of the Ust-Slavyanka region ( the so-called crooked knee ) and near the Smolny Institute , below the mouth of the river Ohta . The river declines in elevation between source and mouth . At one point the river crosses a moraine ridge and forms the Ivanovskye rapids . There , at the beginning of the rapids , is the narrowest part of the river : 210 m. The average flow rate in the rapids is about . The average width along the river is 400 to . The widest places , at 1000 to , are in the delta , near the gates of the marine trading port , at the end of the Ivanovskye rapids near the confluence of the river Tosna , and near the island Fabrinchny near the source . The average depth is 8 to ; the maximum of 24 m is reached above the Liteyny Bridge , and the minimum of is in Ivanovskye rapids . In the area of Neva basin , rainfall greatly exceeds evaporation ; the latter accounts for only 37.7 percent of the water consumption from Neva and the remaining 62.3 percent is water runoff . Since 1859 , the largest volume of 116 km3 was observed in 1924 and the lowest in 1900 at . The average annual discharge is or 2500 m3/s on average . Because of the uniform water-flow from Lake Ladoga to the Neva over the whole year , there are almost no floods and corresponding water rise in the spring . The Neva freezes throughout from early December to early April . The ice thickness is within Saint Petersburg and in other areas . Ice congestion may form in winter in the upper reaches of the river , this sometimes causes upstream floods . Of the total ice volume of Lake Ladoga , , less than 5 percent enters the Neva . The average summer water temperature is 17 to , and the swimming season lasts only about 1.5 months . The water is fresh , with medium turbidity ; the average salinity is 61.3 mg/L and the calcium bicarbonate content is 7 mg/L . Basin , tributaries and distributaries The basin area of Neva is 5,000 km² , including the pools of Lake Ladoga and Onega ( 281,000 km² ) . The basin contains 26,300 lakes and has a complex hydrological network of more than 48,300 rivers , however only 26 flow directly into Neva . The main tributaries are Mga , Tosna , Izhora , Slavyanka and Murzinka on the left , and Okhta and Chernaya River on the right side of Neva . The hydrological network had been altered by the development of St. Petersburg through its entire history . When it was founded in 1703 , the area was low and swampy and required construction of canals and ponds for drainage . The earth excavated during their construction was used to raise the city . At the end of 19th century , the delta of Neva consisted of 48 rivers and canals and 101 islands . The most significant distributaries of the delta are listed in the table . Before construction of the Obvodny Canal , the left tributary of that area was Volkovka River ; its part at the confluence is now called Monastyrka River . The Ladoga Canal starts at the root of Neva and connects it along the southern coast of Lake Ladoga with Volkhov River . Some canals of the delta were filled over time , so that only 42 islands remained by 1972 , all within the city limits of St. Petersburg . The largest islands are Vasilievsky at 1050 ha , Petrogradsky at 570 ha , Krestovsky at 420 ha , and Dekabristov at 410 ha ; others include Zayachy , Yelagin and Kamenny Islands . At the source of the Neva , near Shlisselburg , there are the two small islands of Orekhovy and Fabrichny . Island Glavryba lies up the river , above the town of Otradnoye . Flora and fauna There is almost no aquatic vegetation in Neva . The river banks mostly consist of sand , podsol , gleysols , peat and boggy peat soils . Several centuries ago , the whole territory of the Neva lowland was covered by pine and spruce mossy forests . They were gradually reduced by the fires and cutting for technical needs . Extensive damage was caused during World War II : in St. Petersburg , the forests were reduced completely , and in the upper reaches down to 40 to 50 percent.Darinskii , A. V. ( 1975 ) [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id DgYFAAAAMAAJ Ленинградская область ( Leningrad oblast ) ] . Lenizdat , pp . 48–49 Forest were replanted after the war with spruce , pine , cedar , Siberian larch , oak , Norway maple , elm , America , ash , apple tree , mountain ash and other species . The shrubs include barberry , lilac , jasmine , hazel , honeysuckle , hawthorn , rose hip , viburnum , juniper , elder , shadbush and many others . Nowadays , the upper regions of the river are dominated by birch and pine-birch grass-shrub forests and in the middle regions there are swampy pine forests . In St. Petersburg , along the Neva , there are many gardens and parks , including the Summer Garden , Field of Mars , Rumyantsev , Smolny , Alexander Gardens , Garden of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra and many others.Историко-географический атлас « Ленинград » [ Historical atlas `` Leningrad '' ] . Moscow : GUGK CM USSR , 1977 Because of the rapid flow , cold water and lack of quiet pools and aquatic vegetation the diversity of fish species in Neva is small . Permanent residents include such undemanding to environment species as perch , ruffe and roaches . Many fish species are transitory , of which commercial value have smelt , vendace and partly salmon . Floods Floods in St. Petersburg are usually caused by the overflow of the delta of Neva and by surging water in the eastern part of Neva Bay . They are registered when the water rises above 160 cm with respect to a gauge at the Mining Institute . More than 300 floods occurred after the city was founded in 1703 . Three of them were catastrophic : on 7 November 1824 , when water rose to 421 cm ; on 23 September 1924 when it reached 369 cm , and 10 September 1777 when it rose to 321 cm . However , a much larger flood of 760 cm was described in 1691 . [ http : //www.nevariver.ru/flood_list.php ПОЛНЫЙ ХРОНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК НАВОДНЕНИЙ В САНКТ-ПЕТЕРБУРГЕ ( ПЕТРОГРАДЕ , ЛЕНИНГРАДЕ ) ] – a list of floods in St. Petersburg ( in Russian ) . nevariver.ru Besides flooding as a result of tidal waves , in 1903 , 1921 and 1956 floods were caused by the melting of snow . Ecological condition The Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia classifies Neva as a `` heavily polluted '' river . The main pollutants are copper , zinc , manganese , nitrites and nitrogen . The dirtiest tributaries of the Neva are the Mga , Slavyanka , Ohta and Chernaya . Hundreds of factories pour wastewaters into the Neva within St. Petersburg and petroleum is regularly transported along the river . The annual influx of pollutants is 80,000 tonnes , and the heaviest polluters are Power-and-heating Plant 2 ( ) , `` Plastpolymer '' and `` Obukhov State Plant '' . The biggest polluters in the Leningrad Oblast are the cities of Shlisselburg , Kirovsk and Otradnoye , as well as the Kirov thermal power station . More than 40 oil spills are registered on the river every year . In 2008 , the Federal Service of St. Petersburg announced that no beach of Neva is fit for swimming . Cleaning of waste water in St. Petersburg was started in 1979 and by 1997 about 74 % of wastewater was purified . This number rose to 85 % in 2005 , to 91.7 % by 2008 , and is expected to reach 100 % by 2011 with the completion of the expansion of the main sewerage plant . History Before 1700 Many sites of ancient people , up to nine thousand years old , were found within the territory of the Neva basin . It is believed that around twelve thousand years BC , Finno-Ugric peoples ( Votes and Izhorians ) moved to this area from the Ural Mountains . In the 8th and 9th centuries AD , the area was inhabited by the East Slavs who were mainly engaged in slash and burn agriculture , hunting and fishing . From the 8th to 13th centuries , Neva provided a waterway from Scandinavia to the Byzantine Empire . In the 9th century , the area belonged to Veliky Novgorod.Ezhov , V. A . ( 1986 ) [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 7GQdAAAAMAAJ Ленинградская область : исторический очерк ] . ( Leningrad Oblast : a historical sketch , in Russian ) , Lenizdat . Neva is already mentioned in the Life of Alexander Nevsky ( 13th century ) . At that time , Veliky Novgorod was engaged in nearly constant wars with Sweden . A major battle occurred on 15 July 1240 at the confluence of the Izhora and Neva Rivers . The Russian army , led by the 20-year-old Prince Alexander Yaroslavich , aimed to stop the planned Swedish invasion . The Swedish army was defeated ; the prince showed personal courage in combat and received the honorary name of `` Nevsky '' . As a result of the Russian defeat in the Ingrian War of 1610–17 and the concomitant Treaty of Stolbovo , the area of the Neva River became part of Swedish Ingria . Beginning in 1642 , the capital of Ingria was Nyen , a city near the Nyenschantz fortress . Because of financial and religious oppression , much of the Orthodox population left the Neva region , emptying 60 percent of the villages by 1620 . The abandoned areas became populated by people from the Karelian Isthmus and Savonia . Russian period As a result of the Great Northern War of 1700–21 , the valley of Neva River became part of Russian Empire . On 16 May 1703 , the city of St. Petersburg was founded in the mouth of Neva and became capital of Russia in 1712 . Neva became the central part of the city . It was cleaned , intersected with canals and enclosed with embankments . In 1715 , construction began of the first wooden embankment between the Admiralty building and the Summer Garden . In the early 1760s works started to cover it in granite and to build bridges across Neva and its canals and tributaries , such as the Hermitage Bridge . From 1727 to 1916 , the temporary Isaakievsky pontoon bridge was early constructed between the modern Saint Isaac 's Square and Vasilievsky Island . A similar , but much longer Trinity pontoon bridge , which spanned 500 m , was brought from the Summer Garden to Petrogradsky Island . The first permanent bridge across Neva , Blagoveshchensky Bridge , was opened in 1850 , and the second , Liteyny Bridge , came into operation in 1879 . In 1858 , a `` Joint-stock company St. Petersburg water supply '' was established , which built the first water supply network in the city . A two-stage water purification station was constructed in 1911 . The development of the sewerage system began only in 1920 , after the October Revolution , and by 1941 , the sewerage network was 1130 km long . Every winter from 1895 to 1910 , electric tramways were laid on the ice of the river , connecting the Senate Square , Vasilievsky island , Palace Embankment and other parts of the city . The power was supplied through the rails and a top cable supported by wooden piles frozen into the ice . The service was highly successful and ran without major accidents except for a few failures in the top electrical wires . The trams ran at the speed of 20 km/h and could carry 20 passengers per carriage . The carriages were converted from the used horsecars . About 900,000 passengers were transported over a regular season between 20 January and 21 March . The sparking of contacts at the top wires amused spectators in the night . Soviet and modern periods The first concrete bridge across Neva , the Volodarsky Bridge , was built in 1936 . During World War II , from 8 September 1941 to 27 January 1944 Leningrad was in the devastating German Siege . On 30 August 1941 , the German army captured Mga and came to Neva . On 8 September Germans captured Shlisselburg and cut all land communications and waterways to St. Petersburg ( then Leningrad ) . The siege was partly relieved in January 1943 , and ended on 27 January 1944 . A river station was built above the Volodarsky Bridge in 1970 which could accept 10 large ships at a time . Wastewater treatment plants were built in Krasnoselsk in 1978 , on the Belyi Island in 1979–83 , and in Olgino in 1987–94 . The South-West Wastewater Treatment Plant was constructed in 2003–05 . Commercial use Neva has very few shoals and its banks are steep , making the river suited for navigation . Utkino Backwaters were constructed in the late 19th century to park unused ships . Neva is part of the major Volga–Baltic Waterway and White Sea – Baltic Canal , however it has relatively low transport capacity because of its width , depth and bridges . Neva is available for vessels with capacity below 5,000 tonnes . Major transported goods include timber from Arkhangelsk and Vologda ; apatite , granite and diabase from Kola Peninsula ; cast iron and steel from Cherepovets ; coal from Donetsk and Kuznetsk ; pyrite from Ural ; potassium chloride from Solikamsk ; oil from Volga region . There are also many passenger routes to Moscow , Astrakhan , Rostov , Perm , Nizhny Novgorod , Valaam and other destinations . Navigation season on the Neva River runs from late April to November . To the west of Shlisselburg , an oil pipeline runs under the river . The pipeline is part of the Baltic Pipeline System , which provides oil from Timan-Pechora plate , West Siberia , Ural , Kazakhstan and Primorsk to the Gulf of Finland . The 774 m long pipeline lies 7 to below the river bottom and delivers about 42 million tonnes of oil a year . Near the Ladozhsky Bridge there is an underwater tunnel to host a gas pipeline Nord Stream . The tunnel has a diameter of 2 m and a length of 750 m and is laid at a maximum depth of 25 m . Neva is the main source of water ( 96 percent ) of St. Petersburg and its suburbs . From 26 June 2009 , St. Petersburg started processing the drinking water by ultraviolet light , abandoning the use of chlorine for disinfection . Neva also has developed fishery , both commercial and recreational . Bridges Leningrad Oblast : * Ladozhsky Bridge – built in 1981 as a movable multi-span metal bridge on stone piers . * Kuzminskii railway bridge – built in 1940 as a movable three-segment railway bridge . St. Petersburg : * Big Obukhovsky Bridge – built in 2004 as cable-stayed bridge connecting Obukhovsky Defense avenue with Oktyabrskaya Embankment . * Volodarsky Bridge – built in 1936 as a movable concrete bridge connecting Narodnaya and Ivanovo streets . * Finland Railway Bridge – built in 1912 as a movable , metallic , double-segment railway bridge . St. Petersburg , Neva delta * Alexander Nevsky Bridge – built in 1965 as a movable concrete bridge connecting Alexander Nevsky Square and Zanevsky Avenue . * Peter the Great Bridge – built in 1911 as a movable , three-segment , metal bridge connecting the historic center of St. Petersburg with the Malaya Ohta district . * Liteyny Bridge ( formerly the bridge of Alexander II ) – built in 1879 as a movable , six-segment , arch bridge connecting Liteyny Prospekt with Academician Lebedev Str . and Vyborg . * Trinity Bridge ( formerly the Kirov bridge ) – built in 1903 as a five-segment movable metal bridge connecting Suvorov Square , Trinity Square and Kamennoostrovsky Prospekt . * Palace Bridge – built in 1916 as a movable , five-segment , iron bridge . Its opened central span is one the city symbols . Connects Nevsky Prospekt with the Exchange Square and Vasilievsky Island . * Blagoveshchensky Bridge ( formerly the Lieutenant Schmidt Bridge ) – built in 1850 as movable seven-segment iron bridge connecting Labour Square with the 7th Line of Vasilievsky Island . Construction of the Novo-Admiralteisky Bridge , a movable drawbridge across the river , has been approved , but will not commence before 2011 . Attractions Whereas most tourist attractions of Neva are located within St. Petersburg , there are several historical places upstream , in the Leningrad Oblast . They include the fortress Oreshek , which was built in 1323 on the Orekhovy Island at the source of Neva River , south-west of the Petrokrepost Bay , near the city of Shlisselburg . The waterfront of Schlisselburg has a monument of Peter I . [ http : //www.map.infoflot.ru/region_europe/sever_zapad/ladoga/channel/old_new_ladoga/old_new_ladoga.htm Староладожский и Новоладожский каналы ] . infoflot.ru ( in Russian ) In the city , there are Blagoveshchensky Cathedral ( 1764–95 ) and a still functioning Orthodox church of St. Nicholas , built in 1739 . On the river bank stands the Church of the Intercession . Raised in 2007 , it is a wooden replica of a historical church which stood on the southern shore of Lake Onega . That church was constructed in 1708 and it burned down in 1963 . It is believed to be the forerunner of the famous Kizhi Pogost . [ http : //unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0009/000929/092980eo.pdf Ethnographic and open-air museums ] , UNESCO , pp . 170–173 Old Ladoga Canal , built in the first half of the 18th century , is a water transport route along the shore of Lake Ladoga which is connecting the River Volkhov and Neva . Some of its historical structures are preserved , such as a four-chamber granite sluice ( 1836 ) and a bridge ( 1832 ) . Notable incidents On 21 August 1963 a Soviet twinjet Tu-124 airliner performed an emergency water landing on Neva near the Finland Railway Bridge . The plane took off from Tallinn-Ülemiste Airport ( TLL ) at 08:55 on 21 August 1963 with 45 passengers and 7 crew on board and was scheduled to land at Moscow-Vnukovo ( VKO ) . After liftoff , the crew noticed that the nose gear undercarriage did not retract , and the ground control diverted the flight to Leningrad ( LED ) – because of fog at Tallinn . While circling above St. Petersburg at the altitude of at 1650 ft , under unclear circumstances ( lack of fuel was one of the factors ) , both engines stalled . The crew performed emergency landing on the Neva River barely missing some of its bridges and an 1898-built steam tugboat . The tugboat rushed to the plane and towed it to the shore . No casualties were sustained at any stage . The plane captain was first fired from job but then restored and awarded with the Order of the Red Star .

jp_2095--Neva_River.txt

If I sail on the Neva river past the Hermitage Museum, what city am I in?

The Norns ( Old Norse : norn , plural : nornir ) in Norse mythology are female beings who rule the destiny of gods and men . They roughly correspond to other controllers of humans ' destiny , the Fates , elsewhere in European mythology . In Snorri Sturluson 's interpretation of the Völuspá , Urðr ( Wyrd ) , Verðandi and Skuld , the three most important of the Norns , come out from a hall standing at the Well of Urðr or Well of Fate . They draw water from the well and take sand that lies around it , which they pour over Yggdrasill so that its branches will not rot . These three Norns are described as powerful maiden giantesses ( Jotuns ) whose arrival from Jötunheimr ended the golden age of the gods . They may be the same as the maidens of Mögþrasir who are described in Vafþrúðnismál ( see below ) . Beside these three famous Norns , there are many others who appear at a person 's birth in order to determine his or her future . In the pre-Christian Norse societies , Norns were thought to have visited newborn children . There were both malevolent and benevolent Norns : the former caused all the malevolent and tragic events in the world while the latter were kind and protective goddesses . Etymology The origin of the name norn is uncertain , it may derive from a word meaning `` to twine '' and which would refer to their twining the thread of fate . Bek-Pedersen suggests that the word norn has relation to the Swedish dialect word norna ( nyrna ) , a verb that means `` secretly communicate '' . This relates to the perception of norns as shadowy , background figures who only really ever reveal their fateful secrets to men as their fates come to pass . The name Urðr ( Old English Wyrd , Weird ) means `` fate '' . It should be noted that wyrd and urðr are etymological cognates , which does not guarantee that wyrd and urðr share the same semantic quality of `` fate '' over time . Both Urðr and Verðandi are derived from the Old Norse verb verða , `` to be '' . While Urðr derives from the past tense ( `` that which became or happened '' ) , Verðandi derives from the present tense of verða ( `` that which is happening '' ) . Skuld is derived from the Old Norse verb skulla , `` need/ought to be/shall be '' ; its meaning is `` that which should become , or that needs to occur '' . Relation to other Germanic female deities There is no clear distinction between norns , fylgjas , hamingjas and valkyries , nor with the generic term dísir . Moreover , artistic license permitted such terms to be used for mortal women in Old Norse poetry . To quote Snorri Sturluson 's Skáldskaparmál on the various names used for women : Woman is also metaphorically called by the names of the Asynjur or the Valkyrs or Norns or women of supernatural kind . These unclear distinctions among norns and other Germanic female deities are discussed in Bek-Pedersen 's book Norns in old Norse Mythology and in Lionarons article `` Disir , Valkyries , Volur , and Norns : The Weise Frauen of the Deutsche Mythologie '' . Attestations There are a number of surviving Old Norse sources that relate to the norns . The most important sources are the Prose Edda and the Poetic Edda . The latter contains pagan poetry where the norns are frequently referred to , while the former contains , in addition to pagan poetry , retellings , descriptions and commentaries by the 12th and 13th century Icelandic chieftain and scholar Snorri Sturluson . Skaldic poetry A skaldic reference to the norns appears in Hvini 's poem in Ynglingatal 24 found in Ynglingasaga 47 , where King Halfdan is put to rest by his men at Borró . This reference brings in the phrase `` norna dómr '' which means `` judgment of the nornir '' . In most cases , when the norns pass judgment , it means death to those who have been judged - in this case , Halfdan . Along with being associated with being bringers of death , Bek-Pedersen suggests that this phrase brings in a quasi-legal aspect to the nature of the norns . This legal association is employed quite frequently within skaldic and eddic sources . This phrase can also be seen as a threat , as death is the final and inevitable decision that the norns can make with regard to human life . Poetic Edda The Poetic Edda is valuable in representing older material in poetry from which Snorri tapped information in the Prose Edda . Like Gylfaginning , the Poetic Edda mentions the existence of many lesser norns beside the three main norns . Moreover , it also agrees with Gylfaginning by telling that they were of several races and that the dwarven norns were the daughters of Dvalin . It also suggests that the three main norns were giantesses ( female Jotuns ) . Fáfnismál contains a discussion between the hero Sigurd and the dragon Fafnir who is dying from a mortal wound from Sigurd . The hero asks Fafnir of many things , among them the nature of the norns . Fafnir explains that they are many and from several races : It appears from Völuspá and Vafþrúðnismál that the three main norns were not originally goddesses but giantesses ( Jotuns ) , and that their arrival ended the early days of bliss for the gods , but that they come for the good of mankind . Völuspá relates that three giantesses of huge might are reported to have arrived to the gods from Jotunheim : Vafþrúðnismál probably refers to the norns when it talks of maiden giantesses who arrive to protect the people of earth as protective spirits ( hamingjas ) : The Völuspá contains the names of the three main Norns referring to them as maidens like Vafþrúðnismál probably does : Helgakviða Hundingsbana I The norns visited each newly born child to allot his or her future , and in Helgakviða Hundingsbana I , the hero Helgi Hundingsbane has just been born and norns arrive at the homestead : Helgakviða Hundingsbana II In Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , Helgi Hundingsbane blames the norns for the fact that he had to kill Sigrún 's father Högni and brother Bragi in order to wed her : Reginsmál Like Snorri Sturluson stated in Gylfaginning , people 's fate depended on the benevolence or the malevolence of particular norns . In Reginsmál , the water dwelling dwarf Andvari blames his plight on an evil norn , presumably one of the daughters of Dvalin : Sigurðarkviða hin skamma Another instance of Norns being blamed for an undesirable situation appears in Sigurðarkviða hin skamma , where the valkyrie Brynhild blames malevolent norns for her long yearning for the embrace of Sigurd : Guðrúnarkviða II Brynhild 's solution was to have Gunnarr and his brothers , the lords of the Burgundians , kill Sigurd and afterwards to commit suicide in order to join Sigurd in the afterlife . Her brother Atli ( Attila the Hun ) avenged her death by killing the lords of the Burgundians , but since he was married to their sister Guðrún , Atli would soon be killed by her . In Guðrúnarkviða II , the Norns actively enter the series of events by informing Atli in a dream that his wife would kill him . The description of the dream begins with this stanza : Guðrúnarhvöt After having killed both her husband Atli and their sons , Guðrún blames the Norns for her misfortunes , as in Guðrúnarhvöt , where Guðrún talks of trying to escaping the wrath of the norns by trying to kill herself : Hamðismál Guðrúnarhvöt deals with how Guðrún incited her sons to avenge the cruel death of their sister Svanhild . In Hamðismál , her sons ' expedition to the Gothic king Ermanaric to exact vengeance is fateful . Knowing that he is about to die at the hands of the Goths , her son Sörli talks of the cruelty of the norns : Sigrdrífumál Since the norns were beings of ultimate power who were working in the dark , it should be no surprise that they could be referred to in charms , as they are by Sigrdrífa in Sigrdrífumál : Prose Edda In the part of Snorri Sturluson 's Prose Edda which is called Gylfaginning , Gylfi , the king of Sweden , has arrived at Valhalla calling himself Gangleri . There , he receives an education in Norse mythology from what is Odin in the shape of three men . They explain to Gylfi that there are three main norns , but also many others of various races , æsir , elves and dwarves : : A hall stands there , fair , under the ash by the well , and out of that hall come three maids , who are called thus : Urdr , Verdandi , Skuld ; these maids determine the period of men 's lives : we call them Norns ; but there are many norns : those who come to each child that is born , to appoint his life ; these are of the race of the gods , but the second are of the Elf-people , and the third are of the kindred of the dwarves , as it is said here : : :Most sundered in birth : :I say the Norns are ; : :They claim no common kin : : :Some are of Æsir-kin , : :some are of Elf-kind , : :Some are Dvalinn 's daughters . : Then said Gangleri : `` If the Norns determine the weirds of men , then they apportion exceeding unevenly , seeing that some have a pleasant and luxurious life , but others have little worldly goods or fame ; some have long life , others short . '' Hárr said : `` Good norns and of honorable race appoint good life ; but those men that suffer evil fortunes are governed by evil norns . '' The three main norns take water out of the well of Urd and water Yggdrasil : : It is further said that these Norns who dwell by the Well of Urdr take water of the well every day , and with it that clay which lies about the well , and sprinkle it over the Ash , to the end that its limbs shall not wither nor rot ; for that water is so holy that all things which come there into the well become as white as the film which lies within the egg-shell , -- as is here said : : :I know an Ash standing : :called Yggdrasill , : :A high tree sprinkled : :with snow-white clay ; : :Thence come the dews : :in the dale that fall -- : :It stands ever green : :above Urdr 's Well . : That dew which falls from it onto the earth is called by men honey-dew , and thereon are bees nourished . Two fowls are fed in Urdr 's Well : they are called Swans , and from those fowls has come the race of birds which is so called . '' Snorri furthermore informs the reader that the youngest norn , Skuld , is in effect also a valkyrie , taking part in the selection of warriors from the slain : : These are called Valkyrs : them Odin sends to every battle ; they determine men 's feyness and award victory . Gudr and Róta and the youngest Norn , she who is called Skuld , ride ever to take the slain and decide fights . Legendary sagas Some of the legendary sagas also contain references to the norns . The Hervarar saga contains a poem named Hlöðskviða , where the Gothic king Angantýr defeats a Hunnish invasion led by his Hunnish half-brother Hlöðr . Knowing that his sister , the shieldmaiden Hervör , is one of the casualties , Angantýr looks at his dead brother and laments the cruelty of the norns : In younger legendary sagas , such as Norna-Gests þáttr and Hrólfs saga kraka , the norns appear to have been synonymous with völvas ( witches , female shamans ) . In Norna-Gests þáttr , where they arrive at the birth of the hero to shape his destiny , the norns are not described as weaving the web of fate , instead Norna appears to be interchangeable and possibly a synonym of vala ( völva ) . One of the last legendary sagas to be written down , the Hrólfs saga kraka talks of the norns simply as evil witches . When the evil half-elven princess Skuld assembles her army to attack Hrólfr Kraki , it contains in addition to undead warriors , elves and norns . Runic inscription N 351 M The belief in the norns as bringers of both gain and loss would last beyond Christianization , as testifies the runic inscription N 351 M from the Borgund stave church : Þórir carved these runes on the eve of Olaus-mass , when he travelled past here . The norns did both good and evil , great toil ... they created for me . Franks Casket Three women carved on the right panel of Franks Casket , an Anglo-Saxon whalebone chest from the eighth century , have been identified by some scholars as being three norns . Theories A number of theories have been proposed regarding the norns . Matres and Matrones The Germanic Matres and Matrones , female deities venerated in North-West Europe from the 1st to the 5th century AD depicted on votive objects and altars almost entirely in groups of three from the first to the fifth century AD have been proposed as connected with the later Germanic dísir , valkyries , and norns , potentially stemming from them.Simek ( 2007:236 ) . Three norns Theories have been proposed that there is no foundation in Norse mythology for the notion that the three main norns should each be associated exclusively with the past , the present , and the future ; rather , all three represent destiny as it is twined with the flow of time . Moreoever , theories have been proposed that the idea that there are three main norns may be due to a late influence from Greek and Roman mythology , where there are also spinning fate goddesses ( Moirai and Parcae ) . Appearances in media and popular culture Music Viking death metal band Amon Amarth has an album titled Fate of Norns . The band itself has many songs involving Norse mythology . Opera Norns feature in the prologue of Richard Wagner 's opera Götterdämmerung . Television The 1990s Disney TV series Gargoyles features three sisters , referred to by the cast as the `` Weird Sisters '' , that are inferred to be Norns . A norn was featured in the fourth season of Hercules : The Legendary Journeys . After his arrival in the Norselands , the norn tasks Hercules with averting Ragnarok . Since the Fates had already been featured in the series , only a single norn appears , who paints history in a book . In the 2010 series Lost Girl , there was a Norn who could be petitioned to change fate , for a price . Her price was always the one thing her petitioner values most , whether they realize it or not . Comics The Norns appear in Marvel Comics , usually in stories featuring the Norse inspired superhero Thor . The Norns also appear in The Wicked + The Divine , published by Image Comics , written by Kieron Gillen with art by Jamie McKelvie and Matt Wilson . They are incarnated from a trio of journalists , led by Urðr , alongside Verðani and Skuld . Anime and manga The main love interest of Oh My Goddess ! is the Norn Verðandi , rendered as Belldandy . Her elder sister Urðr ( rendered as Urd ) and younger sister Skuld also show up , living with the protagonist Keichii Morisato and their sister Belldandy . Aside from sticking loosely to the theme of Belldandy representing the present , Urd the past and Skuld the future , they are only loosely related to their mythic namesakes in this media . The terminals that Yggdrasil from Digimon created for the New Digital World experiments consisting 3 layers are named Ulud , Versandi , and Skuld which are representing for past , present , and future . Ulud Urðr is a past plain which is a volcanic wasteland , inhabited by Dinosaur type and draconic Digimon . Versandi Verðandi is the `` present '' region which is a world of lush greenery and is home to beast , bird , plant and other nature Digimon . Skuld is the `` future '' region , a high-tech city where machine and insect Digimon inhabit . The three Norns also appear as antagonists in Mythical Detective Loki Ragnarok , along with various other figures from Norse mythology , including Thor , Heimdallr , Freyr , Freyja , Fenrir , Jormungandr , and the eponymous Loki . In the Calibur arc of Sword Art Online , Urðr appears to Kirito 's party and gives them a quest to retrieve the sword Excalibur from Thrymheim before the last beast-type Evil God is killed , restoring Jötunheimr to its former glory . Upon successful completion of this quest , Urðr reappears to Kirito 's party , along with her sisters Verdandi and Skuld . They thank them for completing the quest , and allow them to keep Excalibur . Other figures and elements from Norse mythology also appear in this arc , including Thrym , Freyja , Thor , and Mjölnir . Video games * Final Fantasy XI - as Voidwalker Notorious Monsters ( VNM ) in the Wings of the Goddess expansion . * Guild Wars and Guild Wars 2 * Heroine 's Quest * NetHack * Puzzle & Dragons * Revelations : Persona * Persona 2 : Innocent Sin * Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment * Persona 4 * Tower of Saviors * Too Human

sfq_416--Norns.txt

Who were the Greek equivalents of the Norns of Norse mythology?

Blackadder Goes Forth is the fourth and final series of the BBC sitcom Blackadder , written by Richard Curtis and Ben Elton , which aired from 28 September to 2 November 1989 on BBC One . The series placed the recurring characters of Blackadder , Baldrick and George in a trench in Flanders during World War I , and followed their various doomed attempts to escape from the trenches to avoid certain death under the misguided command of General Melchett . The series is particularly noted for its criticism of the British Army leadership during the campaign , and also refers to a number of famous figures of the age . In addition , the series is remembered for the poignant ending of the final episode . Despite initial concerns that the comedy series might trivialise the events of 1914–1918 , the series won widespread acclaim on its release , and won the British Academy Television Award for Best Comedy Series in 1989 . It has since become regarded as a classic television sitcom , and in 2000 was placed 16th by industry professionals in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute . However , some historians have criticized it for presenting an oversimplified view of the war , reinforcing the popular notion of `` lions led by donkeys '' . Scenario Blackadder Goes Forth is set in 1917 on the Western Front in the trenches of World War I. Captain Edmund Blackadder ( Rowan Atkinson ) is a professional soldier in the British Army who , until the outbreak of the Great War , has enjoyed a relatively action-free existence fighting natives who were usually `` two feet tall and armed with dried grass '' . Finding himself trapped in the trenches with another `` big push '' planned , his concern is to avoid being sent over the top to certain death . The series thus chronicles Blackadder 's attempts to escape the trenches through various schemes , most of which fail due to bad fortune , misunderstandings and the general incompetence of his comrades . The aforementioned comrades are his second-in-command , idealistic upper-class Edwardian twit Lieutenant George ( Hugh Laurie ) and their profoundly stupid but dogged batman Private S. Baldrick ( Tony Robinson ) . Rather than the Germans , who remain generally unseen ( with the exception of `` Private Plane '' , where they are a means to escape the trenches ) , Blackadder 's nemeses come in the form of his superior , the eccentric General Melchett ( Stephen Fry ) who rallies his troops from a French château 35 mi from the front , and Melchett 's bureaucratic assistant , Captain Kevin Darling ( Tim McInnerny ) . Despite the two being of equal rank , Blackadder treats Darling with contempt—while the former is on the front line , the latter is `` folding the general 's pyjamas '' . Their animosity is mutual , largely as a result of Blackadder exploiting the comic potential of Darling 's surname at every opportunity . Themes Blackadder Goes Forth is more satirical in tone than the previous three Blackadder series and most sitcoms , taking the opportunity to present an anti-war message . The dialogue is marked throughout by satirical musings about the nature of the war , its origins and the effects on the soldiers who suffered over its course . The fact that the soldiers suffered whilst their commanders remained safely distant from the action was also referenced on many occasions , such as when Melchett says to Baldrick , `` Do n't you worry my boy , if you should falter , remember that Captain Darling and I are behind you ! `` , to which Blackadder responds , `` Yes , about 35 miles behind ! `` . In the episode `` Corporal Punishment '' , Blackadder justifies the shooting for food of a carrier pigeon ( which turns out to be Melchett 's pet ) by saying , `` With 50,000 men killed a week , who 's going to miss a pigeon ? '' This episode sees Blackadder being sentenced to death by firing squad for the act , reflecting on the harsh punishments dealt to deserters under the laws of war , and the dictatorship of higher ranking officers over those of lower ranking . In `` Private Plane '' , after receiving word that Blackadder and Baldrick may have been killed when shot down over German lines , Melchett tries to cheer George up by showing him a life-size model ( measuring seventeen square feet ) of land recaptured by the British , a commentary on the high human cost and small physical gains achieved by attacks in the middle years of the war . Later in the same episode , Blackadder describes the Great War as : `` a war which would be a damn sight simpler if we just stayed in England and shot fifty thousand of our men a week . '' Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig , whose orders are alleged to have resulted in hundreds of thousands of British deaths at Passchendaele and the Somme , is continually referenced . Blackadder himself describes Haig 's attempts at an advance as no more than `` another gargantuan effort to move his drinks cabinet six inches closer to Berlin '' . In `` Goodbyeee '' , a scene parodies Haig 's professional abilities by depicting the Field Marshal playing with toy soldiers , which he sweeps nonchalantly from trench to trench and then into a rubbish bin , while listening to Blackadder 's plea to get out of the big push on the telephone . The series recalls a number of famous historical events of the war , such as the Christmas truce of 1914 . Blackadder recalls the event : `` Both sides advanced further during one Christmas piss-up than they did in the next two and a half years of war . '' References are also made to the popular culture of the era , as well as the previous series . The episode `` Private Plane '' , sees the return of the characters of Lord Flashheart and Bob from the second series episode `` Bells '' and also an appearance of the famous flying ace Baron von Richthofen . A plot thread in the third episode `` Major Star '' involves Blackadder 's dislike of the silent film star Charlie Chaplin , whom he finds `` as funny as getting an arrow through the neck , and then finding there 's a gas bill tied to it '' . In the fifth episode , the anti-German sentiment in Britain during the war is repeatedly referenced . General Melchett orders Blackadder to find out what is behind the leak in top-secret battle plans and immediately , though erroneously , pins it on a `` German spy '' ( who is later discovered to be inadvertently one of their own ) . Blackadder takes the chance to `` interrogate '' Captain Darling , who vehemently denies being a spy and says that he is `` as British as Queen Victoria '' , to which Blackadder sarcastically replies `` So your father is German , you 're half German and you married a German ? `` . Blackadder 's retort references the fact that Victoria was a member of the House of Hanover and that her husband was a prince from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha . In 1917 , Victoria 's grandson King George V changed the royal house name from Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to Windsor in an effort to appease British nationalist feelings . The final episode of this series , `` Goodbyeee '' , although true to the series ' usual comedy style through most of the preceding scenes , is known for featuring a highly dramatic and extraordinarily poignant final scene , where the main characters ( except General Melchett himself ) are finally sent over the top . To the sound of a slow , minimal and downbeat piano version of the title theme , the four are seen in slow-motion , charging into the fog and smoke of no man 's land , with gunfire and explosions all around , before the scene fades into footage of a sunny poppy field and the sound of birdsong . The fate of the four is left ambiguous . Blackadder 's final line before the charge is also underpinned with an unusually reflective and sentimental tone , offered after Baldrick claims to have one last cunning plan to save them from the impending doom : Episodes The series aired for six episodes broadcast on BBC One on Thursdays at 9.30pm between 28 September and 2 November 1989 , ending nine days before Remembrance Day . The titles of the first five episodes , `` Captain Cook '' , `` Corporal Punishment '' , `` Major Star '' , `` Private Plane '' and `` General Hospital '' are puns based on the pairing of a military rank and another word related to the episode 's content . The final episode , `` Goodbyeee '' , was the title of a period song.Goodbye-ee , Goodbye-ee , Wipe the tear , baby dear , from your eye-ee Tho ' it 's hard to part , I know , I 'll be tickled to death to go , Do n't cry-ee , do n't sigh-ee , There 's a silver lining in the sky-ee ! Bon Soir , old thing ! Cheerio ! Chin-Chin , Nah-Poo , Toodle-oo , Goodbye-ee Production Writing and rehearsals Writers Ben Elton and Richard Curtis wrote the scripts for Blackadder episodes separately using word processors and then swapped the disks containing the scripts for each other to add or remove jokes and dialogue . Curtis recalls that they stuck to a policy whereby if one removed a line for not being funny , then it was never put back . During rehearsals , the script was exhaustively discussed and redrafted by the cast , with Richard Curtis having the final say on the content . Fry , Laurie and Atkinson were comic writers and performers themselves , and having worked together on previous series were not afraid to question the script and make suggestions . For example , Captain Darling was originally called `` Captain Cartwright '' and was renamed when Stephen Fry recalled a boy at his school with the surname `` Darling '' , who had found the name a constant embarrassment . Curtis recalls that he was initially reluctant to change the name , as he considered it a one-off joke . Speaking to The Times about the ending of the show in 1989 , Curtis hinted that the collaborative writing process caused tensions amongst the cast : `` Everybody on the show thinks they can put in good jokes , despite the fact that Ben Elton and I think there are already quite a few good ones in there to start with . It does usually end up funnier , but it 's time to do something over which I have more control . '' Twenty years on , Curtis recalled in the documentary Blackadder Rides Again that : `` They would literally sit around for the entire time discussing the script ... sometimes we would just say to them `` if you stood up and tried to act this script out , you would find out things about it . '' Ben Elton stated that by opening it up , they allowed the cast to question every aspect of the script . During Blackadder Rides Again , Tony Robinson likewise recalls that these script meetings could be uncomfortable , and has been less reserved speaking about the script rehearsals since . In an interview with The Daily Telegraph he suggests that although relations between the actors were generally cordial `` There was bad feeling between the writers and the performers—the writers felt we were unilaterally altering the script and altering it for the worse . At end of the first day of rehearsals the writers would go away and by the time they came back we would have changed an awful lot of it . By the end , they felt we had run away with it . There were quite a lot of emotions flashing around about that . '' Producer John Lloyd , speaking to The Times in 1989 hinted that it was the draining scripting and rehearsal process that led to the writers deciding not to make another series : `` Things do get very tense by the end of a series , because everyone involved in the thing is very clever , and very funny , and they all want to push the scripts along . It 's a very exhausting process , and by the end of it we all swear we 'll never , ever , do another one . But then you start to think how rare it is to get so many good people in the same room and you talk yourself into doing another series . '' Casting Rowan Atkinson and Tony Robinson reprised their roles as Edmund Blackadder and Baldrick respectively . Hugh Laurie also returned to play Lieutenant George . The fourth series enlarged the principal cast from the third series to include Stephen Fry as General Melchett and Tim McInnerny as Captain Kevin Darling , who had both appeared in guest roles in Blackadder the Third and had appeared regularly in Blackadder II . This cast appeared together in every episode of the fourth series , although the only episode to feature no guest appearances was `` Captain Cook '' . Miranda Richardson , who had played Elizabeth I in the second series , appeared in a guest role in one episode ( as she had in the third series ) . In their guest performances , actors such as Rik Mayall and Gabrielle Glaister reprised characters they had played in earlier series . Other performers , such as Bill Wallis and Lee Cornes , who had played minor roles in prior series , appeared briefly again in the fourth series as well . Taping This series of Blackadder was one of the first television programmes in Britain to be made and transmitted with stereo sound , using the NICAM digital system , even though most viewers could only afford , or were only able to receive due to their location , the standard FM mono audio carrier signal . The series was directed by Richard Boden and all interior scenes were shot at BBC Television Centre in front of a live studio audience . Rowan Atkinson recalls that the studio shooting could present him with problems : That sitcom tradition is very strange when you 're performing to both a camera and an audience at the same time ... The thing that sometimes held us up is my stammer . Some words and some phrases did catch me out ... '' B '' s in particular . I remember one episode in which Stephen Fry and Hugh Laurie were going `` woof '' a lot , and my line was `` it 's like Battersea Dogs Home in here '' . The B of Battersea was a problem for me . The floor manager suggested that I say `` Crufts '' instead . Atkinson has said that in the buildup to the final episode , he began to psychologically experience something of his character 's apprehension . Speaking to Michael Parkinson in 2003 , he recalled `` I remember ... in the weeks leading up to the one day recording of that final episode when we went over the top , for the first time in my acting career ... knowing that even though the rest of the episode was its usual standard funny sitcom self , there was this deep twist in my stomach throughout that week thinking along with your character that you were doomed . It was most peculiar . I 'm sure serious character actors feel this all the time ... Obviously if you 're trying to feel the character and his dilemma then you 're going to experience some of the fictional feelings for real . You felt swept along by it . '' Other than the title sequence , the series used little external shooting . To achieve the flying sequences in the episode `` Private Plane '' , footage from the 1976 film Aces High was re-edited and dubbed over with the actors ' voices . The most challenging scene to shoot was the final `` over the top '' sequence , which was recorded in a separate studio set away from the audience which had been rigged with special effects to simulate a battlefield . On viewing the original studio rushes for the 20th anniversary documentary Blackadder Rides Again , John Lloyd recalls that originally the final scene was `` all very embarrassing '' , as the actors only had 15 ft to run before they reached the barbed wire in front of the camera , where they had to pretend to die , an effect described by Atkinson as `` somewhat unconvincing '' . It was only in post-production that the final effect was achieved by running the video and audio in slow motion and fading another video of the empty set over the top to make it appear as if the characters had disappeared . This image of a barren landscape was then faded into a still image of a poppy field found in the BBC Picture Library . Titles and music The theme melody was a variation on the Blackadder theme by Howard Goodall over opening title images of Blackadder and George parading their men past Melchett and Darling , while Baldrick plays the triangle . The title music starts with the opening bars of `` The British Grenadiers '' before segueing into the familiar Blackadder theme . In the closing credits , the full Blackadder theme plays over visuals of armed men marching on a parade ground . The sequences were filmed and recorded on location at the former Colchester Cavalry Barracks , with the production using fifty members of the 3rd Battalion , the Royal Anglian Regiment to represent Blackadder 's men , attired in reproduction First World War uniforms , with the battalion 's band providing the music . The titles are presented as static captions instead of being rolled as in the previous three series . The crew credits are presented in pseudo-military fashion : for example , the designer is credited thus : `` Dgr – 404371 Hull , C '' . The opening sequence is filmed in colour , while the closing sequence was treated in post production to appear grainy , streaky , and sepia toned in imitation of newsreels of the era . `` Goodbyeee '' has no closing titles , simply fading from the protagonists charging across no man 's land under fire , to a field of poppies in the sunlight , a reference to the poem `` In Flanders Fields '' and the flower 's symbolic significance . The music was also changed to a slow , echoey solo piano arrangement , finishing with three strong bass-drum notes , interposed with sound effects of gunshot , and later birdsong . In the 25th anniversary special interview , Richard Curtis stated that the production team had not intended for such an ending and the idea of the scene fading to the poppy field was only conceived after some of the cast stated their reluctance in doing a second take . Reception Subject Emma Hanna , in her book The Great War on the Small Screen , has noted that some contemporary reviewers felt the topic of the First World War to be inappropriate for a comedy series , with one newspaper critic uncertain of the writers ' motives : `` is [ the series ] justified in using tragic situations as a springboard for comedy merely for entertainment value ? `` . Ben Elton 's uncle , the historian Geoffrey Elton , `` was at first most unhappy at what he considered to be an insulting portrayal of the army '' , although it is worth noting `` he later took the view that the satire was drawn with great respect '' . Certainly , the issue of the series ' subject matter was of concern to the producers . Atkinson recalled in an interview with Michael Parkinson that the poignant ending of the final episode was in part written to counter the possibility of criticism that the subject was inappropriate for a comedy , although noted that the public accepted the series for what it was.Rowan Atkinson interview on Parkinson , 29 March 2003 . Available on BBC Worldwide 's [ http : //www.youtube.com/watch ? v -Gr0Fa_QPNU & feature=related YouTube page ] . Speaking during filming in 1989 , he remarked that despite the 20th century setting , the trenches were particularly apt for the Blackadder series : We wanted a place and a time that could reproduce to a certain extent the claustrophobia and the sordidness of medieval England , and the best way to do that is to set it in the middle of a war . Co-writer Richard Curtis has said that before writing the series , the writers read a number of books about the war and decided that the First World War was a particularly apt subject for a situation comedy , finding that `` actually , all the lead up to the first world war was very funny , all the people coming from communities where they 'd never bumped into posh people ... and all being so gung ho and optimistic ... the first hundred pages of any book about the world war are hilarious ; then of course everybody dies . '' Michael Brooke , assessing the series for the British Film Institute , suggests that the characterisation and pervading sense of danger prevented the sitcom from trivialising its subject matter : `` The prospect of its characters suddenly dying a violent death provided a constant source of tension and gags , though when they really were killed off at the end of the final episode ... the result was so unexpectedly moving that the programme was later repeated as part of an otherwise wholly serious BBC2 Armistice Day programme without anyone batting an eyelid . '' Awards The series won the British Academy Television Award for Best Comedy Series in 1989 . In addition , for his performance as Captain Blackadder , Rowan Atkinson won Best Light Entertainment Performance . In 2000 , the series was placed 16th by industry professionals in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute . In 2004 , championed by John Sergeant , the whole Blackadder series came second in the BBC poll to find Britain 's Best Sitcom with 282,106 votes . Legacy Academics have noted that the television series has become a pervasive view of the war in the public 's perception of World War I , with Max Hastings calling the common British view of the war `` the Blackadder take on history . '' Military historian Richard Holmes commented in his book The Western Front : `` Blackadder 's aphorisms have become fact ... A well turned line of script can sometimes carry more weight than all the scholarly footnotes in the world . '' Stephen Badsey , analysing trends in television programmes about the war remarked that Blackadder Goes Forth as a popular comedy series was subject to particular criticism from historians , remarking that the series `` consciously traded on every cliche and misremembered piece of history about the Western Front , and was influential enough to draw a surprising degree of angry criticism from professional historians as a result . '' Esther MacCallum-Stewart of Sussex University noted in her essay `` Television Docu-Drama and The First World War '' that `` Blackadder Goes Forth is used as a teaching aid in schools ; not as a secondary text that should be analysed and discussed for its own reliability , but as a truthful parody of the conditions of the First World War . '' Media releases Blackadder Goes Forth is available on a variety of BBC Worldwide-distributed DVD and VHS video releases , either as an individual series or as part of a boxset with the other series of Blackadder . In addition , a BBC Radio Collection audio version created from the TV soundtrack is available on Cassette and CD . All 4 seasons and the Christmas special are also available for download on iTunes . The complete scripts of the four television series were released in 1998 as Blackadder : The Whole Damn Dynasty 1485–1917 , and later reissued by Penguin Books in 2009 . VHS releases DVD releases

qb_9589--Blackadder_Goes_Forth.txt

The UK television series ‘Blackadder Goes Forth’ is set during which war?

Hanley , in Staffordshire , England , is one of the six major towns that joined together to form the city of Stoke-on-Trent in 1910 . Hanley was the only one of the six towns to be a county borough before the merger ; its status was transferred to the enlarged borough . Hanley was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1857 and became a county borough with the passage of the Local Government Act 1888 . It is now the city 's main shopping centre , the Potteries Shopping Centre containing many high street chain stores . History Etymology The name Hanley comes from `` haer lea '' , meaning `` high meadow ” or 'Heah Lea ' meaning Rock Meadow . Garden Festival The 1986 Stoke-on-Trent Garden Festival led to the reclamation of large areas of land west of the city centre area – including the former Shelton steelworks , which had been derelict since 1978 . Ironically , when the Garden Festival closed , the land remained derelict for some time , before being re-developed partly into public parkland and partly for retail and leisure . Coal mining At one time , there were many coal mines in North Staffordshire . Hanley Deep Pit was opened in 1854 . It was the deepest pit in the North Staffordshire coalfield , reaching a depth of 1500 feet . At its peak in the 1930s it employed some 2000 men and boys often producing 9000 tons of coal a week . The pit was closed in 1962 but much of the headgear and spoilheaps were left in situ . Then , in the 1980s , the original site was cleared , landscaped and converted into Hanley Forest Park . Coal miners in the Hanley and Longton area ignited the 1842 General Strike and associated Pottery Riots . Public transport In 2013 , a brand new and modern bus station opened in Hanley . This replaced the former bus station , on Lichfield Street . The new bus station is the first stage in the regeneration project which will see the previous bus station demolished , and replaced with a new centre consisting of shops , restaurants and a cinema . The new bus station is smaller than its predecessor , and has seen various routes in and out of the city changed to accommodate the location of the new bus station . The bus station features a sheltered waiting area , Spar shop , cafe and toilets , is covered by CCTV , and has digital timetables showing information on travel times for the day , as well as Now/Next above the entrance to each bay . Access to the station is controlled by automatic doors , at both the pedestrian entrance and coach bays . The new bus station links Hanley with towns in North Staffordshire , as well as Buxton , Crewe and Stafford . Most services are run by First Potteries , though there are a number of smaller independent operators , such as Wardle Transport , BakerBus , and Arriva Midlands . In addition , National Express Coaches connect Hanley with destinations including London , Birmingham , Liverpool and Manchester , with additional seasonal services to holiday destinations . As part of the redevelopment of the town and wider city , a new bus interchange will be built on John Street , allowing the current station to be demolished to make room for further redevelopment of the town . Hanley no longer has a railway station but there was once one located on Trinity Street , on the Potteries Loop Line , which was opened by the North Staffordshire Railway for passengers on 13 July 1864 . The station survived for 100 years – it was closed in 1964 , as part of the Beeching Axe , and the land is now a car park . Hanley is also connected to the waterways network ; it meets the Trent and Mersey Canal at Festival Park , it is also connected to the east of the country via the Cauldon Canal . Attempt to change the name On 1 April 1910 , the town was federated into the county borough of Stoke-on-Trent . By 1925 the area was granted city status . In recent years , there has been a notable decline in the use of the name of Hanley by officialdom , owing to the town 's increasing role as a city centre . Road signs on major roads into and around the city now refer to the area as 'City centre ' , although Hanley 's name still appears on local road signs . Many documents published by local and national government also refer to the area as the city centre , as does public transport in the region . In 2009 , the City Centre Partnership ( a body promoting the development and re-generation of the city centre ) proposed officially renaming the town centre ( specifically , the area within the ring road ) to Stoke-on-Trent City Centre , while keeping the Hanley name for the surrounding area . The Partnership is actively encouraging businesses in the area to remove the name of Hanley from their addresses , and have asked the city council to ask the Ordnance Survey to refer to the area on their maps as the city centre , instead of Hanley . The reasoning behind these proposals is that while Stoke-on-Trent has been federated for over 100 years , it is still polycentric . In other words , it has the characteristics of ( at least ) six coalesced towns , instead of a single city . The current situation can also be confusing for visitors to the city , who regularly end up in the town of Stoke-upon-Trent ( which has renaming proposals of its own ) , thinking it is the city centre . These trends and proposals have been met with general opposition from the people of the city . Residents of Hanley see them as a loss of the town 's heritage , while residents of the other towns in the city see them as promoting Hanley over their respective towns . However , Hanley still remains the main name in usage for this town ; particularly in popular parlance , where the phrase `` Up 'Anley , duck '' is a common local phrase describing going either shopping or for a night out ; Hanley being the most common place people go to for these things . Cultural sites Hanley also offers several cultural facilities such as the Potteries Museum & Art Gallery ( a large ceramics collection , and restored Spitfire ) , the Victoria Hall , the Regent Theatre , BBC Radio Stoke 's Open Centre and studios , while Piccadilly hosts the annual Sanity Fair and French Market events . Hanley is also the location of Stoke Pride , an annual pride event for LGBT people of the city . Religion Christian Churches and Chapels in Hanley include : [ http : //www.bethelhanley.com Bethel Evangelical Free Church ] ( Newhall Street ) , Bethesda Town Mission ( Jasper Street ) , Congregational Independent Tabernacle Church ( High Street ) , Elim Church ( Bucknall Old Road corner of Mynors Street , Northwood ) , Etruria Wesleyan Chapel ( Etruria Old Road , Etruria ) , [ http : //www.hanleyteamministry.org.uk/holy-trinity.html Holy Trinity C of E ] ( Lower Mayer Street , Northwood ) , Providence Methodist Church ( Junction of Town Road , and Hulton Street ) , St. John 's C of E ( Town Road , Hanley ) , [ http : //www.hanleyteamministry.org.uk/st-lukes-church-hanley.html St. Luke 's C of E ] ( Wellington Terrace ) , [ http : //www.hanleyteamministry.org.uk/st-marks-church-shelton.html St. Mark 's C of E ] ( Broad Street , Shelton ) , [ http : //www.hanleyteamministry.org.uk/st-matthews-church-birches-head.html St. Matthew 's C of E ] ( Birches Head ) , [ http : //sacredhearthanley.ning.com/ Sacred Heart RC ] ( Jasper Street ) , Trinity Methodist ( Keelings Road , Northwood ) , and St Simon and St Jude ( Seaford Street , College ( was Victoria ) Road , Shelton ) . Hanley in old Trade Journals `` HANLEY a large modern town and chapelry , in the parish of Stoke , is about two miles east by north of Newcastle [ under-Lyme ] , and ranks next to Burslem in size , extent and opulence . The town is in an elevated situation , and the streets forming which are irregular , but many of the houses are well built . The chapelry contained , in 1821 , 5,622 inhabitants . '' 1828 journal `` Hanley , the most populous town in North Staffordshire , is generally described as the capital of the Potteries , a title to which it has certainly the greatest pretensions ; ........ it has during the present century made such strides in the art , as to overtake and pass all competitors . At the census of 1891 , the population of the municipal borough reached the total of 54,846 ; and such is the prosperity of the district , that at the present time this number has been very largely increased . 1893 journal * [ http : //www.thepotteries.org/local_history/gaz_h.htm More on Hanley in Trade Journals ] Notable people * Terry Alcock , former professional footballer * Arnold Bennett , novelist * Jeff Kent , writer , musician and campaigner * Stanley Matthews , former professional footballer * Edward Smith , captain of the RMS Titanic * Harold Perkin , social historian * Raymond Coxon , artist

sfq_4226--Hanley,_Staffordshire.txt

What name did Josiah Wedgwood give to his factory near Hanley, Staffordshire?

The coat of arms of the BBC was adopted in March 1927 to represent the purpose and values of the corporation . It is seldom used nowadays except for ceremonial purposes . Elements The various elements of the coat of arms were chosen to provide a heraldic translation of the qualities of the BBC . * Lion — the crest of the coat of arms has a lion above the helmet . The lion is the national animal of the UK and indicates the BBC 's British identity . * Thunderbolt — The lion grasps a thunderbolt in its outstretched paw , this to represent broadcasting itself ( transmission ) . * Eagles — In heraldic language the two eagles which grasp the shield are `` supporters '' . Eagles were chosen to depict the inherent speed of broadcasting . Both eagles have bugles suspended from their collars , representing `` proclamation '' , i.e . the public service element of broadcasting . * Motto — The coat of arms features the BBC motto , `` Nation shall speak peace unto Nation '' * Shield * * Globe — the globe in the shield of the coat of arms represents the scope and breadth of the BBC 's operations * * Estoiles — Around the globe are seven estoiles , heraldic symbols for divine goodness and nobility . Their place in the shield increase the representation of the scope and breadth of the corporation . They also symbolise the seven planets in the Solar System other than the Earth . ( The arms were granted prior to the discovery of Pluto in 1930 , which was classified as a planet from that time until 2006 . ) The background of the shield , the mantling ( drapery depicted tied to the helmet above the shield ) and the collars of the eagles are blue ( azure in heraldry ) . The style of the coat of arms has changed considerably over time ; from the style of the motto , the formality of the lion and eagles , the alignment of the shield ( it was tilted in early versions , and is now perfectly straight ) and the addition of a compartment ( the design placed under the shield , a grassy mound in the BBC coat of arms ) . Motto The idealistic BBC motto is most likely based on biblical verses from the Book of Micah and the Book of Isaiah : `` Nation shall not lift up sword against nation , neither shall they learn war anymore . In 1934 the motto was changed to `` Quaecunque '' , meaning `` Whatsoever '' . This was inspired by St Paul 's Epistle to the Philippians 4:8 : This inspired the dedication that appears in the entrance hall of Broadcasting House : In 1948 the motto reverted to the original . Usage Prior to 1986 , the logo was used on a few sources , mainly BBC documentation and stationery , such as the BBC Handbook , or for some uses around some of the studios . In those occurrences , the coat of arms would n't be used directly , but used subtly on other furniture , such as the bollards outside New Broadcasting House , Manchester . Following the redesign in 1986 , the coat of arms was used much more frequently alongside the main logo . Some examples include : * In the BBC 's `` virtual '' news set , used between 1993 and 1999 , much of what was seen was computer generated using Silicon Graphics systems . The titles opened to the BBC News logo overlaid on the spinning globe . The shot widened to include the whole coat of arms and finally the whole set ( of which only the newsreaders and parts of the desk were real ) . The coat of arms , studio lights , floor and the majority of the desk were all computer generated.Hayden Walker , [ http : //www2.tv-ark.org.uk/bbcother/corporate_logo.html BBC Corporate Logo ] , Retrieved 20 November 2010 * The generic BBC News titles prior to 1993 used a transmitter as its icon , similar to that used on the coat of arms . * The coat of arms featured on flags from BBC studios , and on signage for the studios themselves . * The BBC outtakes programme Auntie 's Bloomers featured a set of large shelves with tape records , dusty corners and industrial lift shafts , meant to represent the BBC Archives . The centre of this set is Terry Wogan 's desk where he provides his commentary . The floor in this central section features a large version of the coat of arms . * The coat of arms featured heavily on publications , including back covers and on the spines of books . The coat of arms has since largely been superseded by the BBC blocks logo from 1997 . It has not been abandoned by the corporation , but no longer appears on programmes or prominently in BBC publications , buildings or other locations . Badge The BBC was also granted a heraldic badge of : A Thunderbolt proper thereon a Pellet inscribed with the letters BBC Or.Briggs , Geoffrey . Civic and Corporate Heraldry ( 1971 ) , p76 .

bt_3743--Coat_of_arms_of_the_BBC.txt

"Who has the motto ""Nation shall speak peace unto nation"""

The pommel horse ( also side horse ) is an artistic gymnastics apparatus . Traditionally , it is used by only male gymnasts . Originally made of a metal frame with a wooden body and a leather cover , modern pommel horses have a metal body covered with foam rubber and leather , with plastic handles ( or pommels ) . Apparatus History The pommel horse was developed centuries ago as an artificial horse used by soldiers to practice mounting and dismounting . Alexander the Great is believed to have used two . Dimensions Measurements of the apparatus are published by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique ( FIG ) in the Apparatus Norms brochure . * Height from top surface to floor : 115 cm ± 1 cm * Length at top : 160 cm ± 1 cm * Length at bottom : 155 cm ± 1 cm * Width at top : 35 cm ± 1 cm * Width at bottom : 30 cm ± 1 cm * Height of the pommels : 12 cm ± * Distance between the pommels : 40 cm – 45 cm ( adjustable ) Routines A typical pommel horse exercise involves both single leg and double leg work . Single leg skills are generally in the form of scissors . Double leg work however , is the main staple of this event . The gymnast swings both legs in a circular motion ( clockwise or counterclockwise depending on preference ) and performs such skills on all parts of the apparatus . To make the exercise more challenging , gymnasts will often include variations on a typical circling skill by turning ( moores and spindles ) , by straddling their legs ( Flairs ) , placing one or both hands on the pommel or the leather , or moving up and down the horse placing their hands on the pommel and/or the leather ( travelling ) . Routines end when the gymnast performs a dismount , either by swinging his body over the horse or going through a handstand to land on the mat . The pommel horse , its gymnastic elements , and various rules are all regulated by the Code of Points . Pommel horse is considered one of the more difficult men 's events . While it is well noted that all events require a certain build of muscle and technique , pommel horse tends to favor technique over muscle . This is because horse routines are done from the shoulders in a leaning motion and that no moves need to be held unlike other events . Therefore , stress induced in one 's arms is reduced meaning less muscle is needed in this event than events like still rings or parallel bars . International level routines A pommel horse routine should contain at least one element from all element groups : * I . Single leg swings and scissors * II . Circles and flairs , with and/or without spindles and handstands * III . Side and cross support travels * IV . Kehrswings , wendeswings , flops and combined elements * V. Dismounts Scoring and Rules As with all events in the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique guidelines , form is crucial to any successful routine . For pommel horse , form consists of keeping one 's feet pointed and legs straight during the entire routine . The gymnast should keep his legs together during all elements , exceptions beings scissors , single legged elements , and flairs . Gymnasts are also deducted for not using all three sections of the horse and pausing or stopping on the apparatus . Deductions also apply for brushing and hitting the apparatus .

qg_961--Pommel_horse.txt

On what apparatus would a male gymnast traditionally perform moves such as scissors, moores, spindels and flairs?

Rock climbing is an activity in which participants climb up , down or across natural rock formations or artificial rock walls . The goal is to reach the summit of a formation or the endpoint of a usually pre-defined route without falling . Due to the length and extended endurance required and because accidents are more likely to happen on descent than ascent , Rock Climbers do not usually climb back down the route . It is very rare for a climber to downclimb , especially on the larger multiple pitches ( class III- IV and /or multi-day grades IV-VI climbs ) . Professional Rock climbing competitions have the objectives of either completing the route in the quickest possible time or attaining the farthest point on an increasingly difficult route . Scrambling , another activity involving the scaling of hills and similar formations , is similar to rock climbing . However , rock climbing is generally differentiated by its sustained use of hands to support the climber 's weight as well as to provide balance . Rock climbing is a physically and mentally demanding sport , one that often tests a climber 's strength , endurance , agility and balance along with mental control . It can be a dangerous activity and knowledge of proper climbing techniques and usage of specialised climbing equipment is crucial for the safe completion of routes . Because of the wide range and variety of rock formations around the world , rock climbing has been separated into several different styles and sub-disciplines . History Paintings dating from 200 BC show Chinese men rock climbing . In early America , the cliff-dwelling Anasazi in the 12th century were thought to be excellent climbers . Early European climbers used rock climbing techniques as a skill required to reach the summit in their mountaineering exploits . In the 1880s , European rock climbing become an independent pursuit outside of mountain climbing . Although rock climbing was an important component of Victorian mountaineering in the Alps , it is generally thought that the sport of rock climbing began in the last quarter of the nineteenth century in various parts of Europe . Rock climbing evolved gradually from an alpine necessity to a distinct athletic activity . Aid climbing , climbing using equipment that acts as artificial handhold or footholds , became popular during the period 1920-1960 , leading to ascents in the Alps and in Yosemite Valley that were considered impossible without such means . However , climbing techniques , equipment and ethical considerations have evolved steadily . Today , free climbing , climbing using holds made entirely of natural rock while using gear solely for protection and not for upward movement , is the most popular form of the sport . Free climbing has since been divided into several sub-styles of climbing dependent on belay configuration . Over time , grading systems have also been created in order to compare more accurately the relative difficulties of the rock climbs . Style In How to Rock Climb , John Long notes that for moderately skilled climbers simply getting to the top of a route is not enough ; how one gets to the top matters . In rock climbing , style refers to the method of ascending the cliff . There are three main styles of climbing : on-sight , flash , and redpoint . To on-sight a route is to ascend the wall without aid or any foreknowledge . It is considered the way to climb with the most style . Flashing is similar to on-sighting , except that the climber has previous information about the route including talking about the beta with other climbers . Redpointing means to make a free ascent of the route after having first tried it . Types of climbing Most of the climbing done in modern times is considered free climbing—climbing using one 's own physical strength , with equipment used solely as protection and not as support—as opposed to aid climbing , the gear-dependent form of climbing that was dominant in the sport 's earlier days . Free climbing is typically divided into several styles that differ from one another depending on the choice of equipment used and the configurations of their belay , rope and anchor systems . As routes get higher off the ground , the increased risk of life-threatening injuries necessitates additional safety measures . A variety of specialized climbing techniques and climbing equipment exists to provide that safety . Climbers will usually work in pairs and utilize a system of ropes and anchors designed to catch falls . Ropes and anchors can be configured in different ways to suit many styles of climbing , and roped climbing is thus divided into further sub-types that vary based on how their belay systems are set up . Generally speaking , beginners will start with top roping and/or easy bouldering and work their way up to lead climbing and beyond . Aid climbing Still the most popular method of climbing big walls , aid climbers make progress up a wall by repeatedly placing and weighting gear that is used directly to aid ascent and enhance safety . Free climbing The most commonly used method to ascend climbs refers to climbs where the climber 's own physical strength and skill are relied on to accomplish the climb . Free climbing may rely on top rope belay systems , or on lead climbing to establish protection and the belay stations . Anchors , ropes and protection are used to back up the climber and are passive as opposed to active ascending aids . Subtypes of free climbing are trad climbing and sport climbing . Free climbing is generally done as `` clean lead '' meaning no pitons or pins are used as protection . Bouldering Climbing on short , low routes without the use of the safety rope that is typical of most other styles . Protection , if used at all , typically consists of a cushioned bouldering pad below the route and a spotter , a person who watches from below and directs the fall of the climber away from hazardous areas . Bouldering may be an arena for intense and relatively safe competition , resulting in exceptionally high difficulty standards . Solo climbing Deep-water soloing ( DWS ) Deep-water soloing ( or psicobloc ) is similar to free soloing in that the climber is unprotected and without a rope , but should the climber falls , it is into deep water instead of onto the ground . Free soloing Free soloing , referred to as `` soloing '' in the UK , is single-person climbing without the use of any rope or protection system whatsoever . If a fall occurs and the climber is not over water ( as in the case of deep water soloing ) , the climber is likely to be killed or seriously injured . Though technically similar to bouldering , free solo climbing typically refers to routes that are far taller and/or far more lethal than bouldering . The term `` highball '' is used to refer to climbing on the boundary between free soloing and bouldering , where what is usually climbed as a boulder problem may be high enough for a fall to cause serious injury ( 20 ft. and higher ) and hence could also be considered to be a free solo . Roped solo climbing Solo climbing with a rope secured at the beginning of the climb allowing a climber to self-belay as they advance . Once the pitch is completed the soloist must descend the rope to retrieve their gear , and then reclimb the pitch . This form of climbing can be conducted free or as a form of aid climbing . Lead climbing Lead climbing is a climbing technique . The lead climber ascends with the rope passing through intermittent anchors that are below them , rather than through a top anchor , as in a top-roped climb . A partner belays from below the lead climber , by feeding out enough rope to allow upward progression without undue slack . As the leader progresses he or she clips the rope into , using a runner and carabiners , intermediate points of protection such as active cams , or passive protection such as nuts ; this limits the length of a potential fall . The leader also may clip into pre-placed bolts . Indoor gyms might have short runners pre-attached to fixed anchor points in the wall . Unlike top-rope climbing where the climber is always supported by an anchor located above the climber , lead climbing often has scenarios where the climber will be attached to a point under him or her . In these cases , if the climber were to fall , the distance fallen would be much greater than that of top-rope and this is one of the main reasons lead climbing can be dangerous . The fall factor is the ratio of the height a climbers falls and the length of rope available to absorb the fall . The higher the fall factor , the more force placed on the climber as the ropes decelerates them . The maximum fall factor is 2 . It is often advised that climbers who are interested in lead climbing should learn from experienced climbers and participate in training sessions before actually lead climbing on their own . Multi-pitch climbing The climbing rope is of a fixed length ; the climber can only climb the length of the rope . Routes longer than the rope length are broken up into several segments called pitches ; this is known as multi-pitch climbing . At the top of a pitch , the leader , the first climber to ascend , sets up an anchor and then belays the second climber up to the anchor ; as the second climber follows the route taken by the leader , the second climber removes ( cleans ) the carabiners and anchors placed along the way in order to use them again on the next pitch . Once both climbers are at the top anchor , the leader begins climbing the next pitch and so on until the top of the route is reached . In either case , upon completion of a route , climbers can walk back down if an alternate descent path exists , or rappel ( abseil ) down with the rope . Sport climbing Unlike traditional rock climbing , sport climbing involves the use of protection ( bolts ) placed with power drills or on rappel or permanent anchors which are attached to the rock walls . This is separate from bolted trad face climbing . Traditional climbing Traditional or trad climbing involves rock climbing routes in which protection against falls is placed by the climber while ascending , or bolts placed on lead . Gear is used to protect against falls but not to aid the ascent directly . Traditional bolted face climbs are different than sport climbs . Trad bolted climbs use either a hand drill and or are bolted on lead . This means there are far less bolts and they are spaced out farther than sport climbs . Bottom rope climbing and top rope climbing Bottom rope climbing Commonly known as `` Top Roping '' : belaying a climber from the ground or the base of the route . A belay system resembling a pulley in which an anchor has been created at the top of a climb , through which the rope runs through from the belayer on the ground , to the climber on the ground ( position before starting the climb ) . The rope is `` taken-in '' , to clear up the slack as the climber moves upwards , so in the event of a fall the climber falls the shortest distance possible . The length of a fall is normally no more than a meter , but can vary depending on the length of the route ( the longer the rope , the more stretch the rope will undergo when weighted ) and the weight of the climber compared to that of the belayer , among other things . Top rope climbing Also known as `` seconding , '' or belaying a climber from the top of a route , bringing them up to walk off or continue on to next pitch . A similarly safe system of climbing a route , except the belayer has set the anchors at the top of the climb ( normally after leading a route ) to belay the climber either indirectly ( belayer is part of the system and can be vunlnerable when exposed to unexpected directions of pull and loading of the rope ) or directly ( belayer is not part of the system and belaying is done direct from the anchors using either an Italian / Munter Hitch or adapted use of a belay device ) , up the route from the top . If bolts have been clipped or traditional gear placements have been made , it is the job of the climber to collect and clean the route . Via ferrata A method of fairly easily ascending a route , heavily dependent on permanent protection rather than using natural rock features to proceed . Climbing techniques Different types of rock require different techniques to successfully climb . Crack climbing Crack climbing is a type of rock climbing that ascends cracks and uses specialized climbing techniques . Cracks used in climbing vary in size from the width of a finger to those that fit an entire body . Climbers use techniques such as jamming , laybacking , and stemming . Some climbers use gloves made out of athletic tape to protect their hands . Face climbing Face climbing is a type of climbing where climbers use features and irregularities in the rock such as finger pockets and edges to ascend a vertical rock face . Slab climbing Slab climbing is a type of rock climbing where the rock face is at an angle of less steep than vertical . It is characterized by balance- and friction-dependent moves on very small holds . Simul climbing When two climbers move at the same time . The pseudo-lead climber places gear that the pseudo-follower collects . When the leader runs low on gear they construct a belay station where the follower can join them to exchange gear . The stronger climber is often the pseudo-follower since a fall by the follower would pull the leader from below towards the last piece of gear—a potential devastating fall for the leader . In contrast , a fall from the leader would pull the follower from above , resulting in a less serious fall . Most speed ascents involve some form of simul climbing but may also include sections of standard free climbing and the use of placed gear for advancement ( i.e . partial aid or pulling on gear ) . Via ferrata A method of fairly easily ascending a route , heavily dependent on permanent protection rather than using natural rock features to proceed . Grading systems Climbing communities in many countries and regions have developed their own rating systems for routes . Ratings , or grades , record and communicate consensus appraisals of difficulty . Systems of ratings are inherently subjective in nature , and variation of difficulty can be seen between two climbs of the same grade . Hence , there may be occasional disagreements arising from physiological or stylistic differences among climbers . The practice of rating a climb below its actual difficulty is known as sandbagging . The most commonly used rating systems in the United States are the Yosemite Decimal System and the Hueco V-scale bouldering grade . The current ranges for climbing routes are 5.0 for easy beginner routes to 5.15 being world class and V0 - V16 , respectively . As the limit of human climbing ability has not yet been reached , neither grading system has a definite endpoint and is thus subject to revision . The ratings take into account multiple factors affecting a route , such as the slope of the ascent , the quantity and quality of available handholds , the distance between holds , ease of placing protection and whether advanced technical maneuvers are required . Typically the rating for the hardest move on the wall will be the rating for the whole climb . While height of a route is generally not considered a factor , a long series of sustained hard moves will often merit a higher grade than a single move of the same technical difficulty . For example , a climb with multiple 5.11 moves with no rests may thus be rated a 5.12 . Terminology As climbing routes or problems increase in difficulty , climbers learn to develop skills that help them complete the climbs clean . There are several techniques for hands and feet as well as terms for motions that combine the two . For indoor gyms , route setters visualize and create routes for climbers , placing different kinds of holds in specific parts of the wall at particular angles because they intend climbers to use certain techniques . Environments Indoor climbing Indoor climbing occurs in buildings on artificial rock structures . This permits for climbing in all types of weather and at all times of day . Climbers climb indoors to improve their skills and techniques , as well as for general exercise or fun . Indoor climbing gyms typically provide rope setups and ensure that new climbers know safe techniques . Outdoor climbing Outdoors , climbs usually take place on sunny days when the holds are dry and provide the best grip , but climbers can also attempt to climb at night or in adverse weather conditions if they have the proper training and equipment . However , night climbing or climbing in adverse weather conditions will increase the difficulty and danger on any climbing route . Equipment Most climbers choose to wear specialized rubber climbing shoes which are often of a smaller size than their normal street shoes in order to improve sensitivity towards foot placements and use the tightness to their advantage . Climbing chalk ( MgCO3 ) is commonly used as a drying agent to minimize sweating of the hands . Most other equipment is of a protective nature . Rock climbing is inherently dangerous , so to minimize the potential consequences resulting from a fall , climbers use protection . The most basic protective equipment is a climbing rope . Climbing pioneers would attach the rope to themselves ; in the event of a fall , the rope would usually cause injury to the climber in the hope that it prevented death . With advances in technology came the development of specialized harnesses , carabiners which are used for clipping into belay and rappel anchors and connecting gear , and belay devices which are used to catch a falling climber , hold or lower a climber and for rappelling . Eventually , the placement of bolts with the use of quickdraws led to the rise of sport climbing . Traditional climbers developed the spring-loaded camming device , which increased safety over chocks , hexes , and pitons . Some climbers choose to wear a specialized climbing helmet to protect them from falling rocks or equipment or head injuries from crashing into rocks . Injuries Injuries in rock climbing are mainly sports injuries that occur due to falls or overuse . Injuries due to falls are relatively uncommon ; the vast majority of injuries result from overuse , most often occurring in the fingers , elbows , and shoulders . Such injuries are often no worse than torn calluses , cuts , burns and bruises . There are a number of skincare products specifically for climbers available in the market . However , overuse symptoms , if ignored , may lead to permanent damage especially to tendons , tendon sheaths , ligaments , and capsules . Injuries from lead climbing are common . Planning your climb , knowing your partner , talking about your climb , checking your equipment and the conditions of the rocks , checking the weather , using good judgement and always paying attention minimize the risk of injury . Access to climbing areas Indigenous culture considerations Some areas that are popular for climbing , for example in the United States and Australia , are also sacred places for indigenous peoples . Many such indigenous people would prefer that climbers not climb these sacred places and have made this information well known to climbers . A well-known example is the rock formation that Americans have named Devils Tower National Monument . Native American cultural concerns also led to complete climbing closures at Cave Rock at Lake Tahoe , Monument Valley , Shiprock and Canyon de Chelly . Climbing activities can sometimes encroach on rock art sites created by various Native American cultures and early European explorers and settlers . The potential threat to these resources has led to climbing restrictions and closures in places like Hueco Tanks , Texas , and portions of City of Rocks National Reserve , Idaho . In Australia , the monolith Uluru ( Ayers Rock ) is sacred to local indigenous communities and climbing is banned on anything but the established ascent route ( and even then climbing is discouraged ) . Indigenous peoples are not the only cultures that object to climbing on certain rock formations . Professional climber Dean Potter kicked off a major controversy when he ignored long-accepted convention to scale Delicate Arch in 2006 , resulting in strict new climbing regulation in Arches National Park . Climbing on private property Many significant rock outcrops exist on private land . Some people within the rock climbing community have been guilty of trespassing in many cases , often after land ownership transfers and previous access permission is withdrawn . In the U.S. the climbing community responded to access closures by forming the Access Fund . This is an `` advocacy organization that keeps U.S. climbing areas open and conserves the climbing environment . Five core programs support the mission on national and local levels : public policy , stewardship and conservation ( including grants ) , grassroots activism , climber education and land acquisition . '' In the U.K. the British Mountaineering Council represents climbers and their interest of public access to crags , cliffs and boulders . Environmental impact Although many climbers adhere to `` minimal impact '' and `` leave no trace '' practices , rock climbing is sometimes damaging to the environment . Common environmental damages include : soil erosion , breaking rock features , chalk accumulation , litter , abandoned bolts and ropes , human excrement , introduction of foreign plants through seeds on shoes and clothing , as well as damage to native plant species ( especially those growing in cracks and on ledges as these are often intentionally removed during new route development through a process commonly referred to as cleaning ) . Clean climbing is a style of rock climbing which seeks to minimize some of the aesthetically damaging side effects of some techniques used in trad climbing and more often , aid climbing by avoiding using equipment such as pitons , which damage rock . Climbing can also interfere with raptor nesting , since the two activities often take place on the same precipitous cliffs . Many climbing area land managers institute nesting season closures of cliffs known to be used by protected birds of prey like eagles , falcons and osprey . Many non-climbers also object to the appearance of climbing chalk marks , anchors , bolts and slings on visible cliffs . Since these features are small , visual impacts can be mitigated through the selection of neutral , rock-matching colors for bolt hangers , webbing and chalk . The use of certain types of climbing gear is banned altogether at some crags due to the risk of damage to the rock face . In such cases , climbers use knotted slings and ropes for climbing protection . Blowtorching is another climbing induced impact that effects the rocks themselves . Blowtorching is when a climber uses a blowtorch to dry holds on a wet route . This mainly happens in areas that tend to have wet climbing conditions . Blowtorching is not only detrimental to the rock itself and can have permanent damage but it also leaves a very large burn mark that most non-climbers would object to the appearance of . Vandalism The most significant form of vandalism directly attributable to rock climbers is alteration of the climbing surface to render it more climber-friendly . With the advent of hard , bolted sport climbing in the 1980s , many routes were `` chipped '' and `` glued '' to provide additional features , allowing them to be climbed at the standard of the day . This attitude quickly changed as the safer sport climbing technique allowed climbers to push hard without much risk , causing the formerly more-or-less fixed grades to steadily rise . Altering routes began to be seen as limiting and pointless . Unlike traditional climbing which generally uses protection only as a backup in case of falls , some forms of climbing—like sport climbing , canyoneering or , especially , aid climbing—rely heavily on artificial protection to advance , either by frequent falls or by directly pulling on the gear . Often these types of climbing involve multiple drilled holes in which to place temporary bolts and rivets , but in recent years an emphasis on clean techniques has grown . Today , the charge of vandalism in climbing is more often a disagreement about the appropriateness of drilling and placing permanent bolts and other anchors . Typically in the USA , the first ascensionists decide where to place protection on a new route and later climbers are supposed to live with these choices . This can cause friction and retro-bolting when the route is perceived to be dangerous to climbers who actually lead at the grade of the climb , since the first ascensionists often lead at a higher grade and therefore do n't require as much protection . Failing to properly design a new route at its grade is considered arrogant and very poor form . Even in strongholds of rock-climbing tradition like Yosemite National Park , many routes are being gradually upgraded to safer standards of protection .

jp_4375--Rock_climbing.txt

In what park would you find Half Dome, a mecca for rock climbers?

Test cricket is the longest form of the sport of cricket and is considered its highest standard . Test matches are played between national representative teams with `` Test status '' , as determined by the International Cricket Council ( ICC ) . The two teams of 11 players play a four-innings match , which may last up to five days ( or longer in some historical cases ) . It is generally considered the most complete examination of teams ' playing ability and endurance . The origin of the name Test stems from the long , gruelling match being a `` test '' of the relative strength of the two sides . The first officially recognised Test match began on 15 March 1877 , between England and Australia at the Melbourne Cricket Ground ( MCG ) , where Australia won by 45 runs . A Test match to celebrate 100 years of Test cricket was held in Melbourne from 12 to 17 March 1977 , in which Australia beat England by 45 runs—the same margin as that first Test . In October 2012 , the International Cricket Council recast the playing conditions for Test matches , permitting day/night Test matches . The first day/night game took place between Australia and New Zealand at the Adelaide Oval , Adelaide , on 27 November 2015 . Test status Test matches are the highest level of cricket although , statistically , their data forms part of first-class cricket . Matches are played between national representative teams with `` Test status '' , as determined by the International Cricket Council . , ten national teams have Test status , the most recently promoted being Bangladesh in 2000 . Zimbabwe 's Test status was voluntarily suspended , because of poor performances between 2006 and 2011 ; it returned to competition in August 2011 . In January 2014 , during the historic ICC meeting in Dubai , the pathway for new potential test nations was laid out with the winners of the next round of the ICC Intercontinental Cup playing a 5-day match against the bottom rank test nation . If the Associate team defeats the test nation , then they could be added as the new test country and be given full membership . A list of matches , defined as `` Tests '' , was first drawn up by Australian Clarence Moody in the mid-1890s . Representative matches played by simultaneous England touring sides of 1891–92 ( in Australia and South Africa ) and 1929–30 ( in the West Indies and New Zealand ) are deemed to have `` Test status '' . In 1970 , a series of five `` Test matches '' was played in England between England and a Rest of the World XI . These matches , originally scheduled between England and South Africa , were amended after South Africa was suspended from international cricket because of their government 's policy of apartheid . Although initially given Test status ( and included as Test matches in some record books , including Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack ) , this was later withdrawn and a principle was established that official Test matches can only be between nations ( although the geographically and demographically small countries of the West Indies have since 1928 been permitted to field a coalition side ) . Despite this , in 2005 , the ICC ruled that the six-day Super Series match that took place in October 2005 , between Australia and a World XI , was an official Test match . Some cricket writers and statisticians , including Bill Frindall , ignored the ICC 's ruling and excluded the 2005 match from their records . The series of `` Test matches '' played in Australia between Australia and a World XI in 1971/72 do not have Test status . The commercial `` Supertests '' organised by Kerry Packer as part of his World Series Cricket enterprise and played between `` WSC Australia '' , `` WSC World XI '' and `` WSC West Indies '' from 1977 to 1979 have never been regarded as official Test matches . Test cricket playing teams There are currently ten Test-playing teams , representing individual nations except for England and the West Indies . Test status is conferred upon a country or group of countries by the International Cricket Council . Teams that do not have Test status can play in the ICC Intercontinental Cup , specifically designed to allow non-Test teams to play under conditions similar to Tests . The teams are listed below with the date of each team 's Test debut : In 2009 , Ireland stated its intention to apply for Full Membership of the ICC with the aim of achieving Test status , and restated its intention in 2012 , but the 2012 plan aims to achieve Test status by 2020 . In 2014 , the ICC announced the introduction of the ICC Test Challenge , which will see the holder of the Intercontinental Cup play a pair of two five-day match series against the lowest ranked test-playing nation every four years , starting in 2018 . Conduct of the game Playing time A standard day of test cricket consists of 3 sessions of 2 hours each , the breaks between sessions being 40 minutes for lunch , and 20 minutes for tea . However the times of sessions and intervals may be altered in certain circumstances : if bad weather or a change of innings occurs close to a scheduled break , the break may be taken immediately ; if there has been a loss of playing time , for example because of bad weather , the session times may be adjusted to make up the lost time ; if the batting side is nine wickets down at the scheduled tea break , then the interval may be delayed until either 30 minutes has elapsed or the team is all out ; the final session may be extended by up to 30 minutes if 90 or more overs have not been bowled in that day 's play ( subject to any reduction for adverse weather ) ; the final session may be extended by 30 minutes ( except on the 5th day ) if the umpires believe the result can be decided within that time . In the early days of Test cricket , matches were played for four days . Until the 1980s , it was usual to include a 'rest day , ' often a Sunday . There have also been 'Timeless Tests ' , which did not end after a predetermined maximum time . In 2005 , Australia played a six-day match against a World XI , which the ICC sanctioned as an official Test match even though the match reached a conclusion on the fourth day . There have been attempts by the ICC , the sport 's governing body , to introduce day-night Test matches . In 2012 , The International Cricket Council passed playing conditions that allowed for the staging of day-night Test matches . The first day-night Test took place during New Zealand 's tour to Australia in November 2015 . Play Test cricket is played in innings ( the word denotes both the singular and the plural ) . In each innings , one team bats and the other bowls ( or fields ) . Ordinarily four innings are played in a Test match , and each team bats twice and bowls twice . Before the start of play on the first day , the two team captains and the match referee toss a coin ; the captain who wins the toss decides whether his team will bat or bowl first . In the following scenarios , the team that bats first is referred to as Team A and their opponents as Team B . Usually the teams will alternate at the completion of each innings . Thus , Team A will bat ( and Team B will bowl ) until its innings ends , and then Team B will bat and Team A will bowl . When Team B 's innings ends , Team A begin their second innings , and this is followed by Team B 's second innings . The winning team is the one that scores more runs in their two innings . A team 's innings ends in one of the following ways : * The team is `` all out '' . This typically occurs when a team has lost ten wickets ( ten of the eleven batsmen having been dismissed ) and are `` bowled out '' . It may occasionally occur with the loss of fewer wickets if one or more batsmen are unavailable to bat ( through injury , for example ) . * The team 's captain declares the innings closed , usually because they believe they have enough runs . A declaration before the innings starts is called an innings forfeiture . * The team batting fourth score the required number of runs to win . * The prescribed time for the match expires . If , at the completion of its first innings , Team B 's first innings total is 200 or more fewer than Team A 's , the captain of Team A may ( but is not required to ) order Team B to have their second innings next . This is called enforcing the follow on . In this case , the usual order of the third and fourth innings is reversed : Team A will bat in the fourth innings . It is rare for a team forced to follow on to win the match . In Test cricket it has only happened three times , although over 285 follow-ons have been enforced : Australia was the losing team on each occasion , twice to England , in 1894 and in 1981 , and once to India in 2001 . If the whole of the first day 's play of a test match has been lost because of bad weather or other reasons like bad light , then Team A may enforce the follow on if Team B 's first innings total is 150 or more fewer than Team A 's . During the 2nd test between England and New Zealand at Headingley , Leeds , 24–28 May 2013 , England batted first after the first day was lost because of rain . New Zealand , batting second , scored 180 runs fewer than England , meaning England could have enforced the follow on , though chose not to . This is similar to four-day first class cricket , where the follow on can be enforced if the difference is 150 runs or fewer . If the Test is 2 days or fewer then the `` follow-on '' value is 100 runs . After 80 overs , the captain of the bowling side may take a new ball , although this is not required . The captain will usually take the new ball : being harder and smoother than an old ball , a new ball generally favours faster bowlers who can make it bounce more variably . The roughened , softer surface of an old ball can be more conducive to spin bowlers , or those using reverse swing . The captain may delay the decision to take the new ball if he wishes to continue with his spinners ( because the pitch favours spin ) . After a new ball has been taken , should an innings last a further 80 overs , then the captain will have the option to take another new ball . A Test match may end in one of six results : * All four innings are complete . The team batting fourth are all out before overtaking the other team , usually before matching the other team 's score . The team that batted third are the winners by a margin equal to the difference in the aggregate runs scored by the two teams ( for example , `` Team A won by 95 runs '' ) . Very rarely ( in over 2,000 Test matches played , it has only happened twice ) the scores can end level , resulting in a tie . * The team batting in the fourth innings overtakes the opposing team 's run total . The match ends , and the team batting fourth is the winner by a margin equal to the number of wickets still to fall in the innings ( for example , `` Team B won by five wickets '' ) . * The third innings concludes with the team that batted twice still trailing the team that batted once . The match ends without playing a fourth innings . The team that batted only once is the winner by a margin equal to `` an innings '' plus the difference in aggregate run totals of the teams ( for example , `` Team B won by an innings and 26 runs '' ) . * Time for the match expires without a result being reached . This usually occurs at the end of the last day of the match . The result is a draw : there is no winner , no matter how superior the position of one of the sides . Rain causing a loss of playing time is a common factor in drawn matches , although matches may be drawn even without interference from the weather : usually as a result of poor time management or an intentional effort on the part of one team to avoid losing . * The match is abandoned because the ground is declared unfit for play . This has occurred three times , resulting each time in a draw being declared : England v Australia at Headingley , Leeds , 1975 ( vandalism ) ; West Indies v England at Sabina Park , Kingston , Jamaica , 1998 ( dangerous ground ) ; West Indies v England at Sir Vivian Richards Stadium , Antigua , 2009 ( dangerous ground ) . * The match is awarded through a forfeiture . If a team refuses to take the field of play , the umpires may award the match to the opposing team . This has only happened once in Test cricket , in the 2006 Fourth Test between England and Pakistan . Competitions Test cricket is almost always played as a series of matches between two countries , with all matches in the series taking place in the same country ( the host ) . Often there is a perpetual trophy that is awarded to the winner , the most famous of which is the Ashes contested between England and Australia . There have been two exceptions to the bilateral nature of Test cricket : the 1912 Triangular Tournament , a three-way competition between England , Australia and South Africa ( hosted by England ) , and the Asian Test Championship , an event held in 1998–99 and 2001–02 . The number of matches in Test series has varied from one to seven . Up until the early 1990s , Test series between international teams were organised between the two national cricket organisations with umpires provided by the home team . With the entry of more countries into Test cricket , and a wish by the ICC to maintain public interest in Tests in the face of the popularity of one-day cricket , a rotation system was introduced that sees all ten Test teams playing each other over a six-year cycle , and an official ranking system ( with a trophy held by the highest-ranked team ) . In this system , umpires are provided by the ICC . An elite panel of eleven umpires has been established , and the panel is supplemented by an additional International Panel that includes three umpires named by each Test-playing country . The elite umpires officiate almost all Test matches ( usually not a Test involving their home country ) ; the International Panel is only employed when the cricketing calendar is filled with activity , or for one-day internationals ( ODIs ) . Early history Sides designated as `` England '' began to play in the late 18th century , but these teams were not truly representative . Early international cricket was disrupted by the French Revolution and the American Civil War . The earliest international cricket match was between USA and Canada , on 24 and 25 September 1844 . This has never been officially considered a `` Test match '' . Tours of national English sides abroad took place , particularly to the USA , Australia and New Zealand . The Australian Aborigines team became the first organised overseas cricketers to tour England in 1868 . Two rival English tours of Australia were proposed in the early months of 1877 , with James Lillywhite campaigning for a professional tour and Fred Grace for an amateur one . Grace 's tour fell through and it was Lillywhite 's team that toured New Zealand and Australia in 1876–77 . Two matches against a combined Australian XI were later classified as the first official Test matches . The first match was won by Australia , by 45 runs , and the second by England . After reciprocal tours established a pattern of international cricket , The Ashes was established as an ongoing competition during the Australian tour of England in 1882 . Surprisingly beaten , a mock obituary of English cricket was published in the Sporting Times the following day : the phrase `` The body shall be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia '' prompted the subsequent creation of the Ashes urn . The series of 1884–85 was the first to be held over five matches : Shaw , writing in 1901 , considered the side to be `` the best ever to have left England '' . The first Test series not to involve Australia occurred in 1888–89 , as an understrength England side toured South Africa . Perpetual trophies The following are the perpetual trophies in Test Cricket .

sfq_21572--Test_cricket.txt

Which cricketing nation was first granted Test status in 2000?

Joseph `` Joe '' Weider ( November 29 , 1920 – March 23 , 2013 ) was a Canadian bodybuilder and entrepreneur who co-founded the International Federation of BodyBuilders ( IFBB ) alongside his brother Ben Weider . He was also the creator of the Mr. Olympia , the Ms. Olympia and the Masters Olympia bodybuilding contests . He was the publisher of several bodybuilding and fitness-related magazines , most notably Muscle & Fitness , Flex , Men 's Fitness and Shape , and the manufacturer of a line of fitness equipment and fitness supplements . Life and career Weider was born in Montreal , Quebec , Canada , to Louis and Anna Weider , Polish-Jewish immigrants from the town of Kurów , Poland . He published the first issue of Your Physique magazine as a teenager in 1940 , and built a set of barbells out of car wheels and axles the same year out of the family garage on Coloniale Street in Montreal . He designed numerous training courses beginning in the 1950s , including the Weider System of Bodybuilding . He married Hedwiges `` Vicky '' Uzar ; together they had one child , Lydia Ross ( mother to Weider 's three grandchildren ) , and subsequently divorced in 1960 . During his marriage to Vicky Uzar he had met Betty Brosmer , who was then the highest paid pin-up girl in the U.S . In 1961 Joe and Betty married , and she began working alongside him as Betty Weider . Betty and Joe together authored books on bodybuilding . Joe , Betty and Ben together were the co-founders of the International Federation of BodyBuilders . Nutritional products The family founded Weider Nutrition in 1936 , considered the first sports nutrition company . Now called Schiff Nutrition International , they were the creators of Tiger 's Milk nutrition bars and related products , one of the earliest lines of sports foods . Fitness publications In 1953 , Your Physique was renamed Muscle Builder magazine . The name changed again to Muscle & Fitness in 1980 . Other magazines published by Weider 's publishing empire included Mr. America , Muscle Power , Shape magazine , Fit Pregnancy , Men 's Fitness , Living Fit , Prime Health and Fitness , Cooks , Senior Golfer , and Flex , in addition to the more risque Jem Magazine and Monsieur . The last two publications caused at least two clashes with obscenity laws . Weider has written numerous books , including The Weider System of Bodybuilding ( 1981 ) , and co-wrote the 2006 biography Brothers Of Iron with Ben Weider . In 1983 , Weider was named `` Publisher of the Year '' by The Periodical and Book Association . In 2003 , his publication company , Weider Publications , was sold to American Media . Legal issues In 1972 , Weider and his brother Ben found themselves a target of an investigation led by U.S . Postal Inspectors . The investigation involved the claims regarding their nutritional supplement Weider Formula No . 7 . The product was a weight-gainer that featured a young Arnold Schwarzenegger on the label . The actual claim centered on consumers being able to `` gain a pound per day '' in mass . Following an appeal wherein Schwarzenegger testified , Weider was forced to alter his marketing and claims . Also in 1972 , Weider encountered legal problems for claims made in his booklet Be a Destructive Self-Defense Fighter in Just 12 Short Lessons . Weider was ordered to offer a refund to 100,000 customers of a `` five-minute body shaper '' that was claimed to offer significant weight loss after just minutes a day of use . The claims , along with misleading `` before and after '' photographs , were deemed false advertising by a Superior Court Judge in 1976 . In the 1980s , Weider found himself answering charges levied by the Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) . In 1984 , the FTC charged that ads for Weider 's Anabolic Mega-Pak ( containing amino acids , minerals , vitamins , and herbs ) and Dynamic Life Essence ( an amino acid product ) had been misleading . The FTC complaint was settled in 1985 when Weider and his company agreed not to falsely claim that the products could help build muscles or be effective substitutes for anabolic steroids . They also agreed to pay a minimum of $ 400,000 in refunds or , if refunds did not reach this figure , to fund research on the relationship of nutrition to muscle development . In 2000 , Weider Nutritional International settled another FTC complaint involving false claims made for alleged weight loss products . The settlement agreement called for $ 400,000 to be paid to the FTC and for a ban on making any unsubstantiated claims for any food , drug , dietary supplement , or program . Death Weider died of heart failure on March 23 , 2013 at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles , California at the age of 92 . Honours and accolades On Labour Day 2006 , California governor and seven times Mr. Olympia winner Arnold Schwarzenegger , a Weider protégé , presented him with the Venice Muscle Beach Hall of Fame 's Lifetime Achievement award . Schwarzenegger credited Weider with inspiring him to enter bodybuilding and to come to the United States . That same year Joe and Ben received the lifetime achievement award by the Young Men 's Hebrew Association . Bibliography * * * * * * * * * *

qb_6143--Joe_Weider.txt

Which bodybuilding competition, first held in 1965, was created by Joe Weider to enable Mr Universe winners to continue competing and to earn money?

Gamboge ( , , or ) is a partially transparent deep saffron to mustard yellow pigment.Other forms and spellings are : cambodia , cambogium , camboge , cambugium , gambaugium , gambogia , gambozia , gamboidea , gambogium , gumbouge , gambouge , gamboge , gambooge , gambugia . ( Oxford English Dictionary ) It is used to dye Buddhist monks ' robes because the color is a deep tone of saffron , the traditional color used for the robes of Theravada Buddhist monks . Production Gamboge is most often extracted by tapping resin ( sometimes incorrectly referred to as sap ) from various species of evergreen trees of the family Clusiaceae ( also known as Guttiferae ) . The tree most commonly used is the gamboge tree ( genus Garcinia ) , including G. hanburyi ( Cambodia and Thailand ) , G. morella ( India and Sri Lanka ) , and G. elliptica and G. heterandra ( Myanmar ) . The orange fruit of Garcinia gummi-gutta ( formerly called G. cambogia ) is also known as gamboge or gambooge . The trees must be at least ten years old before they are tapped . The resin is extracted by making spiral incisions in the bark , and by breaking off leaves and shoots and letting the milky yellow resinous gum drip out . The resulting latex is collected in hollow bamboo canes . After the resin is congealed , the bamboo is broken away and large rods of raw gamboge remain . Etymology The word gamboge comes from gambogium , the Latin word for the pigment , which derives from Gambogia , the Latin word for Cambodia . Its first recorded use as a color name in English was in 1634 . New gamboge `` New gamboge '' is synthetic yellow pigment . The pigment has a color similar to that of natural gamboge .

dpql_1197--Gamboge.txt

Celandine, topaz and gamboge are shades of which colour?

The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the head of Her Majesty 's Government in the United Kingdom . The prime minister ( informal abbreviation : PM ) and Cabinet ( consisting of all the most senior ministers , most of whom are government department heads ) are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch , to Parliament , to their political party and ultimately to the electorate . The , Theresa May , leader of the Conservative Party , was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016 . The office is not established by any constitution or law but exists only by long-established convention , which stipulates that the monarch must appoint as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons ; this individual is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber . The position of Prime Minister was not created ; it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to numerous acts of Parliament , political developments , and accidents of history . The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective . The origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement ( 1688–1720 ) and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament . Although the Sovereign was not stripped of the ancient prerogative powers and legally remained the head of government , politically it gradually became necessary for him or her to govern through a Prime Minister who could command a majority in Parliament . By the 1830s the Westminster system of government ( or cabinet government ) had emerged ; the Prime Minister had become primus inter pares or the first among equals in the Cabinet and the head of government in the United Kingdom . The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of modern political parties , the introduction of mass communication ( inexpensive newspapers , radio , television and the internet ) , and photography . By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged ; the office had become the pre-eminent position in the constitutional hierarchy vis-à-vis the Sovereign , Parliament and Cabinet . Prior to 1902 , the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords , provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons . However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house . As leader of the House of Commons , the Prime Minister 's authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process . The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service . Certain privileges , such as residency of 10 Downing Street , are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury . Authority As the `` Head of Her Majesty 's Government '' the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet ( the Executive ) . In addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons ( the lower house of the legislature ) . As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers . Under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation . In the House of Commons , the Prime Minister guides the law-making process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party . In an executive capacity the Prime Minister appoints ( and may dismiss ) all other cabinet members and ministers , and co-ordinates the policies and activities of all government departments , and the staff of the Civil Service . The Prime Minister also acts as the public `` face '' and `` voice '' of Her Majesty 's Government , both at home and abroad . Solely upon the advice of the Prime Minister , the Sovereign exercises many statutory and prerogative powers , including high judicial , political , official and Church of England ecclesiastical appointments ; the conferral of peerages , knighthoods , decorations and other honours . Although they may sometimes appear to be heavily under the influence of their aides , in reality the Prime Minister is in control . Constitutional background The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution , meaning that it is not set out in any single document . The British constitution consists of many documents and , most importantly for the evolution of the office of Prime Minister , it is based on customs known as constitutional conventions that became accepted practice . In 1928 , Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs : In this country we live ... under an unwritten Constitution . It is true that we have on the Statute-book great instruments like Magna Carta , the Petition of Right , and the Bill of Rights which define and secure many of our rights and privileges ; but the great bulk of our constitutional liberties and ... our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the formal assent of the King , Lords and Commons . They rest on usage , custom , convention , often of slow growth in their early stages , not always uniform , but which in the course of time received universal observance and respect . The relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign , Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution . Many of the Prime Minister 's executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still formally vested in the Sovereign , who remains the head of state . Despite its growing dominance in the constitutional hierarchy , the Premiership was given little formal recognition until the 20th century ; the legal fiction was maintained that the Sovereign still governed directly . The position was first mentioned in statute only in 1917 , in the schedule of the Chequers Estate Act . Increasingly during the 20th century , the office and role of Prime Minister featured in statute law and official documents ; however , the Prime Minister 's powers and relationships with other institutions still largely continue to derive from ancient royal prerogatives and historic and modern constitutional conventions . Prime Ministers continue to hold the position of First Lord of the Treasury and , since November 1968 , that of Minister for the Civil Service , the latter giving them authority over the civil service . Under this arrangement , Britain might appear to have two executives : the Prime Minister and the Sovereign . The concept of `` the Crown '' resolves this paradox . The Crown symbolises the state 's authority to govern : to make laws and execute them , impose taxes and collect them , declare war and make peace . Before the `` Glorious Revolution '' of 1688 , the Sovereign exclusively wielded the powers of the Crown ; afterwards , Parliament gradually forced monarchs to assume a neutral political position . Parliament has effectively dispersed the powers of the Crown , entrusting its authority to responsible ministers ( the Prime Minister and Cabinet ) , accountable for their policies and actions to Parliament , in particular the elected House of Commons . Although many of the Sovereign 's prerogative powers are still legally intact , The Sovereign 's prerogative powers are sometimes called reserve powers . They include the sole authority to dismiss a Prime Minister and government of the day in extremely rare and exceptional circumstances , and other essential powers ( such as withholding Royal Assent , and summoning and proroguing Parliament ) to preserve the stability of the nation . These reserve powers can be exercised without the consent of Parliament . Reserve powers , in practice , are the court of absolute last resort in resolving situations that fundamentally threaten the security and stability of the nation as a whole and are almost never used . constitutional conventions have removed the monarch from day-to-day governance , with ministers exercising the royal prerogatives , leaving the monarch in practice with three constitutional rights : to be kept informed , to advise , and to warn . Foundations of the office of Prime Minister Revolutionary settlement Because the Premiership was not intentionally created , there is no exact date when its evolution began . A meaningful starting point , however , is 1688–9 when James II fled England and the Parliament of England confirmed William and Mary as joint constitutional monarchs , enacting legislation that limited their authority and that of their successors : the Bill of Rights ( 1689 ) , the Mutiny Bill ( 1689 ) , the Triennial Bill ( 1694 ) , the Treason Act ( 1696 ) and the Act of Settlement ( 1701 ) . Known collectively as the Revolutionary Settlement , these acts transformed the constitution , shifting the balance of power from the Sovereign to Parliament . They also provided the basis for the evolution of the office of Prime Minister , which did not exist at that time . Treasury Bench The Revolutionary Settlement gave the Commons control over finances and legislation and changed the relationship between the Executive and the Legislature . For want of money , Sovereigns had to summon Parliament annually and could no longer dissolve or prorogue it without its advice and consent . Parliament became a permanent feature of political life . The veto fell into disuse because Sovereigns feared that if they denied legislation Parliament would deny them money . No Sovereign has denied royal assent since Queen Anne vetoed the Scottish Militia Bill in 1708 . Treasury officials and other department heads were drawn into Parliament serving as liaisons between it and the Sovereign . Ministers had to present the government 's policies , and negotiate with Members to gain the support of the majority ; they had to explain the government 's financial needs , suggest ways of meeting them and give an account of how money had been spent . The Sovereign 's representatives attended Commons sessions so regularly that they were given reserved seats at the front , known as the Treasury Bench . This is the beginning of `` unity of powers '' : the Sovereign 's Ministers ( the Executive ) became leading members of Parliament ( the Legislature ) . Today the Prime Minister ( First Lord of the Treasury ) , the Chancellor of the Exchequer ( responsible for The Budget ) and other senior members of the Cabinet sit on the Treasury bench and present policies in much the same way Ministers did late in the 17th century . Standing Order 66 After the Revolution , there was a constant threat that non-government members of Parliament would ruin the country 's finances by proposing ill-considered money bills . Vying for control to avoid chaos , the Crown 's Ministers gained an advantage in 1706 , when the Commons informally declared , `` That this House will receive no petition for any sum of money relating to public Service , but what is recommended from the Crown . '' On 11 June 1713 , this non-binding rule became Standing Order 66 : that `` the Commons would not vote money for any purpose , except on a motion of a Minister of the Crown . '' Standing Order 66 remains in effect today ( though renumbered as no . 48 ) , essentially unchanged for three hundred years . Empowering Ministers with sole financial initiative had an immediate and lasting impact . Apart from achieving its intended purpose – to stabilise the budgetary process – it gave the Crown a leadership role in the Commons ; and , the Lord Treasurer assumed a leading position among Ministers . The power of financial initiative was not , however , absolute . Only Ministers might initiate money bills , but Parliament now reviewed and consented to them . Standing Order 66 therefore represents the beginnings of Ministerial responsibility and accountability . The term `` Prime Minister '' appears at this time as an unofficial title for the leader of the government , usually the head of the Treasury . Jonathan Swift , for example , wrote in 1713 about `` those who are now commonly called Prime Minister among us '' , referring to Sidney Godolphin , 1st Earl of Godolphin and Robert Harley , Queen Anne 's Lord Treasurers and chief ministers . Since 1721 , every head of the Sovereign 's government – with one exception in the 18th century ( William Pitt the Elder ) and one in the 19th ( Lord Salisbury ) – has been First Lord of the Treasury . Beginnings of the Prime Minister 's party leadership Political parties first appeared during the Exclusion Crisis of 1678–1681 . The Whigs , who believed in limited monarchy , wanted to exclude James Stuart from succeeding to the throne because he was a Catholic . The Tories , who believed in the `` Divine Right of Kings '' , defended James ' hereditary claim . These parties dominated British politics for over 150 years , with the Whigs evolving into the Liberal Party and the Tories into the Conservative . Even today , Conservatives are often called `` Tories '' . Political parties were not well organised or disciplined in the 17th century . They were more like factions with `` members '' drifting in and out , collaborating temporarily on issues when it was to their advantage , then disbanding when it was not . A major deterrent to the development of opposing parties was the idea that there could only be one `` King 's Party '' and to oppose it would be disloyal or even treasonous . This idea lingered throughout the 18th century . Nevertheless it became possible at the end of the 17th century to identify Parliaments and Ministries as being either `` Whig '' or `` Tory '' in composition . Cabinet The modern Prime Minister is also the leader of the Cabinet . A convention of the constitution , the modern Cabinet is a group of ministers who formulate policies . As the political heads of government departments Cabinet Ministers ensure that policies are carried out by permanent civil servants . Although the modern Prime Minister selects Ministers , appointment still rests with the Sovereign . With the Prime Minister as its leader , the Cabinet forms the executive branch of government . The term `` Cabinet '' first appears after the Revolutionary Settlement to describe those ministers who conferred privately with the Sovereign . The growth of the Cabinet met with widespread complaint and opposition because its meetings were often held in secret and it excluded the ancient Privy Council ( of which the Cabinet is formally a committee ) from the Sovereign 's circle of advisers , reducing it to an honorary body . The early Cabinet , like that of today , included the Treasurer and other department heads who sat on the Treasury bench . However , it might also include individuals who were not members of Parliament such as household officers ( e.g . the Master of the Horse ) and members of the royal family . The exclusion of non-members of Parliament from the Cabinet was essential to the development of ministerial accountability and responsibility . Both William and Anne appointed and dismissed Cabinet members , attended meetings , made decisions , and followed up on actions . Relieving the Sovereign of these responsibilities and gaining control over the Cabinet 's composition was an essential part of evolution of the Premiership . This process began after the Hanoverian Succession . Although George I ( 1714–1727 ) attended Cabinet meetings at first , after 1717 he withdrew because he did not speak fluent English and was bored with the discussions . George II ( 1727–1760 ) occasionally presided at Cabinet meetings but his grandson , George III ( 1760–1820 ) , is known to have attended only two during his 60-year reign . Thus , the convention that Sovereigns do not attend Cabinet meetings was established primarily through royal indifference to the everyday tasks of governance . The Prime Minister became responsible for calling meetings , presiding , taking notes , and reporting to the Sovereign . These simple executive tasks naturally gave the Prime Minister ascendancy over his Cabinet colleagues . Although the first three Hanoverians rarely attended Cabinet meetings they insisted on their prerogatives to appoint and dismiss ministers and to direct policy even if from outside the Cabinet . It was not until late in the 18th century that Prime Ministers gained control over Cabinet composition ( see section Emergence of Cabinet Government below ) . `` One Party Government '' British governments ( or Ministries ) are generally formed by one party . The Prime Minister and Cabinet are usually all members of the same political party , almost always the one that has a majority of seats in the House of Commons . Coalition governments ( a ministry that consists of representatives from two or more parties ) and minority governments ( a one-party ministry formed by a party that does not command a majority in the Commons ) are relatively rare . `` One party government '' , as this system is sometimes called , has been the general rule for almost three hundred years . Early in his reign , William III ( 1689–1702 ) preferred `` Mixed Ministries '' ( or coalitions ) consisting of both Tories and Whigs . William thought this composition would dilute the power of any one party and also give him the benefit of differing points of view . However , this approach did not work well because the members could not agree on a leader or on policies , and often worked at odds with each other . In 1697 , William formed a homogeneous Whig ministry . Known as the Junto , this government is often cited as the first true Cabinet because its members were all Whigs , reflecting the majority composition of the Commons . Anne ( 1702–1714 ) followed this pattern but preferred Tory Cabinets . This approach worked well as long as Parliament was also predominantly Tory . However , in 1708 , when the Whigs obtained a majority , Anne did not call on them to form a government , refusing to accept the idea that politicians could force themselves on her merely because their party had a majority . She never parted with an entire Ministry or accepted an entirely new one regardless of the results of an election . Anne preferred to retain a minority government rather than be dictated to by Parliament . Consequently , her chief ministers Sidney Godolphin , 1st Earl of Godolphin and Robert Harley , who were called `` Prime Minister '' by some , had difficulty executing policy in the face of a hostile Parliament . William 's and Anne 's experiments with the political composition of the Cabinet illustrated the strengths of one party government and the weaknesses of coalition and minority governments . Nevertheless , it was not until the 1830s that the constitutional convention was established that the Sovereign must select the Prime Minister ( and Cabinet ) from the party whose views reflect those of the majority in Parliament . Since then , most ministries have reflected this one party rule . Despite the `` one party '' convention , Prime Ministers may still be called upon to lead either minority or coalition governments . A minority government may be formed as a result of a `` hung parliament '' in which no single party commands a majority in the House of Commons after a general election or the death , resignation or defection of existing members . By convention the serving Prime Minister is given the first opportunity to reach agreements that will allow them to survive a vote of confidence in the House and continue to govern . The last minority government was led by Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson for eight months after the February 1974 general election produced a hung parliament . In the October 1974 general election , the Labour Party gained 18 seats , giving Wilson a majority of three . A hung parliament may also lead to the formation of a coalition government in which two or more parties negotiate a joint programme to command a majority in the Commons . Coalitions have also been formed during times of national crisis such as war . Under such circumstances , the parties agree to temporarily set aside their political differences and to unite to face the national crisis . Coalitions are rare : since 1721 , there have been fewer than a dozen . When the general election of 2010 produced a hung parliament , the Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties agreed to form the first Cameron ministry , the first coalition in seventy years . The previous coalition in the UK before 2010 was led by Conservative Prime Minister Winston Churchill during most of the Second World War , from May 1940 to May 1945 . Clement Attlee , the leader of the Labour Party , served as deputy prime minister . After the general election of 2015 , the nation returned to one party government after the Tories won an outright majority . Treasury Commission The Premiership is still largely a convention of the constitution ; its legal authority is derived primarily from the fact that the Prime Minister is also First Lord of the Treasury . The connection of these two offices – one a convention , the other a legal office – began with the Hanoverian Succession in 1714 . When George I succeeded to the British throne in 1714 , his German ministers advised him to leave the office of Lord High Treasurer vacant because those who had held it in recent years had grown overly powerful , in effect , replacing the Sovereign as head of the government . They also feared that a Lord High Treasurer would undermine their own influence with the new King . They therefore suggested that he place the office in `` commission '' , meaning that a committee of five ministers would perform its functions together . Theoretically , this dilution of authority would prevent any one of them from presuming to be the head of the government . The King agreed and created the Treasury Commission consisting of the First Lord of the Treasury , the Second Lord , and three Junior Lords . No one has been appointed Lord High Treasurer since 1714 ; it has remained in commission for three hundred years . The Treasury Commission ceased to meet late in the 18th century but has survived , albeit with very different functions : the First Lord of the Treasury is now the Prime Minister , the Second Lord is the Chancellor of the Exchequer ( and actually in charge of the Treasury ) , and the Junior Lords are government Whips maintaining party discipline in the House of Commons ; they no longer have any duties related to the Treasury , though when subordinate legislation requires the consent of the Treasury it is still two of the Junior Lords who sign on its behalf.See e.g . the various orders prescribing fees to be taken in public offices Early prime ministers `` First '' Prime Minister Since the office evolved rather than being instantly created , it may not be totally clear-cut who was the first Prime Minister . However , this appellation is traditionally given to Sir Robert Walpole who became First Lord of the Treasury in 1721 . In 1720 , the South Sea Company , created to trade in cotton , agricultural goods and slaves , collapsed , causing the financial ruin of thousands of investors and heavy losses for many others , including members of the royal family . King George I called on Robert Walpole , well known for his political and financial acumen , to handle the emergency . With considerable skill and some luck , Walpole acted quickly to restore public credit and confidence , and led the country out of the crisis . A year later , the King appointed him First Lord of the Treasury , Chancellor of the Exchequer , and Leader of the House of Commons – making him the most powerful minister in the government . Ruthless , crude , and hard-working , he had a `` sagacious business sense '' and was a superb manager of men . At the head of affairs for the next two decades , Walpole stabilised the nation 's finances , kept it at peace , made it prosperous , and secured the Hanoverian Succession . Walpole demonstrated for the first time how a chief minister – a Prime Minister – could be the actual Head of the Government under the new constitutional framework . First , recognising that the Sovereign could no longer govern directly but was still the nominal head of the government , he insisted that he was nothing more than the `` King 's Servant '' . Second , recognising that power had shifted to the Commons , he conducted the nation 's business there and made it dominant over the Lords in all matters . Third , recognising that the Cabinet had become the executive and must be united , he dominated the other members and demanded their complete support for his policies . Fourth , recognising that political parties were the source of ministerial strength , he led the Whig party and maintained discipline . In the Commons , he insisted on the support of all Whig members , especially those who held office . Finally , he set an example for future Prime Ministers by resigning his offices in 1742 after a vote of confidence , which he won by just 3 votes . The slimness of this majority undermined his power , even though he still retained the confidence of the Sovereign . Ambivalence and denial For all his contributions , Walpole was not a Prime Minister in the modern sense . The King – not Parliament – chose him ; and the King – not Walpole – chose the Cabinet . Walpole set an example , not a precedent , and few followed his example . For over 40 years after Walpole 's fall in 1742 , there was widespread ambivalence about the position . In some cases , the Prime Minister was a figurehead with power being wielded by other individuals ; in others there was a reversion to the `` chief minister '' model of earlier times in which the Sovereign actually governed . At other times , there appeared to be two prime ministers . During Britain 's participation in the Seven Years ' War , for example , the powers of government were divided equally between the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt , 1st Earl of Chatham , leading to them both alternatively being described as Prime Minister . Furthermore , many thought that the title `` Prime Minister '' usurped the Sovereign 's constitutional position as `` head of the government '' and that it was an affront to other ministers because they were all appointed by and equally responsible to the Sovereign . For these reasons there was a reluctance to use the title . Although Walpole is now called the `` first '' Prime Minister , the title was not commonly used during his tenure . Walpole himself denied it . In 1741 , during the attack that led to Walpole 's downfall , Samuel Sandys declared that `` According to our Constitution we can have no sole and prime minister . '' In his defence , Walpole said `` I unequivocally deny that I am sole or Prime Minister and that to my influence and direction all the affairs of government must be attributed . '' George Grenville , Prime Minister in the 1760s , said it was `` an odious title '' and never used it . Lord North , the reluctant head of the King 's Government during the American War of Independence , `` would never suffer himself to be called Prime Minister , because it was an office unknown to the Constitution . '' The 18th-century ambivalence causes problems for researchers trying to identify who was a Prime Minister and who was not . Every list of Prime Ministers may omit certain politicians . For instance , unsuccessful attempts to form ministries – such as the two-day government formed by the Earl of

qb_4219--Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.txt

Who was British Prime Minister between Winston Churchill’s two terms in office?

The 2006 FIFA World Cup was the 18th FIFA World Cup , the quadrennial international football world championship tournament . It was held from 9 June to 9 July 2006 in Germany , which won the right to host the event in July 2000 . Teams representing 198 national football associations from all six populated continents participated in the qualification process which began in September 2003 . Thirty-one teams qualified from this process , along with the host nation , Germany , for the finals tournament . It was the second time that Germany staged the competition ( the first was in 1974 as West Germany and also a re-FIFA World Cup ) , and the tenth time that it was held in Europe . Italy won the tournament , claiming their fourth World Cup title . They defeated France 5–3 in a penalty shootout in the final , after extra time had finished in a 1–1 draw . Germany defeated Portugal 3–1 to finish in third place . Angola , Ghana , Ivory Coast , Serbia & Montenegro , Trinidad & Tobago and Togo made their first appearances in the finals . The 2006 World Cup stands as one of the most watched events in television history , garnering an estimated 26.29 billion non-unique viewers , compiled over the course of the tournament . The final attracted an estimated audience of 715.1 million people . The 2006 World Cup ranks fourth in non-unique viewers , behind the World Cup in 1994 , 2002 , and 1990 . As the winner , Italy represented the World in the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup . Host selection The vote to choose the hosts of the 2006 tournament was held in July 2000 in Zürich , Switzerland . It involved four bidding nations after Brazil had withdrawn three days earlier : Germany , South Africa , England and Morocco . Three rounds of voting were required , each round eliminating the nation with the least votes . The first two rounds were held on 6 July 2000 , and the final round was held on 7 July 2000 , which Germany won over South Africa . Bribery and corruption allegations Accusations of bribery and corruption have marred the success of Germany 's bid from the very beginning . On the very day of the vote , a hoax bribery affair was made public , leading to calls for a re-vote . On the night before the vote , German satirical magazine Titanic sent letters to FIFA representatives , offering joke gifts like cuckoo clocks and Black Forest ham in exchange for their vote for Germany . Oceania delegate Charlie Dempsey , who had initially backed England , had then been instructed to support South Africa following England 's elimination . He abstained , citing `` intolerable pressure '' on the eve of the vote . Had Dempsey voted as originally instructed , the vote would have resulted with a 12–12 tie , and FIFA president Sepp Blatter , who favoured the South African bid , would have had to cast the deciding vote . More irregularities surfaced soon after , including sudden interest of German politicians and major businesses in the four Asian countries , whose delegates were decisive for the vote , in the months leading up to the decision . Just a week before the vote , the German government under Chancellor Gerhard Schröder lifted their arms embargo on Saudi Arabia and agreed to send grenade launchers to the country . DaimlerChrysler invested several hundred million Euro in Hyundai , while one of the sons of the company 's founders was a member of FIFA 's executive committee . Both Volkswagen and Bayer announced investments in Thailand and South Korea , whose respective delegates Worawi Makudi and Chung Jong-Moon were possible votes for Germany . Makudi additionally received a payment by a company of German media mogul Leo Kirch , who also paid millions for usually worthless TV rights for friendly matches of the German team and FC Bayern Munich . On 16 October 2015 , the German news magazine Der Spiegel alleged that a slush fund with money from then-Adidas CEO Robert Louis-Dreyfus was used to influence the vote of four Asian members of the FIFA executive committee . The sum of 6.7 million Euro was later demanded back by Dreyfus . In order to retrieve the money , the Organizing Committee paid an aquivalent sum to the FIFA , allegedly as a German share for the cost of a closing ceremony , which never materialized . Wolfgang Niersbach , president of the German Football Association ( DFB ) , denied the allegations on 17 October 2015 , saying that `` the World Cup was not bought '' and that he could `` absolutely and categorically rule out the existence of a slush fund '' . The DFB announced they would consider seeking legal action against Der Spiegel . During a press conference on 22 October 2015 , Nierbach repeated his stance , emphasizing that the 6,7 million were used in 2002 to secure a subsidy by FIFA . According to Niersbach , the payment had been agreed upon during a meeting between Franz Beckenbauer and FIFA president Blatter , with the money being provided by Dreyfus . On the same day , FIFA contradicted Niersbach 's statement , saying : `` By our current state of knowledge , no such payment of 10 million Franks was registered by FIFA in 2002 . '' The following day , former DFB president Theo Zwanziger publicly accused Niersbach of lying , saying : `` It is evident that there was a slush fund for the German World Cup application '' . According to Zwanziger , the 6.7 million Euros went to Mohamed Bin Hammam , who at the time was supporting Blatter 's campaign for president against Issa Hayatou . On 22 March 2016 it was announced that the FIFA Ethics Committee was opening proceedings into the bid . Qualification 198 teams attempted to qualify for the 2006 World Cup . Germany , the host nation , was granted automatic qualification , with the remaining 31 finals places divided among the continental confederations . Thirteen places were contested by UEFA teams ( Europe ) , five by CAF teams ( Africa ) , four by CONMEBOL teams ( South America ) , four by AFC teams ( Asia ) , and three by CONCACAF teams ( North and Central America and Caribbean ) . The remaining two places were decided by playoffs between AFC and CONCACAF and between CONMEBOL and OFC ( Oceania ) . Eight nations qualified for the finals for the first time : Angola , Czech Republic , Ghana , Ivory Coast , Togo , Trinidad and Tobago , Ukraine , and Serbia and Montenegro . Czech Republic and Ukraine were making their first appearance as independent nations , but had previously been represented as part of Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union respectively ; Serbia and Montenegro had competed as Yugoslavia in 1998 , as well as making up part of Yugoslav teams from 1930 to 1990 . As of 2014 , this was the last time Tunisia , Saudi Arabia , Sweden , Togo , Angola , Czech Republic , Poland , Ukraine and Trinidad and Tobago qualified for a FIFA World Cup finals . Australia qualified for the first time since 1974 . Among the teams who failed to qualify were 2002 third-placed team Turkey and Euro 2004 winners Greece . Additionally , Belgium failed to qualify for the first time since 1978 , and Cameroon failed to qualify for the first time since 1986 . France had their first successful qualifying campaign since 1986 , as they did not qualify for the 1990 and 1994 World Cups , in 1998 they were automatically qualified as hosts and in 2002 as defending champions . For the first time since the 1982 World Cup , all six confederations were represented at the finals tournament . List of qualified teams The following 32 teams , shown with final pre-tournament rankings , qualified for the final tournament : ; AFC ( 4 ) * * * * ; CAF ( 5 ) * * * * * ; CONCACAF ( 4 ) * * * * ; CONMEBOL ( 4 ) * * * * ; OFC ( 1 ) * ; UEFA ( 14 ) * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Venues In 2006 , Germany had a plethora of football stadia that satisfied FIFA 's minimum capacity of 40,000 seats for World Cup matches . The still-standing Olympiastadion in Munich ( 69,250 ) was not used even though FIFA 's regulations allow one city to use two stadia ; Düsseldorf 's LTU Arena ( 51,500 ) , Bremen 's Weserstadion ( 43,000 ) and Mönchengladbach 's Borussia-Park ( 46,249 ) were also unemployed during the tournament . Twelve stadia were selected to host the World Cup matches . During the tournament , many of them were known by different names , as FIFA prohibits sponsorship of stadia unless the stadium sponsors were also official FIFA sponsors . For example , the Allianz Arena in Munich was known during the competition as FIFA World Cup Stadium , Munich ( or in ) , and even the letters of the company Allianz were removed or covered . Some of the stadia also had a lower capacity for the World Cup , as FIFA regulations ban standing room ; nonetheless , this was accommodated as several stadia had an UEFA 5-star ranking . Match officials Squads Squads for the 2006 World Cup consisted of 23 players , as in the previous tournament in 2002 . Each participating national association had to confirm its 23-player squad by 15 May 2006 . Groups Seeds The eight seeded teams for the 2006 tournament were announced on 6 December 2005 . The seeds comprised Pot A in the draw . Pot B contained the unseeded qualifiers from South America , Africa and Oceania ; Pot C contained eight of the nine remaining European teams , excluding Serbia and Montenegro . Pot D contained unseeded teams from the CONCACAF region and Asia . A special pot contained Serbia and Montenegro : this was done to ensure that no group contained three European teams . In the special pot , Serbia and Montenegro was drawn first , then their group was drawn from the three seeded non-European nations , Argentina , Brazil , and Mexico . It had been predetermined that , as the host , Germany would be placed in Group A , thus being assured of the venues of their group matches in advance of the draw . FIFA had also announced in advance that Brazil ( the defending champion ) would be allocated to Group F . On 9 December 2005 the draw was held , and the group assignments and order of matches were determined . After the draw was completed , commentators remarked that Group C appeared to be the group of death , while others suggested Group E. Argentina and the Netherlands both qualified with a game to spare with wins over Ivory Coast and Serbia and Montenegro respectively . Group system The first round , or group stage , saw the thirty-two teams divided into eight groups of four teams . Each group was a round-robin of three games , where each team played one match against each of the other teams in the same group . Teams were awarded three points for a win , one point for a draw and none for a defeat . The teams coming first and second in each group qualified for the Round of 16 . Ranking criteria If teams were level on points , they were ranked on the following criteria in order : In the original version of the rules for the final tournament , the ranking criteria were in a different order , with head-to-head results taking precedence over total goal difference . The rules were changed to the above in advance of the tournament , but older versions were still available on the FIFA and UEFA websites , causing some confusion among those trying to identify the correct criteria . In any event , the final tournament saw only two pairs of teams level on points : Argentina and the Netherlands at 7 points in Group C ; Tunisia and Saudi Arabia at 1 point in Group H. Both of these ties were resolved on total goal difference . Also , in both cases the teams had tied their match , so the order of ranking criteria made no difference . Finals tournament The finals tournament of the 2006 World Cup began on 9 June . The 32 teams were divided into eight groups of four teams each , within which the teams competed in a round-robin tournament to determine which two of those four teams would advance to the sixteen-team knock-out stage , which started on 24 June . In total , 64 games were played . Hosting Although Germany failed to win the Cup , the tournament was considered a great success for Germany in general . Germany also experienced a sudden increase in patriotic spirit with flag waving , traditionally frowned upon by German society since World War II , whenever the German team played . For the closing ceremonies , Matthias Keller composed a work performed simultaneously by the Munich Philharmonic Orchestra , the Bavarian State Orchestra and the Bavarian Radio Orchestra with conductors Christian Thielemann , Zubin Mehta , and Mariss Jansons , and soloists Diana Damrau , Plácido Domingo and Lang Lang . Traditional powers dominate Despite early success by Australia , Ecuador and Ghana , the tournament marked a return to dominance of the traditional football powers . Four years after a 2002 tournament in which teams from North America ( United States ) , Africa ( Senegal ) , and Asia ( South Korea ) made it deep into the knockout stages and Turkey finished third , all eight seeded teams progressed to the knockout stages , and none of the quarter-finalists were from outside Europe or South America . Six former champions took part in the quarter-final round , with Ukraine and Euro 2004 runners-up Portugal as the only relative outsiders . Argentina and Brazil were eliminated in the quarter-finals , leaving an all-European final four for only the fourth time ( after the 1934 , 1966 and 1982 tournaments ) . Scoring Despite the early goals that flooded the group stages , the knock-out phase had a much lower goals per match ratio . A prime example of the dearth of goals was Portugal , which only scored in the 23rd minute of the Round of 16 , and did not score again until the 88th minute of the third place play-off . No player managed to score a hat-trick in this tournament . Italy , Germany , Argentina , Brazil and France were the only teams to score more than one goal in a knockout match . Germany was one of the exceptions , tending to play an attacking style of football throughout the knock-out stage , which was reflected by the fact that they scored the most number of goals ( 14 ) , with players from all three outfield positions ( defence , midfield and forward ) making the scoresheet . Germany 's Miroslav Klose scored five goals to claim the Golden Boot , the lowest total to win the prize since 1962 . No other player scored more than three goals . No player from the winning Italian squad scored more than two goals , though ten different players had scored for the team , tying France 's record in 1982 for the most goalscorers from any one team . For the first time ever in the FIFA World Cup , the first and last goals of the tournament were scored by defenders . Philipp Lahm , the German left wingback , scored the opener against Costa Rica after only 5 minutes of the opening match . In the final , Marco Materazzi , the Italian centre back , out-jumped Patrick Vieira and headed in the last goal of the 2006 FIFA World Cup . Unprecedented number of cards The tournament had a record number of yellow and red cards , breaking the previous record set by the 1998 World Cup . Players received a record-breaking 345 yellow cards and 28 red cards , with Russian referee Valentin Ivanov handing out 16 yellow and 4 red cards in the round of 16 match between Portugal and the Netherlands , in a match known as the Battle of Nuremberg . Portugal had two players suspended for each of the quarter-final and semi-final matches , respectively . FIFA President Sepp Blatter hinted that he may allow some rule changes for future tournaments so that earlier accumulated bookings will not force players to miss the final , should their teams make it that far . The tournament also saw English referee Graham Poll mistakenly hand out three yellow cards to Croatia 's Josip Šimunić in their match against Australia . The high number of yellow and red cards shown also prompted discussion about the referees . FIFA Officials and President Sepp Blatter received criticism for allegedly making rules too rigid and taking discretion away from referees . Results Group stage All times are Central European Summer Time ( UTC+2 ) . In the following tables : * Pld = total games played * W = total games won * D = total games drawn ( tied ) * L = total games lost * GF = total goals scored ( goals for ) * GA = total goals conceded ( goals against ) * GD = goal difference ( GF−GA ) * Pts = total points accumulated Group A In the opening match of the tournament , Germany and Costa Rica played a game which ended 4–2 for the host in the highest scoring opening match in the tournament 's history . Germany went on to win the Group A after edging Poland and breezing past Ecuador 3–0 . Despite the defeat , Ecuador had already joined the host in the Round of 16 having beaten Poland and Costa Rica 2–0 and 3–0 , respectively . Group B In Group B , England and Sweden pushed Paraguay into third place after narrow victories over the South Americans . Trinidad and Tobago earned some international respect after a draw with Sweden in their opening game and managing to hold England scoreless for 83 minutes , until goals from Peter Crouch and Steven Gerrard sealed a 2–0 win for the Three Lions . Sweden qualified for the knockout rounds after drawing 2–2 with England to maintain their 38-year unbeaten record against them . Group C Both Argentina and Netherlands qualified from Group C with a game remaining , Argentina topping the group on goal difference having hammered Serbia and Montenegro 6–0 and beating Ivory Coast 2–1 . The Dutch picked up 1–0 and 2–1 victories over Serbia and Montenegro and Ivory Coast , respectively . Ivory Coast defeated Serbia and Montenegro 3–2 in their final game , in Serbia & Montenegro 's last ever international before the break-up of the country . Group D Portugal coasted through in Group D , picking up the maximum number of points , with Mexico qualifying in second . Iran missed chances against Mexico in their opening 1–3 defeat and were eliminated in their match against Portugal . They fought hard against the Portuguese , but went down 2–0 . Their last game against Angola ended in 1–1 draw . The Africans had a respectable first World Cup tournament after earning draws with Mexico ( 0–0 ) and Iran . Group E In Group E , Italy went through to the Round of 16 conceding just one goal ( an own goal ) in the group phase against the United States . The US bowed out of the tournament after disappointing results against the Czech Republic and Ghana , 0–3 and 1–2 , respectively , despite a 1–1 draw ( finishing with 9 vs 10 men ) against Italy . Tournament debutant Ghana joined Italy in the round of 16 , following victories over the Czech Republic and the United States . Daniele De Rossi was suspended for 4 games following his sending-off against the United States . Group F Group F included the reigning World Champions Brazil , Croatia , Japan , and Australia . Playing in their first World Cup for 32 years , Australia came from behind to defeat Japan 3–1 , and , despite losing 0–2 to Brazil , a 2–2 draw with Croatia was enough to give the Australians a place in the Round of 16 in a game where two players were sent-off for second bookings and one for a third booking by English referee Graham Poll . Australia became the first Oceanian team to reach the knockout stages . The Brazilians won all three games to qualify first in the group . Their 1–0 win against Croatia was through a goal late in the first-half by Kaká . Croatia and Japan went out of the tournament without a single win . Group G France only managed a scoreless draw against Switzerland and a 1–1 draw against South Korea . With captain Zinedine Zidane suspended , their 2–0 win against Togo was enough for them to advance to the knockout round . They were joined by the group winners , Switzerland , who defeated South Korea 2–0 , and did not concede a goal in the tournament . South Korea won their first World Cup finals match outside their own country in defeating Togo , but four points were not enough to see them through to the round of 16 ( the only team for which this was the case ) , while Togo exited without a point . Group H Spain dominated Group H , picking up the maximum number of points , scoring 8 goals , and conceding only 1 . Ukraine , despite being beaten 4–0 by Spain in their first World Cup game , took advantage of the weaker opponents to beat Saudi Arabia 4–0 and scrape past Tunisia 1–0 thanks to a 70th-minute penalty by Andriy Shevchenko , to reach the Round of 16 . Saudi Arabia and Tunisia went out of the tournament having 1 point each , thanks to a 2–2 draw against each other . Knockout stage The knockout stage involved the sixteen teams that qualified from the group stage of the tournament . There were four rounds of matches , with each round eliminating half of the teams entering that round . The successive rounds were : round of 16 , quarter-finals , semi-finals , and final . There was also a play-off to decide third/fourth place . For each game in the knockout stage , a draw was followed by thirty minutes of extra time ( two 15-minute halves ) ; if scores were still level there would be a penalty shoot-out ( at least five penalties each , and more if necessary ) to determine who progressed to the next round . Scores after extra time are indicated by ( aet ) , and penalty shoot-outs are indicated by ( pen . ) . Round of 16 In the second round , conceding two early goals in the first twelve minutes to Germany effectively ended the Swedes ' hopes of progressing to the quarter-finals . Argentina struggled to get past Mexico until a Maxi Rodríguez goal in extra time put the Albiceleste in the quarter-finals . Australia 's journey ended when Italians were awarded a controversial penalty , scored by Francesco Totti , deep into the remaining seconds of the match . The Italians had spent much of the game with only ten men on the field , following an equally controversial red card shown to centre back Marco Materazzi . In a 0–0 match , Switzerland failed to convert any of their three penalties in the penalty shoot-out against Ukraine to see them exit the competition with an unwanted new record in becoming the first team in a World Cup to fail to convert any penalties in a shootout . Their elimination also meant that they became the first nation to be eliminated from the World Cup without conceding any goals ( and indeed the only nation ever to participate in a World Cup finals tournament without conceding a goal ) . England struggled against Ecuador but won 1–0 thanks to a David Beckham free kick . Brazil won 3–0 against Ghana , in a game which included Ronaldo 's record 15th World Cup goal . Der Spiegel reported that the match may have been influenced by an Asian betting syndicate . Portugal defeated the Netherlands 1–0 . The only goal came courtesy of a Maniche strike in an acrimonious match , which marked a new World Cup record with 16 yellow cards ( Portugal : 9 , the Netherlands : 7 ) and 4 players being sent off for a second bookable offence . France came from behind to defeat Spain 3–1 thanks to goals from Franck Ribéry , Patrick Vieira , and Zinedine Zidane . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Quarter-finals Germany and Argentina ended 1–1 after extra time ; the hosts edged out the Argentinians 4–2 on penalties to go through to the semifinals ( this was the first time Argentina had lost a World Cup penalty shootout : up until this match , both Argentina and Germany had participated in three penalty shootouts , winning all of them ) . In Gelsenkirchen , when England faced Portugal , Wayne Rooney was sent off , and Portugal won the penalty shoot-out 3–1 after a 0–0 draw to reach their first World Cup semi-final since the days of Eusébio 40 years earlier , and ensure manager Luiz Felipe Scolari 's third consecutive tournament quarter-final win over Sven-Göran Eriksson 's England . Italy defeated quarter-final debutants Ukraine 3–0 . France eliminated Brazil 1–0 to advance into the semi-finals . Brazil only managed one shot on goal , while Zinedine Zidane 's dribbling earned him Man of the Match and his free-kick to Thierry Henry resulted in the winning goal . -- -- -- -- -- -- Semi-finals With Argentina and Brazil eliminated in the quarter-finals , an all-European semi-final line up was completed for only the fourth time ( after the 1934 , 1966 and 1982 tournaments ) . The semi-final between Germany and Italy produced an extra time period that went scoreless until the 118th minute , when Italy scored twice through Fabio Grosso and Alessandro Del Piero , putting an end to Germany 's undefeated record in Dortmund . With this win , Italy continued their dominance over Germany . In the second semi-final , Portugal lost to France 1–0 in Munich . In a repeat of the Euro 1984 and Euro 2000 semi-finals , Portugal were defeated by France , with the decisive goal being a penalty scored by France captain Zinedine Zidane . -- -- Third place play-off The hosts got three goals in 20 minutes in the second half with the help of 21-year-old left midfielder Bastian Schweinsteiger . His first goal beat the Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo with pace over his head . Only 4 minutes later , Schweinsteiger 's free kick 30 metres from the left of the penalty box , driven low across goal , was connected with Petit 's knee to become an own goal for Portugal . The German did not stop , and netted his second goal , which swerved away to the keeper 's left , in the 78th minute . Portugal were strong in possession but lacked punch in attack ; unable to convert 57 % possession into goals . Pauleta had two clear chances from 15 metres , but both times hit tame shots that did not trouble keeper Oliver Kahn , who was playing in his last match for the German national team . Portugal got a consolation goal with the help of substitute Luís Figo ( also playing the

qw_6538--2006_FIFA_World_Cup.txt

Where was the first competition named the FIFA Club World Cup held in 2006?

William Shakespeare ( ; 26 April 1564 ( baptised ) – 23 April 1616 ) was an English : poet , : playwright , and actor , widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world 's pre-eminent dramatist . ; ; . He is often called England 's national poet , and the `` Bard of Avon '' . His extant works , including collaborations , consist of approximately 38 plays , 154 sonnets , two long narrative poems , and a few other verses , some of uncertain authorship . His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright . Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon , Warwickshire . At the age of 18 , he married Anne Hathaway , with whom he had three children : Susanna , and twins Hamnet and Judith . Sometime between 1585 and 1592 , he began a successful career in London as an actor , writer , and part-owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , later known as the King 's Men . He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613 , at age 49 , where he died three years later . Few records of Shakespeare 's private life survive , which has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance , sexuality , and religious beliefs , and whether the works attributed to him were written by others . Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613 . His early plays were primarily comedies and histories , and these are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres . He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608 , including Hamlet , Othello , King Lear , and Macbeth , considered some of the finest works in the English language . In his last phase , he wrote tragicomedies , also known as romances , and collaborated with other playwrights . Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime . In 1623 , however , John Heminges and Henry Condell , two friends and fellow actors of Shakespeare , published a more definitive text known as the First Folio , a posthumous collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare 's . It was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson , in which Shakespeare is hailed , presciently , as `` not of an age , but for all time '' .The Norton Anthology of English Literature : Sixteenth/Early Seventeenth Century , Volume B , 2012 , pg . 1168 In the 20th and 21st centuries , his works have been repeatedly adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance . His plays remain highly popular , and are constantly studied , performed , and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world . Life Early life William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare , an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield , and Mary Arden , the daughter of an affluent landowning farmer . He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564 . His actual date of birth remains unknown , but is traditionally observed on 23 April , Saint George 's Day . This date , which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholar 's mistake , has proved appealing to biographers , because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 . He was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son . Although no attendance records for the period survive , most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King 's New School in Stratford , a free school chartered in 1553 , about a quarter-mile ( 400 m ) from his home . Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era , but grammar school curricula were largely similar : the basic Latin text was standardised by royal decree , and the school would have provided an intensive education in grammar based upon Latin classical authors . At the age of 18 , Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway . The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582 . The next day , two of Hathaway 's neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage . The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste , since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times , and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter , Susanna , baptised 26 May 1583 . Twins , son Hamnet and daughter Judith , followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585 . Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596 . After the birth of the twins , Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592 . The exception is the appearance of his name in the `` complaints bill '' of a law case before the Queen 's Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589 . Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare 's `` lost years '' . Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories . Nicholas Rowe , Shakespeare 's first biographer , recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy . Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him . Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London . John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster . Some 20th-century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire , a Catholic landowner who named a certain `` William Shakeshafte '' in his will . Little evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death , and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area . London and theatrical career It is not known definitively when Shakespeare began writing , but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592 . By then , he was sufficiently known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in his Groats-Worth of Wit : ... there is an upstart Crow , beautified with our feathers , that with his Tiger 's heart wrapped in a Player 's hide , supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you : and being an absolute Johannes factotum , is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country . Scholars differ on the exact meaning of Greene 's words , ; . but most agree that Greene is accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match such university-educated writers as Christopher Marlowe , Thomas Nashe and Greene himself ( the so-called `` university wits '' ) . The italicised phrase parodying the line `` Oh , tiger 's heart wrapped in a woman 's hide '' from Shakespeare 's Henry VI , Part 3 , along with the pun `` Shake-scene '' , clearly identify Shakespeare as Greene 's target . As used here , Johannes Factotum ( `` Jack of all trades '' ) refers to a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others , rather than the more common `` universal genius '' . Greene 's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare 's work in the theatre . Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s , to just before Greene 's remarks . After 1594 , Shakespeare 's plays were performed only by the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , a company owned by a group of players , including Shakespeare , that soon became the leading playing company in London . After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603 , the company was awarded a royal patent by the new King James I , and changed its name to the King 's Men . In 1599 , a partnership of members of the company built their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames , which they named the Globe . In 1608 , the partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre . Extant records of Shakespeare 's property purchases and investments indicate that his association with the company made him a wealthy man , and in 1597 he bought the second-largest house in Stratford , New Place , and in 1605 , invested in a share of the parish tithes in Stratford . Some of Shakespeare 's plays were published in quarto editions beginning in 1594 , and by 1598 , his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages . Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright . The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson 's Works names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour ( 1598 ) and Sejanus His Fall ( 1603 ) . The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson 's Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end . The First Folio of 1623 , however , lists Shakespeare as one of `` the Principal Actors in all these Plays '' , some of which were first staged after Volpone , although we can not know for certain which roles he played . In 1610 , John Davies of Hereford wrote that `` good Will '' played `` kingly '' roles . In 1709 , Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet 's father . Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You Like It , and the Chorus in Henry V , though scholars doubt the sources of that information . Throughout his career , Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford . In 1596 , the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford , Shakespeare was living in the parish of St. Helen 's , Bishopsgate , north of the River Thames . He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599 , the same year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there . By 1604 , he had moved north of the river again , to an area north of St Paul 's Cathedral with many fine houses . There he rented rooms from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy , a maker of ladies ' wigs and other headgear . Later years and death Rowe was the first biographer to record the tradition , repeated by Johnson , that Shakespeare retired to Stratford `` some years before his death '' .. He was still working as an actor in London in 1608 ; in an answer to the sharers ' petition in 1635 Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry Evans , the King 's Men `` placed men players '' there , `` which were Heminges , Condell , Shakespeare , etc . `` . However it is perhaps relevant that the bubonic plague raged in London throughout 1609 . The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed during extended outbreaks of the plague ( a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 and February 1610 ) , which meant there was often no acting work . Retirement from all work was uncommon at that time . Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611–1614 . In 1612 , he was called as a witness in Bellott v. Mountjoy , a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy 's daughter , Mary . In March 1613 he bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriars priory ; and from November 1614 he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law , John Hall . After 1610 , Shakespeare wrote fewer plays , and none are attributed to him after 1613 . His last three plays were collaborations , probably with John Fletcher , who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King 's Men . Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 , at the age of 52 . He died within a month of signing his will , a document which he begins by describing himself as being in `` perfect health '' . No extant contemporary source explains how or why he died . Half a century later , John Ward , the vicar of Stratford , wrote in his notebook : `` Shakespeare , Drayton and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and , it seems , drank too hard , for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted '' , not an impossible scenario , since Shakespeare knew Jonson and Drayton . Of the tributes from fellow authors , one refers to his relatively sudden death : `` We wondered , Shakespeare , that thou went'st so soon/From the world 's stage to the grave 's tiring room . '' He was survived by his wife and two daughters . Susanna had married a physician , John Hall , in 1607 , and Judith had married Thomas Quiney , a vintner , two months before Shakespeare 's death . Shakespeare signed his last will and testament on 25 March 1616 ; the following day his new son-in-law , Thomas Quiney was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate son by Margaret Wheeler , who had died during childbirth . Thomas was ordered by the church court to do public penance , which would have caused much shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family . Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna under stipulations that she pass it down intact to `` the first son of her body '' . The Quineys had three children , all of whom died without marrying . The Halls had one child , Elizabeth , who married twice but died without children in 1670 , ending Shakespeare 's direct line . Shakespeare 's will scarcely mentions his wife , Anne , who was probably entitled to one third of his estate automatically . He did make a point , however , of leaving her `` my second best bed '' , a bequest that has led to much speculation . Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne , whereas others believe that the second-best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance . Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trinity Church two days after his death . The epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave includes a curse against moving his bones , which was carefully avoided during restoration of the church in 2008 : Good frend for Iesvs sake forbeare , To digg the dvst encloased heare . Bleste be man spares thes stones , And cvrst be he moves my bones . ( Modern spelling : Good friend , for Jesus ' sake forbear , / To dig the dust enclosed here . / Blessed be the man that spares these stones , / And cursed be he that moves my bones . ) Sometime before 1623 , a funerary monument was erected in his memory on the north wall , with a half-effigy of him in the act of writing . Its plaque compares him to Nestor , Socrates , and Virgil . In 1623 , in conjunction with the publication of the First Folio , the Droeshout engraving was published . Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world , including funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Poets ' Corner in Westminster Abbey . Plays Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at some point , and critics agree that Shakespeare did the same , mostly early and late in his career . Some attributions , such as Titus Andronicus and the early history plays , remain controversial , while The Two Noble Kinsmen and the lost Cardenio have well-attested contemporary documentation . Textual evidence also supports the view that several of the plays were revised by other writers after their original composition . The first recorded works of Shakespeare are Richard III and the three parts of Henry VI , written in the early 1590s during a vogue for historical drama . Shakespeare 's plays are difficult to date , however , and studies of the texts suggest that Titus Andronicus , The Comedy of Errors , The Taming of the Shrew and The Two Gentlemen of Verona may also belong to Shakespeare 's earliest period . His first histories , which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed 's Chronicles of England , Scotland , and Ireland , dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been interpreted as a justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty . The early plays were influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists , especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe , by the traditions of medieval drama , and by the plays of Seneca . The Comedy of Errors was also based on classical models , but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found , though it is related to a separate play of the same name and may have derived from a folk story . Like The Two Gentlemen of Verona , in which two friends appear to approve of rape , the Shrew 's story of the taming of a woman 's independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics and directors . Shakespeare 's early classical and Italianate comedies , containing tight double plots and precise comic sequences , give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies . A Midsummer Night 's Dream is a witty mixture of romance , fairy magic , and comic lowlife scenes . Shakespeare 's next comedy , the equally romantic Merchant of Venice , contains a portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock , which reflects Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern audiences . The wit and wordplay of Much Ado About Nothing , the charming rural setting of As You Like It , and the lively merrymaking of Twelfth Night complete Shakespeare 's sequence of great comedies . After the lyrical Richard II , written almost entirely in verse , Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s , Henry IV , parts 1 and 2 , and Henry V. His characters become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes , prose and poetry , and achieves the narrative variety of his mature work . This period begins and ends with two tragedies : Romeo and Juliet , the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence , love , and death ; and Julius Caesar—based on Sir Thomas North 's 1579 translation of Plutarch 's Parallel Lives—which introduced a new kind of drama . According to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro , in Julius Caesar `` the various strands of politics , character , inwardness , contemporary events , even Shakespeare 's own reflections on the act of writing , began to infuse each other '' . In the early 17th century , Shakespeare wrote the so-called `` problem plays '' Measure for Measure , Troilus and Cressida , and All 's Well That Ends Well and a number of his best known tragedies . Many critics believe that Shakespeare 's greatest tragedies represent the peak of his art . The titular hero of one of Shakespeare 's most famous tragedies , Hamlet , has probably been discussed more than any other Shakespearean character , especially for his famous soliloquy which begins `` To be or not to be ; that is the question '' . Unlike the introverted Hamlet , whose fatal flaw is hesitation , the heroes of the tragedies that followed , Othello and King Lear , are undone by hasty errors of judgement . The plots of Shakespeare 's tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws , which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves . In Othello , the villain Iago stokes Othello 's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent wife who loves him . In King Lear , the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers , initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester and the murder of Lear 's youngest daughter Cordelia . According to the critic Frank Kermode , `` the play-offers neither its good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty '' . In Macbeth , the shortest and most compressed of Shakespeare 's tragedies , uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife , Lady Macbeth , to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne , until their own guilt destroys them in turn . In this play , Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure . His last major tragedies , Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus , contain some of Shakespeare 's finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic T. S. Eliot . In his final period , Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major plays : Cymbeline , The Winter 's Tale and The Tempest , as well as the collaboration , Pericles , Prince of Tyre . Less bleak than the tragedies , these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s , but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors . Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare 's part , but it may merely reflect the theatrical fashion of the day . Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving plays , Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen , probably with John Fletcher . Performances It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays . The title page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that the play had been acted by three different troupes . After the plagues of 1592–3 , Shakespeare 's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and the Curtain in Shoreditch , north of the Thames . Londoners flocked there to see the first part of Henry IV , Leonard Digges recording , `` Let but Falstaff come , Hal , Poins , the rest ... and you scarce shall have a room '' . When the company found themselves in dispute with their landlord , they pulled The Theatre down and used the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre , the first playhouse built by actors for actors , on the south bank of the Thames at Southwark . The Globe opened in autumn 1599 , with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged . Most of Shakespeare 's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe , including Hamlet , Othello and King Lear . After the Lord Chamberlain 's Men were renamed the King 's Men in 1603 , they entered a special relationship with the new King James . Although the performance records are patchy , the King 's Men performed seven of Shakespeare 's plays at court between 1 November 1604 and 31 October 1605 , including two performances of The Merchant of Venice . After 1608 , they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer . The indoor setting , combined with the Jacobean fashion for lavishly staged masques , allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices . In Cymbeline , for example , Jupiter descends `` in thunder and lightning , sitting upon an eagle : he throws a thunderbolt . The ghosts fall on their knees . '' The actors in Shakespeare 's company included the famous Richard Burbage , William Kempe , Henry Condell and John Heminges . Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare 's plays , including Richard III , Hamlet , Othello , and King Lear . The popular comic actor Will Kempe played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing , among other characters . He was replaced around 1600 by Robert Armin , who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear . In 1613 , Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII `` was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony '' . On 29 June , however , a cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground , an event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision . Textual sources In 1623 , John Heminges and Henry Condell , two of Shakespeare 's friends from the King 's Men , published the First Folio , a collected edition of Shakespeare 's plays . It contained 36 texts , including 18 printed for the first time . Many of the plays had already appeared in quarto versions—flimsy books made from sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves . No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved these editions , which the First Folio describes as `` stol'n and surreptitious copies '' . Nor did Shakespeare plan or expect his works to survive in any form at all ; those works likely would have faded into oblivion but for his friends ' spontaneous idea , after his death , to create and publish the First Folio . Alfred Pollard termed some of the pre-1623 versions as `` bad quartos '' because of their adapted , paraphrased or garbled texts , which may in places have been reconstructed from memory . Where several versions of a play survive , each differs from the other . The differences may stem from copying or printing errors , from notes by actors or audience members , or from Shakespeare 's own papers . In some cases , for example Hamlet , Troilus and Cressida and Othello , Shakespeare could have revised the texts between the quarto and folio editions . In the case of King Lear , however , while most modern editions do conflate them , the 1623 folio version is so different from the 1608 quarto that the Oxford Shakespeare prints them both , arguing that they can not be conflated without confusion . Poems In 1593 and 1594 , when the theatres were closed because of plague , Shakespeare published two narrative poems on erotic themes , Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece . He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley , Earl of Southampton . In Venus and Adonis , an innocent Adonis rejects the sexual advances of Venus ; while in The Rape of Lucrece , the virtuous wife Lucrece is raped by the lustful Tarquin . Influenced by Ovid 's Metamorphoses , the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust . Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare 's lifetime . A third narrative poem , A Lover 's Complaint , in which a young woman laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor , was printed in the first edition of the Sonnets in 1609 . Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover 's Complaint . Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects . The Phoenix and the Turtle , printed in Robert Chester 's 1601 Love 's Martyr , mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix and his lover , the faithful turtle dove . In 1599 , two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim , published under Shakespeare 's name but without his permission . Sonnets Published in 1609 , the Sonnets were the last of Shakespeare 's non-dramatic works to be printed . Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed , but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a private readership . Even before the two unauthorised sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599 , Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare 's `` sugred Sonnets among his private friends '' . Few analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare 's intended sequence . He seems to have planned two contrasting

qz_5584--William_Shakespeare.txt

Whose last words were Et Tu Brute according to Shakespeare?

Leopold III ( 3 November 1901 – 25 September 1983 ) reigned as King of the Belgians from 1934 until 1951 , when he abdicated in favour of the heir apparent , his son Baudouin . From 1944 until 1950 , Leopold 's brother , Charles , served as prince regent while Leopold was declared incompetent to rule . In 1950 , the debate about whether Leopold could resume his royal duties provoked a political crisis known as the Royal Question . Leopold III was born in Brussels as Prince Leopold of Belgium , Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha , and succeeded to the throne of Belgium on 23 February 1934 following the death of his father , King Albert I . He was invested as Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain in 1923 , Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword ( Portugal ) in 1927 and Knight of the Order of the Garter ( United Kingdom ) in 1935 . Early life and family Prince Leopold , Duke of Brabant , was sent by his father to Eton College in the United Kingdom in 1915 . After the war , in 1919 , the Duke visited the Old Mission and Saint Anthony Seminary in Santa Barbara , California . He married Princess Astrid of Sweden in a civil ceremony in Stockholm on 4 November 1926 , followed by a religious ceremony in Brussels on 10 November . The marriage produced three children : * Joséphine-Charlotte , Princess of Belgium , born at the Royal Palace of Brussels on 11 October 1927 , Grand Duchess of Luxembourg . She was married on 9 April 1953 to Prince Jean , later Grand-Duke of Luxembourg . She died at Fischbach Castle on 10 January 2005 . * Baudouin , Duke of Brabant , Count of Hainaut , Prince of Belgium , who became the fifth King of the Belgians as Baudouin , born at Stuyvenberg on the outskirts of Brussels on 7 September 1930 , and died at Motril in Andalusia , Spain , on 31 July 1993 . * Albert , Prince of Liège , Prince of Belgium , who became the sixth King of the Belgians as Albert II , born at Stuyvenberg on 6 June 1934 . He abdicated in July 2013 . On 29 August 1935 , while the king and queen were driving along the winding , narrow roads near their villa at Küssnacht am Rigi , Schwyz , Switzerland , on the shores of Lake Lucerne , Leopold lost control of the car which plunged into the lake , killing Queen Astrid . Leopold married Lilian Baels on 11 September 1941 in a secret , religious ceremony , with no validity under Belgian law . They originally intended to wait until the end of the war for the civil marriage , but as the new Princesse de Réthy was soon expecting their first child , the ceremony took place on 6 December 1941 . They had three children in total : * Alexander , Prince of Belgium , born in Brussels on 18 July 1942 . In 1991 , he married Lea Inga Dora Wohlman , a marriage revealed only seven years later . He died on 29 November 2009 . * Marie-Christine , Princess of Belgium , born in Brussels on 6 February 1951 . Her first marriage , to Paul Drucker in 1981 , lasted 40 days ( though they were not formally divorced until 1985 ) ; she subsequently married Jean-Paul Gourges in 1989 . * Maria-Esmeralda , Princess of Belgium , born in Brussels on 30 September 1956 , a journalist , her professional name is Esmeralda de Réthy . She married Salvador Moncada , a noted pharmacologist , in 1998 . They have a son and a daughter . World War II When World War II broke out in September 1939 , the French and British governments immediately sought to persuade Belgium to join them . Leopold and his government refused , maintaining Belgium 's neutrality . Belgium considered itself well-prepared against a possible invasion by Axis forces , for during the 1930s the Belgian government had made extensive preparations to deter and repel an invasion of the country by Germany such as the one that had occurred in 1914 . On 10 May 1940 , the Wehrmacht invaded Belgium . On the first day of the offensive , the principal Belgian strong point of Fort Eben-Emael was overwhelmed by a daring paratroop operation and the defensive perimeter thus penetrated before any French or British troops could arrive . After a short running battle that eventually involved the armies of all four belligerents , Belgium was overwhelmed by the numerically superior and better-prepared Germans . Nevertheless , the Belgian perseverance prevented the British Expeditionary Force from being outflanked and cut off from the coast , enabling the evacuation from Dunkirk . After his military surrender , Leopold ( unlike Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands , in a similar predicament ) remained in Brussels to face the victorious invaders , while his entire civil government fled to Paris and later to London . Surrender and constitutional crisis On 24 May 1940 , Leopold , having assumed command of the Belgian Army , met with his ministers for the final time . The ministers urged the king to leave the country with the government . Prime Minister Hubert Pierlot reminded him that capitulation was a decision for the Belgian government , not the king . The king indicated that he had decided to remain in Belgium with his troops , whatever the outcome . The ministers took this to mean that he would establish a new government under the direction of Hitler , potentially a treasonous act . Leopold thought that he might be seen as a deserter if he were to leave the country : `` Whatever happens , I have to share the same fate as my troops . '' Leopold had long had a difficult and contentious relationship with his ministers , acting independently of government influence whenever possible , and seeking to circumvent and even limit the ministers ' powers , while expanding his own . French , British , and Belgian troops were encircled by German forces at the Battle of Dunkirk . Leopold notified King George VI of the United Kingdom by telegram on 25 May 1940 that Belgian forces were being crushed , saying `` assistance which we give to the Allies will come to an end if our army is surrounded '' . Two days later ( 27 May 1940 ) , Leopold surrendered the Belgian forces to the Germans . Prime Minister Pierlot spoke on French radio , saying that the king 's decision to surrender went against the Belgian Constitution . The decision , he said , was not only a military decision but also a political decision , and the king had acted without his ministers ' advice , and therefore contrary to the Constitution . Pierlot and his Government believed this created an impossibilité de régner : It was impossible , however , to summon the Belgian Chamber of Representatives or Belgian Senate at this time , or to appoint a regent . After the liberation of Belgium in September 1944 , the government asked Leopold 's brother , Prince Charles , to serve as regent . After Leopold 's surrender , the British press denounced him as `` Traitor King '' and `` King Rat '' ; the Daily Mirror published a picture of Leopold with the headline `` The Face That Every Woman Now Despises '' . A group of Belgian refugees in Paris placed a message at King Albert 's statue denouncing his son as `` your unworthy successor '' . French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud accused Leopold of treason . Flemish historians Valaers and Van Goethem wrote that Leopold III had become `` The scapegoat of Reynaud '' , because Reynaud was likely already aware that the Battle of France was lost . Leopold 's surrender was also decried by Winston Churchill . In the House of Commons on 4 June 1940 he said : At the last moment when Belgium was already invaded , King Leopold called upon us to come to his aid , and even at the last moment we came . He and his brave , efficient army , nearly half a million strong , guarded our left flank and thus kept open our only line of retreat to the sea . Suddenly , without prior consultation , with the least possible notice , without the advice of his ministers and upon his own personal act , he sent a plenipotentiary to the German Command , surrendered his army and exposed our whole flank and means of retreat . '' In 1949 , Churchill 's comments about the events of May 1940 were published in Le Soir ( 12 February 1949 ) . Leopold 's former secretary sent a letter to Churchill saying that Churchill was wrong . Churchill sent a copy of this letter to the king 's brother , Prince Charles , via his secretary André de Staercke . In his own letter Churchill wrote , With regards to King Leopold , the words which I used at the time in the House of Commons are upon record and after careful consideration I do not see any reason to change them ( ... ) it seemed to me and many others that the king should have been guided by the advice of his ministers and should not have favoured a course which identified the capitulation of the Belgian Army with the submission of the Belgian State to Herr Hitler and consequently taking them out of the war . Happily this evil was averted , and in the end , all came right . I need scarcely say that nothing I said at the time could be interpreted as a reflection upon the personal courage or honour of King Leopold . '' De Staercke replied that Churchill was right : `` The Prince , Monsieur Spaak [ Belgian Foreign Minister Paul-Henri Spaak ] and I read your text , which states the precise truth and seems perfect to us . '' Belgian historian Francis Balace wrote that capitulation was inevitable because the Belgian Army was not able to fight any longer against the German army . Even Churchill admitted that their position was perilous . In a telegram to Field Marshal Lord Gort on 27 May , only one day before the Belgian capitulation , he wrote , `` We are asking them to sacrifice themselves for us . '' After the fall of France Upon Leopold 's surrender , the government ministers left for exile , mostly in France . When France fell at the end of June 1940 , several ministers sought to return to Belgium . They made an overture to Leopold but were rebuffed : Pierlot and his government saw that Western Europe had been conquered by the Germans completely and tried to make amends to their king . Would it be possible for them to return to Belgium and form a new government ? Leopold showed his stubborn nature ; he was insulted by his ministers ... His reply was short : `` The situation of the king is unaltered ; he does not engage in politics and does not receive politicians . `` [ http : //www.theroyalarticles.com/articles/34/1/Belgian-Royal-Question -- -the-Abdication-Crisis-of-King-Leopold-III-of-the-Belgians/Page1.html The Royal Articles ] Because of the great popularity of the king , and the unpopularity of the civil government from the middle of 1940 , the government crisis persisted . The Royal Articles state : This refusal [ of the king to reconcile with the ministers ] left the ministers with no other option than to move to London , where they could continue their work representing the independent Belgium . From the time of their arrival in London , they were confident about an Allied victory and soon were treated with respect by the Allies .... Pierlot and Spaak helped to build Leopold 's reputation as a heroic prisoner of war and even said that the Belgians should support their king . But they had no idea what Leopold was doing in [ the Royal Palace at ] Laeken . He refused to reply to their messages and stayed cool toward them . What was he doing in the castle ? Was he collaborating , did he oppose the Germans , or had he decided to just shut his mouth and wait to see how things would go ? On 2 August 1940 , several ministers conferred in Le Perthus in France near the Spanish border . Prime Minister Pierlot and Foreign Minister Spaak were persuaded to go to London , but they were able to start out for London only at the end of August and could travel only via neutral Spain and Portugal . When they reached Spain , they were arrested and detained by the regime of Francisco Franco ; they finally arrived in London on 22 October . Meeting with Hitler Leopold rejected cooperation with the Nazis and refused to administer Belgium in accordance with their dictates , thus the Germans implemented a military government . Leopold attempted to assert his authority as monarch and head of the Belgian government although he was a prisoner of the Germans . Despite his defiance of the Germans , the Belgian government-in-exile in London maintained that the king did not represent the Belgian government and was unable to reign . The Germans held him at first under house arrest at the Royal Palace of Laeken in Brussels . Having desired a meeting with Adolf Hitler since June 1940 , Leopold III finally met with him on 19 November 1940 . Leopold wanted Hitler to issue a public statement about Belgium 's future independence . Hitler refused to speak about the independence of Belgium or issue a statement about it . In refusing to publish a statement , Hitler unintentionally preserved the king from being seen as cooperating with Germany , and thus engaged in treasonous acts , which would likely have obliged him to abdicate upon liberation of Belgium . `` The [ German ] Chancellor saved the king two times . '' Second marriage On 11 September 1941 , while a prisoner of the Germans , Leopold secretly married Lilian Baels in a religious ceremony that had no validity under Belgian law , as Belgian law required a religious marriage to be preceded by a legal or civil marriage . On 6 December , they were married under civil law . The reason for the out-of-order marriages was never officially made public . Jozef-Ernest Cardinal van Roey , Archbishop of Mechelen , wrote an open letter to parish priests throughout the country announcing Leopold 's second marriage on 7 December . The letter from the Cardinal revealed that the king 's new wife would be known as Princesse de Réthy , not Queen Lilian , and that any children they had would have no claim to the throne ( though they would be Princes or Princesses of Belgium with the style Royal Highness ) . Leopold 's new marriage damaged his reputation further in the eyes of many of his subjects . The Political Testament The ministers made several efforts during the war to work out a suitable agreement with Leopold III . They sent Pierlot 's son-in-law as an emissary to Leopold in January 1944 , carrying a letter offering reconciliation from the Belgian government-in-exile . The letter never reached its destination , however , as the son-in-law was killed by the Germans en route . The ministers did not know what happened either to the message or the messenger and assumed that Leopold was ignoring them . Leopold wrote his Political Testament in January 1944 , shortly after this failed attempt at reconciliation . The testament was to be published in case he was not in Belgium when Allied forces arrived . The testament , which had an imperious and negative tone , considered the potential Allied movement into Belgium an `` occupation '' , not a `` liberation '' . It gave no credit to the active Belgian resistance . The Belgian government-in-exile in London did not like Leopold 's demand that the government ministers involved in the 1940 crisis be exonerated . The Allies did not like Leopold 's repudiation of the treaties concluded by the Belgian government-in-exile in London . The United States was particularly concerned about the economic treaty it had reached with the government-in-exile that enabled it to obtain Congolese uranium for America 's secret atom bomb program , which had been developed for use against Germany ( although , as it turned out , Germany surrendered before the first bomb was ready ) . The Belgian government did not publish the Political Testament and tried to ignore it , partly for fear of increased support for the Belgian Communist party . When Pierlot and Spaak learned of its contents in September 1944 , they were astonished and felt deceived by the king . According to André de Staercke , they were dismayed `` in the face of so much blindness and unawareness '' . Churchill 's reaction to the Testament was simply , `` It stinks . '' In a sentence inspired by a quote of Talleyrand about the Bourbons after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815 , Churchill declared , `` He is like the Bourbons , he has learned nothing and forgotten everything . '' Exile and abdication Deportation and exile In 1944 , Heinrich Himmler ordered Leopold deported to Germany . Princess Lilian followed with the family in another car the following day under an SS armed guard . The Nazis held the family in a fort at Hirschstein in Saxony from June 1944 to March 1945 , and then at Strobl , Austria . The British and American governments worried about the return of the king . Charles W. Sawyer , US Ambassador to Belgium , warned his government that an immediate return by the king to Belgium would `` precipitate serious difficulties '' . `` There are deep differences even in the royal family and the situation holds dynamite for Belgium and perhaps for Europe '' . `` The Foreign Office feared that an increasing minority in French-speaking Wallonia would demand either autonomy or annexation to France . Winant , the American Ambassador to the Court of Saint James , reported a Foreign Office official 's concern regarding irredentist propaganda in Wallonia . '' and that `` the French Ambassador in Brussels ... is believed to have connived in the spreading of this propaganda '' . Leopold and his companions were freed by members of the United States 106th Cavalry Group in early May 1945 . Because of the controversy about his conduct during the war , Leopold III and his wife and children were unable to return to Belgium and spent the next six years in exile at Pregny-Chambésy near Geneva , Switzerland . A regency under his brother Prince Charles had been established by the Belgian legislature in 1944 . Resistance to Leopold 's return Van den Dungen , the rector of the Free University of Brussels , wrote to Leopold on 25 June 1945 about concerns for serious disorder in Wallonia , `` The question is not if the accusations against you are right or not [ but that ... ] You are no more a symbol of the Belgian unity . '' Gillon , the President of the Belgian Senate , told the king that there was a threat of serious disorder : `` If there are only ten or twenty people killed , the situation would become terrible for the king . '' The president of the Belgian Chamber of Representatives , Frans Van Cauwelaert , was concerned that there would be a general strike in Wallonia and revolt in Liège . He wrote , `` The country is not able to put down the disorders because of the insufficient forces of the police and a lack of weapons . '' In 1946 , a commission of inquiry exonerated Leopold of treason . Nonetheless , controversy concerning his loyalty continued , and in 1950 , a referendum was held about his future . Fifty-seven per cent of the voters favoured his return . The divide between Leopoldists and anti-Leopoldists ran along the lines of socialists and Walloons who were mostly opposed ( 42 % favourable votes in Wallonia ) and Christian Democrats and Flemish who were more in favour of the King ( 70 % favourable votes in Flanders ) . General strike of 1950 On his return to Belgium in 1950 , Leopold was met with one of the most violent general strikes in the history of Belgium . Three protesters were killed when the gendarmerie opened automatic fire upon the protesters . The country stood on the brink of civil war , and Belgian banners were replaced by Walloon flags in Liège and other municipalities of Wallonia . To avoid tearing the country apart , and to preserve the monarchy , Leopold decided on 1 August 1950 to withdraw in favour of his 20-year-old son Baudouin . His abdication took effect on 16 July 1951 , though in reality the government had already forced the issue on 1 August 1950 . In this postponed abdication the king was , in effect , forced by the government of Jean Duvieusart to offer to abdicate in favour of his son . Post-abdication life Leopold and his wife continued to advise King Baudouin until the latter 's marriage in 1960 . Some Belgian historians , such as Vincent Delcorps , speak of there having been a `` dyarchy '' during this period . In retirement , he followed his passion as an amateur social anthropologist and entomologist and travelled the world . He went to Senegal and strongly criticized the French decolonization process , and he explored the Orinoco and the Amazon with Heinrich Harrer . Leopold died in 1983 in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert ( Sint-Lambrechts-Woluwe ) following emergency heart surgery . He was interred next to Queen Astrid in the royal vault at the Church of Our Lady of Laeken . Leopold 's second wife , the Princess de Réthy , was later interred with them . Notable royal descendants As of 2016 , two of Leopold 's grandsons are reigning monarchs : Grand Duke Henri of Luxembourg since 2000 , and King Philippe of Belgium since 2013 . Ancestry

qb_777--Leopold_III_of_Belgium.txt

In 1951, which European country saw the abdication of King Leopold lll in favour of his son Baudouin?

The Premier League is an English professional league for men 's association football clubs . At the top of the English football league system , it is the country 's primary football competition . Contested by 20 clubs , it operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the English Football League ( EFL ; known as `` The Football League '' before 2016–17 ) . Welsh clubs that compete in the English football league system can also qualify . The Premier League is a corporation in which the 20 member clubs act as shareholders . Seasons run from August to May . Teams play 38 matches each ( playing each team in the league twice , home and away ) , totalling 380 matches in the season . Most games are played on Saturday and Sunday afternoons ; others during weekday evenings . It is colloquially known as the Premiership and outside the UK it is commonly referred to as the English Premier League ( EPL ) . The competition formed as the FA Premier League on 20 February 1992 following the decision of clubs in the Football League First Division to break away from the Football League , which was originally founded in 1888 , and take advantage of a lucrative television rights deal . The deal was worth £1 billion a year domestically as of 2013–14 , with BSkyB and BT Group securing the domestic rights to broadcast 116 and 38 games respectively . The league generates €2.2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights . In 2014/15 , teams were apportioned revenues of £1.6 billion . The Premier League is the most-watched football league in the world , broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people . In the 2014–15 season , the average Premier League match attendance exceeded 36,000 , second highest of any professional football league behind the Bundesliga 's 43,500 . Most stadium occupancies are near capacity . The Premier League ranks third in the UEFA coefficients of leagues based on performances in European competitions over the past five seasons . While 47 clubs have competed since the inception of the Premier League in 1992 , only six have won the title : Manchester United ( 13 ) , Chelsea ( 4 ) , Arsenal ( 3 ) , Manchester City ( 2 ) , Blackburn Rovers and Leicester City ( 1 ) . The current champions are Leicester City , who won the title in 2015–16 . History Origins Despite significant European success in the 1970s and early 1980s , the late '80s marked a low point for English football . Stadiums were crumbling , supporters endured poor facilities , hooliganism was rife , and English clubs were banned from European competition for five years following the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985 . The Football League First Division , the top level of English football since 1888 , was behind leagues such as Italy 's Serie A and Spain 's La Liga in attendances and revenues , and several top English players had moved abroad . By the turn of the 1990s the downward trend was starting to reverse : at the 1990 FIFA World Cup , England reached the semi-finals ; UEFA , European football 's governing body , lifted the five-year ban on English clubs playing in European competitions in 1990 , resulting in Manchester United lifting the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in 1991 , and the Taylor Report on stadium safety standards , which proposed expensive upgrades to create all-seater stadiums in the aftermath of the Hillsborough disaster , was published in January of that year . Revenue from television also became more important : the Football League received £6.3 million for a two-year agreement in 1986 , but when that deal was renewed in 1988 , the price rose to £44 million over four years . The 1988 negotiations were the first signs of a breakaway league : ten clubs threatened to leave and form a `` super league '' , but were eventually persuaded to stay . As stadiums improved and match attendance and revenues rose , the country 's top teams again considered leaving the Football League in order to capitalise on the influx of money into the sport . Foundation At the close of the 1991 season , a proposal was tabled for the establishment of a new league that would bring more money into the game overall . The Founder Members Agreement , signed on 17 July 1991 by the game 's top-flight clubs , established the basic principles for setting up the FA Premier League . The newly formed top division would have commercial independence from The Football Association and the Football League , giving the FA Premier League licence to negotiate its own broadcast and sponsorship agreements . The argument given at the time was that the extra income would allow English clubs to compete with teams across Europe . The managing director of London Weekend Television ( LWT ) , Greg Dyke , met with the representatives of the `` big five '' football clubs in England in 1990 . The meeting was to pave the way for a break away from The Football League . Dyke believed that it would be more lucrative for LWT if only the larger clubs in the country were featured on national television and wanted to establish whether the clubs would be interested in a larger share of television rights money . The five clubs decided it was a good idea and decided to press ahead with it ; however , the league would have no credibility without the backing of The Football Association and so David Dein of Arsenal held talks to see whether the FA were receptive to the idea . The FA did not enjoy an amicable relationship with the Football League at the time and considered it as a way to weaken the Football League 's position . In 1992 , the First Division clubs resigned from the Football League en masse and on 27 May 1992 the FA Premier League was formed as a limited company working out of an office at the Football Association 's then headquarters in Lancaster Gate . This meant a break-up of the 104-year-old Football League that had operated until then with four divisions ; the Premier League would operate with a single division and the Football League with three . There was no change in competition format ; the same number of teams competed in the top flight , and promotion and relegation between the Premier League and the new First Division remained the same as the old First and Second Divisions with three teams relegated from the league and three promoted . The league held its first season in 1992–93 and was originally composed of 22 clubs . The first ever Premier League goal was scored by Brian Deane of Sheffield United in a 2–1 win against Manchester United . The 22 inaugural members of the new Premier League were Arsenal , Aston Villa , Blackburn Rovers , Chelsea , Coventry City , Crystal Palace , Everton , Ipswich Town , Leeds United , Liverpool , Manchester City , Manchester United , Middlesbrough , Norwich City , Nottingham Forest , Oldham Athletic , Queens Park Rangers , Sheffield United , Sheffield Wednesday , Southampton , Tottenham Hotspur , and Wimbledon . Luton Town , Notts County and West Ham United were the three teams relegated from the old first division at the end of the 1991–92 season , and did not take part in the inaugural Premier League season . `` Big Four '' dominance ( 2000s ) One significant feature of the Premier League in the mid-2000s was the dominance of the so-called `` Big Four '' clubs : Arsenal , Chelsea , Liverpool and Manchester United . During this decade , and particularly from 2002 to 2009 , they dominated the top four spots , which came with UEFA Champions League qualification , taking all top four places in 5 out of 6 seasons from 2003–04 to 2008–09 inclusive , with Arsenal going as far as winning the league without losing a single game in 2003–04 , the only time it has ever happened in the Premier League . In May 2008 Kevin Keegan stated that `` Big Four '' dominance threatened the division , `` This league is in danger of becoming one of the most boring but great leagues in the world . '' Premier League chief executive Richard Scudamore said in defence : `` There are a lot of different tussles that go on in the Premier League depending on whether you 're at the top , in the middle or at the bottom that make it interesting . '' The years following 2009 marked a shift in the structure of the `` Big Four '' with Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City both breaking into the top four . In the 2009–10 season , Tottenham finished fourth and became the first team to break the top four since Everton in 2005 . Criticism of the gap between an elite group of `` super clubs '' and the majority of the Premier League has continued , nevertheless , due to their increasing ability to spend more than the other Premier League clubs . Manchester City won the title in the 2011–12 season , becoming the first club outside the `` Big Four '' to win since 1994–95 . That season also saw two of the Big Four ( Chelsea and Liverpool ) finish outside the top four places for the first time since 1994–95 . In the following four seasons , Manchester United found themselves outside of the top four twice ( in 2013–14 and 2015–16 ) while Chelsea finished 10th in the 2015–16 season and Liverpool finished outside the top four in three of those four seasons . Arsenal , however , remained in the top four in all four seasons and have never finished outside the top four since Arsène Wenger took charge of the club in 1996 . Development Due to insistence by the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) , the international governing body of football , that domestic leagues reduce the number of games clubs played , the number of clubs was reduced to 20 in 1995 when four teams were relegated from the league and only two teams promoted . On 8 June 2006 , FIFA requested that all major European leagues , including Italy 's Serie A and Spain 's La Liga be reduced to 18 teams by the start of the 2007–08 season . The Premier League responded by announcing their intention to resist such a reduction . Ultimately , the 2007–08 season kicked off again with 20 teams . The league changed its name from the FA Premier League to simply the Premier League in 2007 . Corporate structure The Football Association Premier League Ltd ( FAPL ) is operated as a corporation and is owned by the 20 member clubs . Each club is a shareholder , with one vote each on issues such as rule changes and contracts . The clubs elect a chairman , chief executive , and board of directors to oversee the daily operations of the league . The current chairman is Sir Dave Richards , who was appointed in April 1999 , and the chief executive is Richard Scudamore , appointed in November 1999 . The former chairman and chief executive , John Quinton and Peter Leaver , were forced to resign in March 1999 after awarding consultancy contracts to former Sky executives Sam Chisholm and David Chance . The Football Association is not directly involved in the day-to-day operations of the Premier League , but has veto power as a special shareholder during the election of the chairman and chief executive and when new rules are adopted by the league . The Premier League sends representatives to UEFA 's European Club Association , the number of clubs and the clubs themselves chosen according to UEFA coefficients . For the 2012–13 season the Premier League has 10 representatives in the Association : Arsenal , Aston Villa , Chelsea , Everton , Fulham , Liverpool , Manchester City , Manchester United , Newcastle United and Tottenham Hotspur . The European Club Association is responsible for electing three members to UEFA 's Club Competitions Committee , which is involved in the operations of UEFA competitions such as the Champions League and UEFA Europa League . Competition format Competition There are 20 clubs in the Premier League . During the course of a season ( from August to May ) each club plays the others twice ( a double round-robin system ) , once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents , for a total of 38 games . Teams receive three points for a win and one point for a draw . No points are awarded for a loss . Teams are ranked by total points , then goal difference , and then goals scored . If still equal , teams are deemed to occupy the same position . If there is a tie for the championship , for relegation , or for qualification to other competitions , a play-off match at a neutral venue decides rank . The three lowest placed teams are relegated into the Football League Championship , and the top two teams from the Championship , together with the winner of play-offs involving the third to sixth placed Championship clubs , are promoted in their place . Qualification for European competitions As of the 2009–10 season qualification for the UEFA Champions League changed , the top four teams in the Premier League qualify for the UEFA Champions League , with the top three teams directly entering the group stage . Previously only the top two teams qualified automatically . The fourth-placed team enters the Champions League at the play-off round for non-champions and must win a two-legged knockout tie in order to enter the group stage . The team placed fifth in the Premier League automatically qualifies for the UEFA Europa League , and the sixth and seventh-placed teams can also qualify , depending on the winners of the two domestic cup competitions i.e . the FA Cup and the Capital One Cup ( League Cup ) . Two Europa League places are reserved for the winners of each tournament ; if the winner of either the FA Cup or League Cup qualifies for the Champions League , then that place will go to the next-best placed finisher in the Premier League . A further place in the UEFA Europa League is also available via the Fair Play initiative . If the Premier League has one of the three highest Fair Play rankings in Europe , the highest ranked team in the Premier League Fair Play standings which has not already qualified for Europe will automatically qualify for the UEFA Europa League first qualifying round . An exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005 , after Liverpool won the Champions League the year before , but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League that season . UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League , giving England five qualifiers . UEFA subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing . However , for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League , this meant that if the Champions League winner finished outside the top four in its domestic league , it would qualify at the expense of the fourth-placed team in the league . At that time , no association could have more than four entrants in the Champions League . This occurred in 2012 , when Chelsea – who had won the Champions League the previous year , but finished sixth in the league – qualified for the Champions League in place of Tottenham Hotspur , who went into the Europa League . Starting with the 2015–16 season , the Europa League champion automatically qualifies for the following season 's Champions League , and the maximum number of Champions League places for any single association has increased to five . An association with four Champions League places , such as The FA , will only earn a fifth place if a club from that association that does not qualify for the Champions League through its league wins either the Champions League or Europa League . In 2007 , the Premier League became the highest ranking European League based on the performances of English teams in European competitions over a five-year period . This broke the eight-year dominance of the Spanish league , La Liga . Premier League clubs in international competition Between the 1992–93 season and the 2015–16 season , Premier League clubs had won the UEFA Champions League four times ( as well as supplying five of the runners-up ) , behind Spain 's La Liga with nine wins , and Italy 's Serie A with five wins , and ahead of , among others , Germany 's Bundesliga with three wins ( see table here ) . The FIFA Club World Cup ( or the FIFA Club World Championship , as it was originally called ) has been won by Premier League clubs once ( Manchester United in 2008 ) , and they have also been runners-up twice , behind Brazil 's Brasileirão and Spain 's La Liga with four wins , and Italy 's Serie A with two wins ( see table here ) . Clubs A total of 47 clubs have played in the Premier League from its inception in 1992 , up to and including the 2016–17 season . Champions ; Wins by club Clubs by spell Due to promotion and relegation , only six of the founder members of the Premier League have never been relegated from it , while another six founders have never returned after being relegated once . Out of the 25 clubs who have gained promotion to the league since it was created , only three have remained without a subsequent relegation , while seven have been relegated after just one spell . The remaining fifteen clubs have spent multiple spells in the league , up to five in the case of founder member Crystal Palace . 2016–17 season The following 20 clubs will compete in the Premier League during the 2016–17 season . * Newcastle United , Norwich City and Aston Villa were relegated to the Championship for the 2016–17 season , while Burnley , Middlesbrough and Hull City , as winners , runners-up and play-off final winners respectively , were promoted from the 2015–16 Championship season . * AFC Bournemouth , Stoke and Swansea are the only clubs to have remained in the Premier League since their first promotion , having played 2 , 8 and 5 seasons ( out of 25 ) respectively . a : Founding member of the Premier League b : Never been relegated from Premier League c : One of the original 12 Football League teams d : Club based in Wales Non-English clubs ; Wales In 2011 , a Welsh club participated in the Premier League for the first time after Swansea City gained promotion . The first Premier League match to be played outside England was Swansea City 's home match at the Liberty Stadium against Wigan Athletic on 20 August 2011 . In 2012–13 , Swansea qualified for the Europa League by winning the League Cup . The number of Welsh clubs in the Premier League increased to two for the first time in 2013–14 , as Cardiff City gained promotion , but Cardiff City was relegated after its maiden season . Because they are members of the Football Association of Wales ( FAW ) , the question of whether clubs like Swansea should represent England or Wales in European competitions has caused long-running discussions in UEFA . Swansea took one of England 's three available places in the Europa League in 2013–14 by winning the League Cup in 2012–13 . The right of Welsh clubs to take up such English places was in doubt until UEFA clarified the matter in March 2012 . ; Scotland and Ireland Participation in the Premier League by some Scottish or Irish clubs has sometimes been discussed , but without result . The idea came closest to reality in 1998 , when Wimbledon received Premier League approval to relocate to Dublin , Ireland , but the move was blocked by the Football Association of Ireland . Additionally , the media occasionally discusses the idea that Scotland 's two biggest teams , Celtic and Rangers , should or will take part in the Premier League , but nothing has come of these discussions . Sponsorship From 1993 to 2016 , the Premier League had title sponsorship rights sold to two companies ; Barclays was the most recent title sponsor , having sponsored the Premier League from 2001 through 2016 ( until 2004 , the title sponsorship was held through its Barclaycard brand before shifting to its main banking brand in 2004 ) . Barclays ' deal with the Premier League will expire at the end of the 2015–16 season . The FA announced on 4 June 2015 that it would not pursue any further title sponsorship deals for the Premier League , arguing that they wanted to build a `` clean '' brand for the competition more in line with those of major U.S. sports leagues . As well as sponsorship for the league itself , the Premier League has a number of official partners and suppliers . The official ball supplier for the league is Nike who have had the contract since the 2000–01 season when they took over from Mitre . Finances The Premier League has the highest revenue of any football league in the world , with total club revenues of €2.48 billion in 2009–10 . In 2013–14 , due to improved television revenues and cost controls , the Premier League had net profits in excess of £78 million , exceeding all other football leagues . In 2010 the Premier League was awarded the Queen 's Award for Enterprise in the International Trade category for its outstanding contribution to international trade and the value it brings to English football and the United Kingdom 's broadcasting industry . The Premier League includes some of the richest football clubs in the world . Deloitte 's `` Football Money League '' listed seven Premier League clubs in the top 20 for the 2009–10 season , and all 20 clubs were in the top 40 globally by the end of the 2013–14 season , largely as a result of increased broadcasting revenue . From 2013 , the league generates €2.2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights . Premier League clubs agreed in principle in December 2012 , to radical new cost controls . The two proposals consist of a break-even rule and a cap on the amount clubs can increase their wage bill by each season . With the new television deals on the horizon , momentum has been growing to find ways of preventing the majority of the cash going straight to players and agents . Media coverage United Kingdom and Ireland Television has played a major role in the history of the Premier League . The League 's decision to assign broadcasting rights to BSkyB in 1992 was at the time a radical decision , but one that has paid off . At the time pay television was an almost untested proposition in the UK market , as was charging fans to watch live televised football . However , a combination of Sky 's strategy , the quality of Premier League football and the public 's appetite for the game has seen the value of the Premier League 's TV rights soar . The Premier League sells its television rights on a collective basis . This is in contrast to some other European Leagues , including La Liga , in which each club sells its rights individually , leading to a much higher share of the total income going to the top few clubs . The money is divided into three parts : half is divided equally between the clubs ; one quarter is awarded on a merit basis based on final league position , the top club getting twenty times as much as the bottom club , and equal steps all the way down the table ; the final quarter is paid out as facilities fees for games that are shown on television , with the top clubs generally receiving the largest shares of this . The income from overseas rights is divided equally between the twenty clubs . The first Sky television rights agreement was worth £304 million over five seasons . The next contract , negotiated to start from the 1997–98 season , rose to £670 million over four seasons . The third contract was a £1.024 billion deal with BSkyB for the three seasons from 2001–02 to 2003–04 . The league brought in £320 million from the sale of its international rights for the three-year period from 2004–05 to 2006–07 . It sold the rights itself on a territory-by-territory basis . Sky 's monopoly was broken from August 2006 when Setanta Sports was awarded rights to show two out of the six packages of matches available . This occurred following an insistence by the European Commission that exclusive rights should not be sold to one television company . Sky and Setanta paid a total of £1.7 billion , a two-thirds increase which took many commentators by surprise as it had been widely assumed that the value of the rights had levelled off following many years of rapid growth . Setanta also hold rights to a live 3 pm match solely for Irish viewers . The BBC has retained the rights to show highlights for the same three seasons ( on Match of the Day ) for £171.6 million , a 63 per cent increase on the £105 million it paid for the previous three-year period . Sky and BT have agreed to jointly pay £84.3 million for delayed television rights to 242 games ( that is the right to broadcast them in full on television and over the internet ) in most cases for a period of 50 hours after 10 pm on matchday . Overseas television rights fetched £625 million , nearly double the previous contract . The total raised from these deals is more than £2.7 billion , giving Premier League clubs an average media income from league games of around £40 million-a-year from 2007 to 2010 . The TV rights agreement between the Premier League and Sky has faced accusations of being a cartel , and a number of court cases have arisen as a result . An investigation by the Office of Fair Trading in 2002 found BSkyB to be dominant within the pay TV sports market , but concluded that there were insufficient grounds for the claim that BSkyB had abused its dominant position . In July 1999 the Premier League 's method of selling rights collectively for all member clubs was investigated by the UK Restrictive Practices Court , who concluded that the agreement was not contrary to the public interest . The BBC 's highlights package on Saturday and Sunday nights , as well as other evenings when fixtures justify , will run until 2016 . Television rights alone for the period 2010 to 2013 have been purchased for £1.782 billion . On 22 June 2009 , due to troubles encountered by Setanta Sports after it failed to meet a final deadline over a £30 million payment to the Premier League , ESPN was awarded two packages of UK rights containing a total of 46 matches that were available for the 2009–10 season as well as a package of 23 matches per season from 2010–11 to 2012–13 . On 13 June 2012 , the Premier League announced that BT had been awarded 38 games a season for the 2013–14 through 2015–16 seasons at £246 million-a-year . The remaining 116 games were retained by Sky who paid £760 million-a-year . The total domestic rights have raised £3.018 billion , an increase of 70.2 % over the 2010–11 to 2012–13 rights . The value of the licensing deal rose by another 70.2 % in 2015 , when Sky and BT paid a total of £5.136 billion to renew their contracts with the Premier League for another three years up to the 2018–19 season . UK highlights Between the 1998–99 season and the 2012–13 season , RTÉ broadcast highlights on Premier Soccer Saturday and occasionally Premier Soccer Sunday . During then between the 2004–05

sfq_11331--Premier_League.txt

Bernie Ecclestone and Flavio Briatore were at one time co-owners of which Premier League club?

The resignation of Pope Benedict XVI occurred on 28 February 2013 at 20:00 ( 8:00 PM ) CET ( 19:00 UTC ) . The resignation was first announced on the morning of 11 February 2013 by the Vatican . Benedict 's decision to step down as leader of the Catholic Church made him the first pope to relinquish the office since Pope Gregory XII in 1415 ( who did so in order to end the Western Schism ) , and the first to do so on his own initiative since Pope Celestine V in 1294 . The move was unexpected , given that the modern era popes have held the position from election until death . The Pope stated that the reason for his decision was his declining health due to old age . The conclave to select his successor began on 12 March 2013 and elected Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio , Archbishop of Buenos Aires , Argentina , who took the name of Francis . Announcement Benedict announced in February 2013 that , due to his advanced age , he would step down . At the age of 85 years and 318 days on the effective date of his retirement , he was the fourth-oldest person to hold the office of pope . He announced his intention to resign in Latin at the Apostolic Palace in the Sala del Concistoro , at an early morning gathering on 11 February 2013 , which was the World Day of the Sick , a Vatican holy day . The gathering was to announce the date of the canonisation of 800 Catholic martyrs , Antonio Primaldo and companions , as well as the Latin American nuns Laura Montoya Upegui and Maria Guadalupe Garcia Zavala . At the ceremony , known as the `` Consistory for the canonization of the martyrs of Otranto '' , he told those present he had made `` a decision of great importance for the life of the church '' . In a statement , Benedict cited his deteriorating strength due to old age and the physical and mental demands of the papacy . He also declared that he would continue to serve the church `` through a life dedicated to prayer '' . Two days after the announcement Benedict presided over his final public Mass , Ash Wednesday services that ended with congregants bursting into a `` deafening standing ovation that lasted for minutes '' while the pontiff departed St. Peter 's Basilica . On 17 February 2013 , Pope Benedict , speaking in Spanish , requested prayers from the crowd in front of St. Peter 's Square for himself and the new pope . Post-papacy According to Vatican spokesman Federico Lombardi , S.J. , Pope Benedict XVI would not have the title of Cardinal upon his retirement , and would not be eligible to hold any office in the Roman Curia . On 26 February 2013 , Father Lombardi stated that upon the Pope 's resignation his style and title are His Holiness Benedict XVI , Roman Pontiff Emeritus or Pope Emeritus . He will keep wearing his distinctive white cassock without the mozzetta and without the red papal shoes , opting to wear a pair of brown shoes he received during a state visit to Mexico . The Cardinal Camerlengo , Tarcisio Bertone , destroyed the Ring of the Fisherman and the lead seal of the pontificate . Benedict took up residence in the Papal Palace in Castel Gandolfo immediately following his resignation . As the Swiss Guard serves as the pope 's personal body guard , their service at Castel Gandolfo ended with Benedict 's resignation . The Vatican Gendarmerie , ordinarily providing for the security of the Papal summer residence , became solely responsible for the personal security of the former Pope . Following a renovation , Benedict moved permanently to Vatican City 's Mater Ecclesiae , a monastery previously used by nuns for stays of up to several years at a time , on 2 May 2013 . According to anonymous Vatican officials , Benedict 's continued presence in the Vatican City will assist with the provision of security , prevent his retirement location from becoming a place of pilgrimage , and provide him with legal protection from potential lawsuits . Reactions ; State * – Prime Minister Julia Gillard released a statement saying that `` Australia 's Catholics and their many friends received remarkable news overnight that Pope Benedict XVI will resign in coming weeks ... The Pope 's announcement marks a genuinely historic moment , which many Australian Catholics will greet with great emotion ... On his election , Joseph Ratzinger said he wished to be ' a simple humble worker in the vineyard of the Lord ' and in his resignation that humility has been amply demonstrated . '' * – President Dilma Rousseff said she respected the decision of Pope Benedict XVI and highlighted the completion of the World Youth Day in July in Rio de Janeiro , as well as a visit he made to Brazil in 2007 . * – Prime Minister Stephen Harper released a statement saying that Benedict `` will always have a special place in the hearts of Canadians . Laureen and I join all Canadians in wishing Pope Benedict well in the future . '' * – President François Hollande said Benedict XVI merits `` respect '' but did not comment on the matter specifically as it is internal to the Roman Catholic Church . * – Chancellor Angela Merkel praised him as `` one of the most significant religious thinkers of our time '' , mentioned his efforts in intercultural dialogue and said about his influence on her : `` The pope 's words will accompany me for a long time to come . '' The government 's press secretary , Steffen Seibert , said that he was `` moved and touched , '' while `` the German government has the highest respect for the Holy Father , for what he has done , for his contributions over the course of his life to the Catholic Church . [ ... ] He has left a very personal signature as a thinker at the head of the Church , and also as a shepherd . '' * – President Michael D. Higgins also extended his best wishes towards the resigning Pope . Taoiseach Enda Kenny praised Pope Benedict XVI 's `` strong leadership '' and `` great service to the Church '' both in Ireland and throughout the world after the pontiff 's resignation . * – Prime Minister Mario Monti said he was `` greatly shaken by this unexpected news '' * – President Benigno Aquino III was `` filled with great regret as news comes of Pope Benedict XVI announcing he intends to relinquish the Petrine Ministry on of this year . '' He also recalled the `` fond gratitude , the many prayers and comforting words Pope Benedict XVI has dedicated to Filipinos in times of calamity and challenge , and his words of encouragement and witness in the many Catholic events that have brought Catholics together , such as the recent canonization of San Pedro Calungsod . '' * – Prime Minister David Cameron praised Benedict XVI , saying : `` I send my best wishes to Pope Benedict following his announcement today . He has worked tirelessly to strengthen Britain 's relations with the Holy See . His visit to Britain in 2010 is remembered with great respect and affection . '' He added that `` He will be missed as a spiritual leader to millions . '' * * – First Minister Alex Salmond said that the world `` should respect the decision of His Holiness to pass on his ministry in a selfless gesture , on health grounds , in the best interests of the Church '' and reminisced `` like many Scots , I remember with great fondness the resounding success of Pope Benedict 's visit to Scotland in 2010 and the papal Mass celebrated at Bellahouston Park . I wish him a very peaceful retirement . '' * – President Barack Obama praised Benedict XVI , saying : `` On behalf of Americans everywhere , Michelle and I wish to extend our appreciation and prayers to His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI . Michelle and I warmly remember our meeting with the Holy Father in 2009 , and I have appreciated our work together over these last four years . '' He added that he wished `` the best to those who will soon gather to choose His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI 's successor . '' ; Religious Metropolitan Archbishop of Lagos , Archbishop Alfred Adewale Martins said of the resignation : We do not have this sort of event happening . But at the same time , we know that the Code of Canon Law promulgated in 1983 , makes provision for the resignation of the Pope , if he becomes incapacitated or , as with Benedict XVI , if he believes he is no longer able to effectively carry out his official functions as head of the Roman Catholic Church due to a decline in his physical ability . This is not the first time that a Pope would resign . In fact , we have had not less than three who resigned , including Pope Celestine V in 1294 and Pope Gregory XII in 1415 . Pope Benedict XVI was not forced into taking that decision . Like he said in his own words , he acted with ‘ full freedom , ’ being conscious of the deep spiritual implication of his action ... By his decision , the Holy Father has acted gallantly and as such we must commend and respect his decision . U.S. Cardinal Timothy Dolan said that he `` brought a listening heart to victims of sexual abuse '' . Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi Yona Metzger 's spokesman said : `` During his period there were the best relations ever between the church and the chief rabbinate and we hope that this trend will continue . I think he deserves a lot of credit for advancing inter-religious links the world over between Judaism , Christianity and Islam . '' The spokesman also said that Metzger wished Benedict XVI `` good health and long days . '' Tenzin Gyatso , the 14th Dalai Lama and spiritual head of the Gelug sect of Tibetan Buddhism expressed sadness over his resignation , while noting `` his decision must be realistic , for the greater benefit to concern the people . '' Final week Benedict XVI delivered his final Angelus on Sunday , 24 February . He told the gathered crowd , who carried international flags and thanked the pope , `` Thank you for your affection . [ I will take up a life of prayer and meditation ] to be able to continue serving the church . '' The pope appeared for the last time in public during his regular Wednesday audience on 27 February 2013 . As of 16 February , 35,000 people had already registered to attend the audience . On the evening of 27 February there was a candlelight vigil to show support for Pope Benedict XVI at St. Peter 's Square . On his final day as pope , Benedict held an audience with the college of Cardinals , and at 16:15 ( 4:15 PM ) local time he boarded a helicopter and flew to Castel Gandolfo . There he waited out the final hours of his papacy . At about 17:30 ( 5:30 PM ) , he addressed the masses from the balcony for the last time as Pope .

jp_2305--Resignation_of_Pope_Benedict_XVI.txt

What pope resigned in 2013?

The Lions Gate Bridge , opened in 1938 , officially known as the First Narrows Bridge , is a suspension bridge that crosses the first narrows of Burrard Inlet and connects the City of Vancouver , British Columbia , to the North Shore municipalities of the District of North Vancouver , the City of North Vancouver , and West Vancouver . The term `` Lions Gate '' refers to The Lions , a pair of mountain peaks north of Vancouver . Northbound traffic on the bridge heads in their general direction . A pair of cast concrete lions , designed by sculptor Charles Marega , were placed on either side of the south approach to the bridge in January , 1939 . The total length of the bridge including the north viaduct is 1,823 metres ( 5,890 feet ) . The length including approach spans is 1,517.3 m ( 4,978 ft ) , the main span alone is 473 m ( 1,550 ft ) , the tower height is 111 m ( 364 ft ) , and it has a ship 's clearance of 61 m ( 200 ft ) . Prospect Point in Stanley Park offered a good high south end to the bridge , but the low flat delta land to the north required construction of the extensive North Viaduct . The bridge has three reversible lanes , the use of which is indicated by signals . The centre lane changes direction to accommodate for traffic patterns . The traffic volume on the bridge is 60,000 - 70,000 vehicles per day . Trucks exceeding 13 tonnes ( 14.3 tons ) are prohibited , as are vehicles using studded tires . The bridge forms part of Highways 99 and 1A . On March 24 , 2005 , the Lions Gate Bridge was designated a National Historic Site of Canada . History Starting about 1890 , bridge builders saw that a bridge across the first narrows was becoming a possibility . There were a number who argued against its construction , as many felt it would ruin Stanley Park or cause problems for the busy seaport or that it would take toll revenue away from the Second Narrows Bridge . However , many others saw it as necessary in order to open up development on the North Shore and it was felt that these problems could be overcome . The decision was put to the electorate of Vancouver in 1927 , but the first plebiscite was defeated and the idea was put to rest for a short while . Alfred James Towle Taylor , who had been part of this proposal and still owned the provincial franchise to build the bridge , did not have the finances to purchase the necessary large sections of property in North Vancouver and West Vancouver . However , he was able to convince the Guinness family ( of the Irish stout fame ) to invest in the land on the north shore of Burrard Inlet . They purchased 4,700 acres ( 16 km² ) of West Vancouver mountainside through a syndicate called British Pacific Properties Ltd . On December 13 , 1933 , a second plebiscite was held and this time , it was passed by a 2 to 1 margin . After considerable further negotiations with the federal government , approval was finally granted , with the requirement that Vancouver materials and workmen be used as much as possible to provide employment during the Great Depression . The 1933 bylaw authorizing construction included a provision mandating that “ no Asiatic person shall be employed in or upon any part of the undertaking or other works . ” The bridge was designed by the Montreal firm Monsarrat and Pratley , which was later responsible for the Angus L. Macdonald Bridge in Halifax , Nova Scotia using a similar design . Other companies involved in the construction of the bridge include : Swan Wooster Engineering , Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas , Rowan Williams Davies & Irwin Inc. , Canron Western Constructors , Dominion Bridge Company , American Bridge Company . Construction began on March 31 , 1937 . After one and a half years and a cost of $ 5,873,837.17 ( CAD ) , it opened to traffic on November 14 , 1938 . On May 29 , 1939 , King George VI and Queen Elizabeth presided over the official opening during a royal visit to Canada . A toll of 25 cents was charged for each car . On January 20 , 1955 , the Guinness family sold the bridge to the province for $ 5,959,060 , and in 1963 , the tolls were dropped . The newly constructed bridge differed from the current configuration of the bridge as it originally had only two lanes . Yet , as had been foreseen , West Vancouver ’ s population boomed as a result of the new connection . Thus , to accommodate the increased population , the lanes were divided into three with the middle lane acting as a passing lane . Eventually overhead lane control signals were installed , enabling traffic in the centre lane to be directed in either direction , and facilitating emergency vehicle access by closing off the center lane . Another difference with the original configuration was that in an effort to recover the expenditure it cost to build the bridge , the Guinness family had toll booths installed . The toll booths remained on the bridge until 1963 , at which time the bridge was purchased by the provincial government for the same price that it took to build it . Changes were made shortly after the takeover , as the tolls were removed and the overhead lane controls were added . The Guinnesses ’ last involvement with the bridge happened in 1986 , when they added lights to the bridge as an Expo '86 gift . In 1975 , the deteriorating north viaduct was replaced with a lighter , wider , and stronger steel deck with wider lanes . This was carried out in sections using a series of short closures of the bridge ; each time , one old section was lowered from the bridge and its replacement was put into place . In 1986 the Guinness family , as a gift to Vancouver , purchased decorative lights that make it a distinctive nighttime landmark . In July 2009 , the bridge 's lighting system was updated with new LED lights to replace this existing system of 100-watt mercury vapour bulbs . The switch to LEDs is expected to reduce power consumption on the bridge by 90 per cent and save the Province about $ 30,000 a year in energy and maintenance costs . The approximate cost of this project was $ 150,000 , paid for by the ministry and B.C . Hydro . `` The average replacement time of one of the traditional light bulbs was about 72 hours , '' said the ministry 's Jeff Knight . With the new LED bulbs , which are designed to last 12 years , it could be a decade before any work crew is called out to do a replacement . By the 1990s , it was time for the bridge to be either significantly upgraded or replaced . A number of different proposals were considered , including building a new bridge beside the existing bridge , building a tunnel from Downtown Vancouver to the north shore , or double decking the existing bridge . However , none of the proposals could overcome the City of Vancouver 's objections to any increase in traffic into the downtown core and the province 's unwillingness to spend much money on the project . In the end , it was decided to upgrade the existing bridge without adding any new lanes . Traffic was finding the 2.84 m ( 9 ft 4 in ) wide lanes narrow , and the sidewalks were inadequate for pedestrians and cyclists . As a result , the main bridge deck was replaced in 2000 and 2001 – the first time a suspension bridge 's deck had been replaced . As with the earlier work , this was facilitated by a series of separate nighttime and weekend closures to replace one section at a time . The old section would be lowered to a barge , and the new one raised into place and connected . The change allowed the two pedestrian walkways to be moved to the outside of the structure and the road lanes were accordingly widened from 3 to 3.6 m ( from 10 to 12 ft ) each ; the new sidewalks are also wider , 2.7 m ( 9 ft ) each instead of 1.2 m ( 4 ft ) . Also , the main structural elements were moved to below the bridge deck , thus giving a much more open appearance . The entire suspended structure was thus replaced with little or no interruption in daytime traffic . Landmark * The Lions Gate Bridge has become a landmark of Vancouver and the North Shore . * The bridge was featured on the first title card of CBC supper-hour newscast Canada Now , but it was replaced with a local image in several markets . * The bridge is often used in television broadcasts as a symbol of Vancouver ; most telecasts of NHL hockey games played in Vancouver show the bridge at least once . * The bridge is the namesake of locally founded film company Lionsgate . * The bridge was featured in a short sequence of the film Drawing Flies . * The bridge was featured in the closing sequence of the film Tron : Legacy , released December 17 , 2010 . * The bridge was featured as the set of 2011 film Final Destination 5 released August 12 , 2011 . * The bridge was featured in the closing credits of Da Vinci 's Inquest . Gallery Image : Lion 's Gate Bridge at Sunset.JPG|Lions Gate Bridge at Sunset , 2013 Image : Lions ' Gate Bridge ( from Stanley Park ) .jpg|Lions Gate Bridge from Downtown Vancouver Image : Lions Gate Bridge at night.jpg|Lions Gate Bridge and North Vancouver from Prospect Point in Stanley Park Image : LionsGateBridgeDeckReplacementProgressApril2001.jpg|Lions Gate Bridge deck replacement procedure progress as of April 22 , 2001 Image : LionsGateBridgeTidepoolReflection.jpg|Lions Gate Bridge at First Narrows reflected in tide pools at sunset , 2002 Image : LionsGateBridgeFromCypressViewpointWinterNight2012.JPG|Lions Gate Bridge in relation to Vancouver city and harbour viewed from Cypress Viewpoint , December 2012 Image : Lions Gate bridge.JPG|Lions Gate Bridge from Stanley Park , 2013

tc_561--Lions_Gate_Bridge.txt

Where in Canada is the Lion's Gate bridge?

We 're No Angels is a 1955 Christmas comedy film starring an ensemble cast of Humphrey Bogart , Peter Ustinov , Aldo Ray , Joan Bennett , Basil Rathbone , and Leo G. Carroll . Shot in both VistaVision and Technicolor , the Paramount Studios production was directed by Michael Curtiz , who had directed Bogart in Casablanca when both were under contract to Warner Brothers . It is one of Bogart 's rare comedies . The screenplay was written by Ranald MacDougall , based on the play My Three Angels by Samuel and Bella Spewack , which itself was based upon the French play La Cuisine Des Anges by Albert Husson . Mary Grant designed the film 's costumes . Plot Three convicts – Joseph , Albert and Jules – escape from prison on Devil 's Island just before Christmas and arrive at a nearby French colonial town . They go to a store managed by the Ducotel family , the only one to give supplies on credit . While there , they notice its roof is leaking , and offer to fix it . They do not actually intend to , but decide to remain there until nightfall , when they will steal clothes and supplies and escape on a ship waiting in the harbor . As they wait , they find that the small family of Felix , Amelie , and daughter Isabelle , is in financial distress and offer their services to hide the trio 's all-too-sinister ruse . Joseph even gets to work conning people and falsifying records to make the store prosperous . However , the three felons begin to have a change of heart after they fix a delicious Christmas dinner for the Ducotels made mostly of stolen items . Tensions heighten after store owner Andre Trochard arrives from Paris with his nephew Paul , the light in Isabelle 's eye . The Trochards plan on taking over the store , which they perceive is unprofitable due to its use of credit . It turns out that Paul is betrothed to another woman , to Isabelle 's dismay . Before any action can be taken , both men are bitten by Albert 's pet viper , Adolphe , and die nearly instantly . Isabelle finds another love , and the family is happy as the convicts finally ready for their postponed escape . However , while waiting on the docks for their boat to arrive , the threesome reconsiders . Judging that the outside world is likely to be worse than that of the prison , they decide to turn themselves back in . As they walk toward it at film 's end halos appear over their heads ... followed by one above the cage of Adolphe . Cast * Humphrey Bogart as Joseph * Aldo Ray as Albert * Peter Ustinov as Jules * Joan Bennett as Amelie Ducotel * Basil Rathbone as Andre Trochard * Leo G. Carroll as Felix Ducotel * Gloria Talbott as Isabelle Ducotel * John Smith as Doctor Arnaud * Torben Meyer as Butterfly Man * Paul Newlan as Port Captain * John Baer as Paul Trochard * Lea Penman as Mme . Parole * Jack Del Rio as Gendarme * Joe Ploski as Customs Inspector * Louis Mercier as Celeste * George Dee as Coachman * Victor Romito as Gendarme

qz_2822--We're_No_Angels_(1955_film).txt

The 1955 comedy movie We're No Angels centred on three escaped convicts. Peter Ustinov and Aldo Ray were two, but who played the third?

Baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of nine players each , who take turns batting and fielding . The batting team attempts to score runs by hitting a ball that is thrown by the pitcher with a bat swung by the batter , then running counter-clockwise around a series of four bases : first , second , third , and home plate . A run is scored when a player advances around the bases and returns to home plate . Players on the batting team take turns hitting against the pitcher of the fielding team , which tries to prevent runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways . A player on the batting team who reaches a base safely can later attempt to advance to subsequent bases during teammates ' turns batting , such as on a hit or by other means . The teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the fielding team records three outs . One turn batting for both teams , beginning with the visiting team , constitutes an inning . A game is composed of nine innings , and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins . Baseball has no game clock , although almost all games end in the ninth inning . Baseball evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century . This game was brought by immigrants to North America , where the modern version developed . By the late 19th century , baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States . Baseball is now popular in North America and parts of Central and South America , the Caribbean , and East Asia . In the United States and Canada , professional Major League Baseball ( MLB ) teams are divided into the National League ( NL ) and American League ( AL ) , each with three divisions : East , West , and Central . The major league champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series . The top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League . History Origins The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision . A French manuscript from 1344 contains an illustration of clerics playing a game , possibly la soule , with similarities to baseball . Other old French games such as thèque , la balle au bâton , and la balle empoisonnée also appear to be related . Consensus once held that today 's baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders , popular in Great Britain and Ireland . Baseball Before We Knew It : A Search for the Roots of the Game ( 2005 ) , by David Block , suggests that the game originated in England ; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position . Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other , and that the game 's most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and `` tut-ball . '' It has long been believed that cricket also descended from such games , though evidence uncovered in early 2009 suggests that cricket may have been imported to England from Flanders . The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication , A Little Pretty Pocket-Book , by John Newbery . It contains a rhymed description of `` base-ball '' and a woodcut that shows a field set-up somewhat similar to the modern game—though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration , and with posts instead of ground-level bases . David Block discovered that the first recorded game of `` Bass-Ball '' took place in 1749 in Surrey , and featured the Prince of Wales as a player . William Bray , an English lawyer , recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford , Surrey . This early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants . Rounders was also brought to the USA by Canadians of both British and Irish ancestry . The first known American reference to baseball appears in a 1791 Pittsfield , Massachusetts , town bylaw prohibiting the playing of the game near the town 's new meeting house . By 1796 , a version of the game was well-known enough to earn a mention in a German scholar 's book on popular pastimes . As described by Johann Gutsmuths , `` englische Base-ball '' involved a contest between two teams , in which `` the batter has three attempts to hit the ball while at the home plate . '' Only one out was required to retire a side . By the early 1830s , there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America . These games were often referred to locally as `` town ball '' , though other names such as `` round-ball '' and `` base-ball '' were also used . Among the earliest examples to receive a detailed description—albeit five decades after the fact , in a letter from an attendee to Sporting Life magazine—took place in Beachville , Ontario , in 1838 . There were many similarities to modern baseball , and some crucial differences : five bases ( or byes ) ; first bye just 18 ft from the home bye ; batter out if a hit ball was caught after the first bounce . The once widely accepted story that Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown , New York , in 1839 has been conclusively debunked by sports historians . In 1845 , Alexander Cartwright , a member of New York City 's Knickerbocker Club , led the codification of the so-called Knickerbocker Rules . The practice , common to bat-and-ball games of the day , of `` soaking '' or `` plugging '' —effecting a putout by hitting a runner with a thrown ball—was barred . The rules thus facilitated the use of a smaller , harder ball than had been common . Several other rules also brought the Knickerbockers ' game close to the modern one , though a ball caught on the first bounce was , again , an out and only underhand pitching was allowed . While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers played games in 1845 , the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19 , 1846 , in Hoboken , New Jersey : the `` New York Nine '' defeated the Knickerbockers , 23–1 , in four innings ( three earlier games have recently been discovered ) . With the Knickerbocker code as the basis , the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century . History of baseball in the United States The game turns professional In the mid-1850s , a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan area . By 1856 , local journals were referring to baseball as the `` national pastime '' or `` national game . '' A year later , sixteen area clubs formed the sport 's first governing body , the National Association of Base Ball Players . In 1858 in Corona , Queens New York , at the Fashion Race Course , the first games of baseball to charge admission took place . The games , which took place between the all stars of Brooklyn , including players from the Brooklyn Atlantics , Excelsior of Brooklyn , Putnams and Eckford of Brooklyn , and the All Stars of New York ( Manhattan ) , including players from the New York Knickerbockers , Gothams ( predecessors of the San Francisco Giants ) , Eagles and Empire , are commonly believed to be the first all-star baseball games . In 1863 , the organization disallowed putouts made by catching a fair ball on the first bounce . Four years later , it barred participation by African Americans . The game 's commercial potential was developing : in 1869 the first fully professional baseball club , the Cincinnati Red Stockings , was formed and went undefeated against a schedule of semipro and amateur teams . The first professional league , the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players , lasted from 1871 to 1875 ; scholars dispute its status as a major league . The more formally structured National League was founded in 1876 . As the oldest surviving major league , the National League is sometimes referred to as the `` senior circuit . '' Several other major leagues formed and failed . In 1884 , African American Moses Walker ( and , briefly , his brother Welday ) played in one of these , the American Association . An injury ended Walker 's major league career , and by the early 1890s , a gentlemen 's agreement in the form of the baseball color line effectively barred black players from the white-owned professional leagues , major and minor . Professional Negro leagues formed , but quickly folded . Several independent African American teams succeeded as barnstormers . Also in 1884 , overhand pitching was legalized.Rader ( 2008 ) , p. 71 . In 1887 , softball , under the name of indoor baseball or indoor-outdoor , was invented as a winter version of the parent game . Virtually all of the modern baseball rules were in place by 1893 ; the last major change—counting foul balls as strikes—was instituted in 1901 . The National League 's first successful counterpart , the American League , which evolved from the minor Western League , was established that year . The two leagues , each with eight teams , were rivals that fought for the best players , often disregarding each other 's contracts and engaging in bitter legal disputes . A modicum of peace was eventually established , leading to the National Agreement of 1903 . The pact formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues , representing most of the country 's minor professional leagues . The World Series , pitting the two major league champions against each other , was inaugurated that fall , albeit without express major league sanction : The Boston Americans of the American League defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League . The next year , the series was not held , as the National League champion New York Giants , under manager John McGraw , refused to recognize the major league status of the American League and its champion . In 1905 , the Giants were National League champions again and team management relented , leading to the establishment of the World Series as the major leagues ' annual championship event . As professional baseball became increasingly profitable , players frequently raised grievances against owners over issues of control and equitable income distribution . During the major leagues ' early decades , players on various teams occasionally attempted strikes , which routinely failed when their jobs were sufficiently threatened . In general , the strict rules of baseball contracts and the reserve clause , which bound players to their teams even when their contracts had ended , tended to keep the players in check . Motivated by dislike for particularly stingy owner Charles Comiskey and gamblers ' payoffs , real and promised , members of the Chicago White Sox conspired to throw the 1919 World Series . The Black Sox Scandal led to the formation of a new National Commission of baseball that drew the two major leagues closer together . The first major league baseball commissioner , Kenesaw Mountain Landis , was elected in 1920 . That year also saw the founding of the Negro National League ; the first significant Negro league , it would operate until 1931 . For part of the 1920s , it was joined by the Eastern Colored League . Professional baseball was played in northeastern cities with a large immigrant-ethnic population ; they gave strong support to the new sport . The Irish Catholics dominated in the late 19th century , comprising a third or more of the players and many of the top stars and managers . Historian Jerrold Casway argues that : Baseball for Irish kids was a shortcut to the American dream and to self-indulgent glory and fortune . By the mid-1880s these young Irish men dominated the sport and popularized a style of play that was termed heady , daring , and spontaneous .... Ed Delahanty personified the flamboyant , exciting spectator-favorite , the Casey-at-the-bat , Irish slugger . The handsome masculine athlete who is expected to live as large as he played . Rise of Ruth and racial integration Compared with the present , professional baseball in the early 20th century was lower-scoring and pitchers , the likes of Walter Johnson and Christy Mathewson , were more dominant . The `` inside game , '' which demanded that players `` scratch for runs '' , was played much more aggressively than it is today : the brilliant and often violent Ty Cobb epitomized this style . The so-called dead-ball era ended in the early 1920s with several changes in rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters . Strict new regulations governing the ball 's size , shape and composition along with a new rule officially banning the spitball , along with other pitches that depended on the ball being treated or roughed-up with foreign substances after the death of Ray Chapman who was hit by a pitch in August 1920 , coupled with superior materials available after World War I , resulted in a ball that traveled farther when hit . The construction of additional seating to accommodate the rising popularity of the game often had the effect of bringing the outfield fences closer in , making home runs more common . The rise of the legendary player Babe Ruth , the first great power hitter of the new era , helped permanently alter the nature of the game . The club with which Ruth set most of his slugging records , the New York Yankees , built a reputation as the majors ' premier team . In the late 1920s and early 1930s , St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey invested in several minor league clubs and developed the first modern `` farm system '' . A new Negro National League was organized in 1933 ; four years later , it was joined by the Negro American League . The first elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame took place in 1936 . In 1939 Little League Baseball was founded in Pennsylvania . By the late 1940s , it was the organizing body for children 's baseball leagues across the United States . With America 's entry into World War II , many professional players had left to serve in the armed forces . A large number of minor league teams disbanded as a result and the major league game seemed under threat as well . Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led the formation of a new professional league with women players to help keep the game in the public eye – the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League existed from 1943 to 1954 . The inaugural College World Series was held in 1947 , and the Babe Ruth League youth program was founded . This program soon became another important organizing body for children 's baseball . The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white-controlled professional ball occurred the previous year : Jackie Robinson was signed by the National League 's Brooklyn Dodgers—where Branch Rickey had become general manager—and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal . In 1947 , Robinson broke the major leagues ' color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers . Larry Doby debuted with the American League 's Cleveland Indians the same year . Latin American players , largely overlooked before , also started entering the majors in greater numbers . In 1951 , two Chicago White Sox , Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel and black Cuban-born Minnie Miñoso , became the first Hispanic All-Stars . Facing competition as varied as television and football , baseball attendance at all levels declined . While the majors rebounded by the mid-1950s , the minor leagues were gutted and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams dissolved . Integration proceeded slowly : by 1953 , only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster . That year , the Major League Baseball Players Association was founded . It was the first professional baseball union to survive more than briefly , but it remained largely ineffective for years . No major league team had been located west of St. Louis until 1958 , when the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated to Los Angeles and San Francisco , respectively . The majors ' final all-white bastion , the Boston Red Sox , added a black player in 1959 . With the integration of the majors drying up the available pool of players , the last Negro league folded the following year . In 1961 , the American League reached the West Coast with the |Los Angeles Angels expansion team , and the major league season was extended from 154 games to 162 . This coincidentally helped Roger Maris break Babe Ruth 's long-standing single-season home run record , one of the most celebrated marks in baseball . Along with the Angels , three other new franchises were launched during 1961–62 . With this , the first major league expansion in 60 years , each league now had ten teams . Attendance records and the age of steroids The players ' union became bolder under the leadership of former United Steelworkers chief economist and negotiator Marvin Miller , who was elected executive director in 1966 . On the playing field , major league pitchers were becoming increasingly dominant again . After the 1968 season , in an effort to restore balance , the strike zone was reduced and the height of the pitcher 's mound was lowered from 15 to 10 inches . In 1969 , both the National and American leagues added two more expansion teams , the leagues were reorganized into two divisions each , and a post-season playoff system leading to the World Series was instituted . Also that same year , Curt Flood of the St. Louis Cardinals made the first serious legal challenge to the reserve clause . The major leagues ' first general players ' strike took place in 1972 . In another effort to add more offense to the game , the American League adopted the designated hitter rule the following year . In 1975 , the union 's power—and players ' salaries—began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was effectively struck down , leading to the free agency system . In 1977 , two more expansion teams joined the American League . Significant work stoppages occurred again in 1981 and 1994 , the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in 90 years . Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid-1970s and in 1994 , before the stoppage , the majors were setting their all-time record for per-game attendance . The addition of two more expansion teams after the 1993 season had facilitated another restructuring of the major leagues , this time into three divisions each . Offensive production—the number of home runs in particular—had surged that year , and again in the abbreviated 1994 season . After play resumed in 1995 , this trend continued and non-division-winning wild card teams became a permanent fixture of the post-season . Regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second-highest attendance mark for a full season was set . The next year , Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both surpassed Maris 's decades-old single season home run record and two more expansion franchises were added . In 2000 , the National and American leagues were dissolved as legal entities . While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes ( and the designated hitter distinction ) , the regulations and other functions—such as player discipline and umpire supervision—they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . In 2001 , Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season . There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal steroids ( as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion ) , but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance-enhancing drugs before 2004 . In 2007 , Bonds became MLB 's all-time home run leader , surpassing Hank Aaron , as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all-time highs . Even though McGwire , Sosa , and Bonds—as well as many other players , including storied pitcher Roger Clemens—have been implicated in the steroid abuse scandal , their feats and those of other sluggers had become the major leagues ' defining attraction . In contrast to the professional game 's resurgence in popularity after the 1994 interruption , Little League enrollment was in decline : after peaking in 1996 , it dropped 1 percent a year over the following decade . With more rigorous testing and penalties for performance-enhancing drug use a possible factor , the balance between bat and ball swung markedly in 2010 , which became known as the `` Year of the Pitcher '' . Runs per game fell to their lowest level in 18 years , and the strikeout rate was higher than it had been in half a century . Before the start of the 2012 season , MLB altered its rules to double the number of wild card teams admitted into the playoffs to two per league . The playoff expansion resulted in the addition of annual one-game playoffs between the wild card teams in each league . Baseball around the world Baseball , widely known as America 's pastime , is well established in several other countries as well . The history of baseball in Canada has remained closely linked with that of the sport in the United States . As early as 1877 , a professional league , the International Association , featured teams from both countries . While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country , the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969 , when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team . In 1977 , the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League . The Blue Jays won the World Series in 1992 and 1993 , the first and still the only club from outside the United States to do so . After the 2004 season , Major League Baseball relocated the Expos to Washington , D.C. , where the team is now known as the Nationals . In 1847 , American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in Xalapa , Veracruz . A few days after the Battle of Cerro Gordo , they used the `` wooden leg captured ( by the Fourth Illinois regiment ) from General Santa Anna '' . The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba , which maintains a rich baseball tradition and whose national team has been one of the world 's strongest since international play began in the late 1930s ( all organized baseball in the country has officially been amateur since the Cuban Revolution ) . The Dominican Republic held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912 . Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars , including the Netherlands ( formed in 1922 ) , Australia ( 1934 ) , Japan ( 1936 ) , Mexico ( 1937 ) , and Puerto Rico ( 1938 ) . The Japanese major leagues—the Central League and Pacific League—have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States . Japan has a professional minor league system as well , though it is much smaller than the American version—each team has only one farm club in contrast to MLB teams ' four or five . After World War II , professional leagues were founded in many Latin American nations , most prominently Venezuela ( 1946 ) and the Dominican Republic ( 1955 ) . Since the early 1970s , the annual Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues : the Dominican Professional Baseball League , Mexican Pacific League , Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League , and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League . In Asia , South Korea ( 1982 ) , Taiwan ( 1990 ) , and China ( 2003 ) all have professional leagues . Many European countries have professional leagues as well , the most successful , other than the Dutch league , being the Italian league founded in 1948 . Compared to those in Asia and Latin America , the various European leagues and the one in Australia historically have had no more than niche appeal . In 2004 , Australia won a surprise silver medal at the Olympic Games . The Israel Baseball League , launched in 2007 , folded after one season . The Confédération Européene de Baseball ( European Baseball Confederation ) , founded in 1953 , organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries , as well as national squads . Other competitions between national teams , such as the Baseball World Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament , were administered by the International Baseball Federation ( IBAF ) from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the International Softball Federation to create the current joint governing body for both sports , the World Baseball Softball Confederation ( WBSC ) . By 2009 , the IBAF had 117 member countries . Women 's baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in many of the countries where it is a leading men 's sport . Since 2004 , the IBAF and now WBSC have sanctioned the Women 's Baseball World Cup , featuring national teams . After being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games , baseball was dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee meeting . It remained part of the 2008 Games . The elimination of baseball , along with softball , from the 2012 Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two different sports , but none received the votes required for inclusion . While the sport 's lack of a following in much of the world was a factor , more important was Major League Baseball 's reluctance to have a break during the Games to allow its players to participate , as the National Hockey League now does during the Winter Olympic Games . Such a break is more difficult for MLB to accommodate because it would force the playoffs deeper into cold weather . Seeking reinstatement for the 2016 Summer Olympics , the IBAF proposed an abbreviated competition designed to facilitate the participation of top players , but the effort failed . Major League Baseball initiated the World Baseball Classic , scheduled to precede the major league season , partly as a replacement , high-profile international tournament . The inaugural Classic , held in March 2006 , was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants . The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its 2011 edition in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic . Rules and gameplay A game is played between two teams , each composed of nine players , that take turns playing offense ( batting and baserunning ) and defense ( pitching and fielding ) . A pair of turns , one at bat and one in the field , by each team constitutes an inning . A game consists of nine innings ( seven innings at the high school level and in doubleheaders in college and minor leagues ) . One team—customarily the visiting team—bats in the top , or first half , of every inning . The other team—customarily the home team—bats in the bottom , or second half , of every inning . The goal of the game is to score more points ( runs ) than the other team . The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by circling or completing a tour of the four bases set at the corners of the square-shaped baseball diamond . A player bats at home plate and must proceed counterclockwise to first base , second base , third base , and back home in order to score a

qg_357--Baseball.txt

Every major league baseball team has retired the number 42, in honor of what player who was born on January 31, 1919?

Phar Lap ( 4 October 1926 – 5 April 1932 ) was a champion Thoroughbred racehorse whose achievements captured the public 's imagination during the early years of the Great Depression . Foaled in New Zealand , he was trained and raced in Australia by Harry Telford . Phar Lap dominated Australian racing during a distinguished career , winning a Melbourne Cup , two Cox Plates , an AJC Derby , and 19 other weight for age races . He then won the Agua Caliente Handicap in Tijuana , Mexico , in track-record time in his final race . After a sudden and mysterious illness , Phar Lap died in 1932 . At the time , he was the third highest stakes-winner in the world . His mounted hide is displayed at the Melbourne Museum , his skeleton at Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa and his heart is currently stored at the National Museum of Australia storage annexe in Mitchell , Canberra . Name The name Phar Lap derives from the common Zhuang and Thai word for lightning : ฟ้าแลบ , lit . 'sky flash ' . Phar Lap was called the `` Wonder Horse '' , `` Red Terror '' , `` Bobby '' and `` Big Red '' ( the latter nickname was also given to two of the greatest United States racehorses , Man o ' War and Secretariat ) . He was sometimes referred to as `` Australia 's wonder horse '' . According to the Museum of Victoria , Aubrey Ping , a medical student at the University of Sydney , suggested `` farlap '' as the horse 's name . Ping knew the word from his father , a Zhuang-speaking Chinese immigrant . Telford liked the name , but changed the F to PH to create a seven letter word , which was split in two in keeping with the dominant naming pattern of Melbourne Cup winners . Early life A chestnut gelding , Phar Lap was foaled on 4 October 1926 in Seadown near Timaru in the South Island of New Zealand . He was sired by Night Raid from Entreaty by Winkie . He was by the same sire as the Melbourne Cup winner Nightmarch . Phar Lap was a brother to seven other horses , Fortune 's Wheel , Nea Lap ( won 5 races ) , Nightguard , All Clear , Friday Night , Te Uira and Raphis , none of which won a principal ( stakes ) race . He was a half-brother to another four horses , only two of which were able to win any races at all . Sydney trainer Harry Telford persuaded American businessman David J. Davis to buy the colt at auction , based on his pedigree . Telford 's brother Hugh , who lived in New Zealand , was asked to bid up to 190 guineas at the 1928 Trentham Yearling Sales . When the horse was obtained for a mere 160 guineas , he thought it was a great bargain until the colt arrived in Australia . The horse was gangly , his face was covered with warts , and he had an awkward gait . Davis was furious when he saw the colt as well , and refused to pay to train the horse . Telford had not been particularly successful as a trainer , and Davis was one of his few remaining owners . To placate Davis , he agreed to train the horse for nothing , in exchange for a two-thirds share of any winnings . Telford leased the horse for three years and was eventually sold joint ownership by Davis . Although standing a winning racehorse at stud could be quite lucrative , Telford gelded Phar Lap anyway , hoping the colt would concentrate on racing . Racing career Phar Lap finished last in the first race and did not place in his next three races . He won his first race on 27 April 1929 , the Maiden Juvenile Handicap at Rosehill , ridden by Jack Baker of Armidale , a 17-year-old apprentice . He did n't race for several months but was then entered in a series of races , in which he moved up in class . Phar Lap took second in the Chelmsford Stakes at Randwick on 14 September 1929 and the racing community started treating him with respect . As his achievements grew , there were some who tried to halt his progress . Criminals tried to shoot Phar Lap on the morning of Saturday 1 November 1930 after he had finished track work . They missed , and later that day he won the Melbourne Stakes , and three days later the Melbourne Cup as odds-on favourite at 8 to 11 . In the four years of his racing career , Phar Lap won 37 of 51 races he entered , including the Melbourne Cup , being ridden by Jim Pike , in 1930 with 9 st 12 lb ( 138 lb ) . In that year and 1931 , he won 14 races in a row . From his win as a three-year-old in the VRC St. Leger Stakes until his final race in Mexico , Phar Lap won 32 of 35 races . In the three races that he did not win , he ran second on two occasions , beaten by a short head and a neck , and in the 1931 Melbourne Cup he finished eighth when carrying 10 st 10 lb ( 150 lb ) . Phar Lap at the time was owned by American businessman David J. Davis and leased to Telford . After their three-year lease agreement ended , Telford had enough money to become joint owner of the horse . Davis then had Phar Lap shipped to North America to race . Telford did not agree with this decision and refused to go , so Davis , who along with his wife traveled to Mexico with him , brought Phar Lap 's strapper Tommy Woodcock as his new trainer . Phar Lap was shipped by boat to Agua Caliente Racetrack near Tijuana , Mexico , to compete in the Agua Caliente Handicap , which was offering the largest prize money ever offered in North America racing . Phar Lap won in track-record time while carrying 129 pounds ( 58.5 kg ) . The horse was ridden by Australian jockey Billy Elliot for his seventh win from seven rides . From there , the horse was sent to a private ranch near Menlo Park , California , while his owner negotiated with racetrack officials for special race appearances . Death Early on 5 April 1932 , the horse 's strapper for the North American visit , Tommy Woodcock , found him in severe pain and with a high temperature . Within a few hours , Phar Lap haemorrhaged to death . An autopsy revealed that the horse 's stomach and intestines were inflamed , leading many to believe the horse had been deliberately poisoned . There have been alternative theories , including accidental poisoning from lead insecticide and a stomach condition . It was not until the 1980s that the infection could be formally identified . In 2000 , equine specialists studying the two necropsies concluded that Phar Lap probably died of duodenitis-proximal jejunitis , an acute bacterial gastroenteritis . In 2006 , Australian Synchrotron Research scientists said it was almost certain Phar Lap was poisoned with a large single dose of arsenic in the hours before he died , perhaps supporting the theory that Phar Lap was killed on the orders of U.S. gangsters , who feared the Melbourne Cup-winning champion would inflict big losses on their illegal bookmakers . No real evidence of involvement by a criminal element exists , however . Sydney veterinarian Percy Sykes believes poisoning did not cause the death . He said `` In those days , arsenic was quite a common tonic , usually given in the form of a solution ( Fowler 's Solution ) '' , and suggests this was the cause of the high levels . `` It was so common that I 'd reckon 90 per cent of the horses had arsenic in their system . '' In December 2007 , Phar Lap 's mane was tested for multiple doses of arsenic which , if found , would point to accidental poisoning . On 19 June 2008 , the Melbourne Museum released the findings of the forensic investigation conducted by Dr. Ivan Kempson , University of South Australia , and Dermot Henry , Natural Science Collections at Museum Victoria . Dr. Kempson analyzed six hairs from Phar Lap 's mane at the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory near Chicago . These high resolution X-rays detect arsenic in hair samples , showing the specific difference `` between arsenic , which had entered the hair cells via the blood and arsenic which had infused the hair cells by the taxidermy process when he was stuffed and mounted at the museum '' . Kempson and Henry discovered that in the 30 to 40 hours before Phar Lap 's death , the horse ingested a massive dose of arsenic . `` We ca n't speculate where the arsenic came from , but it was easily accessible at the time '' , Henry said . In October 2011 the Sydney Morning Herald published an article in which a New Zealand physicist and information from Phar Lap 's strapper state that the great horse was never given any tonic with arsenic and that he died of an infection . Said Dr. Putt , `` Unless we are prepared to say that Tommy Woodcock was a downright liar , which even today , decades after the loveable and respected horseman 's death , would ostracise us with the Australian racing public , we must accept him on his word . The ineluctable conclusion we are left with , whether we like it or not , is that Phar Lap 's impeccable achievements here and overseas were utterly tonic , stimulant , and drug-free . '' Contradicting this is the tonic book of Harry Telford , Phar Lap 's owner and trainer , on display in Museum Victoria , Melbourne . One recipe for a `` general tonic '' has a main ingredient of arsenic and has written below it : `` A great tonic for all horses '' . Several theories have been proposed for the large amount of arsenic in Phar Lap 's body . The source is unlikely ever to be determined . Cultural impact Following his death , Phar Lap 's heart was donated to the Institute of Anatomy in Canberra and his skeleton to the New Zealand 's National Museum in Wellington . After preparations of the hide by a New York City taxidermist , his stuffed body was placed in the Australia Gallery at Melbourne Museum . The hide and the skeleton were put on exhibition together when Wellington 's Te Papa Museum lent the skeleton to the Melbourne Museum in September 2010 as part of celebrations for the 150th running of the 2010 Melbourne Cup . Phar Lap 's heart was remarkable for its size , weighing , compared with a normal horse 's heart at . Now held at the National Museum of Australia in Canberra , it is the object visitors most often request to see . However , the author and film maker Peter Luck is convinced the heart is a fake . In Luck 's 1979 television series This Fabulous Century , the daughter of Dr Walker Neilson , the government veterinarian who performed the first post-mortem on Phar Lap , says her father told her the heart was necessarily cut to pieces during the autopsy , and the heart on display is that of a draughthorse . Several books and films have featured Phar Lap , including the 1983 film Phar Lap , and the song `` Phar Lap—Farewell To You '' . Phar Lap was one of five inaugural inductees into both the Australian Racing Hall of Fame and New Zealand Racing Hall of Fame . In the Blood-Horse magazine ranking of the Top 100 U.S. Thoroughbred champions of the 20th century , Phar Lap was ranked No . 22 . The horse is considered to be a national icon in both Australia and New Zealand . In 1978 he was honoured on a postage stamp issued by Australia Post and features in the Australian citizenship test . A $ 500,000 life-sized bronze memorial to Phar Lap was unveiled on 25 November 2009 near his birthplace at Timaru . Legacy Phar Lap has been honoured with a life-sized bronze statue at Flemington Racecourse in Melbourne . Phar Lap has a residential street named after him in Bossley Park , Sydney , Australia , and Cupertino , California , However , for the Australia address his name was merged as one word `` Pharlap '' for the naming of the suburban street . There is also a Phar Lap Grove in Trentham , Wellington , New Zealand , near the Trentham Racecourse . Racing record 1928–29 season as a two-year-old 1929–30 season as a three-year-old 1930–31 season as a four-year-old 1931–32 season as a five-year-old Total : 51 starts – 37 wins , 3 seconds , 2 thirds , 9 unplaced Tabulated pedigree

qw_15440--Phar_Lap.txt

What NZ thoroughbred racehorse, foaled in 1925 by the brood mare Marsa and the sire of Phar Lap, was the first horse to win both the Melbourne Cup and Cox Plate in the same year?

The Eurovision Song Contest 1968 was the 13th Eurovision Song Contest . The contest was won by the Spanish song `` La , la , la '' , performed by Massiel , closely followed by the United Kingdom and Cliff Richard with `` Congratulations ! '' with a margin of just one point . Originally Spain entered Joan Manuel Serrat to sing `` La La La '' , but his demand to sing in Catalan was an affront to Francoist Spain . Serrat was withdrawn and replaced by Massiel , who sang the same song in Spanish . Location The contest was held at the Royal Albert Hall , a concert hall situated in the City of Westminster within London , the capital and biggest city of England and the United Kingdom . The Royal Albert Hall is known for hosting the world 's leading artists from several performance genres , sports , award ceremonies , the annual summer Proms concerts and other events since its opening in 1871 , and has become one of the UK 's most treasured and distinctive buildings . Format 1968 was the first time that the Eurovision Song Contest was broadcast in colour . The countries that broadcast it in colour were France , Germany , the Netherlands , Sweden and the United Kingdom , although in the UK it was broadcast as an encore presentation in colour on BBC Two the next day . Also all of Eastern Europe and Tunisia broadcast the contest . Katie Boyle hosted the contest for a third time . Vote rigging allegations In May 2008 , a documentary by Spanish film-maker Montse Fernández Villa , 1968 . Yo viví el mayo español , centred on the effects of May 1968 in Francoist Spain , and alleged that the 1968 Eurovision Song Contest was rigged by the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco , who would have sent state television officials across Europe offering cash and promising to buy television series and contract unknown artists . The allegation was based on a testimony by journalist José María Íñigo , a TVE employee at the time , who claimed the rigging was common knowledge and suggested that Spanish record label representatives offered to release albums by Bulgarian and Czech artists ( neither Bulgaria nor Czechoslovakia were members of the European Broadcasting Union at the time ) . The documentary claimed that the contest should in fact have been won by the United Kingdom 's entry – `` Congratulations '' performed by Cliff Richard – which finished second by one vote . Massiel , the performer of the winning entry , was outraged by the allegations , and claimed that if there had been fixes , `` other singers , who were more keen on Franco 's regime , would have benefited '' . José María Iñigo , author of the statement in the documentary , personally apologized to Massiel and said that he had repeated a widespread rumour . Both Massiel and Iñigo accused television channel La Sexta , broadcaster of the documentary , of manufacturing the scandal . Participating countries There were no withdrawing , returning , or débutantes in the 1968 contest . Conductors Each performance had a conductor who maestro the orchestra . * - Joaquim Luís Gomes * - Dolf van der Linden * - Henri Segers * - Robert Opratko * - André Borly * - Mario Robbiani * - Michel Colombier * - Mats Olsson * - Ossi Runne * - Alain Goraguer * - Giancarlo Chiaramello * - Norrie Paramor * - Øivind Bergh * - Noel Kelehan * - Rafael Ibarbia * - Horst Jankowski * - Miljenko Prohaska Returning artists Only one artist returned in this year 's contest . The winner of the 1962 contest , Isabelle Aubret , returned once more for France . Results Scoreboard International broadcasts and voting The table below shows the order in which votes were cast during the 1968 contest along with the spokesperson who was responsible for announcing the votes for their respective country . Each national broadcaster also sent a commentator to the contest , in order to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language . Details of the commentators and the broadcasting station for which they represented are also included in the table below . Non-participating countries Several non-participating countries also decided to broadcast the contest on their respective television stations . * - TBC ( BNT 1 ) * - TBC ( Československá televize ) * - TBC ( Deutscher Fernsehfunk ) * - TBC ( m1 ) * - TBC ( TVP ) * - TBC ( TVR1 ) * - TBC ( CT USSR ) * - TBC ( ERTT )

qb_4801--Eurovision_Song_Contest_1968.txt

In which European city was the 1968 Eurovision Song Contest held?

The wives of Henry VIII were the six queens consort wedded to Henry VIII , King of England between 1509 and 1547 . After his first divorce he appealed to the pope , who denounced him . He then turned to the Predestine party who had no inclined belief over the subject and had divorce written into the laws of the people . The six women who were married to King Henry VIII were , in chronological order : # Catherine of Aragon ( divorced , died while detained under guard at Kimbolton Castle , mother of Mary I ) # Anne Boleyn ( executed , mother of Elizabeth I ) # Jane Seymour ( died days after giving birth to Edward VI , believed to be caused by birth complications ) # Anne of Cleves ( divorced , outlived the rest of the wives ) # Catherine Howard ( executed ) # Catherine Parr ( widowed ) Henry 's first marriage lasted nearly 24 years , while the remaining five totaled less than 10 years combined . A common mnemonic device to remember the fates of Henry 's consorts is `` Divorced , beheaded , died , divorced , beheaded , survived '' . There is also a rhyme : However , Henry did not `` divorce '' two wives , but rather had the marriages annulled . At the time , the laws relating to marriage were under the jurisdiction of canon law , and there was no divorce under canon law . Henry 's marriage to Anne Boleyn was also annulled before her death . So if one accepts the courts ' finding that the annulled marriages had never existed , Henry only had three wives—Seymour , Howard and Parr . It is often noted that Catherine Parr `` survived him . '' In fact , Anne of Cleves also survived the king , and was the last of his queens to die . Of the six queens , Catherine of Aragon , Anne Boleyn , and Jane Seymour each gave Henry one child who survived infancy : two daughters and one son . All three of these children would eventually ascend to the throne : Queen Mary I , Queen Elizabeth I , and King Edward VI , respectively . Catherine Howard and Anne Boleyn , the two of Henry 's queens who were beheaded , were first cousins . Several of Henry 's wives worked in at least one of his other wives ' service , typically as ladies-in-waiting : Anne Boleyn worked in Catherine of Aragon 's service , Jane Seymour worked in Catherine of Aragon 's and Anne Boleyn 's , and Catherine Howard worked in Anne of Cleves 's . Henry was distantly related to all six of his wives through their common ancestor , King Edward I of England . Henry and at least four of his wives ( Catherine of Aragon , Anne Boleyn , Jane Seymour , and Catherine Parr ) were portrayed in opera . Catherine of Aragon Catherine of Aragon ( 16 December 1485 - 7 January 1536 ; ) was Henry 's first wife . After the death of Arthur , her first husband and Henry 's brother , a papal dispensation was obtained to enable her to marry Henry , though the marriage did not take place until after he came to the throne in 1509 . Prospects were looking good when Catherine became pregnant in 1510 , just 4 months after their marriage , but the girl was stillborn . Catherine became pregnant again in 1511 , and gave birth to a boy who died almost two months later . In 1513 , Catherine gave birth to a stillborn boy , and gave birth to a boy who died within a month in 1514 . Finally , Catherine bore him a healthy daughter in 1516 , Mary . It took her two years to conceive again . This pregnancy ended in a short-lived girl . It is said that Henry truly loved Catherine of Aragon , he himself professed it many a time in song , letters , inscriptions , public declarations etc . Henry , at the time a Roman apostolic Catholic , sought the Pope 's approval for an annulment on the grounds that his marriage was invalid because Catherine had first been his brother 's wife . Henry had begun an affair with Anne Boleyn , who is said to have refused to become his mistress ( Henry had already consummated an affair with and then dismissed Anne 's sister , Mary Boleyn , and most historians believe that Anne wanted to avoid the same treatment ) . Despite the pope 's refusal , Henry separated from Catherine in 1531 . In the face of the Pope 's continuing refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine , Henry ordered the highest church official in England , Thomas Cranmer , Archbishop of Canterbury , to convene a court to rule on the status of his marriage to Catherine . On 23 May 1533 , Cranmer ruled the marriage to Catherine null and void . On 28 May 1533 , he pronounced the King legally married to Anne ( with whom Henry had already secretly exchanged wedding vows , probably in late January 1533 ) . This led to the break from the Roman Catholic Church and the later establishment of the Church of England . Shakespeare called Catherine `` The Queen of Earthly Queens . '' Marriage to Henry VIII : 11 June 1509 – 23 May 1533 ( 23 years , 11 months , 19 days ) ; marriage annulled . Anne Boleyn Anne Boleyn ( c.1501/1507 - 19 May 1536 ) was Henry 's second wife and the mother of Elizabeth I. Henry 's marriage to Anne , and her subsequent execution , made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation . The daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn and his wife , Lady Elizabeth Boleyn ( born Lady Elizabeth Howard ) , Anne was of nobler birth than Jane Seymour , Henry 's later wife . She was dark-haired , with beautiful features and lively manners ; she was educated in Europe , largely as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Claude of France . Anne resisted the King 's attempts to seduce her in 1526 and she refused to become his mistress , as her sister , Mary Boleyn , had been . It soon became the one absorbing object of the King 's desires to secure a divorce from his wife , Catherine of Aragon , so he could marry Anne . Evidence of intimacy between the King and Anne is found in a love letter written by the King , in which he expressed admiration for her `` pretty duckies '' ( breasts ) . When it became clear that Pope Clement VII was unlikely to give the king an annulment , the breaking of the power of the Roman Catholic Church in England began . Henry had Thomas Wolsey dismissed from public office and later had the Boleyn family 's chaplain , Thomas Cranmer , appointed Archbishop of Canterbury . In 1533 , Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service . She soon became pregnant and there was a second , public wedding service , which took place in London on 25 January 1533 . On 23 May 1533 , Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void . Five days later , Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid . Soon after , the Pope launched sentences of excommunication against the King and the Archbishop . As a result of Anne 's marriage to the King , the Church of England was forced to break with Rome and was brought under the king 's control . Anne was crowned Queen Consort of England on 1 June 1533 . Later that year , on 7 September , Anne gave birth to Henry 's second daughter , Elizabeth . When Anne failed to quickly produce a male heir , her only son being stillborn , the King grew tired of her and a plot was hatched by Thomas Cromwell to execute her . Although the evidence against her was unconvincing , Anne was beheaded on charges of adultery , incest , and high treason on 19 May 1536 . Following her daughter Elizabeth 's coronation as queen , Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation , particularly through the works of John Foxe . Over the centuries , Anne has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works . Marriage to Henry VIII : 28 May 1533 - 17 May 1536 ( 2 years , 11 months , 19 days ) ; annulled , then beheaded . Jane Seymour Jane Seymour ( c.roughly 1508 - 24 October 1537 ) was Henry 's third wife . She served Catherine of Aragon and was one of Anne Boleyn 's ladies-in-waiting . It is strongly believed that she is the mistress who disposed of Anne , who was executed just 10–11 days before Jane 's marriage to the king . The daughter of a knight , she was of lower birth than most of Henry 's wives . Finally , a year later , Jane gave birth to a healthy , legitimate male heir , Edward , but she died twelve days later , presumably because of post-natal complications . This apparently caused her husband genuine grief , as she was the only queen to receive a proper Queen 's burial ; when the King died in 1547 , he was buried next to her . Marriage to Henry VIII : 30 May 1536 - 24 October 1537 ( 1 year , 4 months , 24 days ) ; death from complications of childbirth . Anne of Cleves Anne of Cleves ( 22 September 1515 - 16 July 1557 ) was Henry 's fourth wife , for only six months in 1540 , from 6 January to 9 July . Anne of Cleves was a German princess . It has been stated that Henry referred to her as `` A Flanders Mare '' , which may or may not be true ; nevertheless , the label has stuck with Anne . Her pre-contract of marriage with Francis I , Duke of Lorraine , was cited as grounds for an annulment . Anne agreed to this , claiming that the marriage had not been consummated , and because she had n't resisted the annulment , was given a generous settlement , including Hever Castle , former home of Henry 's former in-laws , the Boleyns . She was given the name `` The King 's Sister '' , and became a friend to him and his children until his death . She outlived both the King and his last two wives , making her the last of the six wives to die . Marriage to Henry VIII : 6 January 1540 - 9 July 1540 ( 6 months , 3 days ) ; annulled . Catherine Howard Catherine Howard ( c.1521 - 13 February 1542 ) was Henry 's fifth wife between 1540–1541 , sometimes known as `` the rose without a thorn '' . Henry was informed of her alleged adultery with Thomas Culpeper on 1 November 1541 . Marriage to Henry VIII : 28 July 1540 - 23 November 1541 ( 1 year , 3 months , 26 days ) ; beheaded . Catherine Parr Catherine Parr ( 1512 - 5 September 1548 ) , also spelled Kateryn , was the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII , 1543–1547 . She was the daughter of Sir Thomas Parr of Kendal and his wife Maud Green . Through her father , Catherine was a descendant of John of Gaunt , son of King Edward III . Through John of Gaunt 's daughter Joan Beaufort , Countess of Westmoreland ( Henry 's great-great grandmother ) , she was Henry 's third cousin , once removed . By Henry 's paternal descent from another of John of Gaunt 's children , John Beaufort , 1st Earl of Somerset , the two were also fourth cousins once removed . Catherine showed herself to be the restorer of Henry 's court as a family home for his children . Catherine was determined to present the royal household as a close-knit one in order to demonstrate strength through unity to Henry 's opposers . Perhaps Catherine 's most significant achievement was Henry 's passing of an act that confirmed both Mary 's and Elizabeth 's line in succession for the throne , despite the fact that they had both been made illegitimate by divorce or remarriage . Such was Henry 's trust in Catherine that he chose her to rule as Regent while he was attending to the war in France and in the unlikely event of the loss of his life , she was to rule as Regent until nine-year-old Edward came of age . Catherine also has a special place in history as she was the most married queen of England , having had four husbands in all ; Henry was her third . She had been widowed twice before marrying Henry . After Henry 's death , she married Thomas Seymour , uncle of Edward VI of England , to whom she had formed an attachment prior to her marriage with Henry . She had one child by Seymour , Mary , and died shortly after childbirth . Mary 's history is unknown , but she is believed to have died as a toddler . Marriage to Henry VIII : 12 July 1543 - 28 January 1547 ( 3 years , 6 months , 16 days ) ; his death at the age of 55 .

jp_2757--Wives_of_Henry_VIII.txt

Who was Henry VIII's second wife?

Goosnargh ( ) is a village and civil parish in the City of Preston district of Lancashire , England . The village lies between Broughton and Longridge , and mostly lies in the civil parish of Whittingham , although the ancient centre lies in the civil parish of Goosnargh . The parish of Goosnargh had a population of 1,204 recorded in the 2001 census , increasing to 1,316 at the 2011 Census . Etymology The name , meaning `` Gosan 's or Gusan 's hill pasture '' , derives from ( an Old Irish personal name ) and erg ( Norse for `` hill pasture '' ) . The name appeared in the Domesday Book as `` Gusansarghe '' but by 1212 had changed to `` Gosenargh '' , closer to today 's pronunciation . However , one reference suggested `` Gusansarghe '' was from Norse gudhsins hörgi ( related to hörgr ) , meaning `` at the idol 's ( god 's ) temple . '' Goosnargh village The Anglican parish church of St Mary the Virgin is situated on Church Lane . Trinity Methodist Church , originally dating from the early 1880s , is situated on Whittingham Lane . Goosnargh has two public houses , The Grapes located on Church Lane and The Stags Head on Whittingham Lane . The Bushells Arms located on Church Lane has closed . There is also a Post Office , hairdresser , pharmacy , village hall and a fish and chip shop in the village . There used to be a gift shop and an estate agent in the village but these have recently closed down . The village is also the location of the Whittingham and Goosnargh Social Club . The village holds an annual festival on the first Saturday after the Spring Bank Holiday Monday during which there is a procession through the village . The procession includes decorated floats , fancy dress , maypole dancing and marching bands . The village gave its name to the Goosnargh Cake , a type of caraway seed shortcake biscuit . Goosnargh Cornfed Chicken and Duck is championed by chefs including Gordon Ramsay . The oldest house in Goosnargh is Stone Cottage on Goosnargh Lane . It is now 339 years old . The beams in the 900-year-old local church have traces of sea salt in them . People believe they were from old Viking long boats . The village itself has a population of 1,540 , much of which is included in the civil parish of Whittingham . The number 4 bus runs through Goosnargh about every hour and goes to Preston in one direction and Chipping in the other . It is the only bus service to Goosnargh , except for school buses ( 584 , 585 and 678 ) . Goosnargh village has a primary school : Goosnargh Oliversons C of E. Broughton High School , Longridge High School and St Cecilia 's RC High School are the three high schools whose catchment areas include Goosnargh . The footballers Lily Parr and Peter Corr both died in Goosnargh . Bushell House , formerly known as Bushell 's Hospital , on Mill Lane , is a retirement home and a Grade II listed building dating from 1722 . Goosnargh parish Goosnargh parish includes the small villages of Inglewhite and Whitechapel , and Beacon Fell Country Park . The parish contains the Roman Catholic church of St Francis , Hill Chapel , and an adjoining Catholic primary school of the same name . The sixteenth-century Catholic martyr George Beesley was born at the site . Only one side of one road in Goosnargh village , including the parish church , lies within Goosnargh parish ; almost all of the village lies within adjacent Whittingham parish . This may explain why the village is sometimes referred to as `` Goosnargh and Whittingham '' , as if there were two villages . Some road signs on entering the village display `` Goosnargh and Whittingham '' . The website of the local `` Goosnargh & Whittingham Whitsuntide Festival '' refers to `` the twin villages of Goosnargh and Whittingham '' . An article in a local newspaper also refers to `` the villages of Whittingham and Goosnargh '' . However , no modern maps show a village marked `` Whittingham '' and the website of Whittingham Parish Council refers only to the village of Goosnargh . The parish was part of Preston Rural District throughout its existence from 1894 to 1974 . In 1974 the parish became part of the Borough of Preston , which became a city in 2002 . Local businesses Two miles out of Goosnargh village is Ye Horns Inn , noted for its roast duck and incorporating the Goosnargh Brewing Company . The brewery produces a number of beers including Goosnargh Gold , Goosnargh Truckle and Real Goosnargh Bitter ( RGB ) . Five of the ten Lancashire cheese dairies listed on the British Cheese Board 's website in 2009 are located in Goosnargh parish : Butler 's , Greenfields , Mrs Kirkham 's , Shorrocks and Carron Lodge . In July 2015 an outbreak of bird flu was officially confirmed at Field Foot Farm on Eaves Green Lane in the parish and a 10 km exclusion zone was established , within which movement of poultry , birds and mammals was forbidden without licence . The strain of flu was identified as H7N7 , and there was little risk to public health . 170,000 birds were expected to be culled . Fallout bunker The Royal Observer Corps 21 Group Headquarters and the Western Sector Control of the United Kingdom Warning and Monitoring Organisation used to be located on Langley Lane , on the border of the parishes of Goosnargh and Whittingham . In the large underground nuclear bunker was the standby national control of the famous Four-minute warning air raid warning system for the UK . The ROC and UKWMO were disbanded between 1991 and 1995 and the nuclear bunker was closed . The premises are now used as a Veterinary practice . In popular culture The name `` Goosnargh '' appears in the works of Douglas Adams . In So Long , and Thanks For All the Fish , it is a Betelgeusian word used by Ford Prefect `` when he knew he should say something but did n't know what it should be '' . Alternatively , in The Meaning of Liff , his comic dictionary based on British place names , it is defined as `` Something left over from preparing or eating a meal , which you store in the fridge despite the fact that you know full well you will never ever use it '' .

sfq_14501--Goosnargh.txt

Goosnargh Corn-fed Chicken and Duck is championed by chefs and five of the ten Lancashire cheese dairies listed by the British Cheese Board are located in Goosnargh parish, in which town or city is Goosnargh?

The 40th Ryder Cup matches were held 26–28 September 2014 in Scotland on the PGA Centenary Course at the Gleneagles Hotel near Auchterarder in Perthshire . This was the second Ryder Cup held in Scotland ; it was previously at Muirfield in 1973 . The team captains in 2014 were Paul McGinley for Europe and Tom Watson for the USA . Europe were the defending cup holders , having won in 2012 at Medinah Country Club near Chicago . Europe won the 2014 competition to retain the Ryder Cup , defeating the USA by points to , for their third consecutive win . Format The Ryder Cup is a match play event , with each match worth one point . The competition format was as follows : * Day 1 ( Friday ) – 4 fourball ( better ball ) matches in the morning , followed by 4 foursome ( alternate shot ) matches in the afternoon * Day 2 ( Saturday ) – 4 fourball matches in the morning , followed by 4 foursome matches in the afternoon * Day 3 ( Sunday ) – 12 singles matches On the Monday before the competition , European captain Paul McGinley announced that he had chosen to play fourball matches in the mornings , as had been the case for every European home captain since 1997 ( while American home captains have chosen to play foursomes in the mornings every year except for 2004 ) . With a total of 28 points available , points were required for the USA to win the Ryder Cup , and 14 points were required for Europe to retain it . All matches were played to a maximum of 18 holes . If a match was level after 18 holes each side was awarded half a point . Course The Gleneagles Hotel , located one hour outside of Edinburgh and set in grounds of 850 acre , had undergone a major redevelopment programme , partly in preparation for the 2014 Ryder Cup . The PGA Centenary Course , designed by Jack Nicklaus and one of three at Gleneagles , currently measures 7262 yd off the championship tees . The course was awarded the Ryder Cup in 2001 , and it was originally scheduled to host the matches in 2013 , however this was delayed a year due to the alteration of the Ryder Cup schedule after the September 11 attacks in 2001 . This was the final Ryder Cup to be affected by the rescheduling , as it was the furthest scheduled match at the time of the attacks . Just as the 2012 matches had been , all future matches are regularly scheduled for even-numbered years . Television In the United Kingdom and Ireland , Sky Sports provided live coverage , with the BBC showing highlights each evening on free-to-air television . Coverage in South Africa was provided on the Supersport channels . In the US , corporate siblings Golf Channel and NBC televised the event live , after NBC had traded for complete rights ( that it was contractually given the rights to in 2005 ) back from ESPN , who had televised the previous three Ryder Cups on Friday . Golf Channel televised action on Friday and a half-hour on Saturday , from where NBC took over for the rest of the weekend . In the early-morning sessions , Terry Gannon hosted from the 18th tower alongside Frank Nobilo . Curt Byrum and Tom Abbott served as hole announcers and Jerry Foltz was an on-course commentator . Nick Faldo appeared as a guest commentator on Friday , and sparked controversy after critical comments about Sergio García . For the afternoon sessions and the singles matches on Sunday , the regular NBC golf crew provided coverage . Dan Hicks and Johnny Miller hosted from the 18th tower , with Gary Koch and Peter Jacobsen as hole announcers . On course commentators were Mark Rolfing , Roger Maltbie and Notah Begay III . On the weekend , Colin Montgomerie appeared as a guest commentator to lend a European perspective , a role he previously filled for NBC in 2012 . Team qualification and selection Europe The European team qualification rules were announced on 21 May 2013 . The number of captain 's picks was increased from 2 to 3 with the number of players qualifying from the European Points being reduced from 5 to 4 . The team consists of : * The leading four players on the Ryder Cup European Points List * * Points ( 1 Point = 1 Euro ) earned in all Race to Dubai tournaments starting with the 2013 ISPS Handa Wales Open and ending following the conclusion of the 2014 Italian Open * The leading five players , not qualified above , on the Ryder Cup World Points List * * Total World Rankings Points earned in Official World Golf Ranking events starting on 26 August 2013 ( the start date of the ISPS Handa Wales Open ) and ending on 24 August 2014 and thereafter only from the Italian Open scheduled to conclude on 31 August 2014 . * Three captain 's picks * * The captain 's picks were announced on 2 September 2014 following the conclusion of the Italian Open and Deutsche Bank Championship . McGinley selected Stephen Gallacher , Ian Poulter , and Lee Westwood . The leading players in the Ryder Cup European points were : Players in qualifying places are shown in green . Donaldson had overtaken García by winning the penultimate qualifying event ( the D+D Real Czech Masters ) and since neither García nor Bjørn played in the final event ( the Italian Open ) and since no other player could pass Donaldson , he was assured of his place before the Italian Open . The leading players in the Ryder Cup World points were : Players in qualifying places are shown in green . Captain 's picks are shown in yellow . The leading four players ( García , Rose , Kaymer and Bjørn ) had qualified before the final event ( the Italian Open ) . Stephen Gallacher was then 11.21 points behind Graeme McDowell . The winner of the Italian Open would score 24 points with second place scoring 14.4 and third 9.6 . Gallacher therefore needed to either win the Italian Open , finish second alone or finish second jointly with just one other player ( scoring 12 points ) to overtake McDowell and move into the final automatic qualification spot . In the final round he scored 65 but David Howell ( playing in the group before ) had scored 63 to take second place by a single shot , pushing Gallacher down to third place . United States The United States qualification rules were announced on 20 March 2013 . They remained the same as for 2012 except that the number of captain 's picks was reduced from four to three . The team consists of : * The leading nine players on the Ryder Cup points list * * Points are gained from money earned in majors in 2013 and official 2014 PGA Tour events beginning with the Frys.com Open on 10 October 2013 through the PGA Championship on 10 August 2014 . One point is awarded for every $ 1,000 earned . Money earned in 2014 majors count double and money earned in 2014 alternate events ( those played opposite the majors or World Golf Championships ) count half . * Three captain 's picks * * The captain 's picks were announced on 2 September 2014 following the conclusion of the Italian Open and Deutsche Bank Championship . Watson selected Keegan Bradley , Hunter Mahan , and Webb Simpson . Players in the qualifying places are shown in green , and captain 's picks are shown in yellow . In late July Dustin Johnson announced that he was taking a leave of absence from golf and would miss the Ryder Cup . The qualifying places were therefore extended to the player finishing in 10th place in the points list . Mickelson 's second place finish in the 2014 PGA Championship lifted him from 11th to 5th place in the standings . Zach Johnson made the cut in the PGA Championship and this was sufficient to lift him above Jason Dufner and give him the last automatic place despite a last round of 77 which left him in a tie for 70th place and 35.8 points . Dufner withdrew from the event because of a neck injury . Source : In mid-August Tiger Woods announced that he would not be able to play in the 2014 Ryder Cup because of back problems and would therefore not be one of Watson 's three captain 's picks . Woods had finished 71st in the Ryder Cup points list . Teams Captains Tom Watson was named the USA team captain on 13 December 2012 . At 65 he became the oldest Ryder Cup captain ; a record previously held by J.H . Taylor who was 62 when he captained the Great Britain team in 1933 . Previously the oldest United States captain had been Sam Snead who was 57 when he was captain in 1969 . Paul McGinley was named the Europe team captain on 15 January 2013 . He was the first Irishman to captain the Ryder Cup side . McGinley had previously always been on the winning side in the Ryder Cup ; as a player in 2002 , 2004 and 2006 and as a vice-captain in 2010 and 2012 . Vice-captains Each captain selected a number of vice-captains to assist him during the tournament . In July 2013 , Watson named Andy North as a vice-captain . In February 2014 , he named Raymond Floyd as his second vice-captain and in August he chose Steve Stricker as a third vice-captain . In March 2014 , McGinley named Des Smyth and Sam Torrance as vice-captains . In September 2014 , McGinley then announced that Miguel Ángel Jiménez , Pádraig Harrington and José María Olazábal would also join his backroom team , making five vice-captains in total . Players Captains picks are shown in yellow ; the world rankings and records are at the start of the 2014 Ryder Cup . The players with the highest world rankings not on the team were : Luke Donald ( ranked 32 ) , Joost Luiten ( 36 ) , and Miguel Ángel Jiménez ( 37 ) . Captains picks are shown in yellow ; the world rankings and records are at the start of the 2014 Ryder Cup . The players with the highest world rankings not on the team were : Billy Horschel ( ranked 14 ) , Chris Kirk ( 22 ) , and Steve Stricker ( 28 ) . Their respective rankings on 2 September were 45 , 25 , and 24 , but did not include the results of the Deutsche Bank Championship . It concluded on Monday , 1 September , and was won by Kirk , with Horschel in a tie for second . The rankings for 7 September were 23 , 24 , and 25 , respectively . Horschel had missed the cut by three strokes the previous week at The Barclays , but won the next two events , the BMW Championship and The Tour Championship , to secure the FedEx Cup . Mickelson extended his own U.S. team record with his 10th appearance . Nick Faldo holds the European record with 11 . Friday 's matches Morning fourballs The United States won two matches and halved another to take the lead in the Ryder Cup . Jordan Spieth and Patrick Reed , the youngest American pairing in the history of the competition , defeated Ian Poulter and Stephen Gallacher 5 & 4 . This was Poulter 's first loss in his last eight Ryder Cup matches . The Spieth/Reed pairing had a combined age of 45 compared to the previous youngest American pairing which had been the Justin Leonard/Tiger Woods pairing in 1997 which had a combined age of 46 . The youngest in Ryder Cup history are the Mark James/Ken Brown pairing in 1977 with a combined age of 43 and Bernard Gallacher/Maurice Bembridge in 1969 with a combined age of 44 . Afternoon foursomes Europe won three matches and halved the fourth to take a 5–3 lead in the Ryder Cup . It was the first time since 2006 that Europe led after the first day of the competition . Justin Rose and Henrik Stenson , who won 5 & 4 in their morning match , played again and won ; they never trailed at any point during the day . Gene Wojciechowski , a columnist for ESPN , criticized American captain Tom Watson for not playing Jordan Spieth and Patrick Reed in the afternoon after they had won their morning match 5 & 4 . Saturday 's matches Morning fourballs The European pairing of Justin Rose and Henrik Stenson led off and won their third straight match in two days . Their score of 12-under set a Ryder Cup record in fourballs . Afternoon foursomes For the second straight day , Europe earned points in the afternoon foursomes , increasing their lead to 4 going into the singles matches . Because of a late finish by Rory McIlroy in the morning session Match 2 ( Furyk/Mahan v. García/McIlroy ) started after Match 3 ( Spieth/Reed v. Kaymer/Rose ) . The table below reflects the official order . Sunday 's singles matches Europe won the Ryder Cup for third consecutive time . Welshman Jamie Donaldson played the winning shot when his second to the 15th hole landed less than 2 feet from the hole and Keegan Bradley conceded the hole . Donaldson had halved the 14th hole with Bradley to find himself in a dormie position , where a minimum half-point is guaranteed . This meant that Europe were guaranteed a minimum 14–14 score ( enough to retain the cup ) but the scores are not official until the match is actually won , or halved after 18 holes . Individual player records Each entry refers to the Win–Loss–Half record of the player . Europe Source : United States Source :

dpql_3078--2014_Ryder_Cup.txt

Who was captain of the US team for the 2014 Ryder Cup?

Patrick Chukwuemeka Okogwu ( born 7 November 1988 ) , better known by his stage name Tinie Tempah , is an English rapper , singer , songwriter and record producer . He has been signed to Parlophone Records since 2009 , a subsidiary of Warner Music Group . He created his own record and fashion label Disturbing London ( DL Records ) in 2007 along with his cousin , Dumi Oburota . After releasing a couple of mixtapes , he released his long-awaited debut album , Disc-Overy , in October 2010 . Preceded by two British number-one singles , `` Pass Out '' and `` Written in the Stars '' , the album charted at number one and was certified Platinum the next year . In February 2011 , he won two Brit Awards for Best British Breakthrough Act and Best British Single . In November 2013 , he released his second album , entitled Demonstration . Preceded by top ten singles `` Trampoline '' and `` Children of the Sun '' , the album charted at number three and was certified gold by the BPI the next year . In June 2015 , he released the first single from his upcoming third album , Not Letting Go . This gave Tempah his sixth UK number one , the most by any rap artist . Early life Tempah was born in London , the son of Igbo parents from Nigeria . His middle name , Chukwuemeka , means `` God has done it '' in the Igbo language . Until he was 12 , Tempah lived on the Aylesbury Estate in southeast London with his parents and three younger siblings : Kelly , Kelvin , and Marian . The family later moved to Plumstead , with Tempah attending St. Paul 's Catholic School in nearby Abbey Wood . After earning 10 GCSEs , he took A Levels in media studies , psychology , and religious studies at St. Francis Xavier Sixth Form College . At 12 years old , Tempah conceived his stage name after viewing the music video for So Solid Crew 's `` 21 Seconds '' . He used a thesaurus in class , juxtaposing `` tempah '' ( temper ) , which he saw under `` angry '' , with `` tinie '' ( tiny ) , to ameliorate the aggressive sound of `` tempah '' . Regarding his London upbringing , Tempah states , `` London is one of the only places in the world where you can live in a council block and see a beautiful semi-detached house across the street . Growing up around that was inspirational , it kept me motivated . '' He has said that he has considered furthering his education , stating , `` I definitely want to be in a financial position where I can head off to Cambridge or Oxford or somewhere . I would study something like music management or something extremely random like physics , which no-one would expect , as I like challenges . '' Career history 2005–2008 : Early career Tempah 's music career began in 2005 when he joined the Aftershock Hooligans ( Aftershock Records ) , recording hundreds of songs with the fellow Hooligans . His first mixtape , `` Chapter 1 : Verse 22 '' , was released via Aftershock Records in 2005 , as a free mixtape . In 2006 , Tempah gained a great deal of airplay on British music TV channel Channel AKA for his song `` Tears '' , and later on gained more recognition for `` Wifey '' . Later in the year , he collaborated on a track ( `` Perfect GCD Hood Economics Room 147 '' ) with grime artist Ultra and producers and songwriters Agent X. Tempah stayed on the label until 2007 . When asked why he left , he stated that he felt Aftershock did n't respect him as an artist and that it was time to move on . Tempah , together with his manager and cousin Dumi Oburota founded the independent label Disturbing London primarily as an outlet for Tempah 's music , but with the idea of also signing other young artists . According to Dumi : `` We wanted to have a platform to put out our music and there was n't any Def Jam or Roc-A-Fella label equivalent in England . [ Also ] I wanted to create a major independent label with quality artists . I felt like the major labels had lost the passion for music . '' The activities of the label were initially largely funded by student loans and the proceeds from buying and selling cars . Disturbing London also produce a clothing range that Tinie wears and promotes . When scout and music consultant Jade Richardson saw Tempah performing at the 2009 Wireless Festival she called Parlophone Records president Miles Leonard saying : `` You 've got to check out this guy Tinie Tempah . He came on at lunchtime and there ’ s about 1,000 kids screaming for him . He 's only put out one independent release and he 's got this huge audience . '' Leonard and A & R Nathan Thompson visited Tempah and his manager Dumi at their studio a few weeks later and were hugely impressed to hear about the work they had already done in developing Tempah 's career and by the ambitious plans they had for his future . Leonard told HitQuarters : `` I thought it was incredible that an artist and manager were doing so much so soon with so little ... That impressed as much as the music . '' Tempah announced his signing to Parlophone in October 2009 by running a competition on his blog , with the winner invited to high tea at Claridges to celebrate the deal . A major break came when Sony launched its PlayStation Portable and used a track featuring Yasmin and DJ Ironik , and `` Atlantic/Warner '' for the futuristic Wipeout Pure . This resulted in a promotional European tour alongside the likes of Sway and Dizzee Rascal . 2009–2011 : Success and Disc-Overy Tempah released his debut single `` Pass Out '' through Parlophone on 28 February 2010 . It entered the UK Singles Chart at number 1 , having sold just over 92,000 copies in its first week , and sold sufficiently well to stay at the top spot for a second week . Tempah toured with Chipmunk in February 2010 , going on to support Rihanna for four dates in May on her 10-date UK tour with Tinchy Stryder and Pixie Lott . Tempah performed at Radio 1 Big Weekend in Bangor on 22 May 2010 on the in New Music We Trust stage . He also toured with Mr Hudson in May 2010 , as well as performing at many summer balls at various universities around the United Kingdom . Tempah 's second single `` Frisky '' was released on 6 June 2010 , entering the UK Singles Chart at number 2 . `` Frisky '' would later be used for a 2013 Bacardi commercial advertising their new pineapple flavor . Tinie Tempah played a host of festival dates throughout the summer , including the Summertime Ball at Wembley Stadium on 6 June 2010 , at Wakestock in Abersoch on 3 July 2010 , both T4 on the Beach and the Wireless Festival in London 's Hyde Park on 4 July , and V Festival on 21 and 22 August 2010 . He also had the honour of performing his first single `` Pass Out '' on 25 June 2010 at Glastonbury on the Pyramid stage with Snoop Dogg . Tempah released his third single `` Written in the Stars '' on 19 September 2010 . This again charted at number 1 in the UK Singles Chart , selling over 115,000 copies in its first week ( his biggest-selling single to date ) , and charting in a number of other countries . `` Written in the Stars '' would go on to be used for a WrestleMania XXVII countdown promo during the WWE PPV Royal Rumble on 30 January 2011 , and was later confirmed by WWE that it would be the official theme for Wrestlemania XXVII . It is also the theme song for the 2011 MLB Post Season , and was used as the entrance song for the New York Giants before Super Bowl XLVI . Tempah teamed up with Swedish House Mafia for his fourth single `` Miami 2 Ibiza '' , which was released on 1 October 2010 . This reached a peak of number 4 in the UK Singles Chart and gave him his first number 1 in the Netherlands Mega Single Top 100 chart . Tempah 's long-awaited debut album Disc-Overy was then released on 4 October 2010 , featuring all his previous charted singles . On 11 October 2010 , he kicked off his first UK tour which was supported by Chiddy Bang . In the same month , he was awarded his first 2 MOBO Awards . Tempah also featured on the Tinchy Stryder single `` Game Over '' , which was released on 15 November 2010 and reached number 22 on the UK Singles Chart . On 25 December , Tempah released his fifth single `` Invincible '' featuring Kelly Rowland , which peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart . `` Wonderman '' , featuring Ellie Goulding , was released and was the sixth official single . Tempah joined Usher on the European leg of his OMG Tour in January 2011 . Tempah was nominated for 4 Brit Awards making him the most nominated artist at the awards , and on 15 February 2011 he won his first ever Brit Award , for Best British Breakthrough Act , as well as a Brit for Best British Single . On 7 March 2011 , Tempah expressed his desire for his next album to go triple platinum . `` I reckon in 2011 , towards the end of it , I 'm going to do an arena tour – and sell it out – then I reckon I 'm going to release another album , and fingers crossed it can go platinum again , and double platinum , and triple . Let 's just sell a million . '' In early 2011 , Tinie Tempah announced a UK Arena tour , featuring support acts Nero , Labrinth and Chase & Status ( After Party DJ Set ) . In 2011 , Labrinth revealed that Tempah would be releasing `` Pass Out '' in the United States , featuring a well recognised artist in the American rap game . He also served as a front act with Big Sean among others on Lupe Fiasco 's Generation Lasers Tour . On 28 November 2011 , Tinie Tempah hosted an episode of the TV show Never Mind the Buzzcocks . In the same month , Tinie Tempah would release two tracks , `` Like It or Love It '' which featured both Wretch 32 and J. Cole , and `` Lucky Cunt '' which featured Big Sean . On 16 December , Tempah released a 9-track mixtape/EP titled Happy Birthday , which went on to win best EP of 2011 at the Official Mixtape Awards 2012 . In early 2012 Tempah featured with Eric Turner and Lupe Fiasco on a track called `` Angels and Stars '' . 2012–2014 : Demonstration By December 2010 , Tempah was writing a second album , saying there would be a more electronic and live feel to it . It was originally intended for a late 2011 release . During an interview , Tempah said of his second album : `` I always like to work with different people on each project I do , just so you get a different sound and angle . I will be working with some of the same people I did for the first album , you know what they say ‘ if it ai n't broke then don ’ t try and fix it ’ . '' Tempah had hoped to collaborate with other artists such as Toronto 's Drake , and Adele . At the Brit Awards in 2012 , he announced that his second album would be called Demonstration . On 24 June 2012 , Tempah performed at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on the main stage , playing two of his newest songs : `` Mosh Pit '' , and `` Drinking from the Bottle '' , on which he features alongside Calvin Harris as lead artist and which also appears on Harris ' new album 18 Months . On 12 August , Tempah performed at the closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , performing `` Written in the Stars '' alongside Jessie J and Taio Cruz . The lead single from Demonstration , `` Trampoline '' , was premiered on MistaJam 's BBC Radio 1Xtra show on 2 July 2013 , and the lyric video was premiered shortly afterwards . It features 2 Chainz and was produced by Diplo , and was released on 4 August 2013 in the United Kingdom , peaking at number 3 in the UK Singles Chart . In the interview with MistaJam , Tempah cites Dizzee Rascal and So Solid Crew as influences for the album , who 've influenced him since his childhood . In interviews , Tinie and other artists have announced that they were working together on his album such as Labrinth , Dizzee Rascal , Ellie Goulding , Big Sean and Emeli Sandé . The next single from the album , `` Children of the Sun '' , featuring John Martin , was produced by iSHi and was premiered on Zane Lowe 's BBC Radio 1 show on 12 September . It was released on 28 October in the United Kingdom and charted at number 6 in the UK . On 16 September , to promote his forthcoming UK arena tour , the album track `` Do n't Sell Out '' live at the O2 Arena was uploaded to O2 's YouTube channel . Tempah performed at Keele University on 8 October in a surprise event . On 19 October 2013 , Tinie Tempah was awarded `` Best UK Hip Hop/Grime Act '' at the MOBO Awards ' 18th Anniversary . The album , Demonstration , was released on 4 November 2013 , entering the UK Albums Chart at number three . Demonstration also debuted at number twenty-two on the Australian album charts and number forty on the New Zealand album charts . Tinie announced a third single , featuring Labrinth , entitled `` Lover Not A Fighter '' , to be released in February 2014 . In April , Tinie released the music video to Demonstrations fourth single , `` 5 Minutes '' . The song was produced by BBC Radio 1 DJ Zane Lowe , and was engineered by Rob Swire . Tinie features on a vocal remix of the 2013 DVBBS and Borgeous instrumental EDM hit `` Tsunami '' , retitled `` Tsunami ( Jump ) '' , which was released through Ministry of Sound in 2014 and topped the UK Singles Chart . Tinie also features on Cheryl Cole 's comeback track `` Crazy Stupid Love '' , which went straight to Number 1 , selling 118,000 copies in its first week , giving him his fifth Number 1 single . Tinie followed Cole to the judges ' houses on The X Factor airing in October the same year . During his stint in Dunedin for the University of Otago Orientation Week , Tempah performed both on the stage and in the bedroom at a Castle Street flat . 2015–present : Continued chart success On 21 June 2015 , Tempah released the first single from his upcoming third studio album , `` Not Letting Go '' , which features fellow British artist Jess Glynne . To promote the single , he performed it with Sasha Keable on The Graham Norton Show on 19 June as Jess Glynne was unavailable due to her having vocal surgery shortly before . The single charted at number 1 in the UK on 28 June 2015 , gifting Tempah his sixth number one single . However , on the week of 23 October 2015 , Tempah earned his seventh UK number one single with `` Turn the Music Louder ( Rumble ) '' , a song by KDA , which also features English singer-songwriter Katy B . In December 2015 , Tempah released the mixtape Junk Food , with collaborations from a large number of British artists . Disturbing London In 2007 , Tempah founded an independent record label known as Disturbing London . Artists * A2 * All About She * DJ Charlesy * J Warner * Sasha Keable * Siobhan Bell * Sonny Reeves * Tinie Tempah * Yungen * Wizkid ; Former * G FrSH * Jessie J Other Tempah is also a prominent figure in modern British fashion . In 2012 he was named best dressed man in GQ 's Men of the Year Awards . In 2015 , he was chosen as the new men ambassador for London Menswear Collections , replacing Nick Grimshaw , and was named one of GQ 's 50 best dressed British men . In October 2015 , Tempah became a team captain for Sky 1 's music/comedy panel show Bring the Noise alongside pop star Nicole Scherzinger . In 2016 , he appeared on the British programme Top Gear , along with Seasick Steve and Sharleen Spiteri in a South African SUV challenge . Personal life Tempah is a Roman Catholic , and he has stated that it is `` imperative '' to have faith . Discography ; Studio albums * Disc-Overy ( 2010 ) * Demonstration ( 2013 ) * Youth ( 2016 ) Concert tours ; Main act : * The Disc-Overy Tour ( 2011 ) * Demonstration Tour ( 2014 ) * Youth World Tour ( 2016– ) ; Supporting act : * Rihanna – Last Girl on Earth Tour – United Kingdom Leg ( 2010 ) * Usher – OMG Tour – European Leg ( 2011 ) * The Script – No Sound Without Silence Tour – European Leg ( 2015 ) Awards and nominations

odql_5622--Tinie_Tempah.txt

His debut album 'Disc-Overy' was released in 2010. By what stage-name id Patrick Chukwuemeka Okogwu better known?

of territory claimed in Antarctica . Chile ( ; ) , officially the Republic of Chile ( ) , is a South American country occupying a long , narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west . It borders Peru to the north , Bolivia to the northeast , Argentina to the east , and the Drake Passage in the far south . Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández , Salas y Gómez , Desventuradas , and Easter Island in Oceania . Chile also claims about 1250000 km2 of Antarctica , although all claims are suspended under the Antarctic Treaty . The arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth , principally copper . The relatively small central area dominates in terms of population and agricultural resources , and is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it incorporated its northern and southern regions . Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands , and features a string of volcanoes and lakes . The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords , inlets , canals , twisting peninsulas , and islands . Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the mid-16th century , replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile , but failing to conquer the independent Mapuche that inhabited south-central Chile . After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818 , Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic . In the 19th century , Chile saw significant economic and territorial growth , ending Mapuche resistance in the 1880s and gaining its current northern territory in the War of the Pacific ( 1879–83 ) after defeating Peru and Bolivia . In the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil . This development culminated with the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that overthrew Salvador Allende 's democratically-elected left-wing government and instituted a 16-year-long right-wing military dictatorship that left more than 3,000 people dead or missing . The regime , headed by Augusto Pinochet , ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a center-left coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010 . Chile is today one of South America 's most stable and prosperous nations . It leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development , competitiveness , income per capita , globalization , state of peace , economic freedom , and low perception of corruption . It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state , and democratic development . Chile is a founding member of the United Nations , the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States . Etymology There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile . According to 17th-century Spanish chronicler Diego de Rosales , the Incas called the valley of the Aconcagua `` Chili '' by corruption of the name of a Picunche tribal chief ( `` cacique '' ) called Tili , who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century . Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru , where there was a town and valley named Chili . Other theories say Chile may derive its name from a Native American word meaning either `` ends of the earth '' or `` sea gulls '' ; from the Mapuche word chilli , which may mean `` where the land ends ; '' or from the Quechua chiri , `` cold '' , or tchili , meaning either `` snow '' or `` the deepest point of the Earth '' . Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known as trile . The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas , and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro 's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves the `` men of Chilli '' . Ultimately , Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile , after naming the Mapocho valley as such . The older spelling `` Chili '' was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to `` Chile '' . History Early history Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago . About 10,000 years ago , migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile . Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde , Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Crater 's lava tube . The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile , but the Mapuche ( or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards ) successfully resisted many attempts by the Inca Empire to subjugate them , despite their lack of state organization . They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army . The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river . Spanish colonization In 1520 , while attempting to circumnavigate the globe , Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named after him , the Strait of Magellan , thus becoming the first European to set foot on what is now Chile . The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors , who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold . The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting . The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia , one of Francisco Pizarro 's lieutenants , who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541 . Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought , they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile 's central valley , and Chile became part of the Spanish Empire . Conquest took place gradually , and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks . A massive Mapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia 's death and the destruction of many of the colony 's principal settlements . Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655 . Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted , the southern border of the colony was driven northward . The abolition of slavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission . Despite royal prohibitions , relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference . Cut off to the north by desert , to the south by the Mapuche , to the east by the Andes Mountains , and to the west by the ocean , Chile became one of the most centralized , homogeneous colonies in Spanish America . Serving as a sort of frontier garrison , the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain 's European enemies , especially the British and the Dutch . Buccaneers and English adventurers menaced the colony in addition to the Mapuche , as was shown by Sir Francis Drake 's 1578 raid on Valparaíso , the colony 's principal port . Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas , making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions , as well as a drain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru . The first general census was conducted by the government of Agustín de Jáuregui between 1777 and 1778 ; it indicated that the population consisted of 259,646 inhabitants : 73.5 percent of European descent , 7.9 percent mestizos , 8.6 percent indigenous peoples and 9.8 percent blacks . Francisco Hurtado , Governor of the province of Chiloé , conducted a census in 1784 and found the population consisted of 26,703 inhabitants , 64.4 percent of which were whites and 33.5 percent of which were natives . The Diocese of Concepción conducted a census in areas south of the Maule river in 1812 , but did not include the indigenous population or the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé . The population is estimated at 210,567 , 86.1 percent of which were Spanish or of European descent , 10 percent of which were indigenous and 3.7 percent of which were mestizos , blacks and mulattos . Independence and nation building In 1808 , Napoleon 's enthronement of his brother Joseph as the Spanish King precipitated the drive by the colony for independence from Spain . A national junta in the name of Ferdinand – heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810 . The Government Junta of Chile proclaimed Chile an autonomous republic within the Spanish monarchy ( in memory of this day Chile celebrates its National Day on 18 September each year ) . After these events , a movement for total independence , under the command of José Miguel Carrera ( one of the most renowned patriots ) and his two brothers Juan José and Luis Carrera , soon gained a wider following . Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the Reconquista led to a prolonged struggle , including infighting from Bernardo O'Higgins , who challenged Carrera 's leadership . Intermittent warfare continued until 1817 . With Carrera in prison in Argentina , O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohort José de San Martín , hero of the Argentine War of Independence , led an army that crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists . On 12 February 1818 Chile was proclaimed an independent republic . The political revolt brought little social change , however , and 19th-century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure , which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church . A strong presidency eventually emerged , but wealthy landowners remained powerful . Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders . By the Tantauco Treaty , the archipelago of Chiloé was incorporated in 1826 . The economy began to boom due to the discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo , and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso , which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru . At the same time , attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifying penetration into Araucanía and colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848 . Through the founding of Fort Bulnes by the Schooner Ancud under the command of John Williams Wilson , the Magallanes region joined the country in 1843 , while the Antofagasta area , at the time part of , Bolivia , began to fill with people . Toward the end of the 19th century , the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by the Occupation of Araucanía . The Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan . As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia ( 1879–83 ) , Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third , eliminating Bolivia 's access to the Pacific , and acquired valuable nitrate deposits , the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence . The 1891 Chilean Civil War brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress , and Chile established a parliamentary style democracy . However , the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests , particularly the House of Edwards who had strong ties to foreign investors . Soon after , the country engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race with Argentina that nearly led to a war . 20th century The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy . By the 1920s , the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president , Arturo Alessandri , whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress . In the 1920s , Marxist groups with strong popular support arose . A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of political instability that lasted until 1932 . Of the ten governments that held power in that period , the longest lasting was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo , who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a de facto dictatorship ( although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that has often bedeviled the rest of Latin America ) . By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor , Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years , in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology . When constitutional rule was restored in 1932 , a strong middle-class party , the Radicals , emerged . It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years . During the period of Radical Party dominance ( 1932–52 ) , the state increased its role in the economy . In 1952 , voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years . Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958 , bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term . The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform . Under the slogan `` Revolution in Liberty '' , the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs , particularly in education , housing , and agrarian reform , including rural unionization of agricultural workers . By 1967 , however , Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists , who charged that his reforms were inadequate , and from conservatives , who found them excessive . At the end of his term , Frei had not fully achieved his party 's ambitious goals . In the 1970 election , Senator Salvador Allende of the Socialist Party of Chile ( then part of the `` Popular Unity '' coalition which included the Communists , Radicals , Social-Democrats , dissident Christian Democrats , the Popular Unitary Action Movement , and the Independent Popular Action ) , achieved a partial majority in a plurality of votes in a three-way contest , followed by candidates Radomiro Tomic for the Christian Democrat Party and Jorge Alessandri for the Conservative Party . Allende was not elected with an absolute majority , receiving fewer than 35 percent of votes . The Chilean Congress conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates , Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri and keeping with tradition , chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35 . Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende , on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers party and could not make common cause with the right-wing . An economic depression that began in 1972 was exacerbated by capital flight , plummeting private investment , and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende 's socialist program . Production fell and unemployment rose . Allende adopted measures including price freezes , wage increases , and tax reforms , to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward . Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment . Much of the banking sector was nationalized . Many enterprises within the copper , coal , iron , nitrate , and steel industries were expropriated , nationalized , or subjected to state intervention . Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration 's first year . Allende 's program included advancement of workers ' interests , replacing the judicial system with `` socialist legality '' , nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy , and strengthening `` popular militias '' known as MIR . Started under former President Frei , the Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile 's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment . The measure was passed unanimously by Congress . As a result , the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile , in order to swiftly destabilize Allende ’ s government . In addition , US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile . The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende 's public spending which was financed mostly by printing money and poor credit ratings given by commercial banks . Simultaneously , opposition media , politicians , business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate a campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization , some of which was backed by the United States . By early 1973 , inflation was out of control . The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous strikes by physicians , teachers , students , truck owners , copper workers , and the small business class . On 26 May 1973 , Chile ’ s Supreme Court , which was opposed to Allende 's government , unanimously denounced the Allende disruption of the legality of the nation . Although illegal under the Chilean constitution , the court supported and strengthened Pinochet 's seizure of power . Pinochet era ( 1973–1990 ) A military coup overthrew Allende on 11 September 1973 . As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace , Allende apparently committed suicide . After the coup , Henry Kissinger told U.S. president Richard Nixon that the United States had `` helped '' the coup . A military junta , led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte , took control of the country . The first years of the regime were marked by human rights violations . On October 1973 , at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death . According to the Rettig Report and Valech Commission , at least 2,115 were killed , and at least 27,265 were tortured ( including 88 children younger than 12 years old ) . In 2011 , Chile recognized an additional 9,800 victims , bringing the total number of killed , tortured or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018 . At the national stadium , filled with detainees , one of those tortured and killed was internationally known poet-singer Victor Jara ( see `` Music and Dance '' , below ) . The stadium was renamed for Jara in 2003 . A new Constitution was approved by a controversial plebiscite on 11 September 1980 , and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term . After Pinochet obtained rule of the country , several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua , guerrilla forces in Argentina or training camps in Cuba , Eastern Europe and Northern Africa . In the late 1980s , largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapse and mass civil resistance in 1983–88 , the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly , speech , and association , to include trade union and political activity . The government launched market-oriented reforms with Hernán Büchi as Minister of Finance . Chile moved toward a free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment , although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened for competition . In a plebiscite on 5 October 1988 , Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president ( 56 % against 44 % ) . Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress on 14 December 1989 . Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin , the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación , received an absolute majority of votes ( 55 % ) . President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994 , in what was considered a transition period . In December 1993 , Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle , the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva , led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes ( 58 % ) . 21st century Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos , who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile . In January 2006 , Chileans elected their first female president , Michelle Bachelet Jeria , of the Socialist Party , defeating Sebastián Piñera , of the National Renewal party , extending the Concertación governance for another four years . In January 2010 , Chileans elected Sebastián Piñera as the first rightist President in 20 years , defeating former President Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Concertación , for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet . Due to term limits , Sebastián Piñera did not stand for re-election in 2013 , and his term expired in March 2014 resulting in Michelle Bachelet returning to office . On 27 February 2010 , Chile was struck by an 8.8 MW earthquake , the fifth largest ever recorded at the time . More than 500 people died ( most from the ensuing tsunami ) and over a million people lost their homes . The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks . Initial damage estimates were in the range of US $ 15–30 billion , around 10 to 15 percent of Chile 's real gross domestic product . Chile achieved global recognition for the successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010 . On 5 August 2010 the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile , trapping 33 men 700 m below ground . A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later . All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over a period of almost 24 hours , an effort that was carried on live television around the world . Geography , climate , and environment A long and narrow coastal Southern Cone country on the west side of the Andes Mountains , Chile stretches over 4300 km north to south , but only 350 km at its widest point east to west . This encompasses a remarkable variety of climates and landscapes . It contains 756950 km2 of land area . It is situated within the Pacific Ring of Fire . Excluding its Pacific islands and Antarctic claim , Chile lies between latitudes 17° and 56°S , and longitudes 66° and 75°W . Chile is among the longest north-south countries in the world . If one considers only mainland territory , Chile is unique within this group in its narrowness from east to west , with the other long north-south countries ( including Brazil , Russia , Canada , and the United States , among others ) all being wider from east to west by a factor of more than 10 . Chile also claims 1250000 km2 of Antarctica as part of its territory ( Chilean Antarctic Territory ) . However , this latter claim is suspended under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty , of which Chile is a signatory . It is the world 's southernmost country that is geographically on the mainland . Chile controls Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island , the easternmost islands of Polynesia , which it incorporated to its territory in 1888 , and Robinson Crusoe Island , more than 600 km from the mainland , in the Juan Fernández Islands . Also controlled but only temporarily inhabited ( by some local fishermen ) are the small islands of San Ambrosio and San Felix . These islands are notable because they extend Chile 's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific Ocean . The northern Atacama Desert contains great mineral wealth , primarily copper and nitrates . The relatively small Central Valley , which includes Santiago , dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources . This area is also the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century , when it integrated the northern and southern regions . Southern Chile is rich in forests , grazing lands , and features a string of volcanoes and lakes . The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords , inlets , canals , twisting peninsulas , and islands . The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border . Largest cities . Climate The diverse climate of Chile ranges from the world 's driest desert in the north—the Atacama Desert—through a Mediterranean climate in the center , humid subtropical in Easter Island , to an oceanic climate , including alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south . According to the Köppen system , Chile within its borders hosts at least ten major climatic subtypes . There are four seasons in most of the country : summer ( December to February ) , autumn ( March to May ) , winter ( June to August ) , and spring ( September to November ) . Biodiversity Chile 's geographical isolation has also restricted the immigration of faunal life , so that only a few of the many distinctive South American animals are found . Among the larger mammals are the puma or cougar , the llama-like guanaco and the fox-like chilla . In the forest region , several types of marsupials and a small deer known as the pudu are found . There are many species of small birds , but most of the larger common Latin American types are absent . Few freshwater fish are native , but North American trout have been successfully introduced into the Andean lakes . Owing to the vicinity of the Humboldt Current , ocean waters abound with fish and other forms of marine life , which in turn support a rich variety of waterfowl , including several penguins . Whales are abundant , and some six species of seals are found in the area . Just over 3,000 species of fungi are recorded in Chile , but this number is far from complete . The true total number of fungal species occurring in Chile is likely to be far higher , given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7 percent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered . Although the amount of available information is still very small , a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Chile , and 1995 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country . The northernmost coastal and central region is largely barren of vegetation , approaching the most closely an absolute desert in the world . On the slopes of the Andes , besides the scattered tola desert brush , grasses are found . The central valley is characterized by several species of cacti , the hardy espinos , the Chilean pine , the southern beeches and the copihue , a red bell-shaped flower that is Chile 's national flower . In southern Chile , south of the Biobío River , heavy precipitation has produced dense forests of laurels , magnolias , and various species of conifers and beeches , which become smaller and more stunted to the south . The cold temperatures and winds of the extreme south preclude heavy forestation . Grassland is found in Atlantic Chile ( in Patagonia ) . Much of the Chilean flora is distinct from that of neighboring Argentina , indicating that the Andean barrier existed during its formation . Flora The native flora of Chile is characterized by a higher degree of endemism and relatively fewer species compared to the flora of other countries of South America . A classification of this flora necessitates its division into at least three general zones : the desert provinces of the north , Central Chile , and the humid regions of the south . Fauna The fauna of Chile is characterized by a high degree of endemism , due to its particular geography . In continental Chile , the Atacama Desert in the north and the Andes mountains to the east are barriers that have led to the isolation of flora and fauna . Add to that the enormous extension in length ( over 4200 km ) this results in a wide range of climates and environments . File : Puma2.jpg |Puma in Chile ( cougar ) File : Araucaria araucana - Parque Nacional Conguillío por lautaroj - 001.jpg|Araucaria araucana trees in Conguillío National Park File

sfq_4807--Chile.txt

Which South American capital was founded on the banks of the Rio Mapocho by Pedro de Valdivia in 1541?

Sir Alexander Chapman `` Alex '' Ferguson , CBE ( born 31 December 1941 ) is a former Scottish football manager and player who managed Manchester United from 1986 to 2013 . He is regarded by many players , managers and analysts to be one of the greatest and most successful managers of all time . Ferguson played as a forward for several Scottish clubs , including Dunfermline Athletic and Rangers . While playing for Dunfermline , he was the top goalscorer in the Scottish league in the 1965–66 season . Towards the end of his playing career he also worked as a coach , then started his managerial career with East Stirlingshire and St Mirren . Ferguson then enjoyed a highly successful period as manager of Aberdeen , winning three Scottish league championships , four Scottish Cups and the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in 1983 . He briefly managed Scotland following the death of Jock Stein , taking the team to the 1986 World Cup . Ferguson was appointed manager of Manchester United in November 1986 . During his 26 years with Manchester United he won 38 trophies , including 13 Premier League titles , five FA Cups and two UEFA Champions League titles . He was knighted in the 1999 Queen 's Birthday Honours list , for his services to the game . Ferguson is the longest serving manager of Manchester United , having overtaken Sir Matt Busby 's record on 19 December 2010 . He retired from management at the end of the 2012–13 season , having won the Premier League in his final season . Early life Born to Alexander Beaton Ferguson , a plater 's helper in the shipbuilding industry , and his wife , Elizabeth ( née Hardie ) , Alex Ferguson was born at his grandmother 's home on Shieldhall Road , Govan , on 31 December 1941 , but grew up in a tenement at 667 Govan Road which has since been demolished where he lived with his parents as well as his younger brother Martin . He attended Broomloan Road Primary School and later Govan High School , and supported Rangers . Playing career Ferguson 's playing career began as an amateur with Queen 's Park , where he made his debut as a striker aged 16 . He described his first match as a `` nightmare '' , but scored Queen 's Park 's goal in a 2–1 defeat against Stranraer . Perhaps his most notable game for Queen 's Park was the 7–1 defeat away to Queen of the South on Boxing Day 1959 when ex-England international Ivor Broadis scored four of the Queen of the South goals . Ferguson was the solitary Queen 's Park goalscorer . Despite scoring 20 goals in his 31 games for Queen 's Park , he could not command a regular place in the side and moved to St Johnstone in 1960 . Although he continued to score regularly at St Johnstone , he was still unable to command a regular place and regularly requested transfers . Ferguson was out of favour at the club and he even considered emigrating to Canada , however St Johnstone 's failure to sign a forward led the manager to select Ferguson for a match against Rangers , in which he scored a hat-trick in a surprise victory . Dunfermline signed him the following summer ( 1964 ) , and Ferguson became a full-time professional footballer . The following season ( 1964–65 ) , Dunfermline were strong challengers for the Scottish League and reached the Scottish Cup Final , but Ferguson was dropped for the final after a poor performance in a league game against St Johnstone . Dunfermline lost the final 3–2 to Celtic , then failed to win the League by one point . The 1965–66 season saw Ferguson notch up 45 goals in 51 games for Dunfermline . Along with Joe McBride of Celtic , he was the top goalscorer in the Scottish League with 31 goals . He then joined Rangers for £65,000 , then a record fee for a transfer between two Scottish clubs . He was blamed for a goal that they conceded in the 1969 Scottish Cup Final , in a match in which he was designated to mark Celtic captain , Billy McNeill , and was subsequently forced to play for the club 's junior side instead of for the first team . According to his brother , Ferguson was so upset by the experience that he threw his losers ' medal away . There have been claims that he suffered discrimination at Rangers after his marriage to a Catholic , Cathy Holding , but Ferguson himself makes it clear in his autobiography that Rangers knew of his wife 's religion when he joined the club and that he left the club very reluctantly , due to the fall-out from his alleged cup final mistake . The following October , Nottingham Forest wanted to sign Ferguson , but his wife was not keen on moving to England at that time so he went to Falkirk instead . He was promoted to player-coach there , but when John Prentice became manager he removed Ferguson 's coaching responsibilities . Ferguson responded by requesting a transfer and moved to Ayr United , where he finished his playing career in 1974 . Early managerial career East Stirlingshire In June 1974 , Ferguson was appointed manager of East Stirlingshire , at the comparatively young age of 32 . It was a part-time job that paid £40 per week , and the club did not have a single goalkeeper at the time . He gained a reputation as a disciplinarian , with club forward Bobby McCulley later saying he had `` never been afraid of anyone before but Ferguson was a frightening bastard from the start . '' The following October , Ferguson was invited to manage St Mirren . While they were below East Stirlingshire in the league , they were a bigger club and although Ferguson felt a degree of loyalty towards East Stirlingshire , he decided to join St Mirren after taking advice from Jock Stein . St Mirren Ferguson was manager of St Mirren from 1974 until 1978 , producing a remarkable transformation of a team in the lower half of the old Second Division watched by crowds of just over 1,000 , to First Division champions in 1977 , discovering talent like Billy Stark , Tony Fitzpatrick , Lex Richardson , Frank McGarvey , Bobby Reid and Peter Weir while playing superb attacking football . The average age of the league winning team was 19 and the captain , Fitzpatrick , was 20 . St Mirren have the distinction of being the only club ever to sack Ferguson . He claimed wrongful dismissal against the club at an industrial tribunal but lost and was given no leave to appeal . According to a Billy Adams Sunday Herald article on 30 May 1999 , the official version is that Ferguson was sacked for various breaches of contract including unauthorised payments to players . He was counter-accused of intimidating behaviour towards his office secretary because he wanted players to get some expenses tax free . He did n't speak to her for six weeks , confiscated her keys and communicated only through a 17-year-old assistant . The tribunal concluded that Ferguson was `` particularly petty '' and `` immature '' . It was claimed during the tribunal by St Mirren chairman , Willie Todd , that Ferguson had `` no managerial ability '' . On 31 May 2008 , The Guardian published an interview with Todd ( then aged 87 ) , who had sacked Ferguson many years earlier . Todd explained that the fundamental reason for the dismissal was a breach of contract relating to Ferguson having agreed to join Aberdeen . Ferguson told journalist Jim Rodger of the Daily Mirror that he had asked at least one member of the squad to go to Aberdeen with him . He told the St Mirren staff he was leaving . Todd expressed regret over what happened but blamed Aberdeen for not approaching his club to discuss compensation . In 1977 , Ferguson turned down the manager 's job at Aberdeen . The role went to Billy McNeill , who returned to Celtic after only a year , leaving the role available for Ferguson once again . Aberdeen Late 1970s Ferguson joined Aberdeen as manager in June 1978 , replacing Billy McNeill who had only managed the club for one season before he was offered the chance to manage Celtic . Although Aberdeen were one of Scotland 's major clubs they had won the league only once , in 1955 under Dave Halliday . The team had been playing well , however , and had not lost a league match since the previous December , having finished second in the league the previous season . Ferguson had now been a manager for four years , but was still not much older than some of the players and had trouble winning the respect of some of the older ones such as Joe Harper . The season did not go especially well , with Aberdeen reaching the semi-final of the Scottish Cup and the Scottish League Cup Final , but losing both matches and finishing fourth in the league . Aberdeen lost the 1979–80 Scottish League Cup Final , this time to Dundee United after a replay . Ferguson took the blame for the defeat , saying he should have made changes to the team for the replay . 1980s and silverware Aberdeen had started the 1979–80 season poorly but their form improved dramatically in the new year and they won the Scottish league that season with a 5–0 win on the final day . It was the first time in fifteen years that the league had not been won by either Rangers or Celtic . Ferguson now felt that he had the respect of his players , later saying `` That was the achievement which united us . I finally had the players believing in me '' . He was still a strict disciplinarian , though , and his players nicknamed him Furious Fergie . He fined one of his players , John Hewitt , for overtaking him on a public road , and kicked a tea urn at the players at half time after a poor first half . He was dissatisfied with the atmosphere at Aberdeen matches , and deliberately created a 'siege mentality ' by accusing the Scottish media of being biased towards the Glasgow clubs , to motivate the team . The team continued their success with a Scottish Cup win in 1982 . Ferguson was offered the manager 's job at Wolverhampton Wanderers but turned it down as he felt that Wolves were in trouble and `` [ his ] ambitions at Aberdeen were not even half fulfilled '' . European success Ferguson led Aberdeen to even greater success the following season ( 1982–83 ) . They had qualified for the European Cup Winners ' Cup as a result of winning the Scottish Cup the previous season , and impressively knocked out Bayern Munich , who had beaten Tottenham Hotspur 4–1 in the previous round . According to Willie Miller , this gave them the confidence to believe that they could go on to win the competition , which they did , with a 2–1 victory over Real Madrid in the final on 11 May 1983 . Aberdeen became only the third Scottish team to win a European trophy and Ferguson now felt that `` he 'd done something worthwhile with his life '' . This was followed up with victory in the European Super Cup in December 1983 , when Hamburg , the reigning European Cup champions were beaten 2–0 over two legs . Aberdeen had also performed well in the league that season , and retained the Scottish Cup with a 1–0 victory over Rangers , but Ferguson was not happy with his team 's play in that match and upset the players by describing theirs as a `` disgraceful performance '' in a televised interview after the match , a statement he later retracted . After a sub-standard start to the 1983–84 season , Aberdeen 's form improved and the team won the Scottish league and retained the Scottish Cup . Ferguson was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1984 honours list , and was offered the managers ' jobs at Rangers and Arsenal during the season . Aberdeen retained their league title in the 1984–85 season , but had a disappointing season in 1985–86 , finishing fourth in the league , although they did win both domestic cups . Ferguson had been appointed to the club 's board of directors early in 1986 , but that April he told Dick Donald , their chairman , that he intended to leave that summer . Ferguson had been part of coaching staff for the Scottish national side during qualifying for the 1986 World Cup , but manager Jock Stein had collapsed and died on 10 September 1985 – at the end of the game in which Scotland qualified from their group for a play-off against Australia . Ferguson promptly agreed to take charge of the Scottish national side against the Australians and subsequently at the World Cup . To allow him to fulfil his international duties he appointed Archie Knox as his co-manager at Aberdeen . However , after Scotland failed to progress past the group stages of the World Cup , Ferguson stepped down as national team manager on 15 June 1986 . Around this time , Tottenham Hotspur offered Ferguson the chance to take over from Peter Shreeves as manager , but he rejected this offer and the job went to Luton Town 's David Pleat instead . There was also an offer for Ferguson to replace Don Howe as Arsenal manager , but he rejected this offer as well , and fellow Scot George Graham took the post instead . That summer , there had been speculation that he would take over from Ron Atkinson at Manchester United , who had slumped to fourth in the English top flight after a ten-match winning start had made title glory seem inevitable . It was not the first time that Ferguson had been linked with a move to England . In February 1982 , Wolverhampton Wanderers had approached him about succeeding John Barnwell as manager as they were heading for relegation from the First Division . He rejected this offer , perhaps concerned about the club 's financial stability , as they were more than £2 million in debt at the time and narrowly avoided going out of business . At the end of the 1984–85 season , it was reported that Ferguson was being considered for the Liverpool manager 's job after the retirement of Joe Fagan was announced , but the job was quickly accepted by Liverpool striker Kenny Dalglish . Although Ferguson remained at Aberdeen over the summer , he did eventually join Manchester United when Atkinson was sacked in November 1986 . Manchester United Appointment and first years Ferguson was appointed manager at Old Trafford on 6 November 1986 . He was initially worried that many of the players , such as Norman Whiteside , Paul McGrath and Bryan Robson were drinking too much and was `` depressed '' by their level of fitness , but he managed to increase the players ' discipline and United climbed up the table to finish the season in 11th place , having been 21st ( second from bottom ) when he took over . His first game in charge was a 2–0 defeat at Oxford United on 8 November , followed seven days later by a goalless draw at newly promoted Norwich City , and then his first win ( 1–0 at home to QPR ) on 22 November . Results steadily improved as the season went on , and by the time they recorded what would be their only away win of the league campaign at title challengers and deadly rivals Liverpool on Boxing Day , it was clear that United were on the road to recovery . 1987 began on a high note with a 4–1 victory over Newcastle United and United gradually pulled together in the second half of the season , with relatively occasional defeats on the way , and finished 11th in the final table . Ferguson 's mother , Elizabeth died of lung cancer , aged 64 , three weeks after his appointment . Ferguson appointed Archie Knox , his assistant at Aberdeen , as his assistant at Manchester United in 1986 . In the 1987–88 season , Ferguson made several major signings , including Steve Bruce , Viv Anderson , Brian McClair and Jim Leighton . The new players made a great contribution to a United team who finished in 2nd place , nine points behind Liverpool . However , Liverpool 's points lead had been in double digits for most of the season and while United had lost only five league games all season , they drew 12 games and there was clearly still some way to go before United could be a match for their north western rivals . During the season , United played two friendly matches in Bermuda against the Bermudan national team and the Somerset Cricket Club . In the match against Somerset , both Ferguson himself and his assistant , Archie Knox , took to the field , with Knox even getting on the scoresheet . The match was Ferguson 's only appearance for the Manchester United first team . United were expected to do well when Mark Hughes returned to the club two years after leaving for Barcelona , but the 1988–89 season was a disappointment for them , finishing eleventh in the league and losing 1–0 at home to Nottingham Forest in the FA Cup Sixth Round . They had begun the season slowly , going on a nine-match winless run throughout October and November ( with one defeat and eight draws ) before a run of generally good results took them to third place and the fringes of the title challenge by mid February . However , another run of disappointing results in the final quarter of the season saw them fall down to mid table . For the 1989–90 season , Ferguson further boosted his squad by paying large sums of money for midfielders Neil Webb , Mike Phelan and Paul Ince , as well as defender Gary Pallister and winger Danny Wallace . The season began well with a 4–1 win over defending champions Arsenal on the opening day , but United 's league form quickly turned sour . In September , United suffered a humiliating 5–1 away defeat against fierce rivals Manchester City . Following this and an early season run of six defeats and two draws in eight games , a banner declaring `` Three years of excuses and it 's still crap ... ta-ra Fergie . '' was displayed at Old Trafford , and many journalists and supporters called for Ferguson to be sacked . Ferguson later described December 1989 as `` the darkest period [ he had ] ever suffered in the game '' , as United ended the decade just outside the relegation zone . However , Ferguson later revealed that the board of directors had assured him that they were not considering dismissing him . Although naturally disappointed with the lack of success in the league , they understood the reasons for the sub-standard results ( namely the absence of several key players due to injury ) and were pleased with the way that Ferguson had reorganised the club 's coaching and scouting system . Following a run of seven games without a win , Manchester United were drawn away to Nottingham Forest in the third round of the FA Cup . Forest were performing well that season and were in the process of winning the League Cup for the second season running , and it was expected that United would lose the match and Ferguson would consequently be sacked , but United won the game 1–0 due to a Mark Robins goal and eventually reached the final . This cup win is often cited as the match that saved Ferguson 's Old Trafford career , even though it has since been stated that his job was never at risk . United went on to win the FA Cup , beating Crystal Palace 1–0 in the final replay after a 3–3 draw in the first match , giving Ferguson his first major trophy as Manchester United manager . United 's defensive frailties in the first match were unilaterally blamed on goalkeeper Jim Leighton , forcing Ferguson to drop his former Aberdeen player and bring in Les Sealey . The first league title Although United 's league form improved greatly in 1990–91 , they were still inconsistent and finished sixth . There were some excellent performances that season , including a 6–2 demolition of Arsenal at Highbury , but results like an early 2–1 loss at newly promoted Sunderland , a 4–0 September hammering by Liverpool at Anfield , and a 2–0 home defeat by Everton in early March ( the game where 17-year-old hot prospect Ryan Giggs made his senior debut ) showed that United still had some way to go . Even after the FA Cup Final victory in the previous season , some still had doubts about Ferguson 's ability to succeed where all the other managers since Busby had failed – to win the league title . They were runners-up in the League Cup , losing 1–0 to Sheffield Wednesday . They also reached the final of the European Cup Winners ' Cup , beating that season 's Spanish champions Barcelona 2–1 . After the match , Ferguson vowed that United would win the league the following season , and at long last he seemed to have won over the last of his sceptics after nearly five years in the job . During the 1991 close season , Ferguson 's assistant Archie Knox departed to Glasgow Rangers to become assistant to Walter Smith , and Ferguson promoted youth team coach Brian Kidd to the role of assistant manager in Knox 's place . He also made two major signings – goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel and defender Paul Parker – to bolster his side . There was much anticipation about the breakthrough of the young Ryan Giggs , who had played twice and scored once in the 1990–91 campaign , and the earlier emergence of another impressive young winger in the shape of Lee Sharpe , who despite their youth had made Ferguson feel able to resist plunging into the transfer market and buying a new player to take over from the disappointing Danny Wallace on the left wing . He had also added the Ukrainian Andrei Kanchelskis to the right wing , giving him a more attacking alternative to older right footed midfielders Mike Phelan and Bryan Robson . The 1991–92 season did not live up to Ferguson 's expectations and , in Ferguson 's words , `` many in the media felt that [ his ] mistakes had contributed to the misery '' . United won the League Cup and Super Cup for the first time , but lost out on the league title to rivals Leeds United after leading the table for much of the season . A shortage of goals and being held to draws by teams they had been expected to beat in the second half of the campaign had proved to be the undoing of a United side who had performed so well in the first half of the season . Ferguson felt that his failure to secure the signing of Mick Harford from Luton Town had cost United the league , and that he needed `` an extra dimension '' to the team if they were to win the league the following season . During the 1992 close season , Ferguson went on the hunt for a new striker . He first attempted to sign Alan Shearer from Southampton , but lost out to Blackburn Rovers . He also made at least one approach for the Sheffield Wednesday striker David Hirst , but manager Trevor Francis rejected all offers and the player stayed put . In the end , he paid £1 million for 23-year-old Cambridge United striker Dion Dublin – his only major signing of the summer . After a slow start to the 1992–93 season ( they were 10th of 22 at the beginning of November ) it looked as though United would miss out on the league title ( now the Premier League ) yet again . However , after the purchase of French striker Eric Cantona from Leeds United for £1.2 million , the future of Manchester United , and Ferguson 's position as manager , began to look bright . Cantona formed a strong partnership with Mark Hughes and fired the club to the top of the table , ending United 's 26-year wait for a League Championship , and also making them the first ever Premier League Champions . United had finished champions with a 10-point margin over runners-up Aston Villa , whose 1–0 defeat at Oldham on 2 May 1993 had given United the title . Ferguson was voted Manager of the Year by the League Managers ' Association . 1993–95 : Double win and loss The 1993–94 season brought more success . Ferguson added Nottingham Forest 's 22-year-old midfielder Roy Keane to the ranks for a British record fee of £3.75 million as a long term replacement for Bryan Robson , who was nearing the end of his career . United led the 1993–94 Premier League table virtually from start to finish . Ferguson was the very first winner of the Premier League Manager of the Month award , introduced for the start of the 1993–94 season , when he collected the accolade for August 1993 . Cantona was top scorer with 25 goals in all competitions despite being sent off twice in the space of five days in March 1994 . United also reached the League Cup final but lost 3–1 to Aston Villa , managed by Ferguson 's predecessor , Ron Atkinson . In the FA Cup final , Manchester United achieved an impressive 4–0 scoreline against Chelsea , winning Ferguson his second League and Cup Double , following his Scottish Premier Division and Scottish Cup titles with Aberdeen in 1984–85 , though the League Cup final defeat meant that he had not yet achieved a repeat of the treble that he had achieved with Aberdeen in 1983 . Ferguson made only one close-season signing , paying Blackburn Rovers £1.2 million for David May . There were newspaper reports that Ferguson was also going to sign highly rated 21-year-old striker Chris Sutton from Norwich City , but the player headed for Blackburn Rovers instead . 1994–95 was a harder season for Ferguson . Cantona assaulted a Crystal Palace supporter in a game at Selhurst Park , and it seemed likely he would leave English football . An eight-month ban saw Cantona miss the final four months of the season . He also received a 14-day prison sentence for the offence but the sentence was quashed on appeal and replaced by a 120-hour community service order . On the brighter side , United paid a British record fee of £7 million for Newcastle 's prolific striker Andy Cole , with young winger Keith Gillespie heading to the north-east in exchange . The season also saw the breakthrough of young players Gary Neville , Nicky Butt and Paul Scholes , who provided excellent cover for the long periods that United were left without some of their more experienced stars . However , the championship slipped out of Manchester United 's grasp as they drew 1–1 with West Ham United on the final day of the season , when a win would have given them the a third successive league title . United also lost the FA Cup final in a 1–0 defeat by Everton . 1995–98 Ferguson was heavily criticised in the summer of 1995 when three of United 's star players were allowed to leave and replacements were not bought . First Paul Ince moved to Internazionale of Italy for £7.5 million , long-serving striker Mark Hughes was suddenly sold to Chelsea in a £1.5 million deal , and Andrei Kanchelskis was sold to Everton . Ferguson made an approach for Tottenham Hotspur winger Darren Anderton , but the player signed a new contract with the North London club . He then made a bid to sign Dutchman Marc Overmars from Ajax ( the European Cup winners ) , but the player suffered a serious knee injury and was ruled

qw_11461--Alex_Ferguson.txt

When Sir Alex Ferguson retired in May 2013 after 26 years as manager for Manchester United Football Club who succeeded him ?

Gilbert and Sullivan refers to the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the librettist W. S. Gilbert ( 1836–1911 ) and the composer Arthur Sullivan ( 1842–1900 ) and to the works they jointly created . The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896 , of which H.M.S . Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado are among the best known.Davis , Peter G. [ http : //nymag.com/nymetro/arts/music/classical/reviews/5596/ Smooth Sailing ] , New York magazine , 21 January 2002 , accessed 6 November 2007 Gilbert , who wrote the words , created fanciful `` topsy-turvy '' worlds for these operas where each absurdity is taken to its logical conclusion—fairies rub elbows with British lords , flirting is a capital offence , gondoliers ascend to the monarchy , and pirates emerge as noblemen who have gone astray.Leigh , Mike . [ http : //books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0 , ,1938719,00.html `` True anarchists '' ] , The Guardian , 4 November 2007 , accessed 6 November 2007 Sullivan , six years Gilbert 's junior , composed the music , contributing memorable melodies that could convey both humour and pathos . Their operas have enjoyed broad and enduring international success and are still performed frequently throughout the English-speaking world . Hewett , Ivan . [ http : //www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/opera/5931987/The-magic-of-Gilbert-and-Sullivan.html `` The Magic of Gilbert and Sullivan '' ] . The Telegraph , 2 August 2009 , accessed 14 April 2010 . Gilbert and Sullivan introduced innovations in content and form that directly influenced the development of musical theatre through the 20th century . [ Downs , Peter . `` Actors Cast Away Cares '' , Hartford Courant , 18 October 2006 The operas have also influenced political discourse , literature , film and television and have been widely parodied and pastiched by humourists . Producer Richard D'Oyly Carte brought Gilbert and Sullivan together and nurtured their collaboration.Crowther , Andrew . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/articles/html/quarrel.html `` The Carpet Quarrel Explained '' ] , The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , 28 June 1997 , accessed 6 November 2007 He built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 to present their joint works ( which came to be known as the Savoy Operas ) and founded the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which performed and promoted Gilbert and Sullivan 's works for over a century . Beginnings Gilbert before Sullivan Gilbert was born in London on 18 November 1836 . His father , William , was a naval surgeon who later wrote novels and short stories , some of which included illustrations by his son.Crowther , Andrew . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/gilbert/life/long_bio.html The Life of W. S. Gilbert , ] The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , accessed 21 August 2012 . In 1861 , to supplement his income , the younger Gilbert began writing illustrated stories , poems and articles of his own , many of which would later be mined as inspiration for his plays and operas , particularly Gilbert 's series of illustrated poems , the Bab Ballads . In the Bab Ballads and his early plays , Gilbert developed a unique `` topsy-turvy '' style in which humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences , however absurd . Director and playwright Mike Leigh described the `` Gilbertian '' style as follows : Gilbert developed his innovative theories on the art of stage direction , following theatrical reformer Tom Robertson . At the time Gilbert began writing , theatre in Britain was in disrepute . Gilbert helped to reform and elevate the respectability of the theatre , especially beginning with his six short family-friendly comic operas , or `` entertainments '' , for Thomas German Reed . At a rehearsal for one of these entertainments , Ages Ago ( 1869 ) , the composer Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to his friend , the young composer Arthur Sullivan.Crowther , Andrew . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/gilbert/plays/ages_ago/crowther_analysis.html Ages Ago—Early Days , ] The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , accessed 21 August 2012 Two years later , Gilbert and Sullivan would write their first work together . Those two intervening years continued to shape Gilbert 's theatrical style . He continued to write humorous verse , stories and plays , including the comic operas Our Island Home ( 1870 ) and A Sensation Novel ( 1871 ) , and the blank verse comedies The Princess ( 1870 ) , The Palace of Truth ( 1870 ) , and Pygmalion and Galatea ( 1871 ) . Sullivan before Gilbert Sullivan was born in London on 13 May 1842 . His father was a military bandmaster , and by the time Arthur had reached the age of eight , he was proficient with all the instruments in the band . In school he began to compose anthems and songs . In 1856 , he received the first Mendelssohn Scholarship and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and then at Leipzig , where he also took up conducting . His graduation piece , completed in 1861 , was a suite of incidental music to Shakespeare 's The Tempest . Revised and expanded , it was performed at the Crystal Palace in 1862 and was an immediate sensation . He began building a reputation as England 's most promising young composer , composing a symphony , a concerto , and several overtures , among them the Overture di Ballo , in 1870 . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/sullivan/interviews/lawrence.html `` An Illustrated Interview with Sir Arthur Sullivan , by Arthur H Lawrence , Part 1 '' ] , The Strand Magazine , Volume xiv , No.84 ( December 1897 ) . See also [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/sullivan/letters/001.html Sullivan 's Letter to The Times ] , 27 October 1881 , Issue 30336 , pg . 8 col C His early major works for the voice included The Masque at Kenilworth ( 1864 ) ; an oratorio , The Prodigal Son ( 1869 ) ; and a dramatic cantata , On Shore and Sea ( 1871 ) . He composed a ballet , L'Île Enchantée ( 1864 ) and incidental music for a number of Shakespeare plays . Other early pieces that were praised were his Symphony in E , Concerto for Cello and Orchestra , and Overture in C ( In Memoriam ) ( all three of which premiered in 1866 ) . These commissions , however , were not sufficient to keep Sullivan afloat . He worked as a church organist and composed numerous hymns , popular songs , and parlour ballads . [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20060901130842/http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/html/sullivan2a.html Stephen Turnbull 's Biography of W. S. Gilbert ] , The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , accessed 22 November 2006 Sullivan 's first foray into comic opera was Cox and Box ( 1866 ) , written with librettist F. C. Burnand for an informal gathering of friends . Public performance followed , with W. S. Gilbert ( then writing dramatic criticism for the magazine Fun ) saying that Sullivan 's score `` is , in many places , of too high a class for the grotesquely absurd plot to which it is wedded . '' Nonetheless , it proved highly successful , and is still regularly performed today . Sullivan and Burnand 's second opera , The Contrabandista ( 1867 ) was not as successful . Operas First collaborations Thespis In 1871 , producer John Hollingshead brought Gilbert and Sullivan together to produce a Christmas entertainment , Thespis , at his Gaiety Theatre , a large West End house . The piece was an extravaganza in which the classical Greek gods , grown elderly , are temporarily replaced by a troupe of 19th-century actors and actresses , one of whom is the eponymous Thespis , the Greek father of the drama . Its mixture of political satire and grand opera parody mimicked Offenbach 's Orpheus in the Underworld and La belle Hélène , which ( in translation ) then dominated the English musical stage.Tillett , Selwyn and Spencer , Roderic . `` Forty Years of Thespis Scholarship '' , text of talk delivered at the Sir Arthur Sullivan Society Festival weekend , Cirencester , 21 September 2002 . Thespis opened on Boxing Day and ran for 63 performances . It outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season , and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety , but no one at the time anticipated that this was the beginning of a great collaboration . Unlike the later Gilbert and Sullivan works , it was hastily prepared , and its nature was more risqué , like Gilbert 's earlier burlesques , with a broader style of comedy that allowed for improvisation by the actors . Two of the male characters were played by women , whose shapely legs were put on display in a fashion that Gilbert later condemned . The musical score to Thespis was never published and is now lost , except for one song that was published separately , a chorus that was re-used in The Pirates of Penzance , and the Act II ballet music . Over the next three years , Gilbert and Sullivan did not have occasion to work together again , but each man became more eminent in his field . Gilbert worked with Frederic Clay on Happy Arcadia ( 1872 ) and with Alfred Cellier on Topsyturveydom ( 1874 ) , and wrote The Wicked World ( 1873 ) Sweethearts ( 1874 ) and several other libretti , farces , extravaganzas , fairy comedies , dramas and adaptations . Sullivan completed his Festival Te Deum ( 1872 ) ; another oratorio , The Light of the World ( 1873 ) ; his only song cycle , The Window ; or , The Song of the Wrens ( 1871 ) ; incidental music to The Merry Wives of Windsor ( 1874 ) ; and more songs , parlour ballads , and hymns , including `` Onward , Christian Soldiers '' ( 1872 ) . At the same time , the audience for theatre was growing because of the rapidly expanding British population ; improvement in education and the standard of living , especially of the middle class ; improving public transportation ; and installation of street lighting , which made travel home from the theatre safer . The number of pianos manufactured in England doubled between 1870 and 1890 as more people began to play parlour music at home and more theatres and concert halls opened . Trial by Jury In 1874 , Gilbert wrote a short libretto on commission from producer–conductor Carl Rosa , whose wife would have played the leading role , but her death in childbirth cancelled the project . Not long afterwards , Richard D'Oyly Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre , and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach 's La Périchole . Carte knew about Gilbert 's libretto for Rosa and suggested that Sullivan write a score for it . Gilbert read the piece to Sullivan in February 1875 , and the composer was delighted with it ; Trial by Jury was composed and staged in a matter of weeks . The piece is one of Gilbert 's humorous spoofs of the law and the legal profession , based on his short experience as a barrister . It concerns a breach of promise of marriage suit . The defendant argues that damages should be slight , since `` he is such a very bad lot , '' while the plaintiff argues that she loves the defendant fervently and seeks `` substantial damages . '' After much argument , the judge resolves the case by marrying the lovely plaintiff himself . With Sullivan 's brother , Fred , as the Learned Judge , the opera was a runaway hit , outlasting the run of La Périchole . Provincial tours and productions at other theatres quickly followed . Fred Sullivan was the prototype for the `` patter '' ( comic ) baritone roles in the later operas . F. C. Burnand wrote that he `` was one of the most naturally comic little men I ever came across . He , too , was a first-rate practical musician ... As he was the most absurd person , so was he the very kindliest ... '' Fred 's creation would serve as a model for the rest of the collaborators ' works , and each of them has a crucial comic little man role , as Burnand had put it . The `` patter '' baritone ( or `` principal comedian '' , as these roles later were called ) would often assume the leading role in Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operas , and was usually allotted the speedy patter songs . After the success of Trial by Jury , Gilbert and Sullivan were suddenly in demand to write more operas together . Over the next two years , Richard D'Oyly Carte and Carl Rosa were two of several theatrical managers who negotiated with the team but were unable to come to terms . Carte proposed a revival of Thespis for the 1875 Christmas season , which Gilbert and Sullivan would have revised , but he was unable to obtain financing for the project . In early 1876 , Carte requested that Gilbert and Sullivan create another one-act opera on the theme of burglars , but this was never completed . Early successes The Sorcerer Carte 's real ambition was to develop an English form of light opera that would displace the bawdy burlesques and badly translated French operettas then dominating the London stage . He assembled a syndicate and formed the Comedy Opera Company , with Gilbert and Sullivan commissioned to write a comic opera that would serve as the centrepiece for an evening 's entertainment . Gilbert found a subject in one of his own short stories , `` The Elixir of Love , '' which concerned the complications arising when a love potion is distributed to all the residents of a small village . The leading character was a Cockney businessman who happened to be a sorcerer , a purveyor of blessings ( not much called for ) and curses ( very popular ) . Gilbert and Sullivan were tireless taskmasters , seeing to it that The Sorcerer opened as a fully polished production , in marked contrast to the under-rehearsed Thespis . While The Sorcerer won critical acclaim , it did not duplicate the success of Trial by Jury . Nevertheless , Carte and his syndicate were sufficiently encouraged to commission another full-length opera from the team . H.M.S . Pinafore Gilbert and Sullivan scored their first international hit with H.M.S . Pinafore ( 1878 ) , satirising the rise of unqualified people to positions of authority and poking good-natured fun at the Royal Navy and the English obsession with social status ( building on a theme introduced in The Sorcerer , love between members of different social classes ) . As with many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , a surprise twist changes everything dramatically near the end of the story . Gilbert oversaw the designs of sets and costumes , and he directed the performers on stage . He sought realism in acting , shunned self-conscious interaction with the audience , and insisted on a standard of characterisation where the characters were never aware of their own absurdity.Cox-Ife , William . W. S. Gilbert : Stage Director . Dobson , 1978 ISBN 0-234-77206-9 . Gilbert insisted that his actors know their words perfectly and obey his stage directions , which was something new to many actors of the day . Sullivan personally oversaw the musical preparation . The result was a new crispness and polish in the English musical theatre . As Jessie Bond wrote later : H.M.S . Pinafore ran in London for 571 performances , the second longest run of any musical theatre piece in history up to that time ( after the operetta Les cloches de Corneville ) . Hundreds of unauthorised , or `` pirated '' , productions of Pinafore appeared in America . During the run of Pinafore , Richard D'Oyly Carte split up with his former investors . The disgruntled former partners , who had invested in the production with no return , staged a public fracas , sending a group of thugs to seize the scenery during a performance . Stagehands successfully managed to ward off their backstage attackers . This event cleared the way for Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan to form the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which then produced all of their succeeding operas . The libretto of H.M.S . Pinafore relied on stock character types , many of which were familiar from European opera ( and some of which grew out of Gilbert 's earlier association with the German Reeds ) : the heroic protagonist ( tenor ) and his love-interest ( soprano ) ; the older woman with a secret or a sharp tongue ( contralto ) ; the baffled lyric baritone—the girl 's father ; and a classic villain ( bass-baritone ) . Gilbert and Sullivan added the element of the comic patter-singing character . With the success of H.M.S . Pinafore , the D'Oyly Carte repertory and production system was cemented , and each opera would make use of these stock character types . Before The Sorcerer , Gilbert had constructed his plays around the established stars of whatever theatre he happened to be writing for , as had been the case with Thespis and Trial by Jury . Building on the team he had assembled for The Sorcerer , Gilbert no longer hired stars ; he created them . He and Sullivan selected the performers , writing their operas for ensemble casts rather than individual stars . The repertory system ensured that the comic patter character who performed the role of the sorcerer , John Wellington Wells , would become the ruler of the Queen 's navy as Sir Joseph Porter in H.M.S . Pinafore , then join the army as Major-General Stanley in The Pirates of Penzance , and so on . Similarly , Mrs. Partlet in The Sorcerer transformed into Little Buttercup in Pinafore , then into Ruth , the piratical maid-of-all-work in Pirates . Relatively unknown performers whom Gilbert and Sullivan engaged early in the collaboration would stay with the company for many years , becoming stars of the Victorian stage . These included George Grossmith , the principal comic ; Rutland Barrington , the lyric baritone ; Richard Temple , the bass-baritone ; and Jessie Bond , the mezzo-soprano soubrette . The Pirates of Penzance The Pirates of Penzance ( New Year 's Eve , 1879 ) also poked fun at grand opera conventions , sense of duty , family obligation , the `` respectability '' of civilisation and the peerage , and the relevance of a liberal education . The story also revisits Pinafores theme of unqualified people in positions of authority , in the person of the `` modern Major-General '' who has up-to-date knowledge about everything except the military . The Major-General and his many daughters escape from the tender-hearted Pirates of Penzance , who are all orphans , on the false plea that he is an orphan himself . The pirates learn of the deception and re-capture the Major-General , but when it is revealed that the pirates are all peers , the Major-General bids them : `` resume your ranks and legislative duties , and take my daughters , all of whom are beauties ! '' The piece premiered first in New York rather than London , in an ( unsuccessful ) attempt to secure the American copyright , and was another big success with both critics and audiences . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas , without success . Nevertheless , Pirates was a hit both in New York , again spawning numerous imitators , and then in London , and it became one of the most frequently performed , translated and parodied Gilbert and Sullivan works , also enjoying successful 1981 Broadway and 1982 West End revivals by Joseph Papp that continue to influence productions of the opera . In 1880 , Sullivan wrote the cantata The Martyr of Antioch , presented at the Leeds Triennial Music Festival , with a libretto modified by Gilbert from an 1822 epic poem by Henry Hart Milman concerning the martyrdom of St. Margaret of Antioch in the 3rd century . Sullivan became the conductor of the Leeds festival beginning in 1880 and conducted the performance . It could be said that Martyr was the 15th opera of the partnership , since the Carl Rosa Opera Company presented the work as an opera in 1898 . Savoy Theatre opens Patience Patience ( 1881 ) satirised the aesthetic movement in general and its colourful poets , in particular , combining aspects of Algernon Charles Swinburne , Dante Gabriel Rossetti , Oscar Wilde , James McNeill Whistler and others in the rival poets Bunthorne and Grosvenor . Grossmith , who created the role of Bunthorne , based his makeup , wig and costume on Swinburne and especially Whistler , as seen in the adjacent photo . The work also lampoons male vanity and chauvinism in the military . The story concerns two rival `` aesthetic '' poets , who attract the attention of the young ladies of the village , who had been engaged to the members of a cavalry regiment . But both poets are in love with Patience , the village milkmaid , who detests one of them and feels that it is her duty to avoid the other despite her love for him . Richard D'Oyly Carte was the booking manager for Oscar Wilde , a then lesser-known proponent of aestheticism , and dispatched Wilde on an American lecture tour in conjunction with the opera 's U.S. run , so that American audiences might better understand what the satire was all about . During the run of Patience , Carte built the large , modern Savoy Theatre , which became the partnership 's permanent home . It was the first theatre ( indeed the world 's first public building ) to be lit entirely by electric lighting . Patience moved into the Savoy after six months at the Opera Comique and ran for a total of 578 performances , surpassing the run of H.M.S . Pinafore and becoming the second longest-running work of musical theatre up to that time in history.The longest was the operetta Les Cloches de Corneville , which held the title until Dorothy in 1886 . See [ http : //www.dgillan.screaming.net/stage/th-longr.html this article on longest runs in the theatre up to 1920 ] Iolanthe Iolanthe ( 1882 ) was the first of the operas to open at the Savoy . The fully electric Savoy made possible numerous special effects , such as sparkling magic wands for the female chorus of fairies . The opera poked fun at English law and the House of Lords and made much of the war between the sexes . The critics felt that Sullivan 's work in Iolanthe had taken a step forward . The Daily Telegraph wrote , `` The composer has risen to his opportunity , and we are disposed to account Iolanthe his best effort in all the Gilbertian series . '' Similarly , the Theatre asserted that `` the music of Iolanthe is Dr Sullivan 's chef d'oeuvre . The quality throughout is more even , and maintained at a higher standard , than in any of his earlier works ... '' Iolanthe is one of a number of Gilbert 's works , including The Wicked World ( 1873 ) , Broken Hearts ( 1875 ) , Princess Ida ( 1884 ) and Fallen Fairies ( 1909 ) , where the introduction of men and `` mortal love '' into a tranquil world of women wreaks havoc with the status quo . Gilbert had created several `` fairy comedies '' at the Haymarket Theatre in the early 1870s . These plays , influenced by the fairy work of James Planché , are founded upon the idea of self-revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference . In 1882 , Gilbert had a telephone installed in his home and at the prompt desk at the Savoy Theatre so that he could monitor performances and rehearsals from his home study . Gilbert had referred to the new technology in Pinafore in 1878 , only two years after the device was invented and before London even had telephone service . Sullivan had one installed as well , and on 13 May 1883 , at a party to celebrate the composer 's 41st birthday , the guests , including the Prince of Wales ( later Edward VII ) , heard a direct relay of parts of Iolanthe from the Savoy . This was probably the first live `` broadcast '' of an opera . During the run of Iolanthe , in 1883 , Sullivan was knighted by Queen Victoria . Although it was the operas with Gilbert that had earned him the broadest fame , the honour was conferred for his services to serious music . The musical establishment , and many critics , believed that this should put an end to his career as a composer of comic opera—that a musical knight should not stoop below oratorio or grand opera . Sullivan , despite the financial security of writing for the Savoy , increasingly viewed his work with Gilbert as unimportant , beneath his skills , and repetitious . Furthermore , he was unhappy that he had to simplify his music to ensure that Gilbert 's words could be heard . But paradoxically , in February 1883 , just after Iolanthe opened , Sullivan had signed a five-year agreement with Gilbert and Carte requiring him to produce a new comic opera on six months ' notice . Princess Ida Princess Ida ( 1884 ) spoofed women 's education and male chauvinism and continued the theme from Iolanthe of the war between the sexes . The opera is based on Tennyson 's poem The Princess : A Medley . Gilbert had written a blank verse farce based on the same material in 1870 , called The Princess , and he reused a good deal of the dialogue from his earlier play in the libretto of Princess Ida . Ida is the only Gilbert and Sullivan work with dialogue entirely in blank verse and is also the only one of their works in three acts . Lillian Russell had been engaged to create the title role , but Gilbert did not believe that she was dedicated enough , and when she missed a rehearsal , he dismissed her . Princess Ida was the first of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas that , by the partnership 's previous standards , was not a success . A particularly hot summer in London did not help ticket sales . The piece ran for a comparatively short 246 performances and was not revived in London until 1919 . Sullivan had been satisfied with the libretto , but two months after Ida opened , Sullivan told Carte that `` it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself . '' As Princess Ida showed signs of flagging , Carte realised that , for the first time in the partnership 's history , no new opera would be ready when the old one closed . On 22 March 1884 , he gave Gilbert and Sullivan contractual notice that a new opera would be required in six months ' time . In the meantime , when Ida closed , Carte produced a revival of The Sorcerer . Dodging the magic lozenge The Mikado The most successful of the Savoy Operas was The Mikado ( 1885 ) , which made fun of English bureaucracy , thinly disguised by a Japanese setting . Gilbert initially proposed a story for a new opera about a magic lozenge that would change the characters , which Sullivan found artificial and lacking in `` human interest and probability '' , as well as being too similar to their earlier opera , The Sorcerer . As dramatised in the film Topsy-Turvy , the author and composer were at an impasse until 8 May 1884 , when Gilbert dropped the lozenge idea and agreed to provide a libretto without any supernatural elements . The story focuses on a `` cheap tailor , '' Ko-Ko , who is promoted to the position of Lord High Executioner of the town of Titipu . Ko-Ko loves his ward , Yum-Yum , but she loves a musician , who is really the son of the emperor of Japan ( the Mikado ) , and who is in disguise to escape the attentions of the elderly and amorous Katisha . The Mikado has decreed that executions must resume

sfq_11829--Gilbert_and_Sullivan.txt

Which Gilbert and Sullivan operetta is sub titled 'Bunthornes's Bride'?

Taiwan , officially the Republic of China ( ROC ) , is a state in East Asia . Neighboring states include the People 's Republic of China to the west , Japan to the northeast , and the Philippines to the south . Taiwan is the most populous non-UN state and the largest economy outside the UN . The island of Taiwan was mainly inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before Han Chinese began immigrating to the island in the 17th century . European settlements and the Kingdom of Tungning were established shortly before China annexed the island . Taiwan was later ceded to Japan in 1895 after China was defeated in war . While Taiwan was under Japanese rule , the Republic of China ( ROC ) was established on the mainland in 1912 . After Japan 's surrender in 1945 , the ROC took governance of Taiwan . However , the ROC lost control of the mainland to the Communists during the Chinese Civil War . In 1949 , the Communist Party of China took full control of the mainland and founded the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) . The ROC government fled to Taiwan , but has since continued to claim to be the legitimate government of all of China . Effective ROC jurisdiction has been limited to Taiwan and its surrounding islands , with the main island making up 99 % of its de facto territory . The ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971 , when the PRC assumed China 's seat via Resolution 2758 , causing the ROC to lose its UN membership . International recognition of the ROC gradually eroded as most countries switched their `` China '' recognition to the PRC . and the Holy See currently maintain official diplomatic relations with the ROC . However , numerous other states maintain unofficial ties through representative offices via institutions that function as de facto embassies and consulates . Afterwards , due to the One-China policy , diplomats around the world avoid mentioning the Republic of China 's official name and instead use `` Taiwan '' , the name of the island the ROC is currently based in , to refer to the ROC . In the 1980s and early 1990s , Taiwan transitioned from a military dictatorship with a one party system of governance dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party system with universal suffrage . Taiwan maintains a stable industrial economy as a result of rapid economic growth and industrialization , which has been dubbed the Taiwan Miracle . Taiwan is one of the Four Asian Tigers and a member of the World Trade Organization and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation . The 21st-largest economy in the world , its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy . Taiwan is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press , health care , public education , economic freedom , and human development . The complications of Taiwan 's history since 1945 have created a number of practical issues for its people . Key among these are the exact nature of Taiwanese national identity , the ambiguous international political status of Taiwan , and the difficult cross-strait relations . In Taiwan , these issues generate debate among political parties and candidates . Though the ROC renounced in 1992 the conquest of PRC-controlled territories as a national goal , there is still dispute over whether the constitution still claims sovereignty over all of the ROC 's pre-1949 territories , including Outer Mongolia and the entirety of the present PRC . In practical terms , settlement of questions such as whether the ROC identifies more as `` Taiwan '' or `` China '' , and what the exact nature of its identity is relative to the PRC ( whether international or domestic ) , rests with the political coalition most recently elected . Meanwhile , the PRC continues to assert the One China policy , in which it is sole legal government of `` China '' and that Taiwan is a province of China . As a result , the ROC is not recognised as a sovereign state by most countries and is not a member of the United Nations . The PRC has threatened the use of military force as a response to any formal declaration by Taiwan of national independence or to any decision by PRC leaders that peaceful Chinese unification is no longer possible . Names There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today , derived from explorers or rulers by each particular period . The former name Formosa ( ) dates from 1542 , when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa , which means `` beautiful island '' . The name `` Formosa '' eventually `` replaced all others in European literature '' and was in common use in English in the early 20th century . In the early 17th century , the Dutch East India Company established a commercial post at Fort Zeelandia ( modern-day Anping , Tainan ) on a coastal sandbar they called `` Tayouan '' . This name was also adopted into the Chinese vernacular ( in particular , Hokkien , as ) as the name of the sandbar and nearby area ( Tainan ) . The modern word `` Taiwan '' is derived from this usage , which is seen in various forms ( and ) in Chinese historical records . The area of modern-day Tainan was the first permanent settlement by Western colonists and Chinese immigrants , grew to be the most important trading center , and served as the capital of the island until 1887 . Use of the current Chinese name ( ) was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture . Through its rapid development , the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as `` Taiwan '' . The official name of the state is the `` Republic of China '' ; it has also been known under various names throughout its existence . Shortly after the ROC 's establishment in 1912 , while it was still located on the Asian mainland , the government used the abbreviation `` China '' ( ' ) to refer to itself . During the 1950s and 1960s , after the government had fled to Taiwan due to losing the Chinese Civil War , it was commonly referred to as `` Nationalist China '' ( or `` Free China '' ) to differentiate it from `` Communist China '' ( or `` Red China '' ) . It was a member of the UN representing `` China '' until 1971 , when it lost its seat to the People 's Republic of China . Over subsequent decades , the Republic of China has become commonly known as `` Taiwan '' , after the island that composes most of its controlled territory . This is the main reason for the confusing and completely different names . In some contexts , especially official ones from the ROC government , the name is written as `` Republic of China ( Taiwan ) '' , `` Republic of China/Taiwan '' , or sometimes `` Taiwan ( ROC ) . '' The Republic of China participates in most international forums and organizations under the name `` Chinese Taipei '' due to diplomatic pressure from the People 's Republic of China . For instance , it is the name under which it has competed at the Olympic Games since 1984 , and its name as an observer at the World Health Organization . History Prehistoric Taiwan Taiwan was joined to the mainland in the Late Pleistocene , until sea levels rose about 10,000 years ago . Fragmentary human remains have been found on the island , dated 20,000 to 30,000 years ago , as well as later artifacts of a Paleolithic culture . More than 8,000 years ago , Austronesians first settled on Taiwan . The languages of their descendants , who are known as the Taiwanese aborigines nowadays , belong to the Austronesian language family , which also includes the Malayo-Polynesian languages spanning a huge area , including the entire Maritime Southeast Asia ( i.e. , Tagalog of the Philippines , Malay and Indonesian of Malaysia and Indonesia , or the Javanese of Java ) , the Pacific and Indian Ocean : westernmost to the Malagasies of Madagascar and easternmost to the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island . The aboriginal languages on Taiwan show much greater diversity than the rest of Austronesian put together , leading linguists to propose Taiwan as the Urheimat of the family , from which seafaring peoples dispersed across Southeast Asia and the Pacific and Indian Oceans . Han Chinese began settling in the Penghu islands in the 13th century , but Taiwan 's hostile tribes and its lack of trade resources valued in that era rendered it unattractive to all but `` occasional adventurers or fishermen engaging in barter '' until the 16th century . Reprinted Taipei : SMC Publishing , 1995 . Opening in the 17th century The Dutch East India Company attempted to establish a trading outpost on the Penghu Islands ( Pescadores ) in 1622 , but were militarily defeated and driven off by the Ming authorities . In 1624 , the company established a stronghold called Fort Zeelandia on the coastal islet of Tayouan , which is now part of the main island at Anping , Tainan . David Wright , a Scottish agent of the company who lived on the island in the 1650s , described the lowland areas of the island as being divided among 11 chiefdoms ranging in size from two settlements to 72 . Some of these fell under Dutch control , while others remained independent . The Company began to import laborers from Fujian and Penghu ( Pescadores ) , many of whom settled . In 1626 , the Spanish Empire landed on and occupied northern Taiwan , at the ports of Keelung and Tamsui , as a base to extend their trading . This colonial period lasted 16 years until 1642 , when the last Spanish fortress fell to Dutch forces . Following the fall of the Ming dynasty , Koxinga ( Zheng Chenggong ) , a self-styled Ming loyalist , arrived on the island and captured Fort Zeelandia in 1662 , expelling the Dutch Empire and military from the island . Koxinga established the Kingdom of Tungning ( 1662–1683 ) , with his capital at Tainan . He and his heirs , Zheng Jing , who ruled from 1662 to 1682 , and Zheng Keshuang , who ruled less than a year , continued to launch raids on the southeast coast of mainland China well into the Qing dynasty era . Qing rule In 1683 , following the defeat of Koxinga 's grandson by an armada led by Admiral Shi Lang of southern Fujian , the Qing dynasty formally annexed Taiwan , placing it under the jurisdiction of Fujian province . The Qing imperial government tried to reduce piracy and vagrancy in the area , issuing a series of edicts to manage immigration and respect aboriginal land rights . Immigrants mostly from southern Fujian continued to enter Taiwan . The border between taxpaying lands and `` savage '' lands shifted eastward , with some aborigines becoming sinicized while others retreated into the mountains . During this time , there were a number of conflicts between groups of Han Chinese from different regions of southern Fujian , particularly between those from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou , and between southern Fujian Chinese and aborigines . Northern Taiwan and the Penghu Islands were the scene of subsidiary campaigns in the Sino-French War ( August 1884 to April 1885 ) . The French occupied Keelung on 1 October 1884 , but were repulsed from Tamsui a few days later . The French won some tactical victories but were unable to exploit them , and the Keelung Campaign ended in stalemate . The Pescadores Campaign , beginning on 31 March 1885 , was a French victory , but had no long-term consequences . The French evacuated both Keelung and the Penghu archipelago after the end of the war . In 1887 , the Qing upgraded the island 's administration from Taiwan Prefecture of Fujian to Fujian-Taiwan-Province ( 福建臺灣省 ) , the twentieth in the empire , with its capital at Taipei . This was accompanied by a modernization drive that included building China 's first railroad . Japanese rule As the Qing dynasty was defeated in the First Sino-Japanese War ( 1894–1895 ) , Taiwan , along with Penghu and Liaodong Peninsula , were ceded in full sovereignty to the Empire of Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki . Inhabitants on Taiwan and Penghu wishing to remain Qing subjects were given a two-year grace period to sell their property and move to mainland China . Very few Taiwanese saw this as feasible . On 25 May 1895 , a group of pro-Qing high officials proclaimed the Republic of Formosa to resist impending Japanese rule . Japanese forces entered the capital at Tainan and quelled this resistance on 21 October 1895 . Guerrilla fighting continued periodically until about 1902 and ultimately took the lives of 14,000 Taiwanese , or 0.5 % of the population . Several subsequent rebellions against the Japanese ( the Beipu Uprising of 1907 , the Tapani Incident of 1915 , and the Wushe Incident of 1930 ) were all unsuccessful but demonstrated opposition to Japanese colonial rule . Japanese colonial rule was instrumental in the industrialization of the island , extending the railroads and other transportation networks , building an extensive sanitation system , and establishing a formal education system . Japanese rule ended the practice of headhunting . During this period the human and natural resources of Taiwan were used to aid the development of Japan and the production of cash crops such as rice and sugar greatly increased . By 1939 , Taiwan was the seventh greatest sugar producer in the world . Still , the Taiwanese and aborigines were classified as second- and third-class citizens . After suppressing Chinese guerrillas in the first decade of their rule , Japanese authorities engaged in a series of bloody campaigns against the mountain aboriginals , culminating in the Wushe Incident of 1930 . Around 1935 , the Japanese began an island-wide assimilation project to bind the island more firmly to the Japanese Empire and people were taught to see themselves as Japanese under the Kominka Movement , during which time Taiwanese culture and religion were outlawed and the citizens were encouraged to adopt Japanese surnames . During World War II , tens of thousands of Taiwanese served in the Japanese military . For example , former ROC President Lee Teng-hui 's elder brother served in the Japanese navy and died while on duty in the Philippines in February 1945 . The Imperial Japanese Navy operated heavily out of Taiwanese ports . The `` South Strike Group '' was based at the Taihoku Imperial University in Taipei . Many of the Japanese forces participating in the Aerial Battle of Taiwan-Okinawa were based in Taiwan . Important Japanese military bases and industrial centers throughout Taiwan , like Kaohsiung , were targets of heavy American bombings . Also during this time , over 2,000 women were forced into sexual slavery for Imperial Japanese troops , now euphemistically called `` comfort women . '' In 1938 , there were 309,000 Japanese settlers in Taiwan . After World War II , most of the Japanese were expelled and sent to Japan . After World War II On 25 October 1945 , the U.S. Navy ferried ROC troops who were on behalf of the Allied Powers to Taiwan in order to accept the formal surrender of Japanese military forces in Taipei , as part of General Order No . 1 for temporary military occupation . General Rikichi Andō , governor-general of Taiwan and commander-in-chief of all Japanese forces on the island , signed the receipt and handed it over to General Chen Yi of the ROC military to complete the official turnover . Chen Yi proclaimed that day to be `` Taiwan Retrocession Day '' , but the Allies considered Taiwan and the Penghu Islands to be under military occupation and still under Japanese sovereignty until 1952 , when the Treaty of San Francisco took effect . The ROC administration of Taiwan under Chen Yi was strained by increasing tensions between Taiwanese-born people and newly arrived mainlanders , which were compounded by economic woes , such as hyperinflation . Furthermore , cultural and linguistic conflicts between the two groups quickly led to the loss of popular support for the new government . The shooting of a civilian on 28 February 1947 triggered island-wide unrest , which was suppressed with military force in what is now called the February 28 Incident . Mainstream estimates of the number killed range from 18,000 to 30,000 . Those killed were mainly members of the Taiwanese elite . Chinese Nationalist one-party rule After the end of World War II , the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Nationalists ( Kuomintang ) , led by Chiang Kai-shek , and the Communist Party of China , led by Mao Zedong . By 1949 , a series of Chinese Communist offensives led to the defeat of the Nationalist army , and the Communists founded the People 's Republic of China on 1 October . In December 1949 , Chiang evacuated his government to Taiwan and made Taipei the temporary capital of the ROC ( also called the `` wartime capital '' by Chiang Kai-shek ) . Some 2 million people , consisting mainly of soldiers , members of the ruling Kuomintang and intellectual and business elites , were evacuated from mainland China to Taiwan at that time , adding to the earlier population of approximately six million . In addition , the ROC government took to Taipei many national treasures and much of China 's gold reserves and foreign currency reserves . From this point onwards , the Kuomintang was reduced to control of Taiwan , Kinmen , Matsu Islands , and two major islands of Dongsha Islands and Nansha Islands . The Kuomintang continued to claim sovereignty over all `` China '' , which it defined to include mainland China , Taiwan , Outer Mongolia and other areas . On mainland China , the victorious Communists claimed they ruled the sole and only China ( which they claimed included Taiwan ) and that the Republic of China no longer existed . Martial law , declared on Taiwan in May 1949 , continued to be in effect after the central government relocated to Taiwan . It was not repealed until 1987 , and was used as a way to suppress the political opposition in the intervening years . During the White Terror , as the period is known , 140,000 people were imprisoned or executed for being perceived as anti-KMT or pro-Communist . Many citizens were arrested , tortured , imprisoned and executed for their real or perceived link to the Communists . Since these people were mainly from the intellectual and social elite , an entire generation of political and social leaders was decimated . In 1998 law was passed to create the `` Compensation Foundation for Improper Verdicts '' which oversaw compensation to White Terror victims and families . President Ma Ying-jeou made an official apology in 2008 , expressing hope that there will never be a tragedy similar to White Terror . Initially , the United States abandoned the KMT and expected that Taiwan would fall to the Communists . However , in 1950 the conflict between North Korea and South Korea , which had been ongoing since the Japanese withdrawal in 1945 , escalated into full-blown war , and in the context of the Cold War , US President Harry S. Truman intervened again and dispatched the U.S. Navy 's 7th Fleet into the Taiwan Strait to prevent hostilities between Taiwan and mainland China . In the Treaty of San Francisco and the Treaty of Taipei , which came into force respectively on 28 April 1952 and 5 August 1952 , Japan formally renounced all right , claim and title to Taiwan and Penghu , and renounced all treaties signed with China before 1942 . Neither treaty specified to whom sovereignty over the islands should be transferred , because the United States and the United Kingdom disagreed on whether the ROC or the PRC was the legitimate government of China . Continuing conflict of the Chinese Civil War through the 1950s , and intervention by the United States notably resulted in legislation such as the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty and the Formosa Resolution of 1955 . As the Chinese Civil War continued without truce , the government built up military fortifications throughout Taiwan . Within this effort , KMT veterans built the now famous Central Cross-Island Highway through the Taroko Gorge in the 1950s . The two sides would continue to engage in sporadic military clashes with seldom publicized details well into the 1960s on the China coastal islands with an unknown number of night raids . During the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in September 1958 , Taiwan 's landscape saw Nike-Hercules missile batteries added , with the formation of the 1st Missile Battalion Chinese Army that would not be deactivated until 1997 . Newer generations of missile batteries have since replaced the Nike Hercules systems throughout the island . During the 1960s and 1970s , the ROC maintained an authoritarian , single-party government while its economy became industrialized and technology oriented . This rapid economic growth , known as the Taiwan Miracle , was the result of a fiscal regime independent from mainland China and backed up , among others , by the support of US funds and demand for Taiwanese products . In the 1970s , Taiwan was economically the second fastest growing state in Asia after Japan . Taiwan , along with Hong Kong , South Korea and Singapore , became known as one of the Four Asian Tigers . Because of the Cold War , most Western nations and the United Nations regarded the ROC as the sole legitimate government of China until the 1970s . Later , especially after the termination of the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty , most nations switched diplomatic recognition to the PRC ( see United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758 ) . Up until the 1970s , the government was regarded by Western critics as undemocratic for upholding martial law , for severely repressing any political opposition and for controlling media . The KMT did not allow the creation of new parties and those that existed did not seriously compete with the KMT . Thus , competitive democratic elections did not exist . From the late 1970s to the 1990s , however , Taiwan went through reforms and social changes that transformed it from an authoritarian state to a democracy . In 1979 , a pro-democracy protest known as the Kaohsiung Incident took place in Kaohsiung to celebrate Human Rights Day . Although the protest was rapidly crushed by the authorities , it is today considered as the main event that united Taiwan 's opposition . Democratization Chiang Ching-kuo , Chiang Kai-shek 's son and successor as the president , began to liberalize the political system in the mid-1980s . In 1984 , the younger Chiang selected Lee Teng-hui , a Taiwanese-born , U.S.-educated technocrat , to be his vice president . In 1986 , the Democratic Progressive Party ( DPP ) was formed and inaugurated as the first opposition party in the ROC to counter the KMT . A year later , Chiang Ching-kuo lifted martial law on the main island of Taiwan ( martial law was lifted on Penghu in 1979 , Matsu island in 1992 and Kinmen island in 1993 ) . With the advent of democratization , the issue of the political status of Taiwan gradually resurfaced as a controversial issue where , previously , the discussion of anything other than unification under the ROC was taboo . After the death of Chiang Ching-kuo in January 1988 , Lee Teng-hui succeeded him as president . Lee continued to democratize the government and decrease the concentration of government authority in the hands of mainland Chinese . Under Lee , Taiwan underwent a process of localization in which Taiwanese culture and history were promoted over a pan-China viewpoint in contrast to earlier KMT policies which had promoted a Chinese identity . Lee 's reforms included printing banknotes from the Central Bank rather than the Provincial Bank of Taiwan , and streamlining the Taiwan Provincial Government with most of its functions transferred to the Executive Yuan . Under Lee , the original members of the Legislative Yuan and National Assembly , elected in 1947 to represent mainland Chinese constituencies and having held the seats without re-election for more than four decades , were forced to resign in 1991 . The previously nominal representation in the Legislative Yuan was brought to an end , reflecting the reality that the ROC had no jurisdiction over mainland China , and vice versa . Restrictions on the use of Taiwanese Hokkien in the broadcast media and in schools were also lifted . Democratic reforms continued in the 1990s , with Lee Teng-hui re-elected in 1996 , in the first direct presidential election in the history of the ROC . During the later years of Lee 's administration , he was involved in corruption controversies relating to government release of land and weapons purchase , although no legal proceedings commenced . In 2000 , Chen Shui-bian of the Democratic Progressive Party was elected as the first non-Kuomintang ( KMT ) President and was re-elected to serve his second and last term since 2004 . Polarized politics has emerged in Taiwan with the formation of the Pan-Blue Coalition of parties led by the KMT , favoring eventual Chinese reunification , and the Pan-Green Coalition of parties led by the DPP , favoring an eventual and official declaration of Taiwanese independence . On 30 September 2007 , the ruling DPP approved a resolution asserting a separate identity from China and called for the enactment of a new constitution for a `` normal country '' . It also called for general use of `` Taiwan '' as the country 's name , without abolishing its formal name , the Republic of China . The Chen administration also pushed for referendums on national defense and UN entry in the 2004 and 2008 elections , which failed due to voter turnout below the required legal threshold of 50 % of all registered voters . The Chen administration was dogged by public concerns over reduced economic growth , legislative gridlock due to a pan-blue , opposition-controlled Legislative Yuan and corruption involving the First Family as well as government officials . The KMT increased its majority in the Legislative Yuan in the January 2008 legislative elections , while its nominee Ma Ying-jeou went on to win the presidency in March of the same year , campaigning on a platform of increased economic growth and better ties with the PRC under a policy of `` mutual nondenial '' . Ma took office on 20 May 2008 , the same day that President Chen Shui-bian stepped down and was notified by prosecutors of possible corruption charges . Part of the rationale for campaigning for closer economic ties with the PRC stems from the strong economic growth China attained since joining the World Trade Organization . However , some analysts say that despite the election of Ma Ying-jeou , the diplomatic and military tensions with the PRC have not been reduced . Geography The total area of the current jurisdiction of the Republic of China is 36193 km2 , making it the world 's 137th-largest country/dependency , smaller than Switzerland and larger than Belgium . The island of Taiwan lies some 180 km off the southeastern coast of mainland China , which lies across the Taiwan Strait , and has an area of 35883 km2 . The East China Sea lies to the north , the Philippine Sea to the east , the Bashi Channel of the Luzon Strait directly to the south , and the South China Sea to the southwest . All are arms of the Pacific Ocean . The shape of the main island of Taiwan is similar to a sweet potato or tobacco leaf seen in a south-to-north direction , and therefore , Taiwanese ( especially Min Nan speakers ) often call themselves `` children of the Sweet Potato . '' The island is characterized by the contrast between the eastern two-thirds , consisting mostly of rugged mountains running in five ranges from the northern to the southern tip of the island , and the flat to gently rolling Chianan Plains in the west that are also home to most of Taiwan 's population . Taiwan 's highest point is Yu Shan ( Jade Mountain ) at 3952 m ; Taiwan is the world 's fourth-highest island

qw_6502--Taiwan.txt

The island of Taiwan is off the coast of where?

Dave and Ansell Collins are a Jamaican vocal/instrumental duo ( sometimes billed as Dave and Ansil Collins or Dave and Ansel Collins ) . History Dave Barker ( born David John Crooks , 10 October 1947 , Kingston , Jamaica ) is a session vocalist , and Ansell Collins ( born 1949 , also in Kingston ) is a keyboard player . They were working for producer Lee `` Scratch '' Perry in Kingston in the late 1960s , and joined forces in 1970 , for the reggae single `` Double Barrel '' . Released in late summer by Techniques Records , part of the Trojan Records label , it topped the Jamaican and UK charts in May of the following year . It was the first record that drummer Sly Dunbar ( then aged 18 ) played on . In the US , the song appeared on an album of the same name , on Big Tree Records ( BTS 2005 ) . The follow-up release , the similarly styled `` Monkey Spanner '' enjoyed the same international success . Most of their recorded work was written by Winston Riley . After cutting an album , Collins and Barker parted company ; Collins becoming a session player and Barker , now resident in the United Kingdom , singing with several soul groups . They attempted a comeback in 1981 without success . In 1986 , Ansell Collins appeared as one of Ernest Reed 's ( Jimmy Cliff ) back-up musicians in the reggae-themed comedy film , Club Paradise . He was billed as `` Ansel ( sic ) 'Double Barrel ' Collins '' . Collins has played and worked with The Upsetters , Black Uhuru , The Mighty Diamonds , Barrington Levy , Gregory Isaacs , U-Roy , Pama International and Jimmy Cliff . `` Double Barrel '' was sampled by Special Ed on the song , `` I 'm The Magnificent '' . Two of Barker 's introductory exclamations ( `` Do n't watch that , watch this ! '' from `` Funky Funky Reggae '' and `` This is the heavy , heavy monster sound ! '' from `` Monkey Spanner '' ) were quoted by vocalist Chas Smash , in the introduction to the Madness single , `` One Step Beyond '' . In 2012 , they reunited for several live shows including a performance at the Notting Hill Carnival . Discography Studio albums Compilation albums Singles

sfq_18011--Dave_and_Ansell_Collins.txt

Dave and Ansell Collins had a U.K No 1 hit with which song?

Cape Cod is a geographic cape separated from the mainland by the Cape Cod Canal . It extends into the Atlantic Ocean from the southeastern corner of mainland Massachusetts , in the northeastern United States . Its historic , maritime character and ample beaches attract heavy tourism during the summer months . Cape Cod stretches from Provincetown in the northeast to Woods Hole in the southwest . Cape Cod , as defined by the Cape Cod Commission 's enabling legislation , comprises Barnstable County . The Cape Cod Canal cuts roughly across the base of the peninsula , though the western boundary of the cape extends to include small portions of the towns of Bourne and Sandwich which lie on the mainland side of the canal . Two highway bridges cross the Cape Cod Canal : the Sagamore Bridge and the Bourne Bridge . In addition , the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight and limited passenger services onto the Cape . Cape territory is divided into fifteen towns with many villages . Region of Cape Cod and the Islands Like Cape Cod itself , the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to become resort destinations , attracting wealthy families , celebrities , and other tourists . These include the large nearby islands of Nantucket and Martha 's Vineyard which have grown in population by 6.8 percent and 10.3 percent , respectively , between 2000 and 2010 while the year-round population of Barnstable County dropped 3 percent according to the Census . Both islands are also famous summer tourist destinations , commonly accessed by ferry from several locations on the cape . The phrases Cape Cod and the Islands and the Cape and Islands are often used to describe the whole region of Barnstable County , Dukes County ( including Martha 's Vineyard and the smaller Elizabeth Islands ) , and Nantucket County . Several small islands right off Cape Cod , including Monomoy Island , Monomoscoy Island , Popponesset Island , and Seconsett Island , are also in Barnstable County . The Forbes family-owned Naushon Island was first purchased by John Murray Forbes . Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands , many of which are privately owned . One of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain , Cuttyhunk , with a year-round population of 52 people . Several prominent families have established compounds or estates on the larger islands , making these islands some of the wealthiest resorts in the Northeast , yet they retain much of the early merchant trading and whaling culture . Cape Cod in particular is a popular retirement area ; 27.8 % of the population of Barnstable County is 65 years old or older. , and the average age of residents is the highest of any area in New England . By voter registration numbers , Democrats outnumber Republicans by less in the three counties than in the whole of Massachusetts , to varying degrees . The bulk of the land in the area is glacial terminal moraine and represents the southernmost extent of glacial coverage in southeast New England ; similar glacial formations make up Long Island in New York and Block Island in Rhode Island . Geography and political divisions Physical geography and boundaries The name `` Cape Cod '' , as it was first used in 1602 , applied only to the very tip of the peninsula . It remained that way for 125 years , until the `` Precinct of Cape Cod '' was incorporated as the Town of Provincetown . No longer in `` official '' use over the ensuing decades , the name came to mean all of the land east of the Manomet and Scusset rivers – essentially along the line that became the Cape Cod Canal . The creation of the canal separated the majority of the peninsula from the mainland , effectively turning it into an island . Indeed , most agencies , including the Cape Cod Commission and the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , treat the Cape as an island with regard to disaster preparedness , groundwater management , and the like . Most `` Cape Codders '' – residents of `` The Cape '' – refer to all land on the mainland side of the canal as `` off-Cape . '' However , the legal delineation of Cape Cod , coincident to the boundaries of Barnstable County , extends to the northwest boundaries of the towns of Bourne and Sandwich – and small portions of each are located west of the canal . Cape Cod Bay lies in between Cape Cod and the mainland – bounded on the north by a horizontal line between Provincetown and Marshfield . North of Cape Cod Bay ( and Provincetown ) is Massachusetts Bay , which contains the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary , located 5 mi north of Provincetown . The Atlantic Ocean is to the east of Cape Cod , and to the southwest of the Cape is Buzzards Bay . The Cape Cod Canal , completed in 1916 , connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay ; its creation shortened the trade route between New York and Boston by 62 mi . Cape Cod extends 65 mi into the Atlantic Ocean , with a breadth of between 1 – , and covers more than 400 miles of shoreline . Its elevation ranges from 306 ft at its highest point , at the top of Pine Hill , in the Bourne portion of Joint Base Cape Cod , down to sea level . One of the biggest barrier islands in the world , Cape Cod shields much of the Massachusetts coastline from North Atlantic storm waves . This protection erodes the Cape 's shoreline at the expense of its cliffs , while protecting towns from Fairhaven to Marshfield . Cape Cod and the Islands are part of a continuous archipelagic region consisting of a thin line of islands stretching west to include Long Island , in New York . This region is historically and collectively known by naturalists as the Outer Lands . Towns and villages Cape Cod incorporates all of Barnstable County , which comprises 15 towns : Bourne , Sandwich , Falmouth , Mashpee , Barnstable , Yarmouth , Harwich , Dennis , Brewster , Chatham , Orleans , Eastham , Wellfleet , Truro , and Provincetown . Each of these towns include a number of villages ; see Barnstable County for a complete list . Barnstable , the most populated municipality on Cape Cod , is the only one to have adopted a city form of government , whose legislative body is an elected 13-member council . However , Like other smaller Massachusetts cities , Barnstable retained its `` Town of Barnstable '' moniker . All of the other towns elect a 5-member Board of Selectmen as the executive policy-setting board , and utilize Town Meetings as their legislative body . Cape Cod and the Islands To the south of Cape Cod lie Nantucket Sound ; Nantucket and Martha 's Vineyard , both large islands ; and the mostly privately owned Elizabeth Islands . Sections For most of the 18th , 19th , and 20th centuries , Cape Cod was considered to consist of three sections ( see map ) : * The Upper Cape is the part of Cape Cod closest to the mainland , comprising the towns of Bourne , Sandwich , Falmouth , and Mashpee . Falmouth is the home of the famous Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and Marine Biological Laboratory as well as several other research organizations , and is also the most-used ferry connection to Martha 's Vineyard . Falmouth is composed of several separate villages , including East Falmouth , Falmouth Village , Hatchville , North Falmouth , Teaticket , Waquoit , West Falmouth , and Woods Hole , as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors ( e.g. , Davisville , Hatchville , Falmouth Heights , Quissett , Sippewissett , and others ) . Bourne is home to the Massachusetts Maritime Academy , in the village of Buzzards Bay , along the canal , Joint Base Cape Cod , Aptucxet Trading Post , the annual Bourne Scallop Festival in September , and , until 1884 , was part of Sandwich . Sandwich , the oldest town on Cape Cod , founded in 1637 , is home to the Dexter Grist Mill , the historic Hoxie House , Heritage Museums and Gardens , the Sandwich Glass Museum , the Thornton Burgess Museum , the Green Briar Nature Center , a Friends ' Meeting House , a U.S. Coast Guard Station , and many quaint inns and motels , restaurants , shops and activities . Mashpee , home of the Mashpee Wampanoag tribe of Native Americans , hosts Mashpee Commons , an outdoor shopping mall , with many boutiques , eateries , movie theaters , and offices , as is the newer South Cape Village , a short way south towards Falmouth , along Route 28 ; it is also home to New Seabury , an upscale residential golf community along Vineyard Sound , South Cape Beach , the Cape Cod Children 's Museum , the Boys & Girls Club of Cape Cod , the Indian Meeting House just off Route 151 , and a historic one-room school house near Town Hall , on Great Neck Road North . * The Mid-Cape includes the towns of Barnstable , Yarmouth and Dennis . The Mid-Cape area features many beautiful beaches , including warm-water beaches along Nantucket Sound , e.g. , Kalmus Beach in Hyannis , which gets its name from one of the inventors of Technicolor , Herbert Kalmus . This popular windsurfing destination was bequeathed to the town of Barnstable by Dr. Kalmus on condition that it not be developed , possibly one of the first instances of open-space preservation in the US . The Mid-Cape is also the commercial and industrial center of the region . There are seven villages in Barnstable , including Barnstable Village , Centerville , Cotuit , Hyannis , Marstons Mills , Osterville , and West Barnstable , as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors ( e.g . Craigville , Cummaquid , Hyannis Port , Santuit , Wianno , and others ) . The villages of Yarmouth are South Yarmouth , West Yarmouth and Yarmouth Port . There are five villages in Dennis , including North Dennis , East Dennis , West Dennis , Dennis Port , and South Dennis . * The Lower Cape & Outer Cape traditionally includes all of the rest of the Cape , or the towns of Harwich , Brewster , Chatham , Orleans , Eastham , Wellfleet , Truro , and Provincetown . In the present day , the five outermost towns ( Provincetown , Truro , Wellfleet , Eastham and Orleans ) are more commonly and collectively known as the `` Outer Cape '' . This area is home to the Cape Cod National Seashore , a national park that encompasses much of the Outer Cape , including the entire east-facing coast from Orleans to Provincetown . The Outer Cape is home to some of the most popular beaches in the United States , such as Nauset Light Beach and Coast Guard Beach in Eastham , Race Point Beach in Provincetown , Ballston Beach in Truro , and Skaket Beach in Orleans . The Outer Cape and the beaches in the area have become infamous for their summertime Great White Shark sightings along with numerous other shark species . In the summer of 2012 , a tourist was attacked and bitten by a Great White Shark off of Ballston Beach in Truro , and had to be transported to a Boston-area hospital for treatment . He received almost 60 stitches in his leg and had surgery to repair damage . Stephen Leatherman , aka `` Dr. Beach '' , named Coast Guard Beach the 5th best beach in America in 2007 . The Outer Cape is the most unpopulated , or `` rural '' area of Cape Cod outside of Provincetown , which has a small , populated , city-like atmosphere during the summer season . Provincetown has become a major gay & lesbian resort destination – the town is regarded as one of the largest LGBT resort communities in the United States . Provincetown is also renowned for its historic fishing fleets and Stellwagen Bank , a popular fishing ground and whale watching destination , is located a few miles north of Race Point . `` Upper '' and `` Lower '' The terms `` Upper Cape '' and `` Lower Cape '' , and references to traveling `` up Cape '' or `` down Cape '' have long been a source of confusion for the uninitiated Cape Cod visitor , who , mistakenly associating `` up '' with `` north '' , might get turned around by passages such as these from 1920 : * `` The look of things is more ocean-like if one goes down the Cape to Provincetown . '' * `` Almost every street in Chatham is solidly paved , and the old corner town of the Cape is the natural goal of the traveler coming up the Cape from Provincetown ... '' There are many theories to explain the apparent paradox . One is that the terms derive from early nautical navigation . When one traveled to the east , one went down the longitudinal scale ( toward zero at Greenwich , England ) . Additionally , prevailing fair weather winds ( generally out of the southwest ) have been used as the basis for directional descriptions by European settlers and their descendants in eastern North America . That is , one would be traveling `` down [ wind ] '' to the east with a westerly wind at one 's back . To this day , on nearby Martha 's Vineyard , `` Up Island '' is the western section and `` Down Island '' is to the east . The arrival of the railroad during the nineteenth century reinforced the `` up/down '' concept , as train schedules between Boston and Cape Cod always showed Boston at the top – the timetable for trains headed onto the Cape would be read from the top down , and those of returning trains would be read from the bottom up . Provincetown , therefore , despite being the Cape 's northernmost town , was the furthest `` down '' that one could travel . ( The Cape 's unique shape brought a new paradox along with the automobile and highway system : when driving `` down Cape '' on US Route 6 `` eastbound '' , the final 30 miles from Orleans to Provincetown takes one in nearly every direction except east . ) The best known colloquial explanation , however , is that the shape of the peninsula as it appears on maps and charts resembles that of a human arm . In that analogy , the southern portion of the Cape represents the `` upper arm '' , Chatham the elbow , and the north-south portion is the `` lower arm '' , or forearm . Going further , some say Provincetown is the curled hand , or fist , with Race Point and Wood End at its knuckles , and Long Point at the fingertips . In the late twentieth century , as the Cape began drawing more vacationers and artists on retreat , the nautical nomenclature and potential confusion over directions have gradually been giving way to the simpler `` Outer Cape '' , although the older terms are still used by some local residents . Geology The bulk of the land on Cape Cod consists of glacial landforms , formed by terminal moraine and outwash plains . This represents the southernmost extent of glacial coverage in southeast New England ; similar glacial formations make up Long Island in New York and Block Island in Rhode Island . Together , these formations are known as the Outer Lands , or more obscurely as the `` Isles of Stirling '' . Geologically speaking , Cape Cod is quite young , having been laid down some 16,000 to 20,000 years ago . Most of Cape Cod 's geological history involves the advance and retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet in the late Pleistocene geological era and the subsequent changes in sea level . Using radiocarbon dating techniques , researchers have determined that around 23,000 years ago , the ice sheet reached its maximum southward advance over North America , and then started to retreat . Many kettle ponds – clear , cold lakes – were formed and remain on Cape Cod as a result of the receding glacier . By about 18,000 years ago , the ice sheet had retreated past Cape Cod . By roughly 15,000 years ago , it had retreated past southern New England . When so much of Earth 's water was locked up in massive ice sheets , the sea level was lower . Truro 's bayside beaches used to be a petrified forest , before it became a beach . As the ice began to melt , the sea began to rise . Initially , sea level rose quickly , about 15 m per 1,000 years , but then the rate declined . On Cape Cod , sea level rose roughly 3 m per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago . After that , it continued to rise at about 1 m per millennium . By 6,000 years ago , the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet had left on Cape Cod . The water transported the eroded deposits north and south along the outer Cape 's shoreline through a process known as longshore drift . Those reworked sediments that moved north went to the tip of Cape Cod . The entire town of Provincetown , at the extreme tip of the Cape , is a spit consisting largely of deposited marine sediment that was eroded and transported from farther south along the shore . Those sediments that instead moved south created the islands and shoals of Monomoy . So while other parts of the Cape have dwindled from the action of the waves , these parts of the Cape have grown through the deposition of sediment in just the last 6,000 years . This process continues today . Due to their position jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean , the Cape and islands are subject to massive coastal erosion . Geologists say that , due to erosion , the Cape will be completely submerged by the sea in thousands of years . This erosion causes the washout of beaches and the destruction of the barrier islands ; for example , the ocean broke through the barrier island at Chatham during Hurricane Bob in 1991 , allowing waves and storm surges to hit the coast with no obstruction . Consequently , the sediment and sand from the beaches is being washed away and deposited elsewhere . While this destroys land in some places , it creates land elsewhere , most noticeably in marshes where sediment is deposited by waters running through them . Climate Although Cape Cod 's weather is typically more moderate than inland locations , there have been occasions where Cape Cod has dealt with the brunt of extreme weather situations ( such as the Blizzard of 2005 and Hurricane Bob ) . Because of the influence of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures are typically a few degrees cooler in the summer and a few degrees warmer in the winter . A common misconception is that the climate is influenced largely by the warm Gulf Stream current ; however , that current turns eastward off the coast of Virginia , and the waters off the Cape are more influenced by the cold Canadian Labrador Current . As a result , the ocean temperature rarely gets above 65 F , except along the shallow west coast of the Upper Cape and along the southern coast ( Nantucket Sound ) , where water temperatures can sometimes reach 70 F or higher . Cape Cod 's climate is also notorious for a delayed spring season , being surrounded by an ocean which is still cold from the winter ; however , it is also known for an exceptionally mild fall season ( Indian summer ) , thanks to the ocean remaining warm from the summer . The highest temperature ever recorded on Cape Cod was 104 F in Provincetown , and the lowest temperature ever was in Barnstable . The water surrounding Cape Cod moderates winter temperatures nearly enough to extend the humid subtropical climate zone to what could be its northernmost limit in eastern North America , as the majority of Cape Cod is in USDA hardiness zone 7a . Consequently , many subtropical indicator plant species typically found in more southerly latitudes are grown there , including Camellias , Ilex opaca , Magnolia grandiflora and Albizia julibrissin . However , Cape Cod falls below the 72 F threshold , as the warmest month , July , averages around . Therefore , the climate may be better characterized as either a maritime climate or a humid continental climate ( particularly on the northern coast of the upper and mid cape , which is somewhat sheltered from the cooler onshore wind to the south ) . Precipitation on Cape Cod and the islands of Martha 's Vineyard and Nantucket is the lowest in the New England region , averaging slightly less than 40 in a year ( most parts of New England average 42 to ) . This is due to storm systems which move across western areas , building up in mountainous regions , and dissipating before reaching the coast where the land has leveled out . The region does not experience a greater number of sunny days , however , as the number of cloudy days is the same as inland locales , in addition to increased fog . On average , roughly 27 in of snow , which is about 17 in less than Boston , falls in an average winter . Once every five or six years , a tropical storm , accompanied by very high and potentially damaging winds and heavy rain , will strike the region . About once every 11 or 12 years a hurricane brings damaging winds and storm surges to the region . Several Category 3 storms have struck Cape Cod since record-keeping began , such as the Long Island Express of 1938 and the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane . Strong Category 2 storms , such as Hurricane Carol of 1954 and Hurricane Bob of 1991 also caused considerable damage . Notable Category 1 storms include Hurricane Edna of 1954 ( shortly following Hurricane Carol ) and Hurricane Donna of 1960 , also Hurricane Irene in 2011 , and Hurricane Sandy in 2012 . Other notable storms include the Gale of 1815 , which would likely have been rated a strong hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale , and the so-called `` Perfect Storm '' of October 31 , 1991 . The February 2013 nor'easter produced winds in excess of and dropped over 24 in of snow on some parts of Cape Cod . The storm knocked out power to tens of thousands of Cape Cod residents , some for up to two weeks . Native population Cape Cod has been the home of the Wampanoag Native American people for many centuries . They survived off the sea and were accomplished farmers . They understood the principles of sustainable forest management , and were known to light controlled fires to keep the underbrush in check . They helped the Pilgrims , who arrived in the fall of 1620 , survive at their new Plymouth Colony . The Wampanoag lost their lands through continued purchase and expropriation by the English colonists . The documentary Natives of the Narrowland ( 1993 ) , narrated by actress Julie Harris , shows the history of the Wampanoag people through Cape Cod archaeological sites . In 1974 , the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribal Council was formed to articulate the concerns of those with Native American ancestry . They petitioned the federal government in 1975 and again in 1990 for official recognition of the Mashpee Wampanoag as a tribe . In May 2007 , the Wampanoag tribe was federally recognized . History Discovery Cape Cod was a landmark for early explorers . It may have been the `` Promontory of Vinland '' mentioned by the Norse voyagers ( 985–1025 ) . The Manomet River area ( taken up by the western end of the Cape Cod Canal in the early 20th century ) is claimed by some to have been visited by Leif Eiriksson , and a stone wall discovered in Provincetown in 1805 is also claimed to have been built by his younger brother Thorvald Eiriksson around 1007 AD , when the keel of his ship was repaired in the harbor , according to Norse sagas . He was killed later in the same journey , and is said to have been returned to this spot for burial . However , there is no tangible support of the presence of Norse voyagers in Cape Cod , and the view is not generally accepted by archaeologists or historians . Giovanni da Verrazzano approached it from the south in 1524 . He named Martha 's Vineyard Claudia , after Claude of France , the wife of Francis I of France . In 1525 , Portuguese explorer Estêvão Gomes called it Cabo de la Arenas while sailing under the Spanish crown . In 1602 , Bartholomew Gosnold named the tip Cape Cod , the surviving term and the ninth oldest English place-name in the U.S. Samuel de Champlain charted its sand-silted harbors in 1606 , and Henry Hudson landed there in 1609 . Captain John Smith noted it on his map of 1614 , and at last the Pilgrims entered the `` Cape Harbor '' and – contrary to the popular myth of Plymouth Rock – made their first landing near present-day Provincetown on November 11 , 1620 . Nearby , in what is now Eastham , they had their first encounter with Native Americans . Settlement Cape Cod was among the first places settled by the English in North America . The Cape 's fifteen towns developed slowly , aside from Barnstable ( 1639 ) , Sandwich ( 1637 ) , and Yarmouth ( 1639 ) . The final town to be established on the Cape was Bourne in 1884 , breaking off from Sandwich . Provincetown was a group of huts until the 18th century . A channel from Massachusetts Bay to Buzzards Bay is shown on Southack 's map of 1717 . The present Cape Cod Canal was slowly developed from 1870 to 1914 . The federal government purchased it in 1928 . The Cape 's vegetation was depauperate and trees were scarce by the time that Henry Thoreau saw Cape Cod during his four visits over 1849 to 1857 , because of early colonial settlement and intensive land use . The settlers heated by fires , and it took 10 to 20 cords ( 40 to 80 m³ ) of wood to heat a home , so they cleared most of Cape Cod of timber early on . They planted familiar crops , but these were unsuited to Cape Cod 's thin , glacially derived soils . For instance , much of Eastham was planted to wheat . The settlers practiced burning of woodlands to release nutrients into the soil . Improper and intensive farming led to erosion and the loss of topsoil . Farmers grazed their cattle on the grassy dunes of coastal Massachusetts , only to watch `` in horror as the denuded sands 'walked ' over richer lands , burying cultivated fields and fences . '' Dunes on the outer Cape became more common , and many harbors filled in with eroded soils . By 1800 , much of Cape Cod 's firewood had to be transported by boat from Maine . The paucity of vegetation was worsened by the raising of merino sheep that reached its peak in New England around 1840 . The early industrial revolution occurred through much of Massachusetts and Rhode Island , but it mostly bypassed Cape Cod due to a lack of significant water power in the area . The Cape developed as a large fishing and whaling center as a result , and also because of its geographic position . After 1860 and the opening of the American West , farmers abandoned agriculture on the Cape . By 1950 , forests had recovered to an extent not seen since the 18th century . Modern era Cape Cod became a summer haven for city dwellers

sfq_12070--Cape_Cod.txt

Which island off Cape Cod was once the site of the world's biggest whaling port?

Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors , textures , and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein . It comprises proteins and fat from milk , usually the milk of cows , buffalo , goats , or sheep . During production , the milk is usually acidified , and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation . The solids are separated and pressed into final form . Some cheeses have molds on the rind or throughout . Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature . Hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced . Their styles , textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk ( including the animal 's diet ) , whether they have been pasteurized , the butterfat content , the bacteria and mold , the processing , and aging . Herbs , spices , or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents . The yellow to red color of many cheeses , such as Red Leicester , is produced by adding annatto . Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses , such as black pepper , garlic , chives or cranberries . For a few cheeses , the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice . Most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria , which turn milk sugars into lactic acid , then the addition of rennet completes the curdling . Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available ; most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei , but others have been extracted from various species of the Cynara thistle family . Cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher , lower-priced milk , and lower shipping costs . Cheese is valued for its portability , long life , and high content of fat , protein , calcium , and phosphorus . Cheese is more compact and has a longer shelf life than milk , although how long a cheese will keep depends on the type of cheese ; labels on packets of cheese often claim that a cheese should be consumed within three to five days of opening . Generally speaking , hard cheeses , such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses , such as Brie or goat 's milk cheese . The long storage life of some cheeses , especially when encased in a protective rind , allows selling when markets are favorable . There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese , but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results . Cheese paper is coated in a porous plastic on the inside , and the outside has a layer of wax . This specific combination of plastic on the inside and wax on the outside protects the cheese by allowing condensation on the cheese to be wicked away while preventing moisture from within the cheese escaping . A specialist seller of cheese is sometimes known as a cheesemonger . Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience , much like becoming an expert in wine or cuisine . The cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory : selecting the cheese menu , purchasing , receiving , storage , and ripening . Etymology The word cheese comes from Latin caseus , from which the modern word casein is also derived . The earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root * kwat- , which means `` to ferment , become sour '' . More recently , cheese comes from chese ( in Middle English ) and cīese or cēse ( in Old English ) . Similar words are shared by other West Germanic languages—West Frisian tsiis , Dutch kaas , German Käse , Old High German chāsi—all from the reconstructed West-Germanic form * kāsī , which in turn is an early borrowing from Latin . When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries ' supplies , a new word started to be used : formaticum , from caseus formatus , or `` molded cheese '' ( as in `` formed '' , not `` moldy '' ) . It is from this word that the French fromage , proper Italian formaggio , Catalan formatge , Breton fourmaj , and Provençal furmo are derived . Of the Romance languages , Spanish , Portuguese , Romanian , Tuscan and Southern Italian dialects use words derived from caseus ( queso , queijo , caș and caso for example ) . The word cheese itself is occasionally employed in a sense that means `` molded '' or `` formed '' . Head cheese uses the word in this sense . History Origins Cheese is an ancient food whose origins predate recorded history . There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheesemaking originated , either in Europe , Central Asia or the Middle East , but the practice had spread within Europe prior to Roman times and , according to Pliny the Elder , had become a sophisticated enterprise by the time the Roman Empire came into being . The earliest evidence of cheese-making in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE , in what is now Kujawy , Poland , where strainers with milk fats molecules have been found . Earliest proposed dates for the origin of cheesemaking range from around 8000 BCE , when sheep were first domesticated . Since animal skins and inflated internal organs have , since ancient times , provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs , it is probable that the process of cheese making was discovered accidentally by storing milk in a container made from the stomach of an animal , resulting in the milk being turned to curd and whey by the rennet from the stomach . There is a legend – with variations – about the discovery of cheese by an Arab trader who used this method of storing milk . Cheesemaking may have begun independently of this by the pressing and salting of curdled milk to preserve it . Observation that the effect of making cheese in an animal stomach gave more solid and better-textured curds may have led to the deliberate addition of rennet . Early archeological evidence of Egyptian cheese has been found in Egyptian tomb murals , dating to about 2000 BCE . The earliest cheeses were likely to have been quite sour and salty , similar in texture to rustic cottage cheese or feta , a crumbly , flavorful Greek cheese . Cheese produced in Europe , where climates are cooler than the Middle East , required less salt for preservation . With less salt and acidity , the cheese became a suitable environment for useful microbes and molds , giving aged cheeses their respective flavors . The earliest ever discovered preserved cheese was found in the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang , China , and it dates back as early as 1615 BCE . Ancient Greece and Rome Ancient Greek mythology credited Aristaeus with the discovery of cheese . Homer 's Odyssey ( 8th century BCE ) describes the Cyclops making and storing sheep 's and goats ' milk cheese ( translation by Samuel Butler ) : By Roman times , cheese was an everyday food and cheesemaking a mature art . Columella 's De Re Rustica ( circa 65 CE ) details a cheesemaking process involving rennet coagulation , pressing of the curd , salting , and aging . Pliny 's Natural History ( 77 CE ) devotes a chapter ( XI , 97 ) to describing the diversity of cheeses enjoyed by Romans of the early Empire . He stated that the best cheeses came from the villages near Nîmes , but did not keep long and had to be eaten fresh . Cheeses of the Alps and Apennines were as remarkable for their variety then as now . A Ligurian cheese was noted for being made mostly from sheep 's milk , and some cheeses produced nearby were stated to weigh as much as a thousand pounds each . Goats ' milk cheese was a recent taste in Rome , improved over the `` medicinal taste '' of Gaul 's similar cheeses by smoking . Of cheeses from overseas , Pliny preferred those of Bithynia in Asia Minor . Post-Roman Europe As Romanized populations encountered unfamiliar newly settled neighbors , bringing their own cheese-making traditions , their own flocks and their own unrelated words for cheese , cheeses in Europe diversified further , with various locales developing their own distinctive traditions and products . As long-distance trade collapsed , only travelers would encounter unfamiliar cheeses : Charlemagne 's first encounter with a white cheese that had an edible rind forms one of the constructed anecdotes of Notker 's Life of the Emperor . The British Cheese Board claims that Britain has approximately 700 distinct local cheeses ; France and Italy have perhaps 400 each . ( A French proverb holds there is a different French cheese for every day of the year , and Charles de Gaulle once asked `` how can you govern a country in which there are 246 kinds of cheese ? '' ) Still , the advancement of the cheese art in Europe was slow during the centuries after Rome 's fall . Many cheeses today were first recorded in the late Middle Ages or after—cheeses like Cheddar around 1500 , Parmesan in 1597 , Gouda in 1697 , and Camembert in 1791 . In 1546 The Proverbs of John Heywood claimed `` the moon is made of a greene cheese . '' ( Greene may refer here not to the color , as many now think , but to being new or unaged . ) Variations on this sentiment were long repeated and NASA exploited this myth for an April Fools ' Day spoof announcement in 2006 . Modern era Until its modern spread along with European culture , cheese was nearly unheard of in east Asian cultures , in the pre-Columbian Americas , and only had limited use in sub-Mediterranean Africa , mainly being widespread and popular only in Europe , the Middle East , the Indian subcontinent , and areas influenced by those cultures . But with the spread , first of European imperialism , and later of Euro-American culture and food , cheese has gradually become known and increasingly popular worldwide . The first factory for the industrial production of cheese opened in Switzerland in 1815 , but large-scale production first found real success in the United States . Credit usually goes to Jesse Williams , a dairy farmer from Rome , New York , who in 1851 started making cheese in an assembly-line fashion using the milk from neighboring farms . Within decades , hundreds of such dairy associations existed . The 1860s saw the beginnings of mass-produced rennet , and by the turn of the century scientists were producing pure microbial cultures . Before then , bacteria in cheesemaking had come from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch 's whey ; the pure cultures meant a more standardized cheese could be produced . Factory-made cheese overtook traditional cheesemaking in the World War II era , and factories have been the source of most cheese in America and Europe ever since . Production In 2013 , world production of cheese was 21.3 million tonnes , with the United States accounting for 25 % ( 5.4 million tonnes ) of the world total followed by Germany , France and Italy ( table ) . During 2015 , Germany , France , Netherlands and Italy exported 10-14 % of their produced cheese . The United States , the biggest world producer of cheese , is a marginal exporter ( 5.3 % of total ) , as most of its production is for the domestic market . Consumption France , Iceland , Finland , Denmark and Germany were the highest consumers of cheese in 2014 , averaging 25 kg per person . Processing Curdling A required step in cheesemaking is separating the milk into solid curds and liquid whey . Usually this is done by acidifying ( souring ) the milk and adding rennet . The acidification can be accomplished directly by the addition of an acid , such as vinegar , in a few cases ( paneer , queso fresco ) . More commonly starter bacteria are employed instead which convert milk sugars into lactic acid . The same bacteria ( and the enzymes they produce ) also play a large role in the eventual flavor of aged cheeses . Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the Lactococcus , Lactobacillus , or Streptococcus families . Swiss starter cultures also include Propionibacter shermani , which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging , giving Swiss cheese or Emmental its holes ( called `` eyes '' ) . Some fresh cheeses are curdled only by acidity , but most cheeses also use rennet . Rennet sets the cheese into a strong and rubbery gel compared to the fragile curds produced by acidic coagulation alone . It also allows curdling at a lower acidity—important because flavor-making bacteria are inhibited in high-acidity environments . In general , softer , smaller , fresher cheeses are curdled with a greater proportion of acid to rennet than harder , larger , longer-aged varieties . While rennet was traditionally produced via extraction from the inner mucosa of the fourth stomach chamber of slaughtered young , unweaned calves , most rennet used today in cheesemaking is produced recombinantly . The majority of the applied chymosin is retained in the whey and , at most , may be present in cheese in trace quantities . In ripe cheese , the type and provenance of chymosin used in production can not be determined . Curd processing At this point , the cheese has set into a very moist gel . Some soft cheeses are now essentially complete : they are drained , salted , and packaged . For most of the rest , the curd is cut into small cubes . This allows water to drain from the individual pieces of curd . Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of 35 – . This forces more whey from the cut curd . It also changes the taste of the finished cheese , affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry . Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with thermophilic starter bacteria that survive this step—either Lactobacilli or Streptococci . Salt has roles in cheese besides adding a salty flavor . It preserves cheese from spoiling , draws moisture from the curd , and firms cheese ’ s texture in an interaction with its proteins . Some cheeses are salted from the outside with dry salt or brine washes . Most cheeses have the salt mixed directly into the curds . Other techniques influence a cheese 's texture and flavor . Some examples are : * Stretching : ( Mozzarella , Provolone ) The curd is stretched and kneaded in hot water , developing a stringy , fibrous body . * Cheddaring : ( Cheddar , other English cheeses ) The cut curd is repeatedly piled up , pushing more moisture away . The curd is also mixed ( or milled ) for a long time , taking the sharp edges off the cut curd pieces and influencing the final product 's texture . * Washing : ( Edam , Gouda , Colby ) The curd is washed in warm water , lowering its acidity and making for a milder-tasting cheese . Most cheeses achieve their final shape when the curds are pressed into a mold or form . The harder the cheese , the more pressure is applied . The pressure drives out moisture—the molds are designed to allow water to escape—and unifies the curds into a single solid body . Ripening A newborn cheese is usually salty yet bland in flavor and , for harder varieties , rubbery in texture . These qualities are sometimes enjoyed—cheese curds are eaten on their own—but normally cheeses are left to rest under controlled conditions . This aging period ( also called ripening , or , from the French , affinage ) lasts from a few days to several years . As a cheese ages , microbes and enzymes transform texture and intensify flavor . This transformation is largely a result of the breakdown of casein proteins and milkfat into a complex mix of amino acids , amines , and fatty acids . Some cheeses have additional bacteria or molds intentionally introduced before or during aging . In traditional cheesemaking , these microbes might be already present in the aging room ; they are simply allowed to settle and grow on the stored cheeses . More often today , prepared cultures are used , giving more consistent results and putting fewer constraints on the environment where the cheese ages . These cheeses include soft ripened cheeses such as Brie and Camembert , blue cheeses such as Roquefort , Stilton , Gorgonzola , and rind-washed cheeses such as Limburger . Types There are many types of cheese , with around 500 different varieties recognized by the International Dairy Federation , more than 400 identified by Walter and Hargrove , more than 500 by Burkhalter , and more than 1,000 by Sandine and Elliker . The varieties may be grouped or classified into types according to criteria such as length of ageing , texture , methods of making , fat content , animal milk , country or region of origin , etc.—with these criteria either being used singly or in combination , but with no single method being universally used . The method most commonly and traditionally used is based on moisture content , which is then further discriminated by fat content and curing or ripening methods . Some attempts have been made to rationalise the classification of cheese—a scheme was proposed by Pieter Walstra which uses the primary and secondary starter combined with moisture content , and Walter and Hargrove suggested classifying by production methods which produces 18 types , which are then further grouped by moisture content . ; Moisture content ( soft to hard ) Categorizing cheeses by firmness is a common but inexact practice . The lines between `` soft '' , `` semi-soft '' , `` semi-hard '' , and `` hard '' are arbitrary , and many types of cheese are made in softer or firmer variations . The main factor that controls cheese hardness is moisture content , which depends largely on the pressure with which it is packed into molds , and on aging time . ; Fresh , whey and stretched curd cheeses The main factor in the categorization of these cheeses is their age . Fresh cheeses without additional preservatives can spoil in a matter of days . ; Content ( double cream , goat , ewe and water buffalo ) Some cheeses are categorized by the source of the milk used to produce them or by the added fat content of the milk from which they are produced . While most of the world 's commercially available cheese is made from cows ' milk , many parts of the world also produce cheese from goats and sheep . Double cream cheeses are soft cheeses of cows ' milk enriched with cream so that their fat content is 60 % or , in the case of triple creams , 75 % . The use of the terms `` double '' or `` triple '' is not meant to give a quantitative reference to the change in fat content , since the fat content of whole cows ' milk is 3 % -4 % . ; Soft-ripened and blue-vein There are at least three main categories of cheese in which the presence of mold is a significant feature : soft ripened cheeses , washed rind cheeses and blue cheeses . ; Processed cheeses Processed cheese is made from traditional cheese and emulsifying salts , often with the addition of milk , more salt , preservatives , and food coloring . It is inexpensive , consistent , and melts smoothly . It is sold packaged and either pre-sliced or unsliced , in a number of varieties . It is also available in aerosol cans in some countries . Cooking and eating At refrigerator temperatures , the fat in a piece of cheese is as hard as unsoftened butter , and its protein structure is stiff as well . Flavor and odor compounds are less easily liberated when cold . For improvements in flavor and texture , it is widely advised that cheeses be allowed to warm up to room temperature before eating . If the cheese is further warmed , to 26 – , the fats will begin to `` sweat out '' as they go beyond soft to fully liquid . Above room temperatures , most hard cheeses melt . Rennet-curdled cheeses have a gel-like protein matrix that is broken down by heat . When enough protein bonds are broken , the cheese itself turns from a solid to a viscous liquid . Soft , high-moisture cheeses will melt at around 55 C , while hard , low-moisture cheeses such as Parmesan remain solid until they reach about 82 C. Acid-set cheeses , including halloumi , paneer , some whey cheeses and many varieties of fresh goat cheese , have a protein structure that remains intact at high temperatures . When cooked , these cheeses just get firmer as water evaporates . Some cheeses , like raclette , melt smoothly ; many tend to become stringy or suffer from a separation of their fats . Many of these can be coaxed into melting smoothly in the presence of acids or starch . Fondue , with wine providing the acidity , is a good example of a smoothly melted cheese dish . Elastic stringiness is a quality that is sometimes enjoyed , in dishes including pizza and Welsh rarebit . Even a melted cheese eventually turns solid again , after enough moisture is cooked off . The saying `` you ca n't melt cheese twice '' ( meaning `` some things can only be done once '' ) refers to the fact that oils leach out during the first melting and are gone , leaving the non-meltable solids behind . As its temperature continues to rise , cheese will brown and eventually burn . Browned , partially burned cheese has a particular distinct flavor of its own and is frequently used in cooking ( e.g. , sprinkling atop items before baking them ) . Nutrition and health Mozzarella The nutritional value of cheese varies widely . Cottage cheese may consist of 4 % fat and 11 % protein while some whey cheeses are 15 % fat and 11 % protein , and triple-crème cheeses are 36 % fat and 7 % protein . In general , cheese is a rich source ( 20 % or more of the Daily Value , DV ) of calcium , protein , phosphorus , sodium and saturated fat . A 28 g ( one ounce ) serving of cheddar cheese contains about 7 g of protein and 202 milligrams of calcium . Nutritionally , cheese is essentially concentrated milk : it takes about 200 g of milk to provide that much protein , and 150 g } } to equal the calcium .

qw_16426--Cheese.txt

The Italian cheese called dolcelatte translates into English as what?

Clive Staples Lewis ( 29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963 ) was a British novelist , poet , academic , medievalist , literary critic , essayist , lay theologian , broadcaster , lecturer , and Christian apologist . He held academic positions at both Oxford University ( Magdalen College ) , 1925–54 , and Cambridge University ( Magdalene College ) , 1954–63 . He is best known for his fictional work , especially The Screwtape Letters , The Chronicles of Narnia , and The Space Trilogy , and for his non-fiction Christian apologetics , such as Mere Christianity , Miracles , and The Problem of Pain . Lewis and fellow novelist J. R. R. Tolkien were close friends . They both served on the English faculty at Oxford University , and were active in the informal Oxford literary group known as the Inklings . According to Lewis ' memoir Surprised by Joy , he was baptised in the Church of Ireland , but fell away from his faith during adolescence . Lewis returned to the Anglican Communion at the age of 32 , owing to the influence of Tolkien and other friends , and he became an `` ordinary layman of the Church of England '' . His faith profoundly affected his work , and his wartime radio broadcasts on the subject of Christianity brought him wide acclaim . In 1956 , he married American writer Joy Davidman ; she died of cancer four years later at the age of 45 . Lewis died on 22 November 1963 from renal failure , one week before his 65th birthday . Media coverage of his death was minimal , as he and fellow British author Aldous Huxley died on the same day that US President John F. Kennedy was assassinated . In 2013 , on the 50th anniversary of his death , Lewis was honoured with a memorial in Poets ' Corner in Westminster Abbey . Lewis 's works have been translated into more than 30 languages and have sold millions of copies . The books that make up The Chronicles of Narnia have sold the most and have been popularised on stage , TV , radio , and cinema . His works entered the public domain in 2014 in countries where copyright expires 50 years after the death of the creator , such as Canada . Biography Childhood Clive Staples Lewis was born in Belfast , Ireland , on 29 November 1898 . His father was Albert James Lewis ( 1863–1929 ) , a solicitor whose father Richard had come to Ireland from Wales during the mid-19th century . His mother was Florence Augusta Lewis , Hamilton ( 1862–1908 ) , known as Flora , the daughter of a Church of Ireland ( Anglican ) priest . He had an elder brother , Warren Hamilton Lewis . When he was four , his dog Jacksie was killed by a car , and he announced that his name was now Jacksie . At first , he would answer to no other name , but later accepted Jack , the name by which he was known to friends and family for the rest of his life . When he was seven , his family moved into `` Little Lea '' , the family home of his childhood , in the Strandtown area of East Belfast . As a boy , Lewis was fascinated with anthropomorphic animals ; he fell in love with Beatrix Potter 's stories and often wrote and illustrated his own animal stories . He and his brother Warnie created the world of Boxen , inhabited and run by animals . Lewis loved to read . His father 's house was filled with books , and he felt that finding a book to read was as easy as walking into a field and `` finding a new blade of grass '' . Lewis was schooled by private tutors before being sent to the Wynyard School in Watford , Hertfordshire , in 1908 , just after his mother 's death from cancer . Lewis 's brother had enrolled there three years previously . The school was closed not long afterwards due to a lack of pupils ; the headmaster Robert `` Oldie '' Capron was soon after committed to a psychiatric hospital . Lewis then attended Campbell College in the east of Belfast about a mile from his home , but he left after a few months due to respiratory problems . He was then sent to the health-resort town of Malvern , Worcestershire , where he attended the preparatory school Cherbourg House , which Lewis calls `` Chartres '' in his autobiography . It was during this time that Lewis abandoned his childhood Christian faith and became an atheist , becoming interested in mythology and the occult . In September 1913 , Lewis enrolled at Malvern College , where he remained until the following June . He found the school socially competitive . After leaving Malvern , he studied privately with William T. Kirkpatrick , his father 's old tutor and former headmaster of Lurgan College . As a teenager , Lewis was wonder-struck by the songs and legends of what he called Northernness , the ancient literature of Scandinavia preserved in the Icelandic sagas . These legends intensified an inner longing he later called `` joy '' . He also grew to love nature ; its beauty reminded him of the stories of the North , and the stories of the North reminded him of the beauties of nature . His teenage writings moved away from the tales of Boxen , and he began using different art forms , including epic poetry and opera , to try to capture his new-found interest in Norse mythology and the natural world . Studying with Kirkpatrick ( `` The Great Knock '' , as Lewis afterwards called him ) instilled in him a love of Greek literature and mythology and sharpened his debate and reasoning skills . In 1916 , Lewis was awarded a scholarship at University College , Oxford . Within months of entering Oxford , the British Army shipped him to France to fight in the First World War . His experience of the horror of war confirmed his atheism . `` My Irish life '' Lewis experienced a certain cultural shock on first arriving in England : `` No Englishman will be able to understand my first impressions of England '' , Lewis wrote in Surprised by Joy . `` The strange English accents with which I was surrounded seemed like the voices of demons . But what was worst was the English landscape ... I have made up the quarrel since ; but at that moment I conceived a hatred for England which took many years to heal . '' From boyhood , Lewis immersed himself in Norse and Greek mythology , and later in Irish mythology and literature . He also expressed an interest in the Irish language , though there is not much evidence that he laboured to learn it . He developed a particular fondness for , in part because of Yeats 's use of Ireland 's Celtic heritage in poetry . In a letter to a friend , Lewis wrote , `` I have here discovered an author exactly after my own heart , whom I am sure you would delight in , W. B. Yeats . He writes plays and poems of rare spirit and beauty about our old Irish mythology '' . In 1921 , Lewis met Yeats twice , since Yeats had moved to Oxford . Lewis was surprised to find his English peers indifferent to Yeats and the Celtic Revival movement , and wrote : `` I am often surprised to find how utterly ignored Yeats is among the men I have met : perhaps his appeal is purely Irish – if so , then thank the gods that I am Irish . '' Early in his career , Lewis considered sending his work to the major Dublin publishers , writing : `` If I do ever send my stuff to a publisher , I think I shall try Maunsel , those Dublin people , and so tack myself definitely onto the Irish school . '' After his conversion to Christianity , his interests gravitated towards Christian theology and away from pagan Celtic mysticism . Lewis occasionally expressed a somewhat tongue-in-cheek chauvinism toward the English . Describing an encounter with a fellow Irishman , he wrote : `` Like all Irish people who meet in England , we ended by criticisms on the invincible flippancy and dullness of the Anglo-Saxon race . After all , there is no doubt , ami , that the Irish are the only people : with all their faults , I would not gladly live or die among another folk '' . Throughout his life , he sought out the company of other Irish people living in England and visited Northern Ireland regularly , even spending his honeymoon there in 1958 at the Old Inn , Crawfordsburn . He called this `` my Irish life '' . Various critics have suggested that it was Lewis 's dismay over sectarian conflict in his native Belfast which led him to eventually adopt such an ecumenical brand of Christianity . As one critic has said , Lewis `` repeatedly extolled the virtues of all branches of the Christian faith , emphasising a need for unity among Christians around what the Catholic writer called 'Mere Christianity ' , the core doctrinal beliefs that all denominations share . '' On the other hand , Paul Stevens of the University of Toronto has written that `` Lewis 's mere Christianity masked many of the political prejudices of an old-fashioned Ulster Protestant , a native of middle-class Belfast for whom British withdrawal from Northern Ireland even in the 1950s and 1960s was unthinkable '' . First World War and Oxford University Soon after Lewis entered Oxford in the 1917 summer term , he joined the Officers ' Training Corps at the university as his `` most promising route into the army '' . From there , he was drafted into a Cadet Battalion for training . After his training , he was commissioned into the Third Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry of the British Army as a Second Lieutenant . On his nineteenth birthday he arrived at the front line in the Somme Valley in France , where he experienced trench warfare . On 15 April 1918 , Lewis was wounded and two of his colleagues were killed by a British shell falling short of its target . He suffered from depression and homesickness during his convalescence and , upon his recovery in October , he was assigned to duty in Andover , England . He was demobilised in December 1918 and soon restarted his studies . After Lewis returned to Oxford University , he received a First in Honour Moderations ( Greek and Latin literature ) in 1920 , a First in Greats ( Philosophy and Ancient History ) in 1922 , and a First in English in 1923 . In 1924 he became a philosophy tutor at University College and , in 1925 , was elected a Fellow and Tutor in English Literature at Magdalen College , where he served for 29 years until 1954 . Jane Moore During his army training , Lewis shared a room with another cadet , Edward Courtnay Francis `` Paddy '' Moore ( 1898–1918 ) . Maureen Moore , Paddy 's sister , said that the two made a mutual pact that if either died during the war , the survivor would take care of both their families . Paddy was killed in action in 1918 and Lewis kept his promise . Paddy had earlier introduced Lewis to his mother , Jane King Moore , and a friendship quickly sprang up between Lewis , who was eighteen when they met , and Jane , who was forty-five . The friendship with Moore was particularly important to Lewis while he was recovering from his wounds in hospital , as his father did not visit him . Lewis lived with and cared for Moore until she was hospitalised in the late 1940s . He routinely introduced her as his mother , referred to her as such in letters , and developed a deeply affectionate friendship with her . Lewis ' own mother had died when he was a child , and his father was distant , demanding , and eccentric . Speculation regarding their relationship re-surfaced with the 1990 publication of A. N. Wilson 's biography of Lewis . Wilson ( who never met Lewis ) attempted to make a case for their having been lovers for a time . Wilson 's biography was not the first to address the question of Lewis 's relationship with Moore . George Sayer knew Lewis for 29 years , and he had sought to shed light on the relationship during the period of 14 years prior to Lewis 's conversion to Christianity . In his biography Jack : A Life of C. S. Lewis , he wrote : Later Sayer changed his mind . In the introduction to the 1997 edition of his biography of Lewis he wrote : Lewis spoke well of Mrs. Moore throughout his life , saying to his friend George Sayer , `` She was generous and taught me to be generous , too . '' In December 1917 , Lewis wrote in a letter to his childhood friend Arthur Greeves that Jane and Greeves were `` the two people who matter most to me in the world '' . In 1930 , Lewis moved into `` The Kilns '' with his brother Warnie , Mrs. Moore , and her daughter Maureen . The Kilns was a house in the district of Headington Quarry on the outskirts of Oxford , now part of the suburb of Risinghurst . They all contributed financially to the purchase of the house , which passed to Maureen , who by then was Dame Maureen Dunbar , when Warren died in 1973 . Jane Moore suffered from dementia in her later years and was eventually moved into a nursing home , where she died in 1951 . Lewis visited her every day in this home until her death . Return to Christianity Lewis was raised in a religious family that attended the Church of Ireland . He became an atheist at age 15 , though he later described his young self as being paradoxically `` angry with God for not existing '' . His early separation from Christianity began when he started to view his religion as a chore and a duty ; around this time , he also gained an interest in the occult , as his studies expanded to include such topics . Lewis quoted Lucretius ( De rerum natura , 5.198–9 ) as having one of the strongest arguments for atheism : Had God designed the world , it would not be A world so frail and faulty as we see . Lewis 's interest in the works of George MacDonald was part of what turned him from atheism . This can be seen particularly well through this passage in Lewis 's The Great Divorce , chapter nine , when the semi-autobiographical main character meets MacDonald in Heaven : He eventually returned to Christianity , having been influenced by arguments with his Oxford colleague and friend J. R. R. Tolkien , whom he seems to have met for the first time on 11 May 1926 , and by the book The Everlasting Man by G. K. Chesterton . Lewis vigorously resisted conversion , noting that he was brought into Christianity like a prodigal , `` kicking , struggling , resentful , and darting his eyes in every direction for a chance to escape . '' He described his last struggle in Surprised by Joy : After his conversion to theism in 1929 , Lewis converted to Christianity in 1931 , following a long discussion and late-night walk with his close friends Tolkien and Hugo Dyson . He records making a specific commitment to Christian belief while on his way to the zoo with his brother . He became a member of the Church of England – somewhat to the disappointment of Tolkien , who had hoped that he would join the Catholic Church . Lewis was a committed Anglican who upheld a largely orthodox Anglican theology , though in his apologetic writings , he made an effort to avoid espousing any one denomination . In his later writings , some believe that he proposed ideas such as purification of venial sins after death in purgatory ( The Great Divorce and Letters to Malcolm ) and mortal sin ( The Screwtape Letters ) , which are generally considered to be Roman Catholic teachings , although they are also widely held in Anglicanism ( particularly in high church Anglo-Catholic circles ) . Regardless , Lewis considered himself an entirely orthodox Anglican to the end of his life , reflecting that he had initially attended church only to receive communion and had been repelled by the hymns and the poor quality of the sermons . He later came to consider himself honoured by worshipping with men of faith who came in shabby clothes and work boots and who sang all the verses to all the hymns . Second World War After the outbreak of the war in 1939 , the Lewises took child evacuees from London and other cities into The Kilns . Lewis was only 40 when the war started , and he tried to re-enter military service , offering to instruct cadets ; but his offer was not accepted . He rejected the recruiting office 's suggestion of writing columns for the Ministry of Information in the press , as he did not want to `` write lies '' to deceive the enemy . He later served in the local Home Guard in Oxford . From 1941 to 1943 , Lewis spoke on religious programmes broadcast by the BBC from London while the city was under periodic air raids . These broadcasts were appreciated by civilians and servicemen at that stage . For example , Air Chief Marshal Sir Donald Hardman wrote : `` The war , the whole of life , everything tended to seem pointless . We needed , many of us , a key to the meaning of the universe . Lewis provided just that . '' The broadcasts were anthologised in Mere Christianity . From 1941 , he was occupied at his summer holiday weekends visiting R.A.F . stations to speak on his faith , invited by the R.A.F . 's Chaplain-in-Chief Maurice Edwards . It was also during the same wartime period that Lewis was invited to become first President of the Oxford Socratic Club in January 1942 , a position that he enthusiastically held until he resigned on appointment to Cambridge University in 1954 . Honour declined Lewis was named on the last list of honours by George VI in December 1951 as a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) but declined so as to avoid association with any political issues . Chair at Cambridge University In 1954 , Lewis accepted the newly founded chair of Mediaeval and Renaissance Literature at Magdalene College , Cambridge , where he finished his career . He maintained a strong attachment to the city of Oxford , keeping a home there and returning on weekends until his death in 1963 . Joy Davidman In later life , Lewis corresponded with Joy Davidman Gresham , an American writer of Jewish background , a former Communist , and a convert from atheism to Christianity . She was separated from her alcoholic and abusive husband , novelist William L. Gresham , and came to England with her two sons , David and Douglas . Lewis at first regarded her as an agreeable intellectual companion and personal friend , and it was on this level that he agreed to enter into a civil marriage contract with her so that she could continue to live in the UK . The civil marriage took place at the register office , 42 St Giles ' , Oxford , on 23 April 1956 . Lewis 's brother Warren wrote : `` For Jack the attraction was at first undoubtedly intellectual . Joy was the only woman whom he had met ... who had a brain which matched his own in suppleness , in width of interest , and in analytical grasp , and above all in humour and a sense of fun . '' After complaining of a painful hip , she was diagnosed with terminal bone cancer , and the relationship developed to the point that they sought a Christian marriage . Since she was divorced , this was not straightforward in the Church of England at the time , but a friend , the Rev . Peter Bide , performed the ceremony at her bed in the Churchill Hospital on 21 March 1957 . Gresham 's cancer soon went into remission , and the couple lived together as a family with Warren Lewis until 1960 , when recurrence of the cancer caused her death on 13 July . Earlier that year , the couple took a brief holiday in Greece and the Aegean ; Lewis was fond of walking but not of travel , and this marked his only crossing of the English Channel after 1918 . Lewis 's book A Grief Observed describes his experience of bereavement in such a raw and personal fashion that he originally released it under the pseudonym N. W. Clerk to keep readers from associating the book with him . Ironically , many friends recommended the book to Lewis as a method for dealing with his own grief . After Lewis 's death , his authorship was made public by Faber 's , with the permission of the executors . Lewis continued to raise Gresham 's two sons after her death . Douglas Gresham is a Christian like Lewis and his mother , while David Gresham turned to the faith into which his mother had been born , becoming Orthodox Jewish in his beliefs . His mother 's writings had featured the Jews in an unsympathetic manner , particularly one `` shohet '' ( ritual slaughterer ) . David informed Lewis that he was going to become a ritual slaughterer to present this type of Jewish religious functionary to the world in a more favourable light . In a 2005 interview , Douglas Gresham acknowledged that he and his brother were not close , but he did say that they are in email contact . Douglas remains involved in the affairs of the Lewis estate . Illness and death In early June 1961 , Lewis began suffering from inflammation of the kidneys , which resulted in blood poisoning . His illness caused him to miss the autumn term at Cambridge , though his health gradually began improving in 1962 and he returned that April . Lewis 's health continued to improve , and according to his friend George Sayer , Lewis was fully himself by early 1963 . On 15 July that year he fell ill and was admitted to hospital . The next day at 5:00 pm , Lewis suffered a heart attack and lapsed into a coma , unexpectedly awaking the following day at 2:00 pm . After he was discharged from the hospital , Lewis returned to the Kilns , though he was too ill to return to work . As a result , he resigned from his post at Cambridge in August . Lewis 's condition continued to decline , and in mid-November he was diagnosed with end-stage renal failure . On 22 November , exactly one week before his 65th birthday , Lewis collapsed in his bedroom at 5:30 pm and died a few minutes later . He is buried in the churchyard of Holy Trinity Church , Headington , Oxford . His brother Warren Hamilton `` Warnie '' Lewis , who died on 9 April 1973 , was later buried in the same grave . Media coverage of his death was almost completely overshadowed by news of the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy , which occurred on the same day ( approximately 55 minutes following Lewis ' collapse ) , as did the death of English writer Aldous Huxley , author of Brave New World . This coincidence was the inspiration for Peter Kreeft 's book Between Heaven and Hell : A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy , C. S. Lewis , & Aldous Huxley . C. S. Lewis is commemorated on 22 November in the church calendar of the Episcopal Church . Career Scholar Lewis began his academic career as an undergraduate student at Oxford University , where he won a triple first , the highest honours in three areas of study . He was then elected a Fellow of Magdalen College , Oxford , where he worked for nearly thirty years , from 1925 to 1954 . In 1954 , he was awarded the newly founded chair of Mediaeval and Renaissance Literature at Cambridge University , and was elected a fellow of Magdalene College . Concerning his appointed academic field , he argued that there was no such thing as an English Renaissance . Much of his scholarly work concentrated on the later Middle Ages , especially its use of allegory . His The Allegory of Love ( 1936 ) helped reinvigorate the serious study of late medieval narratives such as the Roman de la Rose . Lewis wrote several prefaces to works of literature and poetry , such as Layamon 's Brut . His book `` A Preface to Paradise Lost '' is still one of the most valuable criticisms of that work . His last academic work , The Discarded Image : An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature ( 1964 ) , is a summary of the medieval world view , a reference to the `` discarded image '' of the cosmos . Lewis was a prolific writer , and his circle of literary friends became an informal discussion society known as the `` Inklings '' , including J. R. R. Tolkien , Nevill Coghill , Lord David Cecil , Charles Williams , Owen Barfield , and his brother Warren Lewis . At least one scholar points to December 1929 as the Inklings ' beginning date . Lewis 's friendship with Coghill and Tolkien grew during their time as members of the Kolbítar , an Old Norse reading group that Tolkien founded and which ended around the time of the inception of the Inklings . At Oxford , he was the tutor of poet John Betjeman , critic Kenneth Tynan , mystic Bede Griffiths , novelist Roger Lancelyn Green and Sufi scholar Martin Lings , among many other undergraduates . Curiously , the religious and conservative Betjeman detested Lewis , whereas the anti-establishment Tynan retained a lifelong admiration for him . Of Tolkien , Lewis writes in Surprised by Joy : Novelist In addition to his scholarly work , Lewis wrote several popular novels , including the science fiction Space Trilogy for adults and the Narnia fantasies for children . Most deal implicitly with Christian themes such as sin , humanity 's fall from grace , and redemption . The Pilgrim 's Regress His first novel after becoming a Christian was The Pilgrim 's Regress ( 1933 ) , which depicted his experience with Christianity in the style of John Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress . The book was poorly received by critics at the time , although David Martyn Lloyd-Jones , one of Lewis 's contemporaries at Oxford , gave him much-valued encouragement . Asked by Lloyd-Jones when he would write another book , Lewis replied , `` When I understand the meaning of prayer . '' Space Trilogy novels The Space Trilogy ( also called the Cosmic Trilogy or Ransom Trilogy ) dealt with what Lewis saw as the dehumanising trends in contemporary science fiction . The first book , Out of the Silent Planet , was apparently written following a conversation with his friend J.R.R . Tolkien about these trends . Lewis agreed to write a `` space travel '' story and Tolkien a `` time travel '' one , but Tolkien never completed `` The Lost Road '' , linking his Middle-earth to the modern world . Lewis 's main character Elwin Ransom is based in part on Tolkien , a fact to which Tolkien alludes in his letters . The second novel , Perelandra , depicts a new Garden of Eden on the planet Venus , a new Adam and Eve , and a new `` serpent figure '' to tempt Eve . The story can be seen as an account of what might have happened if the terrestrial

qb_9289--C._S._Lewis.txt

What is the title of the first novel to be published in the ‘Chronicles of Narnia’ series by C S Lewis?

In the United States , Native Americans are considered to be people whose pre-Columbian ancestors were indigenous to the lands within the nation 's modern boundaries . These peoples were composed of numerous distinct tribes , bands , and ethnic groups , and many of these groups survive intact today as sovereign nations . The terms Native Americans use to refer to themselves vary regionally and generationally , with many older Native Americans self-identifying as `` Indians '' or `` American Indians '' , while younger Native Americans often identify as `` Indigenous '' or `` Aboriginal . '' Which terms should be used to refer to Native Americans has at times been controversial . The term `` Native American '' has been adopted by major newspapers and some academic groups , but has not traditionally included Native Hawaiians or certain Alaskan Natives , such as Aleut , Yup'ik , or Inuit peoples . Indigenous American peoples from Canada are known as First Nations . Since the end of the 15th century , the migration of Europeans to the Americas has led to centuries of exchange and adjustment between Old and New World societies . Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork , which has resulted in the first written sources on the conflict being authored by Europeans . At the time of first contact , the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants . Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal and operated on a more collective basis than the Europeans were familiar with . The majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe . Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of individual property rights with respect to land that were extremely different . The differences in cultures between the established Native Americans and immigrant Europeans , as well as shifting alliances among different nations in times of war , caused extensive political tension , ethnic violence , and social disruption . Even before the European settlement of what is now the United States , Native Americans suffered high fatalities from contact with European diseases spread throughout the Americas by the Spanish to which they had yet not acquired immunity . Smallpox epidemics are thought to have caused the greatest loss of life for indigenous populations , although estimates of the pre-Columbian population of what today constitutes the U.S. vary significantly , from one million to eighteen million . After the thirteen colonies revolted against Great Britain and established the United States of America , President George Washington and Henry Knox conceived of the idea of `` civilizing '' Native Americans in preparation for assimilation as U.S. citizens . Assimilation ( whether voluntary , as with the Choctaw , or forced ) became a consistent policy through American administrations . During the 19th century , the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement . Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands , warfare between the groups , and rising tensions . In 1830 , the U.S. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act , authorizing the government to relocate Native Americans from their homelands within established states to lands west of the Mississippi River , accommodating European-American expansion . This resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes , with the brutal , forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears . As American expansion reached into the West , settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin , Great Plains , and other Western tribes . These were complex nomadic cultures based on ( introduced ) horse culture and seasonal bison hunting . They carried out resistance against United States incursion in the decades after the completion of the Civil War and the Transcontinental Railroad in a series of Indian Wars , which were frequent up until the 1890s but continued into the 20th century . Over time , the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes and established reservations for them in many western states . U.S. agents encouraged Native Americans to adopt European-style farming and similar pursuits , but European-American agricultural technology of the time was inadequate for often dry reservation lands , leading to mass starvation . In 1924 , Native Americans who were not already U.S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress . Contemporary Native Americans have a unique relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations , tribes , or bands with sovereignty and treaty rights . Cultural activism since the late 1960s has increased political participation and led to an expansion of efforts to teach and preserve Indigenous languages for younger generations and to establish a greater cultural infrastructure : Native Americans have founded independent newspapers and online media , recently including First Nations Experience , the first Native American television channel ; established Native American studies programs , tribal schools and universities , and museums and language programs ; and have increasingly been published as authors . History Pre-Columbian `` Neolithic '' is not generally used to describe indigenous cultures in the Americas , see Archaeology of the Americas . The usual theory of the settlement of the Americas is that the earliest peoples of the Americas came from Eurasia over a land bridge which connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait during a period of glaciation , when the sea water level was lower . The number and nature of these migrations is uncertain , but the land bridge is believed to have existed only until about 12,000 years ago , when the land bridge was flooded . Three major migrations occurred , as traced by linguistic and genetic data ; the early Paleoamericans soon spread throughout the Americas , diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes . By 8000 BCE , the North American climate was very similar to today 's . The Clovis culture , a megafauna-hunting culture , appears around 11,500–11,000 uncal RCYBP ( uncalibrated radiocarbon years before present ) at the end of the last glacial period . It is characterized by the manufacture of `` Clovis points '' and distinctive bone and ivory tools . Archaeologists ' most precise determinations at present suggest that this radiocarbon age is equal to roughly 13,200 to 12,900 calendar years ago . Clovis people are considered to be the ancestors of most of the indigenous cultures of the Americas . They ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America . Numerous Paleoindian cultures occupied North America . According to later oral histories , Native Americans have been living on this continent since their genesis , described by a wide range of traditional creation stories . However , genetic and linguistic data connect the indigenous people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians . The Folsom Tradition was characterized by use of Folsom points as projectile tips , and data from kill sites , where slaughter and butchering of bison took place . Folsom tools were left behind between 9000 BCE and 8000 BCE . Na-Dené-speaking peoples entered North America starting around 8000 BCE , reaching the Pacific Northwest by 5000 BCE , and from there , migrating along the Pacific Coast and into the interior . It is believed that their ancestors arrived in a separate migration into North America , later than the first Paleo-Indians . They migrated into Alaska and northern Canada , south along the Pacific Coast , into the interior of Canada , and south to the Great Plains and the American Southwest . They were the earliest ancestors of the Athabascan-speaking peoples , including the present-day and historical Navajo and Apache . Since the 1990s , archeologists have explored and dated eleven Middle Archaic sites in present-day Louisiana and Florida at which early cultures built complexes with multiple earthwork mounds ; they were societies of hunter-gatherers rather than the settled agriculturalists believed necessary according to the theory of Neolithic Revolution to sustain such large villages over long periods . The prime example is Watson Brake in northern Louisiana , whose 11-mound complex is dated to 3500 BCE , making it the oldest , dated site in the Americas for such complex construction . Construction of the mounds went on for 500 years until abandoned about 2800 BCE , probably due to changing environmental conditions . Poverty Point culture is a Late Archaic archaeological culture that inhabited the area of the lower Mississippi Valley and surrounding Gulf Coast . The culture thrived from 2200 BCE to 700 BCE , during the Late Archaic period . Artifacts show the people traded with other Native Americans located from Georgia to the Great Lakes region . This is one among numerous mound sites of complex indigenous cultures throughout the Mississippi and Ohio valleys . They were one of several succeeding cultures often referred to as mound builders . The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BCE to 1,000 CE in the eastern part of North America . The term `` Woodland '' was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites dated between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures . The Hopewell tradition is the term for the common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States from 200 BCE to 500 CE , stretching as far south as Crystal River . The Woodland period was also the date of the invention of agriculture in the Eastern United States , the principle crops being sunflowers , strawberries , knotweed , tobacco , and gourds as well as the introduction of the bow and arrow to Northern America , presumably from South America by way of the Caribbean . Hohokam is one of the four major prehistoric archaeological traditions of the present-day American Southwest . Living as simple farmers , they raised corn and beans . The early Hohokam founded a series of small villages along the middle Gila River . The communities were located near good arable land , with dry farming common in the earlier years of this period . The Mississippian culture , which extended throughout the Ohio and Mississippi valleys and built sites throughout the Southeast , created the largest earthworks in North America north of Mexico , most notably at Cahokia , on a tributary of the Mississippi River in present-day Illinois . The society began building at this site about 950 CE , and reached its peak population in 1,250 CE of 20,000–30,000 people , which was not equaled by any city in the present-day United States until after 1800 . Sophisticated pre-Columbian sedentary societies evolved in North America . The rise of the complex cultures was based on the people 's adoption of maize agriculture , development of greater population densities , and chiefdom-level complex social organization from 1200 CE to 1650 CE . The introduction of maize from Mesoamerica allowed the accumulation of crop surpluses to support a higher density of population and led to development of specialized skills . The Iroquois League of Nations or Haudenosaunee meaning `` People of the Long House '' , based in present-day upstate and western New York , had a confederacy model from the mid-15th century . It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the later United States government . Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation , different from the strong , centralized European monarchies . Inter-tribal warfare was endemic resulting in displacement and migration of numerous tribes . European exploration and colonization After 1492 , European exploration and colonization of the Americas revolutionized how the Old and New Worlds perceived themselves . Many of the first major contacts were in Florida and the Gulf coast by Spanish explorers . Impact on native populations From the 16th through the 19th centuries , the population of Indians sharply declined . Most mainstream scholars believe that , among the various contributing factors , epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the Native Americans because of their lack of immunity to new diseases brought from Europe . It is difficult to estimate the number of pre-Columbian Native Americans who were living in what is today the United States of America . Estimates range from a low of 2.1 million to a high of 18 million ( Dobyns 1983 ) . By 1800 , the Native population of the present-day United States had declined to approximately 600,000 , and only 250,000 Native Americans remained in the 1890s . Chicken pox and measles , endemic but rarely fatal among Europeans ( long after being introduced from Asia ) , often proved deadly to Native Americans . In the 100 years following the arrival of the Spanish to the Americas , large disease epidemics depopulated large parts of the eastern United States in the 16th century . There are a number of documented cases where diseases were deliberately spread among Native Americans as a form of biological warfare . The most well known example occurred in 1763 , when Sir Jeffrey Amherst , Commander-in-Chief of the Forces of the British Army , wrote praising the use of smallpox infected blankets to `` extirpate '' the Indian race . Blankets infected with smallpox were given to Native Americans besieging Fort Pitt . The effectiveness of the attempt is unclear . In 1634 , Fr . Andrew White of the Society of Jesus established a mission in what is now the state of Maryland , and the purpose of the mission , stated through an interpreter to the chief of an Indian tribe there , was `` to extend civilization and instruction to his ignorant race , and show them the way to heaven . '' Fr . Andrew 's diaries report that by 1640 , a community had been founded which they named St. Mary 's , and the Indians were sending their children there `` to be educated among the English . '' This included the daughter of the Piscataway Indian chief Tayac , which exemplifies not only a school for Indians , but either a school for girls , or an early co-ed school . The same records report that in 1677 , `` a school for humanities was opened by our Society in the centre of [ Maryland ] , directed by two of the Fathers ; and the native youth , applying themselves assiduously to study , made good progress . Maryland and the recently established school sent two boys to St. Omer who yielded in abilities to few Europeans , when competing for the honor of being first in their class . So that not gold , nor silver , nor the other products of the earth alone , but men also are gathered from thence to bring those regions , which foreigners have unjustly called ferocious , to a higher state of virtue and cultivation . '' In 1727 , the Sisters of the Order of Saint Ursula founded Ursuline Academy in New Orleans , which is currently the oldest continuously operating school for girls and the oldest Catholic school in the United States . From the time of its foundation , it offered the first classes for Native American girls , and would later offer classes for female African-American slaves and free women of color . Between 1754 and 1763 , many Native American tribes were involved in the French and Indian War/Seven Years ' War . Those involved in the fur trade tended to ally with French forces against British colonial militias . The British had made fewer allies , but it was joined by some tribes that wanted to prove assimilation and loyalty in support of treaties to preserve their territories . They were often disappointed when such treaties were later overturned . The tribes had their own purposes , using their alliances with the European powers to battle traditional Native enemies . Some Iroquois who were loyal to the British , and helped them fight in the American Revolution , fled north into Canada . After European explorers reached the West Coast in the 1770s , smallpox rapidly killed at least 30 % of Northwest Coast Native Americans . For the next eighty to one hundred years , smallpox and other diseases devastated native populations in the region . Puget Sound area populations , once estimated as high as 37,000 people , were reduced to only 9,000 survivors by the time settlers arrived en masse in the mid-19th century . Smallpox epidemics in 1780–82 and 1837–38 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians . By 1832 , the federal government established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans ( The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832 ) . It was the first federal program created to address a health problem of Native Americans . Animal introductions With the meeting of two worlds , animals , insects , and plants were carried from one to the other , both deliberately and by chance , in what is called the Columbian Exchange . In the 16th century , Spaniards and other Europeans brought horses to Mexico . Some of the horses escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild . As Native Americans adopted use of the animals , they began to change their cultures in substantial ways , especially by extending their nomadic ranges for hunting . The reintroduction of the horse to North America had a profound impact on Native American culture of the Great Plains . King Philip 's War King Philip 's War , also called Metacom 's War or Metacom 's Rebellion , was the last major armed conflict between Native American inhabitants of present-day southern New England and English colonists and their Native American allies from 1675 to 1676 . It continued in northern New England ( primarily on the Maine frontier ) even after King Philip was killed , until a treaty was signed at Casco Bay in April 1678 . Natural society Some European philosophers considered Native American societies to be truly `` natural '' and representative of a golden age known to them only in folk history . American Revolution During the American Revolution , the newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for the allegiance of Native American nations east of the Mississippi River . Most Native Americans who joined the struggle sided with the British , based both on their trading relationships and hopes that colonial defeat would result in a halt to further colonial expansion onto Native American land . Many native communities were divided over which side to support in the war and others wanted to remain neutral . The first native community to sign a treaty with the new United States Government was the Lenape . For the Iroquois Confederacy , based in New York , the American Revolution resulted in civil war . The British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty of Paris ( 1783 ) , through which they ceded vast Native American territories to the United States without informing or consulting with the Native Americans . 18th-century United States The United States was eager to expand , to develop farming and settlements in new areas , and to satisfy land hunger of settlers from New England and new immigrants . The national government initially sought to purchase Native American land by treaties . The states and settlers were frequently at odds with this policy . United States policy toward Native Americans continued to evolve after the American Revolution . George Washington and Henry Knox believed that Native Americans were equals but that their society was inferior . Washington formulated a policy to encourage the `` civilizing '' process . Washington had a six-point plan for civilization which included : # impartial justice toward Native Americans # regulated buying of Native American lands # promotion of commerce # promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Native American society # presidential authority to give presents # punishing those who violated Native American rights . In the late 18th century , reformers starting with Washington and Knox , supported educating native children and adults , in efforts to `` civilize '' or otherwise assimilate Native Americans to the larger society ( as opposed to relegating them to reservations ) . The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 promoted this civilization policy by providing funding to societies ( mostly religious ) who worked on Native American improvement . 19th century As American expansion continued , Native Americans resisted settlers ' encroachment in several regions of the new nation ( and in unorganized territories ) , from the Northwest to the Southeast , and then in the West , as settlers encountered the tribes of the Great Plains . East of the Mississippi River , an intertribal army led by Tecumseh , a Shawnee chief , fought a number of engagements in the Northwest during the period 1811–12 , known as Tecumseh 's War . During the War of 1812 , Tecumseh 's forces allied themselves with the British . After Tecumseh 's death , the British ceased to aid the Native Americans south and west of Upper Canada and American expansion proceeded with little resistance . Conflicts in the Southeast include the Creek War and Seminole Wars , both before and after the Indian Removals of most members of the Five Civilized Tribes . Native American nations on the plains in the west continued armed conflicts with the United States throughout the 19th century , through what were called generally `` Indian Wars '' . In the 1830s , President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act of 1830 , a policy of relocating Indians from their homelands to Indian Territory and reservations in surrounding areas to open their lands for non-native settlements . This resulted in the Trail of Tears . In July 1845 , the New York newspaper editor John L. O'Sullivan coined the phrase , `` Manifest Destiny '' , as the `` design of Providence '' supporting the territorial expansion of the United States . Manifest Destiny had serious consequences for Native Americans , since continental expansion for the United States took place at the cost of their occupied land . The Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 set the precedent for modern-day Native American reservations through allocating funds to move western tribes onto reservations since there were no more lands available for relocation . Civil War Native Americans served in both the Union and Confederate military during the American Civil War . At the outbreak of the war , for example , the minority party of the Cherokees gave its allegiance to the Confederacy , while originally the majority party went for the North . Native Americans fought knowing they might jeopardize their independence , unique cultures , and ancestral lands if they ended up on the losing side of the Civil War . 28,693 Native Americans served in the Union and Confederate armies during the Civil War , participating in battles such as Pea Ridge , Second Manassas , Antietam , Spotsylvania , Cold Harbor , and in Federal assaults on Petersburg . A few Native American tribes , such as the Creek and the Choctaw , were slaveholders and found a political and economic commonality with the Confederacy . The Choctaw owned over 2,000 slaves . Removals and reservations In the 19th century , the incessant westward expansion of the United States incrementally compelled large numbers of Native Americans to resettle further west , often by force , almost always reluctantly . Native Americans believed this forced relocation illegal , given the Treaty of Hopewell of 1785 . Under President Andrew Jackson , United States Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830 , which authorized the President to conduct treaties to exchange Native American land east of the Mississippi River for lands west of the river . As many as 100,000 Native Americans relocated to the West as a result of this Indian removal policy . In theory , relocation was supposed to be voluntary and many Native Americans did remain in the East . In practice , great pressure was put on Native American leaders to sign removal treaties . The most egregious violation , the Trail of Tears , was removal of the Cherokee by President Jackson to Indian Territory . Native Americans and U.S . Citizenship In 1817 , the Cherokee became the first Native Americans recognized as U.S. citizens . Under Article 8 of the 1817 Cherokee treaty , `` Upwards of 300 Cherokees ( Heads of Families ) in the honest simplicity of their souls , made an election to become American citizens '' . Factors establishing citizenship included : # Treaty provision ( as with the Cherokee ) # Registration and land allotment under the Dawes Act of February 8 , 1887 # Issuance of Patent in Fee simple # Adopting Habits of Civilized Life # Minor Children # Citizenship by Birth # Becoming Soldiers and Sailors in the U.S. Armed Forces # Marriage to a U.S. citizen # Special Act of Congress . After the American Civil War , the Civil Rights Act of 1866 states , `` that all persons born in the United States , and not subject to any foreign power , excluding Indians not taxed , are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States '' . Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 In 1871 , Congress added a rider to the Indian Appropriations Act , signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant , ending United States recognition of additional Native American tribes or independent nations , and prohibiting additional treaties . Education After the Indian wars in the late 19th century , the government established Native American boarding schools , initially run primarily by or affiliated with Christian missionaries . At this time , American society thought that Native American children needed to be acculturated to the general society . The boarding school experience Was a total immersion in modern American society , but it could prove traumatic to children , who were forbidden to speak their native languages . They were taught Christianity and not allowed to practice their native religions , and in numerous other ways forced to abandon their Native American identities . Before the 1930s , schools on the reservations provided no schooling beyond the sixth grade . To obtain more , boarding school was usually necessary . Small reservations with a few hundred people usually send their children to nearby public schools . The `` Indian New Deal '' of the 1930s closed many of the boarding schools , and downplayed the assimilationist goals . The Indian Division of the Civilian Conservation Corps operated large-scale construction projects on the reservations , building thousands of new schools and community buildings . Under the leadership of John Collier the BIA brought in progressive educators to reshape Indian education . The Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) by 1938 taught 30,000 students in 377 boarding and day schools , or 40 % of all Indian children in school . The Navajo largely opposed schooling of any sort , but the other tribes accepted the system . There were now high schools on larger reservations , make educated not only teenagers but also an adult audience . There were no Indian facilities for higher education . They deemphasized textbooks , emphasized self-esteem , and started teaching Indian history . They promoted traditional arts and crafts of the sort that could be conducted on the reservations , such as making jewelry . The New Deal reformers met significant resistance from parents and teachers , and had mixed results . World War II brought younger Indians in contact with the broader society through military service and work in the munitions industries . The role of schooling was changed to focus on vocational education for jobs in urban America . Since the rise of self-determination for Native Americans , they have generally emphasized education of their children at schools near where they live . In addition , many federally recognized tribes have taken over operations of such schools and added programs of language retention and revival to strengthen their cultures . Beginning in the 1970s , tribes have also founded colleges at their reservations , controlled , and operated by Native Americans , to educate their young for jobs as well as to pass on their cultures . 20th century On August 29 , 1911 , Ishi , generally considered to

qw_13276--Native_Americans_in_the_United_States.txt

"Which US president was behind ""The Indian Removal Act"" of 1830, which paved the way for the reluctant and often forcible emigration of tens of thousands of American Indians to the West?"

`` Dirty Old Town '' is an English song written by Ewan MacColl in 1949 that was made popular by The Dubliners and has been recorded by many others . History The song was written about Salford , Greater Manchester , England , the town where MacColl was born and brought up . It was originally composed for an interlude to cover an awkward scene change in his 1949 play Landscape with Chimneys , set in a North of England industrial town , but with the growing popularity of folk music the song became a standard . The first verse refers to the Gasworks croft , which was a piece of open land adjacent to the Gasworks , and then speaks of the old canal , which was the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal . The line in the original version about smelling a spring on “ the Salford wind ” is sometimes sung as “ the sulphured wind ” . But in any case , most singers tend to drop the Salford reference altogether , in favour of calling the wind “ smoky ” . The Dubliners Recordings and performances Notable renditions of the song include : * The first public performance may have been in the play `` Landscape with Chimneys '' , written for Theatre Workshop , produced by Joan Littlewood , 1951 * The first recording , by McColl himself , `` Dirty Old Town / Sheffield Apprentice '' , TRC 56 / 1952 * The flip side of `` Hard Case / Dirty Old Town '' , vocals by McColl and Peggy Seeger , Alan Lomax and the Ramblers , Decca F 10787 ( single , UK , 1956 ) * Folk singer Jackie Washington on his 1962 album Jackie Washington * Esther Ofarim in 1963 and 1964 * The Spinners , the Settlers , Donovan , Gary Shearston , and Chad & Jeremy , all in 1964 * The Broadway cast of Wait a Minim ! on 1966 London LP , Original Cast Recording by Frank Productions . Featuring Andrew and Paul Tracy , Dana Valery and Nigel Pegram * Roger Whittaker , on his 1968 album Durham Town * The Dubliners , charting in the Top 10 in the Irish Charts . Also appeared on their 1968 album Drinkin ' and Courtin ' * Rod Stewart , on his 1969 first album , An Old Raincoat Wo n't Ever Let You Down * The Clancy Brothers , on their 1970 album Flowers in the Valley , sung by Liam Clancy * Eddie Carr sang `` Dirty Old Town '' ( `` F. Virtuoso '' ) as a B-side 45 rpm single on People Records ( Hollywood , Ca ) produced by Virtue-Stiles 1970 * The Pogues , on their 1985 second album , Rum , Sodomy and the Lash and was later included at the end of the Rescue Me series finale . * Townes Van Zandt as a limited edition single , recorded September 1996 * The Specials , on their 1996 covers album Today 's Specials * Emscherkurve 77 as `` Alte Dreckige Stadt '' in German , on their 2001 Album Die Macht Vom Niederrhein * The Mountain Goats , on their 2002 EP Devil in the Shortwave * Ted Leo and the Pharmacists , on their 2003 EP , Tell Balgeary , Balgury Is Dead and 2003 film , Dirty Old Town * Donovan , on his 2004 album , Sixty Four ( recorded 1964 ) * Frank Black ( accompanied by Marty Brown ) on his 2006 double album , Fast Man Raider Man * Lorraine Leckie and her Demons on the 2008 album Four Cold Angels ( with Spider Stacy of the Pogues and Anton Newcombe of the Brian Jonestown Massacre ) * Black Rebel Motorcycle Club , on their 2009 live album , Black Rebel Motorcycle Club Live * Nolwenn Leroy on the 2011 re-release of her album Bretonne * Bettye LaVette on her 2012 album , Thankful N ' Thoughtful * Played at the memorial service for Stéphane Charbonnier , Paris 2015

sfq_962--Dirty_Old_Town.txt

Which city was the subject of the 1949 song 'Dirty Old Town' by Ewan McColl?

Clara Schumann ( née Clara Josephine Wieck ; 13 September 1819 – 20 May 1896 ) was a German musician and composer , considered one of the most distinguished pianists of the Romantic era . She exerted her influence over a 61-year concert career , changing the format and repertoire of the piano recital and the tastes of the listening public . Her husband was the composer Robert Schumann . Together they encouraged Johannes Brahms . She was the first to perform publicly any work by Brahms . She later premiered some other pieces by Brahms , notably the Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel . Biography Early life Clara Josephine Wieck was born in Leipzig on 13 September 1819 to Friedrich Wieck and Marianne Wieck ( née Tromlitz ) . Marianne Tromlitz was a famous singer in Leipzig at the time and was singing solos on a weekly basis at the well-known Gewandhaus in Leipzig . The differences between her parents were irreconcilable , in large part due to her father 's unyielding nature . After an affair between Clara 's mother and Adolph Bargiel , her father 's friend , the Wiecks divorced in 1824 and Marianne married Bargiel . Five-year-old Clara remained with her father . Child prodigy From an early age , Clara 's career and life was planned down to the smallest detail by her father . She daily received a one-hour lesson ( in piano , violin , singing , theory , harmony , composition , and counterpoint ) and two hours of practice , using the teaching methods he had developed on his own . In March 1828 , at the age of eight , the young Clara Wieck performed at the Leipzig home of Dr. Ernst Carus , director of the mental hospital at Colditz Castle . There she met another gifted young pianist who had been invited to the musical evening , named Robert Schumann , who was nine years older . Schumann admired Clara 's playing so much that he asked permission from his mother to discontinue his law studies , which had never interested him much , and take music lessons with Clara 's father . While taking lessons , he took rooms in the Wieck household , staying about a year . He would sometimes dress up as a ghost and scare Clara , and this created a bond . In 1830 , at the age of eleven , Clara left on a concert tour to Paris via other European cities , accompanied by her father . She gave her first solo concert at the Leipzig Gewandhaus . In Weimar , she performed a bravura piece by Henri Herz for Goethe , who presented her with a medal with his portrait and a written note saying : `` For the gifted artist Clara Wieck '' . During that tour , Niccolò Paganini was in Paris , and he offered to appear with her.Joseph Braunstein , Liner notes for Michael Ponti 's recording of Clara Schumann 's Piano Concerto No . 1 in A minor , Op . 7 However , her Paris recital was poorly attended , as many people had fled the city due to an outbreak of cholera . From December 1837 to April 1838 , Clara Wieck performed a series of recitals in Vienna when she was 18 . Franz Grillparzer , Austria 's leading dramatic poet , wrote a poem entitled `` Clara Wieck and Beethoven '' after hearing Wieck perform the Appassionata sonata during one of these recitals . Wieck performed to sell-out crowds and laudatory critical reviews ; Benedict Randhartinger , a friend of Franz Schubert ( 1797–1828 ) , gave Wieck an autographed copy of Schubert 's Erlkönig , inscribing it `` To the celebrated artist , Clara Wieck . '' Frédéric Chopin described her playing to Franz Liszt , who came to hear one of Wieck 's concerts and subsequently `` praised her extravagantly in a letter that was published in the Parisian Revue et Gazette Musicale and later , in translation , in the Leipzig journal Neue Zeitschrift für Musik . '' On 15 March , Wieck was named a Königliche und Kaiserliche Kammervirtuosin ( `` Royal and Imperial Chamber Virtuoso '' ) , Austria 's highest musical honor . Marriage to Robert Robert was a little more than 9 years older than Clara and moved into the Wieck household as a piano student of Friedrich 's by the end of 1830 when she was only 11 and he was 20 . In 1837 when she was 18 , he proposed to her and she accepted . Then Robert asked Friedrich for Clara 's hand in marriage . Wieck was strongly opposed to the marriage , as he did not much approve of Robert , and did not give permission . Robert and Clara had to go to court and sue Friedrich . The judge 's decision was to allow the marriage . In 1840 , despite Friedrich 's objections , Clara and Robert were married . They maintained a joint musical diary . Meeting Joseph Joachim She and Robert first met violinist Joseph Joachim in November 1844 , when he was just of age 14 . A year later she wrote in her diary that in a concert on Nov. 11 , 1845 `` little Joachim was very much liked . He played a new violin concerto of Mendelssohn 's , which is said to be wonderful '' . In May 1853 they heard Joachim play the solo part in Beethoven 's violin concerto . Clara wrote that he played `` with a finish , a depth of poetic feeling , his whole soul in every note , so ideally , that I have never heard violin-playing like it , and I can truly say that I have never received so indelible an impression from any virtuoso . '' From that time there was a friendship between Clara and Joachim , which `` for more than forty years never failed Clara in things great or small , never wavered in its loyalty . '' Over her career , Clara gave `` over 238 '' concerts with Joachim in Germany and Britain , `` more than with any other artist . '' `` The two were particularly noted for their playing of Beethoven 's sonatas for violin and piano . '' Brahms coming on the scene Also in the spring of 1853 , the then unknown 20-year-old Brahms met Joachim ( only a few years older , but by then an acknowledged virtuoso ) in Hanover , made a very favorable impression on him , and got from him a letter of introduction to Robert Schumann . Brahms went and presented himself at the Schumanns ' home in Düsseldorf . He played some of his own piano solo compositions . Both Schumanns were deeply impressed . Robert published an article highly lauding Brahms . Clara wrote in the diary that Brahms `` seemed as if sent straight from God . '' Robert 's confinement and death Robert attempted suicide in February 1854 and then was committed to an asylum for the last two years of his life . In March 1854 , Brahms , Joachim , Albert Dietrich , and Julius Otto Grimm spent time with Clara , playing music for or with her to divert her mind from the tragedy . Robert died 29 July 1856 . Tours , often to England , often with Joachim Clara first went to England in April 1856 , while Robert was still living ( but unable to travel ) . She was invited to play in a London Philharmonic Society concert by conductor William Sterndale Bennett , a good friend of Robert 's . Clara was displeased with the little time spent on rehearsals : `` They call it a rehearsal here , if a piece is played through once . '' She wrote that musical `` artists '' in England `` allow themselves to be treated as inferiors . `` Litzmann 1913 , vol . 2 , p. 133 She was happy , though , to hear the cellist Alfredo Piatti play with `` a tone , a bravura , a certainty , such as I never heard before . '' In May 1856 she played Robert 's Piano Concerto in A minor with the New Philharmonic Society conducted by a Dr. Wylde , who Clara said had `` led a dreadful rehearsal '' and `` could not grasp the rhythm of the last movement . '' Still , she returned to London the following year and performed in Britain in over 15 years of her career . In October–November 1857 Clara and Joachim took a recital tour together to Dresden and Leipzig . St. James 's Hall , London , which opened in 1858 , hosted a series of `` Popular Concerts '' of chamber music , of which programs from 1867 through 1904 are preserved . Joachim visited London annually beginning in 1866 . Clara also spent a few months of many years in London and participated in Popular Concerts with Joachim and Piatti . Most often on the same concert programmes would be second violinist Joseph Ries and violist J . B. Zerbini . George Bernard Shaw , the leading playwright who was also a music critic , wrote that the Popular Concerts helped greatly to spread and enlighten musical taste in England . Playing chamber music bypassed the issues Clara had with English orchestra conductors . In January 1867 Clara and Joachim took a tour to Edinburgh and Glasgow , Scotland , along with Piatti , Ries , and Zerbini , two English sisters named Pyne , one a singer , and a Mr. Saunders who managed all the arrangements . Clara was accompanied by her oldest daughter Marie , who wrote from Manchester to her friend Rosalie Leser that in Edinburgh Clara `` was received with tempestuous applause and had to give an encore , so had Joachim . Piatti , too , is always tremendously liked . '' Marie also wrote that `` For the longer journeys we had a saloon [ car ] , comfortably furnished with arm-chairs and sofas ... the journey ... was very comfortable . '' On this occasion , the musicians were not `` treated as inferiors '' ! Repertoire In her early years her repertoire , selected by her father , was showy and popular , in the style common to the time , with works by Kalkbrenner , Henselt , Thalberg , Herz , Pixis , Czerny , and her own compositions . Concert programs from 1831 through 1889 ( some 2000 of them ) were preserved and information from them has been arranged in order of year performed . Pieces for solo piano , or for piano and one other instrument , will not be listed . Concerti for piano and orchestra Alphabetically by composer , and followed by year ( s ) of performance by Clara : * Bach , J. S. , Concerto in D minor for 3 pianos , BWV 1063 , 1844 * Beethoven , `` Emperor '' concerto no . 5 , 1844 ; 1855 ; 1862 ; 1865 , London , to `` enormous applause '' , her first `` complete success '' there . Concerto no . 4 , 1846 ; concerto no . 3 , 1868 * Brahms , first concerto , 1861 * Chopin , first concerto , Finale , 1833 ; second concerto , 1834 , 1840 * Mendelssohn , second concerto , 1856 ; 1869 * Mozart , concerto no . 20 in D minor , 1857 ; Concerto no . 24 in C minor , 1863 ; concerto no . 10 for two pianos , 1883 * Schumann , Clara ( then Wieck ) , her one concerto , 1835 , with Mendelssohn conducting the Leipzig Gewandhaus orchestra * Schumann , Robert , concerto in A minor . Clara premiered her husband 's only completed piano concerto 1 January 1846 ; 1866 Clara also performed concerti by ( now ) lesser known composers : Adolf von Henselt ( 1837 , 1844 ) , Ignaz Moscheles ( 1831 ) , and Bernhard Scholz ( 1875 ) . Trios ( for violin , cello , and piano ) * Beethoven , Op . 1 No . 3 in C minor , 1832 ; Op . 97 in B-flat , `` Archduke '' ( 1833 ) ; Op . 70 , No . 1 in D major , No . 2 in E-flat major 1840 * William Sterndale Bennett , Op . 26 , 1867 * Brahms , third trio , 1887 * Mendelssohn , first trio , 1843 ; second trio , 1860 * Schubert , first trio , 1849 * Schumann , Clara , Trio in G minor , Op . 17 ; this Trio is `` probably '' Clara 's masterpiece ; 1846 * Schumann , Robert , first trio , Op . 63 , 1849 ; second trio , Op . 80 , 1851 ; third trio , 1852 ( composed in 1851 ) Piano quartets ( violin , viola , cello , piano ) * Brahms 's first , Op . 25 , 1861 , in the premiere ; second , Op . 26 , composed 1861 , 1865 ; 1866 * Robert Schumann 's one piano quartet , 1844 , 1849 Piano quintets ( string quartet and piano ) * Brahms 's one piano quintet , Op . 34 , 1880 * Robert Schumann 's one piano quintet , Op . 44 , 1843 , in the premiere ; then much later , in 1888 . Later career ; views of some other composers She was initially interested in the works of Liszt , but later developed an outright hostility to him . She ceased to play any of his works ; she suppressed her husband 's dedication to Liszt of his Fantasie in C major when she published Schumann 's complete works ; and she refused to attend a Beethoven centenary festival in Vienna in 1870 when she heard that Liszt and Richard Wagner would be participating . She was particularly scathing of Wagner . Of Tannhäuser , she said that he `` wears himself out in atrocities '' ; she described Lohengrin as `` horrible '' ; and she wrote that Tristan und Isolde was `` the most repugnant thing I have ever seen or heard in all my life '' . She also wrote that Wagner had spoken of Robert , Mendelssohn , and Brahms in a `` scornful '' way . In 1878 she was appointed teacher of the piano at the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt , a post she held until 1892 and in which she contributed greatly to the improvement of modern piano playing technique . She held Anton Bruckner , whose 7th Symphony she heard in 1885 , in very low esteem . She wrote to Brahms , describing it as `` a horrible piece '' . She was more impressed with Richard Strauss 's early Symphony in F minor in 1887 . Clara Schumann played her last public concert in Frankfurt on 12 March 1891 . The last work she played was Brahms 's Variations on a Theme by Haydn , in the piano-duet version . Her partner was James Kwast . She suffered a stroke on 26 March 1896 , dying on 20 May at age 76 . She is buried at Bonn 's Alter Friedhof ( Old Cemetery ) with her husband . Legacy Although for many years after her death Clara Schumann was not widely recognized as a composer , as a pianist she made an impression which lasts until today . She was one of the first pianists to perform from memory , making that the standard for concertizing . Trained by her father to play by ear and to memorize , she gave public performances from memory as early as age thirteen , a fact noted as something exceptional by her reviewers . She was also instrumental in changing the kind of programs expected of concert pianists . In her early career , before her marriage to Robert , she played what was then customary , mainly bravura pieces designed to showcase the artist 's technique , often in the form of arrangements or variations on popular themes from operas , written by virtuosos such as Thalberg , Herz , or Henselt . And , as it was also customary to play one 's own compositions , she included at least one of her own works in every program , works such as her Variations on a Theme by Bellini ( Op . 8 ) and her popular Scherzo ( Op . 10 ) . However , as she became a more independent artist , her repertoire contained mainly music by leading composers . Clara Schumann 's influence also spread through her teaching , which emphasized a singing tone and expression , with technique entirely subordinated to the intentions of the composer . One of her students , Mathilde Verne , carried her teaching to England where she taught , among others , Solomon ; while another of her students , Carl Friedberg , carried the tradition to the Juilliard School in America , where his students included Malcolm Frager and Bruce Hungerford . Clara was also instrumental in getting the works of Robert Schumann recognized , appreciated and added to the repertoire . She promoted him tirelessly , beginning when his music was unknown or disliked , when the only other important figure in music to play Schumann occasionally was Liszt , and continuing until the end of her long career . Family life Clara Schumann often took charge of finances and general household affairs . Part of her responsibility included making money , which she did by giving concerts , although she continued to play throughout her life not only for the income , but because she was a concert artist by training and by nature . She was the main breadwinner for her family , and the sole one after Robert was hospitalized and then died , through giving concerts and teaching , and she did most of the work of organizing her own concert tours . She hired a housekeeper and a cook to keep house while she was away on her long tours . She refused to accept charity when a group of musicians offered to put on a benefit concert for her . In addition to raising her own large family , when one of her children became incapacitated , she took on responsibility for raising her grandchildren . During the May Uprising in Dresden in 1849 , she famously walked into the city through the front lines , defying a pack of armed men who confronted her , rescued her children , then walked back out of the city through the dangerous areas again . Her life was punctuated by tragedy . Four of her eight children and her husband died before she did , and her husband and one of her sons ended their lives in insane asylums . Clara 's first son Emil died in infancy in 1847 , aged only one . In 1854 , her husband Robert had a mental collapse , attempted suicide , and was committed to an insane asylum for the last two years of his life . In 1872 her daughter Julie died , leaving two small children aged only 2 and 7 . In 1879 , her son Felix died , aged 25 . In 1891 , her son Ferdinand died , at the age of 42 . Clara was required to raise Felix 's children as he was no longer married . Her son Ludwig suffered from mental illness like his father and , in her words , had to be `` buried alive '' in an institution . She herself became deaf in later life and she often needed a wheelchair . Clara and Robert 's oldest child , their daughter , Marie , was of great support and help to Clara . When she was of age , she took over the position of household cook . It was Marie who dissuaded Clara from continuing to burn letters she had written to Brahms and he had returned , requesting that she destroy them . Another daughter , Eugenie , who had been too young to remember Robert , wrote a book on the Schumanns and Brahms . Compositions As part of the broad musical education given her by her father , Clara Wieck learned to compose , and from childhood to middle age she produced a good body of work . Clara wrote that `` composing gives me great pleasure ... there is nothing that surpasses the joy of creation , if only because through it one wins hours of self-forgetfulness , when one lives in a world of sound '' . At age fourteen she wrote her piano concerto , with some help from Robert Schumann , and performed it at age sixteen at the Leipzig Gewandhaus with Mendelssohn conducting . As she grew older , however , she became more preoccupied with other responsibilities in life and found it hard to compose regularly , writing , `` I once believed that I possessed creative talent , but I have given up this idea ; a woman must not desire to compose — there has never yet been one able to do it . Should I expect to be the one ? '' Robert also expressed concern about the effect on Clara 's composing output : In fact , Clara 's compositional output decreased notably after she reached the age of thirty-six . The only completed compositions that exist from later in her life do not have opus numbers and are : Vorspiele ( Improvisations ) , 1895 , and cadenzas written to two concertos , one by Mozart and the other by Beethoven . Today her compositions are increasingly performed and recorded . Her works include songs , piano pieces , a piano concerto , a piano trio , choral pieces , and three Romances for violin and piano . Inspired by her husband 's birthday , the three Romances were composed in 1853 and dedicated to Joseph Joachim , who performed them for George V of Hanover . He declared them a `` marvellous , heavenly pleasure '' . Clara was the authoritative editor of her husband 's works for the publishing firm of Breitkopf & Härtel . Portrayals in film She has been depicted on screen numerous times . Possibly the best known is by Katharine Hepburn in the 1947 film Song of Love , in which Paul Henreid played Robert Schumann and Robert Walker starred as a young Johannes Brahms . She was also portrayed in the 2008 Franco-German-Hungarian film Geliebte Clara . And in 1954 , Loretta Young portrayed Clara on The Loretta Young Show : The Clara Schumann Story in Season 1 , Episode 26 ( first aired 21 March 1954 ) in which Clara Schumann supports the composing career of her husband Robert played by George Nader , alongside Loretta Young , Shelley Fabares and Carleton G. Young .

odql_1727--Clara_Schumann.txt

Which composer was married to Clara Wieck from 1840 until his death in 1856?

Turandot ( or ; ; see below ) is an opera in three acts by Giacomo Puccini , completed by Franco Alfano , and set to a libretto in Italian by Giuseppe Adami and Renato Simoni . Though Puccini 's first interest in the subject was based on his reading of Friedrich Schiller 's 1801 adaptation of the play , his work is most nearly based on the earlier text Turandot by Carlo Gozzi . The original story is based on Turan-Dokht ( daughter of Turan ) from the epic Haft Peykar ( The Seven Beauties ) , work of 12th-century Persian poet Nizami . The opera 's story is set in China and involves Prince Calaf , who falls in love with the cold Princess Turandot . To obtain permission to marry her , a suitor has to solve three riddles ; any wrong answer results in death . Calaf passes the test , but Turandot still refuses to marry him . He offers her a way out : if she is able to learn his name before dawn the next day , then at daybreak he will die . The opera was unfinished at the time of Puccini 's death in 1924 , and was completed by Franco Alfano in 1926 . The first performance was held at the Teatro alla Scala in Milan on 25 April 1926 and conducted by Arturo Toscanini . This performance included only Puccini 's music and not Alfano 's additions . The first performance of the opera as completed by Alfano was the following night , 26 April , although it is disputed whether this was conducted by Toscanini again or by Ettore Panizza . Origin and pronunciation of the name Turandot is a Persian word and name that means `` the daughter of Turan '' , Turan being a region of Central Asia , formerly part of the Persian Empire . In Persian , the fairy tale is known as Turandokht , with dokht being a contraction of dokhtar ( daughter ) ; the kh and t are both pronounced . According to Puccini scholar Patrick Vincent Casali , the final t is silent in the opera 's and title character 's name , making it sound . Soprano Rosa Raisa , who created the title role , says that Puccini never pronounced the final t. Eva Turner , a prominent Turandot , did not pronounce the final t , as television interviews with her attest . Casali also maintains that the musical setting of many of Calaf 's utterances of the name makes sounding the final t all but impossible . On the other hand , Simonetta Puccini , the composer 's granddaughter and keeper of the Villa Puccini and Mausoleum , has said that the final t must be pronounced . Italo Marchini questioned her about this in 2002 . Ms. Puccini said that in Italian the name would be Turandotta . In the Venetian dialect of Carlo Gozzi the final syllables are usually dropped and words end in a consonant , ergo Turandott , as the name has been made Venetian . In 1710 , while writing the first biography of Genghis Khan , the French scholar François Pétis de La Croix published a book of tales and fables combining various Asian literary themes . One of his longest and best stories derived from the history of Mongol princess Khutulun . In his adaptation , however , she bore the title Turandot , meaning `` Turkish Daughter , '' the daughter of Kaidu . Instead of challenging her suitors in wrestling , Pétis de La Croix had her confront them with three riddles . In his more dramatic version , instead of wagering mere horses , the suitor had to forfeit his life if he failed to answer correctly . Fifty years later , the popular Italian playwright Carlo Gozzi made her story into a drama of a `` tigerish woman '' of `` unrelenting pride . '' In a combined effort by two of the greatest literary talents of the era , Friedrich von Schiller translated the play into German as ' , and Goethe directed it on the stage in Weimar in 1802 . Composition history The story of Turandot was taken from a Persian collection of stories called The Book of One Thousand and One Days ( 1722 French translation Les Mille et un jours by François Pétis de la Croix – not to be confused with its sister work The Book of One Thousand and One Nights ) , where the character of `` Turandokht '' as a cold princess was found . The story of Turandokht is one of the best known from de la Croix 's translation . The plot respects the classical unities of time , space and action . Puccini first began working on Turandot in March 1920 after meeting with librettists Giuseppe Adami and Renato Simoni . In his impatience he began composition in January 1921 before Adami and Simoni had even produced the text for the librettto . Baron Fassini Camossi , the former Italian diplomat to China , gave Puccini as a gift a music box which played a number of Chinese melodies . Puccini used three of these in the opera , including the national anthem ( heard during the appearance of the Emperor Altoum ) and , most memorably , the folk melody `` Mo Li Hua '' ( Jasmine Flower ) which is first heard sung by the children 's chorus after the invocation to the moon in act 1 , and becomes a sort of 'leitmotif ' for the princess throughout the opera . Puccini commissioned a set of 13 gongs constructed by the Tronci family specifically for Turandot . Decades later , percussionist Howard Van Hyning of the New York City Opera had been searching for a proper set of gongs and obtained the original set from the Stivanello Costume Company , which had acquired the gongs as the result of winning a bet . In 1987 he bought the gongs for his collection , paying thousands of dollars for the set , which he described as having `` colorful , intense , centered and perfumed '' sound qualities . By March 1924 Puccini had completed the opera up to the final duet . However , he was unsatisfied with the text of the final duet , and did not continue until 8 October , when he chose Adami 's fourth version of the duet text . On 10 October he was diagnosed with throat cancer and on 24 November went to Brussels , Belgium , for treatment . There he underwent a new and experimental radiation therapy treatment . Puccini and his wife never knew how serious the cancer was , as the news was revealed only to his son . Puccini , however , seems to have had some inkling of the possible seriousness of his condition since , before leaving for Brussels , he visited Toscanini and begged him , `` Do n't let my Turandot die '' . He died of a heart attack on 29 November 1924 , when it had seemed that the radium treatment was succeeding . His step-daughter Fosca was in fact joyfully writing a letter to an English friend of the family , Sibyl Seligman , telling her that the cancer was shrinking when she was called to her father 's bedside because of the heart attack . Completion of the score after Puccini 's death When Puccini died , the first two of the three acts were fully composed , including orchestration . Puccini had composed and fully orchestrated act 3 up until Liù 's death and funeral cortege . In the sense of finished music , this was the last music composed by Puccini . He left behind 36 pages of sketches on 23 sheets for the end of Turandot . Some sketches were in the form of `` piano-vocal '' or `` short score , '' including vocal lines with `` two to four staves of accompaniment with occasional notes on orchestration . '' These sketches supplied music for some , but not all , of the final portion of the libretto . Puccini left instructions that Riccardo Zandonai should finish the opera . Puccini 's son Tonio objected , and eventually Franco Alfano was chosen to flesh out the sketches after Vincenzo Tommasini ( who had completed Boito 's Nerone after the composer ’ s death ) and Pietro Mascagni were rejected . Puccini 's publisher Tito Ricordi decided on Alfano because his opera La leggenda di Sakùntala resembled Turandot in its setting and heavy orchestration . Alfano provided a first version of the ending with a few passages of his own , and even a few sentences added to the libretto which was not considered complete even by Puccini himself . After the severe criticisms by Ricordi and the conductor Arturo Toscanini , he was forced to write a second , strictly censored version that followed Puccini 's sketches more closely , to the point where he did not set some of Adami 's text to music because Puccini had not indicated how he wanted it to sound . Ricordi 's real concern was not the quality of Alfano 's work , but that he wanted the end of Turandot to sound as if it had been written by Puccini , and Alfano 's editing had to be seamless . Of this version , about three minutes were cut for performance by Toscanini , and it is this shortened version that is usually performed . Performance history The premiere of Turandot was at La Scala , Milan , on Sunday 25 April 1926 , one year and five months after Puccini 's death . Rosa Raisa held the title role . Tenors Miguel Fleta and Franco Lo Giudice alternated in the role of Prince Calaf in the original production , although Fleta had the honor of singing the role for the opera 's opening night . It was conducted by Arturo Toscanini . In the middle of act 3 , two measures after the words `` Liù , poesia ! `` , the orchestra rested . Toscanini stopped and laid down his baton . He turned to the audience and announced : `` Qui finisce l'opera , perché a questo punto il maestro è morto '' ( `` Here the opera ends , because at this point the maestro died '' ) . The curtain was lowered slowly . These are the words reported by Eugenio Gara , who was present at the premiere . A reporter for La Stampa recorded the words slightly differently : `` Qui finisce l'opera , rimasta incompiuta per la morte del povero Puccini/Here the opera ends , left incomplete by the death of poor Puccini . '' It is also frequently reported that Toscanini said , more poetically , `` Here the Maestro laid down his pen '' . A newspaper report published the day before the premiere states that Puccini himself gave Toscanini the suggestion to stop the opera performance at the final notes composed by Puccini : ( A few weeks before his death , after having made Toscanini listen to the opera , Puccini exclaimed : `` If I do n't succeed in finishing it , at this point someone will come to the footlights and will say : 'The author composed until here , and then he died . ' '' Arturo Toscanini related Puccini 's words with great emotion , and , with the swift agreement of Puccini 's family and the publishers , decided that the evening of the first performance , the opera would appear as the author left it , with the anguish of being unable to finish ) . Two authors believe that the second and subsequent performances of the 1926 La Scala season , which included the Alfano ending , were conducted by Ettore Panizza and Toscanini never conducted the opera again after the first performance . However , in his biography of Toscanini , Harvey Sachs claims that Toscanini did conduct the second and third performances before withdrawing from the production due to nervous exhaustion . A contemporary review of the second performance states that Toscanini was the conductor , taking five curtain calls at the end of the performance . Turandot quickly spread to other venues : Rome ( Teatro Costanzi , 29 April , four days after the Milan premiere ) , Buenos Aires ( Teatro Colón , 23 June ) , Dresden ( 6 September , in German ) , Venice ( La Fenice , 9 September ) , Vienna ( 14 October ; Mafalda Salvatini in the title role ) , Berlin ( 8 November ) , New York ( Metropolitan Opera , 16 November ) , Brussels ( La Monnaie , 17 December , in French ) , Naples ( Teatro San Carlo , 17 January 1927 ) , Parma ( 12 February ) , Turin ( 17 March ) , London ( Covent Garden , 7 June ) , San Francisco ( 19 September ) , Bologna ( October 1927 ) , Paris ( 29 March 1928 ) , Australia 1928 , Moscow ( Bolshoi Theatre , 1931 ) . Turandot is a staple of the standard operatic repertoire and it appears as number 17 on the Operabase list of the most-performed operas worldwide . For many years , the government of the People 's Republic of China forbade performance of Turandot because they said it portrayed China and the Chinese unfavourably . In the late 1990s they relented , and in September 1998 the opera was performed for eight nights as Turandot at the Forbidden City , complete with opulent sets and soldiers from the People 's Liberation Army as extras . It was an international collaboration , with director Zhang Yimou as choreographer and Zubin Mehta as conductor . The singing roles saw Giovanna Casolla , Audrey Stottler , and Sharon Sweet as Princess Turandot ; Sergej Larin and Lando Bartolini as Calaf ; and Barbara Frittoli , Cristina Gallardo-Domâs , and Barbara Hendricks as Liù . As with Madama Butterfly , Puccini strove for a semblance of Asian authenticity ( at least to Western ears ) by using music from the region in question . Up to eight of the themes used in Turandot appear to be based on traditional Chinese music and anthems , and the melody of a Chinese song named `` Mò Li Hūa ( 茉莉花 ) '' , or `` Jasmine '' , is included as a motif for the princess . Alfano 's and other versions The debate over which version of the ending is better is still open , but the consensus generally tends towards Alfano 's first score . The opera with Alfano 's original ending was first recorded by John Mauceri and Scottish Opera ( with Josephine Barstow and Lando Bartolini as soloists ) for Decca Records in 1990 to great acclaim . The first verifiable live performance of Alfano 's original ending was not mounted until 3 November 1982 , by the Chelsea Opera Group at the Barbican Centre in London . However , it may have been staged in Germany in the early years , since Ricordi had commissioned a German translation of the text and a number of scores were printed in Germany with the full final scene included . Alfano 's second ending has been further redacted as well : Turandot 's aria `` Del primo pianto '' was performed at the premiere but cut from the first complete recording ; it was eventually restored to most performances of the opera . From 1976 to 1988 the American composer Janet Maguire , convinced that the whole ending is coded in the sketches left by Puccini , composed a new ending , but this has never been performed . In 2001 Luciano Berio made a new completion sanctioned by Ricordi and the Puccini estate , using Puccini 's sketches but also expanding the musical language . It was subsequently performed in the Canary Islands and Amsterdam conducted by Riccardo Chailly , Los Angeles conducted by Kent Nagano , at the Salzburg Festival conducted by Valery Gergiev in August 2002 . However , its reception has been mixed.Tommasini , Anthony ( 22 August 2002 ) . [ http : //www.nytimes.com/2002/08/22/arts/critic-s-notebook-updating-turandot-berio-style.html ? pagewanted print & src=pm `` Critic 's Notebook ; Updating Turandot , Berio Style '' ] . The New York Times . Retrieved 30 November 2012 . Roles Synopsis Place : Peking , China Time : Legendary times Act 1 In front of the imperial palace A Mandarin announces the law of the land ( Aria – Popolo di Pechino ! – `` People in Beijing ! `` ) . The Prince of Persia has failed to answer the three riddles , and he is to be beheaded at the next moonrising . As the crowd surges towards the gates of the palace , the imperial guards brutally repulse them , causing a blind old man to be knocked to the ground . The old man 's slave-girl , Liù , cries out for help . A young man hears her cry and recognizes that the old man is his long-lost father , Timur , the deposed king of Tartary . The young Prince of Tartary is overjoyed at seeing Timur alive , but still urges Timur to not speak his name because he is afraid that the Chinese rulers , who have conquered Tartary , may kill or harm them . Timur then tells his son that , of all his servants , only Liù has remained faithful to him . When the Prince asks her why , she tells him that once , long ago in the palace , the Prince had smiled at her ( Trio with chorus – The crowd , Liù , Prince of Tartary , Timur : Indietro , cani ! – `` Back , dogs ! `` ) . The moon rises , and the crowd 's cries for blood dissolve into silence . The doomed Prince of Persia , who is on his way to be executed , is led before the crowd . The young Prince is so handsome and kind that the crowd and the Prince of Tartary decide that they want Turandot to act compassionately , and they beg Turandot to appear and spare his life ( Aria – The crowd , Prince of Tartary : O giovinetto ! – `` O youth ! `` ) . She then appears , and with a single imperious gesture , orders the execution to continue . The Prince of Tartary , who has never seen Turandot before , falls immediately in love with her , and joyfully cries out Turandot 's name three times . Then the Prince of Persia cries out one final time . The crowd , horrified , then screams out one final time . The Prince of Persia is then beheaded . The Prince of Tartary is dazzled by Turandot 's beauty . He is about to rush towards the gong and to strike it three times—the symbolic gesture of whoever wishes to attempt to solve the riddles so that he can marry Turandot—when the ministers Ping , Pang , and Pong appear . They urge him cynically to not lose his head for Turandot and to instead go back to his own country ( Fermo , che fai ? ) . Timur urges his son to desist , and Liù , who is secretly in love with the Prince , pleads with him to not attempt to solve the riddles ( Signore , ascolta ! – `` Lord , hear ! `` ) . Liù 's words touch the Prince 's heart . He begs Liù to make Timur 's exile more bearable by not abandoning Timur if the Prince fails to answer the riddles ( Non piangere , Liù – `` Do not cry , Liù '' ) . The three ministers , Timur , and Liù then try one last time to stop the Prince ( Ah ! Per l'ultima volta ! – `` Ah ! For the last time ! '' ) from attempting to answer the riddles , but he refuses to heed their advice . He calls Turandot 's name three times , and each time Liù , Timur , and the ministers reply , `` Death ! '' and the crowd declares , `` We 're already digging your grave ! '' Rushing to the gong that hangs in front of the palace , the Prince strikes it three times , declaring himself to be a suitor . From the palace balcony , Turandot accepts his challenge , as Ping , Pang , and Pong laugh at the Prince 's foolishness . Act 2 Scene 1 : A pavilion in the imperial palace . Before sunrise Ping , Pang , and Pong lament their place as ministers , poring over palace documents and presiding over endless rituals . They prepare themselves for either a wedding or a funeral ( Trio – Ping , Pang , Pong : Ola , Pang ! ) . Ping suddenly longs for his country house in Honan , with its small lake surrounded by bamboo . Pong remembers his grove of forests near Tsiang , and Pang recalls his gardens near Kiu . The three share their fond memories of their lives away from the palace ( Trio – Ping , Pang , Pong : Ho una casa nell'Honan – `` I have a house in Honan '' ) , but they are shaken back to the realities of Turandot 's extremely bloody reign . Continually , they have been accompanying young men to their deaths and are now recalling the horrors of their ghastly fate . As the palace trumpet sounds , the ministers ready themselves for another spectacle as they await the entrance of their Emperor . Scene 2 : The courtyard of the palace . Sunrise The Emperor Altoum , father of Turandot , sits on his grand throne in his palace . Weary of having to judge his isolated daughter 's sport , he urges the Prince to withdraw his challenge , but the Prince refuses ( Aria – Altoum , the Prince : Un giuramento atroce – `` An atrocious oath '' ) . Turandot enters and explains ( In questa reggia – `` In this palace '' ) that her ancestress of millennia past , Princess Lo-u-Ling , reigned over her kingdom `` in silence and joy , resisting the harsh domination of men '' until she was ravished and murdered by an invading foreign prince . Turandot claims that Lo-u-Ling now lives in her , and out of revenge , Turandot has sworn to never let any man wed her . She warns the Prince to withdraw but again he refuses . The Princess presents her first riddle : Straniero , ascolta ! – `` What is born each night and dies each dawn ? '' The Prince correctly replies , Speranza – `` Hope . '' The Princess , unnerved , presents her second riddle ( Guizza al pari di fiamma – `` What flickers red and warm like a flame , but is not fire ? '' ) The Prince thinks for a moment before replying , Sangue – `` Blood '' . Turandot is shaken . The crowd cheers the Prince , provoking Turandot 's anger . She presents her third riddle ( Gelo che ti da foco – `` What is ice which gives you fire and which your fire freezes still more ? `` ) . As the prince thinks , Turandot taunts him , `` What is the ice that makes you burn ? '' The taunt makes him see the answer and he proclaims , `` It is Turandot ! Turandot ! '' The crowd cheers for the triumphant Prince . Turandot throws herself at her father 's feet and pleads with him not to leave her to the Prince 's mercy . The Emperor insists that an oath is sacred and that it is Turandot 's duty to wed the Prince ( Duet – Turandot , Altoum , the Prince : Figlio del cielo ) . She cries out in despair , `` Will you take me by force ? ( Mi porterai con la forza ? ) The Prince stops her , saying that he has a riddle for her : Tre enigmi m'hai proposto – `` You do not know my name . Tell me my name before sunrise , and at dawn , I will die . '' Turandot accepts . The Emperor then declares that he hopes that he will be able to call the Prince his son when the sun next rises . Act 3 Scene 1 : The palace gardens . Night In the distance , heralds call out Turandot 's command : Cosi comanda Turandot – `` This night , none shall sleep in Peking ! The penalty for all will be death if the Prince 's name is not discovered by morning '' . The Prince waits for dawn and anticipates his victory : Nessun dorma – `` Nobody shall sleep ! '' Ping , Pong , and Pang appear and offer the Prince women and riches if he will only give up Turandot ( Tu che guardi le stelle ) , but he refuses . A group of soldiers then drag in Timur and Liù . They have been seen speaking to the Prince , so they must know his name . Turandot enters and orders Timur and Liù to speak . The Prince feigns ignorance , saying they know nothing . But when the guards begin to treat Timur harshly , Liù declares that she alone knows the Prince 's name , but she will not reveal it . Ping demands the Prince 's name , and when Liù refuses to say it , she is tortured . Turandot is clearly taken aback by Liù 's resolve and asks Liù who or what gave her such a strong resolve . Liù answers , `` Princess , love ! '' ( Principessa , amore ! ) . Turandot demands that Ping tear the Prince 's name from Liù , and Ping orders Liù to be tortured even more . Liù counters Turandot ( Tu che di gel sei cinta – `` You who are begirdled by ice '' ) , saying that Turandot too will learn the exquisite joy of being guided by caring and compassionate love . [ The words of that aria were actually written by Puccini . Waiting for Adami and Simoni to deliver the next part of the libretto , he wrote the words and when they read them , they decided that they could not better them . ] Having spoken , Liù seizes a dagger from a soldier 's belt and stabs herself . As she staggers towards the Prince and falls dead , the crowd screams for her to speak the Prince 's name . Since Timur is blind , he must be told about Liù 's death , and he cries out in anguish . When Timur warns that the gods will be offended by Liù 's death , the crowd becomes subdued , very afraid and ashamed . The grieving Timur and the crowd follow Liù 's body as it is carried away . Everybody departs , leaving the Prince and Turandot . He reproaches Turandot for her cruelty ( Duet – The Prince , Turandot : Principessa di morte – `` Princess of death '' ) , then takes her in his arms and kisses her in spite of her resistance . ( Here Puccini 's work ends . The remainder of the music for the premiere was completed by Franco Alfano . ) The Prince tries to convince Turandot to love him . At first she feels disgusted , but after he kisses her , she feels herself becoming more ardently desiring to be held and compassionately loved by him . She admits that ever since she met the Prince , she realized she both hated and loved him . She asks him to ask for nothing more and to leave , taking his mystery with him . The Prince , however , then reveals his name : `` Calaf , son of Timur – Calaf , figlio di Timur '' , thereby placing his life in Turandot 's hands . She can now destroy him if she wants ( Duet – Turandot , Calaf : Del primo pianto ) . Scene 2 : The courtyard of the palace . Dawn Turandot and Calaf approach the Emperor 's throne . She declares that she knows the Prince 's name : Diecimila anni al nostro Imperatore ! – `` It is ... love ! '' The crowd cheers and acclaims the two lovers ( O sole ! Vita ! Eternità ) . Critical response While long recognised as the most tonally adventurous of Puccini

sfq_4771--Turandot.txt

Prince Calef is the male-lead in which Puccini opera?

The onion ( Allium cepa L. , from Latin cepa `` onion '' ) , also known as the bulb onion or common onion , is a vegetable and is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium . This genus also contains several other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food , such as the Japanese bunching onion ( Allium fistulosum ) , the tree onion ( A . ×proliferum ) , and the Canada onion ( Allium canadense ) . The name `` wild onion '' is applied to a number of Allium species , but A. cepa is exclusively known from cultivation . Its ancestral wild original form is not known , although escapes from cultivation have become established in some regions . The onion is most frequently a biennial or a perennial plant , but is usually treated as an annual and harvested in its first growing season . The onion plant has a fan of hollow , bluish-green leaves and the bulb at the base of the plant begins to swell when a certain day-length is reached . In the autumn ( or in spring , in the case of overwintering onions ) , the foliage dies down and the outer layers of the bulb become dry and brittle . The crop is harvested and dried and the onions are ready for use or storage . The crop is prone to attack by a number of pests and diseases , particularly the onion fly , the onion eelworm , and various fungi cause rotting . Some varieties of A. cepa , such as shallots and potato onions , produce multiple bulbs . Onions are cultivated and used around the world . As a food item , they are usually served cooked , as a vegetable or part of a prepared savoury dish , but can also be eaten raw or used to make pickles or chutneys . They are pungent when chopped and contain certain chemical substances which irritate the eyes . Taxonomy and etymology The onion plant ( Allium cepa ) , also known as the bulb onion or common onion , is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium . It was first officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum . A number of synonyms have appeared in its taxonomic history : * Allium cepa var . aggregatum – G. Don * Allium cepa var . bulbiferum – Regel * Allium cepa var . cepa – Linnaeus * Allium cepa var . multiplicans – L.H . Bailey * Allium cepa var . proliferum – ( Moench ) Regel * Allium cepa var . solaninum – Alef * Allium cepa var . viviparum – ( Metz ) Mansf . A. cepa is known exclusively from cultivation , but related wild species occur in Central Asia . The most closely related species include A. vavilovii ( Popov & Vved . ) and A. asarense ( R.M . Fritsch & Matin ) from Iran . However , Zohary and Hopf state that `` there are doubts whether the A. vavilovii collections tested represent genuine wild material or only feral derivatives of the crop . '' The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the `` common onion group '' ( A. cepa var . cepa ) and are usually referred to simply as `` onions '' . The Aggregatum group of cultivars ( A. cepa var . aggregatum ) includes both shallots and potato onions . The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food , such as the Japanese bunching onion ( A. fistulosum ) , Egyptian onion ( A . ×proliferum ) , and Canada onion ( A. canadense ) . Cepa is commonly accepted as Latin for `` onion '' and has an affinity with Ancient Greek : κάπια ( kápia ) , Albanian : qepë , Aromanian : tseapã , Catalan : ceba , English : chive , Occitan : ceba , Old French : cive , and Romanian : ceapă . Description The onion plant has been grown and selectively bred in cultivation for at least 7,000 years . It is a biennial plant , but is usually grown as an annual . Modern varieties typically grow to a height of 15 to . The leaves are yellowish-green and grow alternately in a flattened , fan-shaped swathe . They are fleshy , hollow , and cylindrical , with one flattened side . They are at their broadest about a quarter of the way up beyond which they taper towards a blunt tip . The base of each leaf is a flattened , usually white sheath that grows out of a basal disc . From the underside of the disc , a bundle of fibrous roots extends for a short way into the soil . As the onion matures , food reserves begin to accumulate in the leaf bases and the bulb of the onion swells . In the autumn , the leaves die back and the outer scales of the bulb become dry and brittle , and this is when the crop is normally harvested . If left in the soil over winter , the growing point in the middle of the bulb begins to develop in the spring . New leaves appear and a long , stout , hollow stem expands , topped by a bract protecting a developing inflorescence . The inflorescence takes the form of a globular umbel of white flowers with parts in sixes . The seeds are glossy black and triangular in cross section . Uses Historical use Bulbs from the onion family are thought to have been used as a food source for millennia . In Bronze Age settlements , traces of onion remains were found alongside date stones and fig remains that date back to 5000 BC . However , it is not clear if these were cultivated onions . Archaeological and literary evidence such as the Book of Numbers 11:5 suggests that onions were probably being cultivated around 2000 years later in ancient Egypt , at the same time that leeks and garlic were cultivated . Workers who built the Egyptian pyramids may have been fed radishes and onions . The onion is easily propagated , transported , and stored . The ancient Egyptians revered the onion bulb , viewing its spherical shape and concentric rings as symbols of eternal life . Onions were even used in Egyptian burials , as evidenced by onion traces being found in the eye sockets of Ramesses IV . In ancient Greece , athletes ate large quantities of onion because it was believed to lighten the balance of the blood . Roman gladiators were rubbed down with onions to firm up their muscles . In the Middle Ages , onions were such an important food that people would pay their rent with onions , and even give them as gifts . Doctors were known to prescribe onions to facilitate bowel movements and erections , and to relieve headaches , coughs , snakebite , and hair loss . Onions were taken by the first European settlers to North America , where the Native Americans were already using wild onions in a number of ways , eating them raw or cooked in a variety of foods . They also used them to make into syrups , to form poultices , and in the preparation of dyes . According to diaries kept by the colonists , bulb onions were one of the first things planted by the Pilgrim fathers when they cleared the land for cropping . Onions were also prescribed by doctors in the early 16th century to help with infertility in women . They were similarly used to raise fertility levels in dogs , cats , and cattle , but this was an error , as recent research has shown that onions are toxic to dogs , cats , guinea pigs , and many other animals . Culinary uses Onions are commonly chopped and used as an ingredient in various hearty warm dishes , and may also be used as a main ingredient in their own right , for example in French onion soup or onion chutney . They are very versatile and can be baked , boiled , braised , grilled , fried , roasted , sautéed , or eaten raw in salads . Their layered nature makes them easy to hollow out once cooked , facilitating stuffing them . Onions are a staple in Indian cuisine , used as a thickening agent for curries and gravies . Onions pickled in vinegar are eaten as a snack . These are traditionally a side serving in pubs and fish and chip shops throughout the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth . Pickled onions form part of a British pub Ploughman 's lunch , usually served with cheese and ale . In North America , sliced onions are battered and deep-fried and served as onion rings . Onion types and products Common onions are normally available in three colour varieties . Yellow or brown onions ( called red in some European countries ) , are full-flavoured and are the onions of choice for everyday use . Yellow onions turn a rich , dark brown when caramelized and give French onion soup its sweet flavour . The red onion ( called purple in some European countries ) is a good choice for fresh use when its colour livens up the dish ; it is also used in grilling . White onions are the traditional onions used in classic Mexican cuisine ; they have a golden colour when cooked and a particularly sweet flavour when sautéed . While the large , mature onion bulb is most often eaten , onions can be eaten at immature stages . Young plants may be harvested before bulbing occurs and used whole as spring onions or scallions . When an onion is harvested after bulbing has begun , but the onion is not yet mature , the plants are sometimes referred to as `` summer '' onions . Additionally , onions may be bred and grown to mature at smaller sizes . Depending on the mature size and the purpose for which the onion is used , these may be referred to as pearl , boiler , or pickler onions , but differ from true pearl onions which are a different species . Pearl and boiler onions may be cooked as a vegetable rather than as an ingredient and pickler onions are often preserved in vinegar as a long-lasting relish . Onions are available in fresh , frozen , canned , caramelized , pickled , and chopped forms . The dehydrated product is available as kibbled , sliced , rings , minced , chopped , granulated , and powder forms . Onion powder is a seasoning widely used when the fresh ingredient is not available . It is made from finely ground , dehydrated onions , mainly the pungent varieties of bulb onions , and has a strong odour . Being dehydrated , it has a long shelf life and is available in several varieties : yellow , red , and white . Non-culinary uses Onions have particularly large cells that are readily observed under low magnification . Forming a single layer of cells , the bulb epidermis is easy to separate for educational , experimental , and breeding purposes . Onions are , therefore , commonly employed in science education to teach the use of a microscope for observing cell structure . The pungent juice of onions has been used as a moth repellent and can be rubbed on the skin to prevent insect bites . When applied to the scalp , it is said to promote growth of hair and on the face to reduce freckling . It has been used to polish glass and copperware and to prevent rust on iron . If boiling water is poured onto chopped onions and left to cool , the resulting liquid can be sprayed onto plants to increase their resistance to pests , and the onion plants when growing are reputed to keep away moles and insects . Onion skins have been used to produce a yellow-brown dye . Historically , onions were often used for cromniomancy across Europe , Africa , and northern Asia , and they continue to be used for this practice in some rural areas . Nutrients and phytochemicals Most onion cultivars are about 89 % water , 4 % sugar , 1 % protein , 2 % fibre , and 0.1 % fat . Onions contain low amounts of essential nutrients ( right table ) , are low in fats , and have an energy value of 166 kJ ( 40 kcal ) per 100 g ( 3.5 oz ) . They contribute their flavor to savory dishes without raising caloric content appreciably . Onions contain phytochemical compounds such as phenolics that are under basic research to determine their possible properties in humans . Considerable differences exist between onion varieties in polyphenol content , with shallots having the highest level , six times the amount found in Vidalia onions , the variety with the smallest amount . Yellow onions have the highest total flavonoid content , an amount 11 times higher than in white onions . Red onions have considerable content of anthocyanin pigments , with at least 25 different compounds identified representing 10 % of total flavonoid content . Some people suffer from allergic reactions after handling onions . Symptoms can include contact dermatitis , intense itching , rhinoconjunctivitis , blurred vision , bronchial asthma , sweating , and anaphylaxis . Allergic reactions may not occur in these individuals to the consumption of onions , perhaps because of the denaturing of the proteins involved during the cooking process . While onions and other members of the genus Allium are commonly consumed by humans , they can be deadly for dogs , cats , guinea pigs , monkeys , and other animals . The toxicity is caused by the sulfoxides present in raw and cooked onions , which many animals are unable to digest . Ingestion results in anaemia caused by the distortion and rupture of red blood cells . Sick pets are sometimes fed with tinned baby foods , and any that contain onion should be avoided . The typical toxic doses are per kg ( 2.2 lb ) bodyweight for cats and 15 to per kg for dogs . Similar to garlic onions can show an additional color after cutting . This color is pink-red . It is caused by reactions of the amino acids with the sulfur compounds . Eye irritation Freshly cut onions often cause a stinging sensation in the eyes of people nearby , and often uncontrollable tears . This is caused by the release of a volatile gas , syn-propanethial-S-oxide , which stimulates nerves in the eye creating a stinging sensation . This gas is produced by a chain of reactions which serve as a defense mechanism : chopping an onion causes damage to cells which releases enzymes called alliinases . These break down amino acid sulfoxides and generate sulfenic acids . A specific sulfenic acid , 1-propenesulfenic acid , is rapidly acted on by a second enzyme , the lacrimatory factor synthase ( LFS ) , producing the syn-propanethial-S-oxide . This gas diffuses through the air and soon reaches the eyes , where it activates sensory neurons . Tear glands produce tears to dilute and flush out the irritant . Eye irritation can be avoided by cutting onions under running water or submerged in a basin of water . Leaving the root end intact also reduces irritation as the onion base has a higher concentration of sulphur compounds than the rest of the bulb . Refrigerating the onions before use reduces the enzyme reaction rate and using a fan can blow the gas away from the eyes . The more often one chops onions , the less one experiences eye irritation . The amount of sulfenic acids and LF released and the irritation effect differs among Allium species . In 2008 , the New Zealand Crop and Food Institute created a strain of `` no tears '' onions by using gene-silencing biotechnology to prevent synthesis by the onions of the LFS enzyme . Cultivation Onions are best cultivated in fertile soils that are well-drained . Sandy loams are good as they are low in sulphur , while clayey soils usually have a high sulphur content and produce pungent bulbs . Onions require a high level of nutrients in the soil . Phosphorus is often present in sufficient quantities , but may be applied before planting because of its low level of availability in cold soils . Nitrogen and potash can be applied at regular intervals during the growing season , the last application of nitrogen being at least four weeks before harvesting . Bulbing onions are day-length sensitive ; their bulbs begin growing only after the number of daylight hours has surpassed some minimal quantity . Most traditional European onions are referred to as `` long-day '' onions , producing bulbs only after 14 hours or more of daylight occurs . Southern European and North African varieties are often known as `` intermediate-day '' types , requiring only 12–13 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation . Finally , `` short-day '' onions , which have been developed in more recent times , are planted in mild-winter areas in the fall and form bulbs in the early spring , and require only 11–12 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation . Onions are a cool-weather crop and can be grown in USDA zones 3 to 9 . Hot temperatures or other stressful conditions cause them to `` bolt '' , meaning that a flower stem begins to grow . Onions may be grown from seed or from sets . Onion seeds are short-lived and fresh seeds germinate better . The seeds are sown thinly in shallow drills , thinning the plants in stages . In suitable climates , certain cultivars can be sown in late summer and autumn to overwinter in the ground and produce early crops the following year . Onion sets are produced by sowing seed thickly in early summer in poor soil and the small bulbs produced are harvested in the autumn . These bulbs are planted the following spring and grow into mature bulbs later in the year . Certain cultivars are used for this purpose and these may not have such good storage characteristics as those grown directly from seed . Routine care during the growing season involves keeping the rows free of competing weeds , especially when the plants are young . The plants are shallow-rooted and do not need a great deal of water when established . Bulbing usually takes place after 12 to 18 weeks . The bulbs can be gathered when needed to eat fresh , but if they will be kept in storage , they should be harvested after the leaves have died back naturally . In dry weather , they can be left on the surface of the soil for a few days to dry out properly , then they can be placed in nets , roped into strings , or laid in layers in shallow boxes . They should be stored in a well-ventilated , cool place such as a shed . Pests and diseases Onions suffer from a number of plant disorders . The most serious for the home gardener are likely to be the onion fly , stem and bulb eelworm , white rot , and neck rot . Diseases affecting the foliage include rust and smut , downy mildew , and white tip disease . The bulbs may be affected by splitting , white rot , and neck rot . Shanking is a condition in which the central leaves turn yellow and the inner part of the bulb collapses into an unpleasant-smelling slime . Most of these disorders are best treated by removing and burning affected plants . The larvae of the onion leaf miner or leek moth ( Acrolepiopsis assectella ) sometimes attacks the foliage and may burrow down into the bulb . The onion fly ( Delia antiqua ) lays eggs on the leaves and stems and on the ground close to onion , shallot , leek , and garlic plants . The fly is attracted to the crop by the smell of damaged tissue and is liable to occur after thinning . Plants grown from sets are less prone to attack . The larvae tunnel into the bulbs and the foliage wilts and turns yellow . The bulbs are disfigured and rot , especially in wet weather . Control measures may include crop rotation , the use of seed dressings , early sowing or planting , and the removal of infested plants . The onion eelworm ( Ditylenchus dipsaci ) , a tiny parasitic soil-living nematode , causes swollen , distorted foliage . Young plants are killed and older ones produce soft bulbs . No cure is known and affected plants should be uprooted and burnt . The site should not be used for growing onions again for several years and should also be avoided for growing carrots , parsnips , and beans , which are also susceptible to the eelworm . White rot of onions , leeks , and garlic is caused by the soil-borne fungus Sclerotium cepivorum . As the roots rot , the foliage turns yellow and wilts . The bases of the bulbs are attacked and become covered by a fluffy white mass of mycelia , which later produces small , globular black structures called sclerotia . These resting structures remain in the soil to reinfect a future crop . No cure for this fungal disease exists , so affected plants should be removed and destroyed and the ground used for unrelated crops in subsequent years . Neck rot is a fungal disease affecting onions in storage . It is caused by Botrytis allii , which attacks the neck and upper parts of the bulb , causing a grey mould to develop . The symptoms often first occur where the bulb has been damaged and spread downwards in the affected scales . Large quantities of spores are produced and crust-like sclerotia may also develop . In time , a dry rot sets in and the bulb becomes a dry , mummified structure . This disease may be present throughout the growing period , but only manifests itself when the bulb is in store . Antifungal seed dressings are available and the disease can be minimised by preventing physical damage to the bulbs at harvesting , careful drying and curing of the mature onions , and correct storage in a cool , dry place with plenty of circulating air . Storage in the home Cooking onions and sweet onions are better stored at room temperature , optimally in a single layer , in mesh bags in a dry , cool , dark , well-ventilated location . In this environment , cooking onions have a shelf life of three to four weeks and sweet onions one to two weeks . Cooking onions will absorb odours from apples and pears . Also , they draw moisture from vegetables with which they are stored which may cause them to decay . Sweet onions have a greater water and sugar content than cooking onions . This makes them sweeter- and milder-tasting , but reduces their shelf life . Sweet onions can be stored refrigerated ; they have a shelf life around 1 month . Irrespective of type , any cut pieces of onion are best tightly wrapped , stored away from other produce , and used within two to three days . Varieties Common onion group ( var . cepa ) Most of the diversity within A. cepa occurs within this group , the most economically important Allium crop . Plants within this group form large single bulbs , and are grown from seed or seed-grown sets . The majority of cultivars grown for dry bulbs , salad onions , and pickling onions belong to this group . The range of diversity found among these cultivars includes variation in photoperiod ( length of day that triggers bulbing ) , storage life , flavour , and skin colour . Common onions range from the pungent varieties used for dried soups and onion powder to the mild and hearty sweet onions , such as the Vidalia from Georgia , USA , or Walla Walla from Washington that can be sliced and eaten raw on a sandwich . Aggregatum group ( var . aggregatum ) This group contains shallots and potato onions , also referred to as multiplier onions . The bulbs are smaller than those of common onions , and a single plant forms an aggregate cluster of several bulbs . They are propagated almost exclusively from daughter bulbs , although reproduction from seed is possible . Shallots are the most important subgroup within this group and comprise the only cultivars cultivated commercially . They form aggregate clusters of small , narrowly ovoid to pear-shaped bulbs . Potato onions differ from shallots in forming larger bulbs with fewer bulbs per cluster , and having a flattened ( onion-like ) shape . However , intermediate forms exist . I'itoi onion is a prolific multiplier onion cultivated in the Baboquivari Peak Wilderness , Arizona area . This small-bulb type has a shallot-like flavor and is easy to grow and ideal for hot , dry climates . Bulbs are separated , and planted in the fall 1 in below the surface and 12 in apart . Bulbs will multiply into clumps and can be harvested throughout the cooler months . Tops die back in the heat of summer and may return with heavy rains ; bulbs can remain in the ground or be harvested and stored in a cool dry place for planting in the fall . The plants rarely flower ; propagation is by division . Hybrids with A. cepa parentage A number of hybrids are cultivated that have A. cepa parentage , such as the diploid tree onion or Egyptian onion ( A . ×proliferum ) , Wakegi onion ( A . ×wakegi ) , and the triploid onion ( A . ×cornutum ) . The tree onion or Egyptian onion produces bulblets in the umbel instead of flowers , and is now known to be a hybrid of A. cepa × A. fistulosum . It has previously been treated as a variety of A. cepa , for example A. cepa var . proliferum , A. cepa var . bulbiferum , and A. cepa var . viviparum . The Wakegi onion is also known to be a hybrid between A. cepa and A. fistulosum , with the A. cepa parent believed to be from the Aggregatum group of cultivars . It has been grown for centuries in Japan and China for use as a salad onion . Under the rules of botanical nomenclature , both the Egyptian onion and Wakegi onion should be combined into one hybrid species , having the same parent species . Where this is followed , the Egyptian onion is named A . ×proliferum Eurasian group and the Wakegi onion is named A . ×proliferum East Asian group . The triploid onion is a hybrid species with three sets of chromosomes , two sets from A. cepa and the third set from an unknown parent . Various clones of the triploid onion are grown locally in different regions , such as 'Ljutika ' in Croatia , and 'Pran ' , 'Poonch ' , and 'Srinagar ' in the India-Kashmir region . 'Pran ' is grown extensively in the northern Indian provinces of Jammu and Kashmir . There are very small genetic differences between 'Pran ' and the Croatian clone 'Ljutika ' , implying a monophyletic origin for this species . Some authors have used the name A. cepa var . viviparum ( Metzg . ) Alef . for the triploid onion , but this name has also been applied to the Egyptian onion . The only name unambiguously connected with the triploid onion is A . ×cornutum . Spring onions or salad onions may be grown from the Welsh onion ( A. fistulosum ) , as well as from A. cepa . Young plants of A. fistulosum and A. cepa look very similar , but may be distinguished by their leaves , which are circular in cross-section in A. fistulosum rather than flattened on one side . Production and trade An estimated 9000000 acre of onions are grown around the world , annually . About 170 countries cultivate onions for domestic use and about 8 % of the global production is traded internationally

dpql_3157--Onion.txt

Of what family are Onion, garlic, shallot, leek and chive?

Darts is a form of throwing game in which small missiles are thrown at a circular dartboard fixed to a wall . Though various boards and rules have been used in the past , the term `` darts '' usually now refers to a standardised game involving a specific board design and set of rules . As well as being a professional competitive sport , darts is a traditional pub game , commonly played in the United Kingdom , across the Commonwealth , the Netherlands , Germany , Belgium , France , Republic of Ireland , the Scandinavian countries , the United States , and elsewhere . Equipment Dartboard Darts were historically used in warfare in ancient history ; skirmishers used darts of varying sizes , similar to miniature javelins . It was the practice of this skill that developed into a game of skill . Before the First World War , pubs in the United Kingdom had dartboards made from solid blocks of wood , usually elm . They had to be soaked overnight to heal the holes made by the darts , and it was a messy business for the publican , although darts was a popular game . This changed when a company called Nodor , whose primary business was making modelling clay ( which has no odour , hence the name Nodor ) , started producing clay dartboards in 1923 . The clay dartboards never caught on , and Nodor switched to making the traditional elm dartboards that were popular at the time . Their model of dartboard was not a great success until someone came up with the idea of using the century plant to make a dartboard . Small bundles of sisal fibres of the same length were bundled together . The bundles were then compressed into a disk and bound with a metal ring . It was an instant success , as the darts did little or no damage to the board—they just parted the fibres when they entered the board ; this type of board was more durable and required little maintenance . Quality dartboards are made of sisal fibres ; less expensive boards are sometimes made of cork or coiled paper . However , several types of sisal fibre are used in dartboards today , originating from East Africa , Brazil , or China . Despite widespread belief that some dartboards are constructed using pig bristles , camel hair , or horse hair , there is no evidence that boards have ever been produced commercially from these materials . A regulation board is inches ( 451 mm ) in diameter and is divided into 20 radial sections . Each section is separated with metal wire or a thin band of sheet metal . The best dartboards have the thinnest wire , so that the darts have less chance of hitting a wire and bouncing out . The numbers indicating the various scoring sections of the board are also normally made of wire , especially on tournament-quality boards . The wire ring on which the numbers are welded can be turned to facilitate even wear of the board . Boards of lesser quality often have the numbers printed directly on the board . Recently , some companies have produced electronic dartboards . These dartboards have electronic scoring computers that are preprogrammed with a wide variety of game types . The board is made of plastic facings with small holes . The holes slant out , allowing the plastic-tipped darts to stick inside . When a dart strikes the board , the section makes contact with a metal plate , telling the computer where the player has thrown . Illumination should be arranged to brightly illuminate the dartboard and minimize shadows of thrown darts . The main supply for the illumination should be protected against accidental piercing , or placed away from the board . History The dartboard may have its origins in the cross-section of a tree . An old name for a dartboard is `` butt '' ; the word comes from the French word but , meaning `` target '' . In particular , the Yorkshire and Manchester Log End boards differ from the standard board in that they have no treble , only double and bullseye , the Manchester board being of a smaller diameter , with a playing area of only 25 cm across with double and bull areas measuring just 4 mm . The London Fives board is another variation . This has only 12 equal segments numbered 20 , 5 , 15 , 10 , 20 , 5 , 15 , 10 , 20 , 5 , 15 , 10 with the doubles and triples being a quarter of an inch wide . There is a speculation that the game originated among soldiers throwing short arrows at the bottom of a cask or at the bottom of trunks of trees . As the wood dried , cracks would develop , creating `` sections '' . Soon , regional standards emerged and many woodworkers supplemented bar tabs by fabricating dart boards for the local pubs . It is generally said that the standard numbering plan with a 20 on top was created in 1896 by Lancashire carpenter Brian Gamlin , though this is disputed . However , a great many other configurations have been used throughout the years and in different geographical locations . Gamlin 's layout was devised to penalise inaccuracy . Although this applies to most of the board , the left-hand side ( near the 14 section ) is preferred by beginners , for its concentration of larger numbers . Mathematically , removing the rotational symmetry by placing the `` 20 '' at the top , there are 19 ! , or 121,645,100,408,832,000 possible dartboards . Many different layouts would penalise a player more than the current setup ; however , the current setup actually does the job rather efficiently . There have been several mathematical papers published that consider the `` optimal '' dartboard . Darts Initially the missiles were simply cut down arrows or crossbow bolts . The first purpose made darts were manufactured in one piece from wood ; wrapped with a strip of lead for weight and fitted with flights made from split turkey feathers . These darts were mainly imported from France and became known as French darts . Metal barrels were patented in 1906 but wood continued to be used into the 1950s . The first metal barrels were made from brass which was relatively cheap and easy to work . The wooden shafts , which were now threaded to fit the tapped barrel , were either fletched as before or designed to take a paper flight . This type of dart continued to be used into the 1970s . When the advantages of using plastic were realised , the shaft and flight became separate entities , although one piece moulded plastic shaft and flights were also available . Modern darts have four parts : The points , the barrels , the shafts and the flights . The steel points come in 2 common lengths , 32mm and 41mm and are sometimes knurled or coated to improve grip . Others are designed to retract slightly on impact to lessen the chance of bouncing out . The barrels come in a variety of weights and are usually constructed from brass , silver-nickel , or a tungsten alloy . Brass is cheap but light and therefore brass barrels tend to be very bulky . Tungsten on the other hand , is twice as dense as brass thus a barrel of an equivalent weight could be thirty percent smaller in diameter . Tungsten is very brittle however and so an alloy of between 80 and 95 per cent tungsten is used . The remainder is usually nickel , iron , or copper . Silver-nickel darts offer a compromise between density and cost . Barrels come in 3 basic shapes : Cylindrical , torpedo , or ton . Cylindrical barrels are the same diameter along their entire length and so tend to be long and thin . Their slenderness makes them better for grouping but because they are long , the centre of gravity is further back . Ton shaped barrels are thin at either end but bulge in the middle . This makes them fatter than a cylindrical barrel of equivalent weight but the centre of gravity is further forward and so theoretically easier to throw . Torpedo shaped barrels are widest at the point end and taper towards the rear . This keeps the weight as far forward as possible but like the ton , gives it a larger diameter than the cylinder . The shafts are manufactured in various lengths and some are designed to be cut to length . Shafts are generally made from plastics , nylon polymers , or metals such as aluminium and titanium ; and can be rigid or flexible . Longer shafts provide greater stability and allow a reduction in flight size which in turn can lead to closer grouping ; but they also shift the weight towards the rear causing the dart to tilt backwards during flight , requiring a harder , faster throw . A longer shaft will however make the dart less responsive and increase the chance of `` wobbling '' . The primary purpose of the flight is to produce drag and thus prevent the rear of the dart overtaking the point . It also has an effect on stability by reducing wobble . Modern flights are generally made from plastic , nylon , or foil and are available in a range of shapes and sizes . The three most common shapes in order of size are the standard , the kite , and the smaller pear shape . The less surface area , the less stability but larger flights hamper close grouping . Some manufactures have sought to solve this by making a flight long and thin but this in turn creates other problems such as changing the dart 's centre of gravity . Generally speaking a heavier dart will require a larger flight . The choice of barrel , shaft , and flight will depend a great deal on the individual player 's throwing style . For competitive purposes a dart can not weigh more than 50g including the shaft and flight and can not exceed a total length of 300mm . Playing dimensions The WDF uses the following standards for play : Height - The dart board is hung so that the centre of the bulls eye is 5 ft 8in ( 1.73 m ) from the floor . This is considered eye-level for a six-foot man . Distance - The oche should be 7 ft 9¼in ( 2.37 m ) from the face of the board . Note that this is the face of the board , and should not include the distance to the wall ( if the board protrudes from the wall ) Scoring The standard dartboard is divided into 20 numbered sections , scoring from 1 to 20 points , by wires running from the small central circle to the outer circular wire . Circular wires within the outer wire subdivide each section into single , double and triple areas . The dartboard featured on the `` Indoor League '' television show of the 1970s did not feature a triple section , and according to host Fred Trueman during the first episode , this is the traditional Yorkshire board . Various games can be played ( and still are played informally ) using the standard dartboard . However , in the official game , any dart landing inside the outer wire scores as follows : * Hitting one of the large portions of each of the numbered sections , traditionally alternately coloured black and white , scores the points value of that section . * Hitting the thin inner portions of these sections , roughly halfway between the outer wire and the central circle coloured red or green , scores triple the points value of that section . * Hitting the thin outer portions of these sections , again coloured red or green , scores double the points value of that section . The double-20 is often referred to as double-top , reflecting the 20 's position on the dartboard . * The central circle is divided into a green outer ring worth 25 points ( known as `` outer '' , `` outer bull '' , or `` iris '' ) and a red or black inner circle ( usually known as `` bull '' , `` inner bull '' or `` double bull '' ) , worth 50 points . The term `` bullseye '' can mean either the whole central part of the board or just the inner red/black section . The term `` bull 's ring '' usually means just the green outer ring . The inner bull counts as a double when doubling in or out . * Hitting outside the outer wire scores nothing . * Any dart that does not remain in the board until it is collected by the player ( for example , a dart that hits a wire and bounces out of the board or drops out with the impact of a later throw ) also scores nothing ; exception should be noted if play is on any electronic board : darts falling out are counted . * A dart only scores if its point is embedded in or is touching the playing surface . A dart that hits the board side on or at an angle but does not fall off because it is held in place by two other darts , for example , will score either equal to where its point touches or not at all . The highest score possible with three darts is 180 , commonly known as a `` ton 80 '' ( 100 points is called a ton ) , obtained when all three darts land in the triple 20 . In the televised game , the referee frequently announces a score of 180 in exuberant style . A `` quad '' ring appeared briefly between the triple ring and the bull in the 1990s , leading to a potential 240 maximum ( three quad-20s ) , a 210 maximum checkout ( Q20-Q20-Bull ) and seven dart finishes from a 501 start ( five quad-20s , triple-17 , bullseye ) , but was swiftly dropped from professional tournament play after only two years . One make of this board was the Harrows Quadro 240 . Skill level and aiming Assuming standard scoring , the optimal area to aim for on the dart board in order to maximize the player 's score varies significantly based on the players skill . The skilled player should aim for the centre of the T20 and as the player 's skill reduces their aim moves slightly up and to the left of the T20 . At σ 16.4 mm the best place to aim jumps to the T19 . As the player 's skill decreases further , the best place to aim curls into the centre of the board , stopping a bit lower than and to the left of the bullseye at σ 100 . Where σ may refer to the standard deviation for a specific population : List of darts players . Games There are many games that can be played on a dartboard , but darts generally refers to a game whereby the player throws three darts per visit to the board with the goal of reducing a fixed score , commonly 501 or 301 , to zero ( `` checking out '' ) , with the final dart landing in either the bullseye or a double segment . A game of darts is generally contested between two players , who take turns . Each turn consists of throwing three darts . When two teams play , the starting score is sometimes increased to '701 ' or even '1001 ' ; the rules remain the same . A throw that reduces a player 's score below zero , to exactly one , or to zero but not ending with a double is known as `` going bust '' , with the player 's score being reset to the value prior to starting the turn , and the remainder of the turn being forfeited . In some variants ( called a `` northern bust '' in London ) only the dart that causes the bust is not counted . That is felt by some to be a purer version of the game , as under the normal rules , as explained above , a player left with a difficult finish , e.g . 5 and one dart remaining will often deliberately `` bust '' it in order to get back to the easier finish that they had at the start of their go . For example , a player with 20 at the start of their go could miss the double 10 and get a single , miss the double 5 and get a single , leaving them 5 and only one dart remaining . Their best option is to deliberately bust it to get back onto double 10 . Under the `` northern bust '' they would remain on 5 . A darts match is played over a fixed number of games , known as legs . A match may be divided into sets , with each set being contested as over a fixed number of legs . Although playing straight down from 501 is standard in darts , sometimes a double must be hit to begin scoring , known as `` doubling in '' , with all darts thrown before hitting a double not being counted . The PDC 's World Grand Prix uses this format . The minimum number of thrown darts required to complete a leg of 501 is nine . The most common nine dart finish consists of two 180 maximums followed by a 141 checkout ( T20-T19-D12 ) , but there are many other possible ways of achieving the feat . Three 167s ( T20-T19-Bull ) is considered a pure or perfect nine dart finish by some players . Other games and variants There are a number of regional variations on the standard rules and scoring systems . Round the Clock `` Round the clock '' is a variation that involves hitting the numbers in sequence , known as `` around the world '' in Australia and New Zealand . `` Jumpers '' is a somewhat swifter and more exciting variation of Round the Clock believed to have originated amongst the British ex-pat community in Asia . 20 to 1 20 to 1 is a Dutch variation of the around the world darts game that differs a lot because of all kinds of extra rules . This game uses the standard 20 number dartboard with the triple and double rings . In Dutch it 's called `` Van 20 naar 1 '' . 20 to 1 is typically played between 2 , 3 , 4 or 5 players , or 2 teams of max 5 players . The goal of 20 to 1 is to be the first player or team to throw all numbers in consecutive order from 20 to 1 and win the game with outer or inner bullseye . Around the world `` Around the world '' is a game whereby each player must hit consecutive numbers on the board in order to proceed to the next round . In a one on one battle the winner is the person to reach the last number or bullseye . In a team competition the winner is the first team to reach the last number or bullseye after the round is complete or each member of each team has thrown that specific round . American darts American Darts is a regional USA variant of the game ( most U.S. dart players play the traditional games described above ) . This style of dart board is most often found in eastern Pennsylvania , New Jersey , Delaware , Maryland , and parts of New York state . Archery darts This is played in exactly the same way as a regular game of darts , but using recurve or compound bows to shoot full length arrows from a distance to hit a 60 cm or 90 cm paper target face that looks like a dartboard . These are commercially produced , but usually only in black & white . Audio darts A variant of traditional darts played using a blindfold . Often played by people with visual disabilities . Typically a talking electronic dartboard is used to speak the numbers hit , keep score and announce who is throwing next . Cricket Cricket is a widely played darts game involving a race to control and score on numbers between 20 and 15 and the bullseye , by hitting each of these targets for three marks to open or own it for scoring . A hit on the target counts as one mark , while hits in the doubles ring of the target count as two marks in one throw , and on the triples ring as three . Once opened in this manner , until the opponent closes that number with three marks on it of their own , each additional hit by the owner/opener scores points equal to the number of the target ( which may also be doubled and tripled , e.g . a triple-20 is worth 60 points ) . The outer bullseye counts as 25 points , and the inner as 50 . Dartball Dartball is a darts game based on the sport of baseball . It is played on a diamond shaped board and has similar scoring to baseball . Dart golf Dart golf is a darts game based on the sport of golf and is regulated by the World Dolf Federation ( WDFF ) . It is played on both special golf dartboards and traditional dartboards . Scoring is similar to golf . Fives This is a regional variant still played in some parts of the East End of London . The board has fewer , larger segments , all numbered either 5 , 10 , 15 or 20 . Players play down from 505 rather than 501 , and stand the farthest ( 9 ft ) away from the board of any mainstream variation . Halve it Halve it is a darts game popular in the United Kingdom and parts of North America where competitors try to hit previously agreed targets on a standard dart board . Failure to do so within a single throw ( 3 darts ) results in the player losing half their accumulated score . Any number of players can take part and the game can vary in length depending on the number of targets selected . The game can be tailored to the skill level of the players by selecting easy or difficult targets . Killer `` Killer '' is a 'knock-out ' game for two or more players ( at its best at 4–6 players ) . Initially each player throws a dart at the board with their non-dominant hand to obtain their 'number ' . No two players can have the same number . Once everyone has a number , each player takes it in turn to get their number five times with their three darts ( doubles count twice , and triples three times ) . Once a person has reached 5 , they become a 'killer ' . This means they can aim for other peoples numbers , taking a point off for each time they hit ( doubles x2 , triples x3 ) . If a person gets to zero they are out . A killer can aim for anyone 's numbers , even another killer 's . You can not get more than 5 points . The winner is 'the last man standing ' . Lawn darts Lawn darts ( also called Jarts or yard darts ) is a lawn game based on darts . The game play and objective are similar to both horseshoes and darts . The darts are similar to the ancient Roman plumbata . Shanghai Shanghai is a darts game of accuracy . Hitting doubles and triples is paramount to victory . This game is played with at least two players . The standard version is played in 7 rounds . In round one players throw their darts aiming for the 1 section , round 2 , the 2 section and so on until round 7 . Standard scoring is used , and doubles and triples are counted . Only hits on the wedge for that round are counted . The winner is the person who has the most points at the end of seven rounds ( 1–7 ) ; or you can score a Shanghai and win instantly . To score a Shanghai you have to hit a triple , a double and single ( in any order ) of the number that is in play . Shanghai can also be played for 20 rounds to use all numbers . A Fairer Start for Shanghai : To prevent players from becoming too practised at shooting for the 1 , the number sequence can begin at the number of the dart that lost the throw for the bullseye to determine the starting thrower . For example ; Thrower A shoots for the bullseye and hits the 17 . Thrower B shoots for the bullseye and hits it . Thrower B then begins the game , starting on the number 17 , then 18 , 19 , 20 , 1 , 2 , 3 , etc . through 16 ( if no player hits Shanghai ) . Seventeen Skunk A reverse form of unscored Cricket , beginning with the bullseye . Once any player has cleared the 17 , any players who have not cleared bullseye are eliminated . Darts organisations Amateur league organisations The American Darts Organization promulgates rules and standards for amateur league darts and sanctions tournaments in the United States . The American Darts Organization began operation January 1 , 1976 with 30 charter member clubs and a membership of 7,500 players . Today , the ADO has a membership that averages 250 clubs on a yearly basis representing roughly 50,000 members . l Professional organisations Of the two professional organisations , the British Darts Organisation ( BDO ) , founded 1973 , is the older . Its tournaments are often shown on the BBC in the UK . The BDO is a member of the World Darts Federation ( WDF ) ( founded 1976 ) , along with organizations in some 60 other countries worldwide . The BDO originally organised a number of the more prestigious British tournaments with a few notable exceptions such as the News of the World Championship and the national events run under the auspices of the National Darts Association of Great Britain . However , many sponsors were lost and British TV coverage became much reduced by the early nineties . In 1992 a breakaway organisation was formed , initially known as the World Darts Council ( WDC ) but shortly after known as the Professional Darts Corporation ( PDC ) . The PDC tournaments have a considerable following , although the PDC World Championship attracts lower TV viewing figures than that of the BDO due to the BDO World Championship being free to view on the BBC , however , due to the BBC picking up the inaugural PDC Champions League of Darts set to begin on 24 September 2016 , they will no longer be broadcasting the BDO World Championship . The PDC tournaments often have higher prize money and feature the leading player in the history of the game , 16-time World Champion Phil Taylor . The highly successful BDO player Raymond van Barneveld switched to the PDC and won the PDC World Championship at his first attempt in 2007 . Professional play The BDO and PDC both organise a World Professional Championship . They are held annually over the Christmas/New Year period , with the PDC championship finishing slightly earlier than the BDO tournament . The BDO World Championship has been running since 1978 ; the PDC World Championship started in 1994 . Both organisations hold other professional tournaments . The BDO organise the World Masters and many Open tournaments . They also organise county darts for their 66 county members in the UK including individual and team events . The PDC 's major tournaments

qb_628--Darts.txt

‘The Crafty Cockney’ was the nickname of which British darts player?

Species reintroduction is the deliberate release of a species into the wild , from captivity or other areas where the animal survives . A species that needs reintroduction is usually one whose existence has become threatened or endangered in the wild . However , reintroduction of a species can also be for pest control . For example , wolves being reintroduced to a wild area because of an overpopulation of elk or deer . Because reintroduction may involve returning native species to localities where they had been extirpated , some prefer the term `` reestablishment '' . Reintroduction has been practiced for many years . Principles of reintroduction Reintroduction and translocation are both important tools for population and species management . Translocation moves wild-caught animals from one natural location to another , while reintroduction moves captive-born animals into their natural historical range . `` Much of the behavioral research required to obtain reproduction will also be critical for reintroduction , which depends on the development of behaviorally competent individuals . More behavioral research to select the best candidates and prepare them for the very different challenges that await them in nature will be essential also . Behaviorists will again play a crucial role in post-release monitoring to determine the behavioral deficiencies that limit the success of reintroductions . There may be no other conservation action where the skills of behavioral researchers are more essential than reintroduction . '' In situ conservation means `` on site '' . In-situ conservation is the conservation of species diversity within normal and natural habitats and ecosystems . The challenge in using in-situ methods is to expand our vision of protected areas to include multiple use and extractive reserves to develop new models for conservation . In-Situ conservation uses innovative proposals such as damaged ecosystems to preserve rare , endangered , and threatened species and to expand the range of options available for economic development . Ex-situ conservation means literally , `` off-site conservation '' . It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal outside of its natural habitat . Capturing and relocating part of a population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location where it may have a better chance of survival is one example . Ex-situ conservation should only be used when In-Situ conservation can not . Education Zoos are one of the most conventional methods of ex-situ conservation . Depending on their size and location , zoos receive between a few tens of thousands to several million visitors annually . Zoos provide education to the public about the many endangered species and explain the factors contributing the threats they face in their native habitats . Through ex-situ conservation methods they provide protected specimens for breeding and reintroduction into the wild . It has been suggested that this method should be used only when necessary and when In-Situ conservation is not possible . Successes and failures Reintroduction biology is new and continues to be a work in progress . The IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group & Environment Agency , in their 2011 Global Re-introduction Perspectives , compiled reintroduction case studies from around the world . 184 case studies were reported on a range of species which included invertebrates , fish , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , and plants . Assessments from all of the studies included goals , success indicators , project summary , major difficulties faced , major lessons learned , and success of project with reasons for success or failure . The Siberian tiger population has rebounded from 40 individuals in the 1940s to around 500 in 2007 . The Siberian tiger population is now the largest un-fragmented tiger population in the world . Yet , a high proportion of translocations and reintroductions have not been successful in establishing viable populations Black footed ferrets in North America have also been a highly successful reintroduced species . Husbandry techniques were refined and the first successful captive breeding occurred in 1987 . For this species , disease management in captivity is paramount and strict protocols are followed . Genetic management is closely monitored and ferrets are bred using a mean-kinship strategy which provides genetic diversity when bred in captivity . To prepare them for reintroduction into their new `` wild '' habitat , captive-born ferrets are placed in outdoor pens , simulating quasi-natural conditions with dirt burrows and live prey . Ferrets that receive pre-release conditioning in outdoor pens prior to release have demonstrated 10-fold higher survival rates in the wild than ferrets that receive no pre-release exposure . Ferrets are typically released in the fall during their natural dispersal and kits ( young of the year ) are the primary candidates . Many factors can attribute to the success or failure of a reintroduction . Predators , food , pathogens , competitors , and weather can all affect a reintroduced population 's ability to grow , survive , and reproduce . Animals raised in captivity may experience stress during captivity or translocation , which can weaken their immune systems . The IUCN reintroduction guidelines emphasize the need for an assessment of the availability of suitable habitat as a key component of reintroduction planning . Poor assessment of the release site can increase the chances that the species will reject the site and perhaps move to a less suitable environment . This can decrease the species fitness and thus decrease chances for survival . They state that restoration of the original habitat and amelioration of causes of extinction must be explored and considered as essential conditions for these projects . Unfortunately , the monitoring period that should follow re introductions often remains neglected . Improving research techniques A cooperative approach to reintroduction by ecologists and biologists could improve research techniques . For both preparation and monitoring of reintroductions , increasing contacts between academic population biologists and wildlife managers is encouraged within the Survival Species Commission and the IUCN . The IUCN states that a re-introduction requires a multidisciplinary approach involving a team of persons drawn from a variety of backgrounds . A survey by Wolf et al . in 1998 indicated that 64 % of reintroduction projects have used subjective opinion to assess habitat quality . This means that most reintroduction evaluation has been based on human anecdotal evidence and not enough has been based on statistical findings . Seddon et al . ( 2007 ) suggest that researchers contemplating future reintroductions should specify goals , overall ecological purpose , and inherent technical and biological limitations of a given reintroduction , and planning and evaluation processes should incorporate both experimental and modeling approaches . Monitoring the health of individuals , as well as the survival , is important ; both before and after the reintroduction . Intervention may be necessary if the situation proves unfavorable . Population dynamics models that integrate demographic parameters and behavioral data recorded in the field can lead to simulations and tests of a priori hypotheses . Using previous results to design further decisions and experiments is a central concept of adaptive management . In other words , learning by doing can help in future projects . Population ecologists should therefore collaborate with biologists , ecologists , and wildlife management to improve reintroduction programs . Survival skills It may be very hard to reintroduce species into the wild , even if their natural habitats were restored . Survival techniques , which are normally passed from parents to offspring during parenting , are lost . The genetics of the species is saved , but the natural memetics of the species is not . Beginning in the 1980s , biologists have learned that many mammals and birds need to learn a lot to survive in the wild . Thus , reintroduction programmes have to be planned carefully , ensuring that the animals have the necessary survival skills . Biologists must also study the animals after the reintroduction to learn whether the animals are surviving and breeding , what effects the reintroduction has on the ecosystem , and how to improve the process . Still , a vast number of animals may need to be reintroduced into the wild to be sure that enough of them learn how to survive . For instance , in reintroducing houbara bustards into the wild in the United Arab Emirates , more than 5,000 birds per year are used . Re-introduction Specialist Group ( RSG ) The RSG is a network of specialists whose aim is to combat the ongoing and massive loss of biodiversity by using re-introductions as a responsible tool for the management and restoration of biodiversity . It does this by actively developing and promoting sound inter-disciplinary scientific information , policy , and practice to establish viable wild populations in their natural habitats . The role of the RSG is to promote the re-establishment of viable populations in the wild of animals and plants . The need for this role was felt due to the increased demand from re-introduction practitioners , the global conservation community and increase in re-introduction projects worldwide . Increasing numbers of animal and plant species are becoming rare , or even extinct in the wild . In an attempt to re-establish populations , species can – in some instances – be re-introduced into an area , either through translocation from existing wild populations , or by re-introducing captive-bred animals or artificially propagated plants . United Kingdom Ongoing or successful programs * European bison to the UK – ( ongoing ) * Black grouse to Derbyshire – ( ongoing ) * Common crane to Somerset – ( ongoing ) * Corncrake to Cambridgeshire – ( ongoing ) * Glanville fritillary butterfly to Somerset – ( successful ) * European beaver to Scotland , England , and Wales – ( successful in Scotland and Northern England ) * Great bustard to Salisbury Plain – ( ongoing ) * Heath fritillary butterfly to Essex – ( successful ) * Ladybird spider to Arne RSPB reserve in Dorset , England – ( ongoing ) . * Large blue butterfly in the West and The South West – ( successful and ongoing ) * Northern goshawk – the existing UK population is believed to be derived from a mixture of escaped falconers ' birds and deliberate introductions – ( successful ) * Osprey to Rutland Water – ( successful ) * Red kite in the Chiltern Hills , Black Isle , Northamptonshire , Dumfries and Galloway , Yorkshire , Perth and Kinross and Gateshead – ( successful ) * Red squirrel to Anglesey – ( successful and ongoing ) [ http : //www.redsquirrels.info Red squirrel conservation , squirrel ecology and grey squirrel management ] * Reindeer to the Cairngorms in Scotland – ( semi-domesticated ; successful ) * Scots pine to southern England – ( unplanned , successful ) * Silver-washed fritillary to Essex – ( ongoing , locally successful ) * Wild boar to several places in Britain – ( accidental , successful ) * White-tailed eagle to the Hebrides – ( successful ) * White-tailed eagle to the east coast of Scotland – ( ongoing ) Planned or proposed programs * Brown bear in the Scottish Highlands – ( proposed ) * Elk to Great Britain – ( proposed ) * European lynx in Wales , England and Scotland ( proposed ) * Golden eagle in United States and Wales * Gray wolf in Scotland – ( proposed ) * Arctic wolf in northern Scotland * White stork – ( proposed ) * White-tailed eagle to England and Wales ( planned – on hold while a suitable site is found ) * Gray whale to Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea ( proposed – considered not feasible technologically and biologically . Two vagrant individuals sighted in the Mediterranean Sea in 2010 and off Namibia in 2013 , the latter is the first confirmation of the species in the Southern Hemisphere . ) Other countries Planned or proposed programmes * Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project of Asiatic lion to Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary from their only home presently in the world at Gir Forest National Park . Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary is the chosen site for re-introducing and establishing the world 's second completely separate population of the wild free ranging Asiatic lions in the state of Madhya Pradesh . It was decided to re-introduce the Asiatic lion in Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan . Some will be reintroduced in two locations in Gujarat . * Siberian Tiger Re-population Project was proposed in 2009 to reintroduce Amur tigers back to their former lands and including the former ranges in Central Asia once inhabited by their closest relatives , the Caspian tigers . In 2010 , two pairs of Siberian tigers , exchanged for Persian leopards to southwestern Russia , were set to be reintroduced in Iran 's Miankaleh peninsula . Currently , the big cats ( one of them had died ) are being held in captivity in Eram zoo . Siberian tigers were also proposed to be reintroduced to a suitable habitat near the international river of Amu Darya in Central Asia and near the Ili River delta in Kazakhstan . A rewilding project at the Pleistocene Park , part of the re-population project was proposed back in 2005 . * Red deer - A programme was announced in 2013 to reintroduce the red deer to Armenia . 4 males and 11 females of the species will be purchased and transported to a breeding centre at Dilijan National Park . The World Wildlife Fund Germany and Orange Armenia have provided the funds for the project . * Cheetah reintroduction in India is a project to reintroduce the cheetah in India . The Asiatic cheetah became extinct in 1947 when Maharaja of Surguja hunted the last three in the state of Rewa in central India . It was officially declared extinct in 1952 by the Indian government . Plans are going on to reintroduce the cheetah to two site in Madhya Pradesh ( Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary and Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary ) and in Rajasthan 's Shahgarh Landscape . However , the Supreme court of India put a hold on this project as they recommended to protect the endangered lions first rather than import cheetah from Africa or Iran . ( On hold ) * South China tiger - Captive tigers being re-wilded in Laohu Valley Reserve in the Free State province of South Africa under Save China 's Tigers programme , will be eventually released back into the wilderness of China . Ongoing or successful programs Africa * North African ostrich in Morocco , Nigeria , Niger and Tunisia ( ongoing ) * Southern white rhinoceros in Kenya , Uganda and Zambia ( successful ) * South African cheetah in Swaziland ( successful ) Asia * Amur leopard in Russia ( successful ) * Arabian oryx in the Sultanate of Oman ( successful ) , United Arab Emirates ( successful ) , Israel ( successful ) * Bornean orangutan in East Kalimantan , Indonesia * Indian rhinoceros in Pakistan ( ongoing ) * North African ostrich in Israel and Saudi Arabia ( ongoing ) * Nubian ibex in Israel ( successful ) * Eurasian otter in Japan ( ongoing ) * Père David 's deer in China ( successful ) * Persian fallow deer in Israel ( ongoing ) * Persian leopard in Russia ( ongoing ) * Persian onager in Saudi Arabia ( successful ) * Przewalski 's horse in Mongolia ( ongoing ) * Sarus Cranes in Thailand ( ongoing ) * Sudan cheetah in United Arab Emirates ( ongoing ) * Turkmenian kulan in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan ( successful ) * Yarkon Bleak fish in Israel ( successful ) * Neurergus microspilotus in [ Western Iran ] ( successful ) Europe * Alpine ibex in the French , Italian and Swiss Alps ( successful ) * Eurasian brown bear in the Alps ( ongoing ) * European beaver in several places in Europe ( successful ) * European otter in the Netherlands ( ongoing ) * European lynx in Switzerland ( successful ) , and other parts of Europe ( ongoing ) * European black vulture in the Massif Central in France * Goitered gazelle in Protected Areas of Vashlovani in Georgia ( country ) ( ongoing ) * Golden eagle in Ireland ( ongoing ) * Griffon vulture in the Massif Central , France ( successful ) , Central Apennines , Italy , and Northern and Southern Israel ( ongoing ) * Iberian lynx in Portugal ( ongoing ) * Lammergeier in the Alps ( successful ) Switzerland ( successful ) * Lesser kestrel in Spain * Lesser white-fronted goose in Sweden and Germany ( ongoing ) * Northern bald ibis in Austria and Italy ( ongoing ) * Peregrine falcon in Germany , Poland , Sweden and Norway * Red kite in Ireland [ http : //www.environ.ie/en/Heritage/NationalParksandWildlife/News/MainBody,5384 , en.htm News - Department of the Environment , Heritage & Local Government ] * Western swamphen in the Mondego River basin , Portugal ( successful ) * White-tailed eagle in Ireland ( ongoing ) * Wisent in Poland , Belarus ( successful ) and other parts of Europe ( ongoing ) North America * Black-footed ferret in Canada , United States and Mexico * California condor in California and Mexico ( ongoing ) * Fisher in Washington State ( ongoing ) * Grey wolf to Yellowstone National Park ( successful ) * Musk ox in Alaska ( United States ) ( successful ) * American flamingo to Anegada , British Virgin Islands ( successful ) * Whooping Cranes , including migratory population in the Eastern United States and non-migratory population in Louisiana ( ongoing ) Oceania * Woylie in Australia ( ongoing ) South America * Giant anteater in Corrientes , Argentina * Guanaco in central Argentina * Puerto Rican parrot in Arecibo ( ongoing ) * Red-and-green macaw to Iberá Provincial Reserve , Argentina * Vinaceous amazon parrot to Parque Nacional das Araucárias , Santa Catarina , Brazil ( ongoing )

sfq_6589--Species_reintroduction.txt

Which large American bird (Gymnogyps) has been reintroduced to the wild after breeding in captivity in 1991?

The A57 is a major road in England . It runs east from Liverpool to Lincoln , via Warrington , Cadishead , Irlam , Patricroft , Eccles , Salford and Manchester , then through the Pennines over the Snake Pass ( between the high moorlands of Bleaklow and Kinder Scout ) , around the Ladybower Reservoir , through Sheffield and past Worksop . Within Manchester a short stretch becomes the A57 ( M ) motorway ( the Mancunian Way ) . The 3 mi £4 million Aston relief road in Sheffield opened in mid-1985 , with the old route now designated as the B6200 . Route Liverpool–Warrington The A57 begins at The Strand ( A5036 ) near the River Mersey , as part of Water Street . It forms an east–west route through the north of the city centre with another one-way road system as Tithebarn Street ( passing part of JMU ) , Great Crosshall Street and Churchill Way in the east direction and Churchill Way and Dale Street in the west direction . The connecting roads Moorfields and Hatton Garden are also part of the A57 , which join the east and west directions . In both directions , Churchill Way crosses the A59 near the entrance of the Queensway Tunnel . It overlaps briefly with the A580 as Islington , separated as two one-way roads , then becomes Prescot Street , passing the Royal Liverpool University Hospital . At the junction with the B5340 , it becomes Kensington , meeting the A5089 to the south and B5188 to the north , becoming Prescot Road . It crosses a railway at Fairfield passing St Anne 's Church on the left near the Stanley public house , overlapping with the B5189 Green Lane to the north . It meets the A5047 to the south near a Tesco and the B5189 at Old Swan . At the junction with the A5058 Queens Drive it enters Knotty Ash ( with Alder Hey Children 's Hospital to the north ) , becoming East Prescot Road and a trunk road . There is a roundabout and it enters Dovecot before it passes through Huyton . It meets the A526 Seth Powell Way to the north ( for the M57 ) , becoming Liverpool Road , At junction two of the M57 , it meets the B5194 Knowsley Lane to the north and B5199 Huyton Lane to the south , and the start of the A58 . It passes through Prescot as the non-trunk Derby Street then High Street . It meets the A58 again and becomes a trunk road , then meets the B5200 ( former route of the A57 ) at a roundabout , becoming Warrington Road . It crosses the Liverpool to Wigan Line near Scotchbarn Leisure Centre . It meets the B5201 to the north opposite Whiston Hospital . It passes through Rainhill , meeting the B5413 near the railway station . It passes Rainhill High School to the left , then St Bartholomew RC Primary School . At junction 7 of the M62 , it meets the A557 ( for Widnes ) and the St Helens Linkway A570 ( for St Helens ) . The road runs along the road from junction 7 for about 1 mi , then it meets the B5419 at a crossroads , and the A569 to the left at Bold Heath near the Griffin Inn . At Lingley Green it enters as Liverpool Road , passing the Trigger Pond pub on the left . It crosses the Liverpool to Manchester Line ( southern route ) . At Great Sankey , it becomes a dual-carriageway and meets the A562 at a roundabout . Warrington–Manchester The original route through Warrington town centre included the narrow Sankey Street , which required special narrow buses to be operated . The road now bypasses Warrington town centre via a new elevated road , Midland Way , before emerging at a roundabout junction with the A49 . The road loses its trunk road status and becomes School Brow . Warrington Parish Church , St Elphin , is to the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/27180 right ] , near the right turn for Church Street . The road becomes Manchester Road , and meets the A50 at crossroads . It passes through Bruche , home of a former police training centre , and its [ http : //www.runtrackdir.com/details.asp ? track=warrington-b running track ] . At Paddington , the road becomes dual-carriageway as New Manchester Road , passing close to Woolston Community High School . In Woolston , it becomes [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/28397 Manchester Road ] . It passes a 40 mph speed camera near Woolston Leisure Centre and enters Martinscroft . At junction 21 of the M6 , it becomes a trunk road and meets the B5210 Woolston Grange Avenue at a roundabout , then [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/27232 passes ] the Mascrat Manor at another roundabout . It traverses [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/27237 Rixton Moss ] , [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/27226 passing ] Ramswood Nurseries . It passes briefly through Rixton , with a right turn for Warburton over the Warburton [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/53915 toll bridge ] , and becomes dual-carriageway at Hollins Green . At the end of the dual-carriageway is a left turn for the B5212 for Glazebrook and its railway station , and then it crosses [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/569492 Glaze Brook ] as Liverpool Road , entering the metropolitan district of Salford . There is a new roundabout with the former road through Cadishead , and a [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/50496 new section ] of the A57 follows the Manchester Ship Canal , on the route of the MSC Railway . The former route is partly the B5417 ( and the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/468267 B5320 ] is an earlier route ) , continuing as Liverpool Road . The £11.3 million [ http : //www.salford.gov.uk/business/design/engineering/highways/cadisheadway-stage-2.htm Cadishead Way ] opened on 16 September 2005 . It meets the B5417 at a roundabout near [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/2300 Northbank Industrial Estate ] . It [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/44674 passes ] under the railway near the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/1550 junction ] of the River Mersey and Manchester Ship Canal , and there is a left turn for the B5311 . There is a [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/44682 new roundabout ] next to Irlam Locks and the Boat House pub and another with the B5320 at the end of the Cadishead Way , which bypasses Irlam . Entering Eccles as Liverpool Road , it passes Boysnope Park Golf Club on Barton Moss , where the road becomes dual-carriageway . It passes the City Airport Manchester on the left ( AKA Barton Aerodrome before March 2007 ) . At Peel Green , it meets the M60 at junction 11 , with the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/1544 Barton High Level Bridge ] and Barton-upon-Irwell close by to the south . Soon after this junction the road enters Patricroft and is no longer a trunk road , passing the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/4350 Unicorn ] pub . It meets the B5211 at crossroads ( Patricroft Bridge ) and [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/2328 crosses ] the Bridgewater Canal , then there is a left turn for the B5231 ( Green Lane ) towards Patricroft railway station and Monton . Before long it enters the centre of Eccles proper , splitting into two as Church Street and Irwell Place going east , passing the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/12224 library ] and a Morrisons , and Corporation Road going west . It meets a roundabout near the Eccles [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/465470 terminus ] of the Manchester Metrolink . It becomes the dual-carriageway Bentcliffe Way , meeting the A576 ( for Trafford Park . It leaves the A576 near junction 2 of the M602 , heading east as the single-carriageway Eccles New Road . It passes the Ladywell station on the right and meets the A5185 to the left . The Metrolink folloews the road on the right hand side . There is the B5228 to the left near the Weaste [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/43339 station ] . In Weaste , there is the Langworthy station near the A5186 left turn where the Metrolink leaves the road to the south . The road runs parallel to the M602 100m to the north . The road becomes the trunk road dual carriageway Regent Road at the junction with the terminus of the M602 and the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/10907 A5063 ] ( Albion Way north for the A6 , and Trafford Road south for Salford Quays ) . It is now the main route into Manchester from the west , meeting the A5066 at crossroads , passes a Sainsbury 's on the left , then meets the B5461 and [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/379229 crosses ] the River Irwell where it enters the city of Manchester . There is a left turn for the A6143 Water Street ( for Castlefield ) and it becomes Dawson Street , is crossed by the Metrolink ( for Altrincham ) , passes over the Bridgewater Canal and Cheshire Ring , then becomes [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/59627 Egerton Street ] . It runs into the A57 ( M ) - the Mancunian Way at the GSJ with the A56 Bridgewater Way . The Beetham Tower Manchester is seen nearby to the left . Manchester–Sheffield It leaves the A57 ( M ) at the A6 exit and follows Downing Street , and Ardwick Green South , passing through Brunswick and the Ardwick Green Barracks of the King 's and Cheshire Regiment . The A6 leaves at a roundabout , and the road temporarily loses its trunk status . At the Ellen Wilkinson High School , it meets the A665 , and becomes a trunk road as Hyde Road . It crosses under a railway and meets the A6010 at crossroads . It passes through Belle Vue , meets the B6178 ( for Levenshulme ) , crosses a railway near the Belle Vue railway station , entering Gorton . It meets the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/59711 B6167 ] ( for North Reddish ) . It enters the borough of Tameside , becoming the dual-carriageway Manchester Road . It meets the M60 at junction 24 , and divides into two east and west routes next to Denton railway station on the left and a Sainsbury 's on the right , either [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/784697 side ] of the M67 . They meet and the road loses its trunk status , entering Denton , passing the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/2299 Christ Church Denton ] on the right . It meets the A6017 at crossroads , becoming Hyde Road with a Morrisons on the right . It meets [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/786350 junction 2 ] of the M67 , which follows the road , near the church of [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/403393 St Anne ] and crosses the River Tame , becoming Manchester Road . It crosses the Peak Forest Canal and goes under the Hope Valley Line near Hyde Central railway station . The A627 overlaps and there it meets [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/828667 junction 3 ] of the M67 with an Asda on the right as it passes through Hyde as Market Street and Union Street and passes Tameside College on the right . It leaves the A627 to the right as Mottram Road , with a Morrisons on the left next to the M67 , entering Godley and passing under the Glossop Line near Godley railway station and [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/9749 Godley Reservoir ] . It passes through Hattersley , and mets the final junction of the M67 - junction 4 - at a [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/37840 roundabout ] with the dual-carriageway A560 ( for Stockport ) . It resumes its trunk road status as Hyde Road , passing through Mottram in Longdendale , where there are crossroads at traffic lights with the B6174 . Leaving Mottram , it [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/453381 meets ] the A6018 to the left ( from Stalybridge ) at traffic lights . It becomes Mottram Moor and at the next junction , it leaves to the right , with the A628 continuing straight on . It loses trunk road status and becomes Woolley Lane , passing through part of Hollingworth . It crosses the River Etherow , entering Derbyshire and the High Peak district . It enters Brookfield and meets the A626 ( for Marple ) from the right . It passes under the Glossop Line , at the Dinting viaduct , again near Dinting railway station as it passes through Dinting and the primary school . The A6016 leaves to the right and the road enters Glossop as High Street West passing a Tesco on the left . It meets the A624 ( for Hayfield ) and the B6105 at crossroads in the middle of the town , near the railway station . It becomes High Street East , passing [ http : //www.highpeak.gov.uk/leisure/glossopLeisureCentre/ Glossop Leisure Centre ] on the right . There is a roundabout and it becomes Sheffield Road , then Woodcock Road as it leaves Glossop and enters the Peak District National Park ( Dark Peak ) . There is a sharp bend to the right and it becomes Snake Pass . It climbs up [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/214874 Holden Clough ] and at [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/698719 Featherbed Moss ] , it is [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/22692 crossed ] by the Pennine Way at the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/481671 summit ] at 1550 ft , with the hills of Bleaklow to the left and Kinder Scout to the right . Here it enters the National Trust 's High Peak Estate . It passes the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/37875 Doctor 's Gate ] and follows the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/189191 Lady Clough ] valley [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/431557 downhill ] to a point where Lady Clough [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/393367 meets ] the River Ashop , [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/5577 passing ] the [ http : //www.snakepassinn.co.uk Snake Pass Inn ] on the left . It follows the River Ashop closely to the north in the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/198377 Woodlands Valley ] for about 4 mi , and [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/189676 leaves ] the High Peak Estate . It [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/218076 crosses ] the River Alport . It crosses Ladybower Reservoir at [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/434003 Ashopton Bridge ] . It meets the A6013 ( for Bamford ) and passes the [ http : //www.ladybower-inn.co.uk Ladybower Inn ] . It climbs the valley and passes over [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/59079 Cutthroat Bridge ] . It is at about 1200 ft as it enters South Yorkshire and the city of Sheffield . It follows down the hill as Manchester Road past Hollow Meadows . Following the hill down into Sheffield , it passes the New Norfolk Arms on the left , with the Rivelin Dams on the right with the Rivelin Rocks high on the left , and leaves the Peak District National Park . At the Rivelin Mill Bridge it crosses the River Rivelin and the A6101 leaves to the left . It [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/171316 passes ] the [ http : //www.sheffieldpubs.fsnet.co.uk/Business/pubs/bellhag.htm Bell Hagg Inn ] on the left , then the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/170045 Sportsman ] in Crosspool . It enters Tapton Hill and passes the [ http : //www.lydgate-junior.ik.org Lydgate Junior School ] and [ http : //www.taptonschool.co.uk Tapton School ] . It [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/170128 meets ] Fulwood Road in Broomhill . The B6069 leaves to the right , and it becomes Whitham Road . It passes [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/170149 Weston Park Hospital ] and as Western Bank , it passes Sheffield Children 's Hospital then the Octagon Centre on the right and becomes the dual-carriageway Brook Hill , [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/2803 passing ] straight through the University of Sheffield with its Arts Tower and Alfred Denny Building seen to the left , and the Hicks Building seen to the right . It becomes Broad Lane in Netherthorpe , passing the former Jessop Hospital and then St George 's Church in Portobello ( now part of Sheffield University ) . At a roundabout it passes the City Plaza , becoming Tenter Street then Westbar Green . It becomes West Bar , passing the Law Courts on the left , then the police headquarters and former Castle Market on the right as Bridge Street . It passes close to the River Don on Castlegate , becoming Exchange Place . It becomes the Sheffield Parkway ( built in 1974 ) , Sheffield 's main route to the M1 , meeting a roundabout . Sheffield–Worksop It meets the A6102 at a GSJ , near the Sheffield Park Academy . At Bowden Housteads Woods , it leaves to the right at a GSJ , passing Athelstan Primary School becoming [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/305166 single-carriageway ] ( three lanes ) . It passes the City School in Richmond and meets the B6064 at a roundabout , being followed by the Trans Pennine Trail . It passes Hackenthorpe and meets the B6053 ( for Crystal Peaks ) at a roundabout , becoming a short section of [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/194450 dual-carriageway ] until another nearby [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/194455 roundabout ] at Beighton . It [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/672097 crosses ] the River Rother , entering the borough of Rotherham , and meets a roundabout . It crosses the Sheffield to Lincoln Line and at the roundabout at Swallownest with the former route ( B6200 ) turns right onto Aston Way . At Aston , it meets the A618 from the left , then the A618 leaves to the right at the next roundabout . The Aston Relief Road [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/162748 ends ] where it meets the M1 at [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/162744 junction 31 ] , just after the junction for the former route ( B6067 ) . It becomes the dual-carriageway Worksop Road , and now the level of traffic increases as it is a major east-west route . It becomes single-carriageway and [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/162733 meets ] the B6463 from the left , near Todwick and [ http : //www.pub-explorer.com/syorks/pub/redliontodwick.htm Red Lion Inn ] . At South Anston , it meets the B6059 at the Shell Worksop Road station . It crosses a [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/125628 railway ] and [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/128686 Lindrick Common ] near Woodsetts . Worksop–Lincoln The 5 mi £11.3 million Worksop Southern Bypass opened in May 1986 . It starts at the roundabout with the B6041 ( for Gateford and the former route through Worksop ) . The next short section is dual-carriageway to the Shireoaks roundabout , which also has access to the Gateford and Dukeries industrial estates . It becomes single-carriageway and crosses the Sheffield to Lincoln Line , at the junction with the Robin Hood Line , and [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/693549 over ] the Chesterfield Canal . It meets the A60 ( for Worksop ) at the Rhodesia Roundabout , near Rhodesia , a Sainsbury 's and a McDonald 's . The next short section , overlapping with the A60 and crossing the River Ryton , is dual-carriageway to the roundabout with the A60 ( for Mansfield ) and B6024 , near the Shell Dukeries Garage and the Worksop Little Chef . From here , it is single carriageway ( excluding the A1 section ) . There is a roundabout with the B6034 ( for Ollerton ) near Worksop College and Portland School . It [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/113965 passes ] the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/235232 former site ] of Manton Colliery , and a large B & Q depot on the left . There is a roundabout with the B6040 ( former route through Worksop ) , which has access to Manton Wood Enterprise Zone . It passes a large Wilkinson 's depot on the left and goes through Clumber Park . It meets the A1 at the [ http : //www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/16861.aspx Apleyhead Junction ] , with the A614 , also known as [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/206497 Five Lanes End ] . The former roundabout was grade-separated in November 2007 . Via the A1 , it passes Elkesley ( on the former route ) with two 50 mph speed cameras and the Retford Gamston Airport , where it crosses the River Idle . Prior to the A1 ( M ) Doncaster bypass opening in August 1961 , this section of the road was the A57 - the A1 ( now A638 ) went straight through Retford . Near to West Drayton it crosses the River Maun ; this section shared with the A1 was dualled in the late 1950s , and the West Drayton Diversion was a completely new section , with the bridge over the Maun and Markham Moor roundabout , and opened in February 1957 . At the next [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/173949 roundabout ] with the A638 ( for Retford ) and B1164 ( for West Markham ) at Markham Moor ( again [ http : //www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/17146.aspx being ] [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/547052 grade-separated ] ) there is the [ http : //www.markhamhotel.co.uk Markham Hotel ] and two Little Chefs , including [ http : //www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WM1TJV one ] ( originally a petrol station ) designed by Sam Scorer with a hyperbolic paraboloid-shaped roof that was destined to be [ http : //www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2004/jan/05/arts.artsnews demolished ] , although has survived and was listed by the Department for Culture Media and Sport in 2012 . The Markham Hotel is currently [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/1330411 situated ] on the former pre-1957 route , 330 yards to the north , and there are two large Markham Moor Shell stations . It leaves up the steep Cliff Gate to the left , which now has a crawler lane over Beacon Hill . It bypasses East Markham ( on the former route to the south ) , and crosses the East Coast Main Line . 550 yards east of the village it resumes its former route . It meets the A6075 ( for Tuxford and Ollerton ) from the right [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/155919 west of ] Darlton where it passes [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/79429 St Giles ' Church ] . There are turns for East Drayton to the left and Ragnall on the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/382366 right ] , and the power stations of Cottam and ( former ) High Marnham are to the north and south , with many lines of pylons following the Trent . It goes through Dunham on Trent , where it passes the [ http : //www.dunhamhouse.co.uk/whiteswan.htm White Swan ] , [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/149963 Bridge Inn ] and [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/50515 St Oswald 's Church ] ; the width of road through the village is not suited for the volume of traffic . It crosses the River Trent at Dunham Bridge ( toll , rebuilt in the mid-1970s ) , where there are [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/502398 queues ] , entering Lincolnshire and the district of West Lindsey as Dunham Road . The [ http : //www.walkingontheweb.co.uk/defined % 20routes/Trent % 20Valley % 20Way.htm Trent Valley Way ] joins at Dunham and leaves to the south at the other end of the bridge . It [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/664227 meets ] the A1133 ( for Gainsborough ) at a staggered junction at Newton on Trent ; the former route of both routed went through the village along High Street - 330 yards east of the junction it resumes the former route ( Southmoor Road further to the south ) . On entering the parish ( but not the village ) of Kettlethorpe the road formerly followed the turn for Thorney ( in Nottinghamshire ) to the right , and then further to the south , with the new section of road resuming the old route close where it crosses Darnsdyke . The road follows the boundary of Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire for about 2 mi , and this section of Lincolnshire encloses former parishes in Nottinghamshire . The ( Roman ) Fossdyke Navigation runs alongside from the junction with the A156 ; the road becomes Gainsborough Road passing [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/497664 Drinsey Nook ] , with the A156 taking priority from the left ( north ) at the traffic-light-controlled junction . On the bend at Drinsey Nook , the road briefly re-enters Nottinghamshire - the Fossdyke is the boundary . At the junction with the B1190 at [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/77087 Tom Otter 's Bridge ] , the boundary follows the B1190 to the south , along Ox Pasture Drain . It enters Saxilby , passing the BP Lincolnshire Co-operative Otter 's Bridge Service Station and a similarly named Total service station . The [ http : //www.diningpubs.co.uk/pub_details.asp ? id=319 Bridge Inn ] is on the left , with a turn for Broadholme ( former Nottinghamshire ) to the right . It crosses the Sheffield to Lincoln Line and [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/369705 Fossdyke ] , meeting the B1241 , for Sturton by Stow . It [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/89634 crosses ] the River Till as Lincoln Road ; a former section of the road from here passed closer to Odder Farm to the north . There is a roundabout , where the road rejoins the old route , for Burton , and [ http : //www.burtonwaters.co.uk Burton Waters Marina ] , then the road enters the borough of Lincoln at the bend in the road to the left before [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/121006 Bishop Bridge ] ( over Catchwater Drain and Main Drain ) and meets the A46 Lincoln Bypass at a roundabout . It enters Lincoln as Carholme Road passing the Total Winning Post Service Station , with Carholme Golf Club to the right , then meets the B1273 Lincoln inner ring road , becoming Newland , where it passes the [ http : //www.geograph.org.uk/photo/108767 offices ] of [ http : //www.lincolnshire.gov.uk Lincolnshire County Council ] on the left . It follows the dual-carriageway Wigford Way next to Brayford Pool and the University of Lincoln , over the River Witham , where it meets the B1262 High Street . It becomes St Mary 's Street and passes the railway station on the right . It splits into Oxford Street , Pelham Street and Norman Street where it meets the A15 at Pelham Bridge , close to the large Siemens engineering company . Although the terminus of the road is in Lincoln , most of the A57 follows the former Liverpool-Skegness trunk road , created by the 1946 Trunk Roads Act . The road from Lincoln to Skegness was formerly also known as the A157 .

sfq_20499--A57_road.txt

The A57 road runs from Liverpool to which English town or city?

Whoville is a fictional town created by author Theodor Seuss Geisel , under the name Dr. Seuss . Whoville appeared in the books Horton Hears a Who ! and How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! However , there were significant differences between the two renditions . Location The exact location of Whoville seems to vary depending on which book or media is being referenced . According to the book Horton Hears a Who ! , the city of Whoville is located within a floating speck of dust which is then placed onto a clover flower by Horton the Elephant . In the book How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! , Whoville 's location is not mentioned . Further , in the 1977 television special Halloween Is Grinch Night , additional geographic features are added to Whoville such as Punkers Pond . Again , however , its greater location is not mentioned , but in both works it can be assumed Whoville is still located within its speck on the clover . In the 1970s television special Horton Hears a Who ! as well as the 2008 CGI-animated film of the same name , Whoville retains its literary location being within a speck on a clover flower . The 1966 television special How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! also stays true to the literature . In the 2000 live-action film adaptation How the Grinch Stole Christmas , from Universal Pictures and Imagine Entertainment , Whoville is located south of Mt . Crumpit within the mountainous Highrange of Pontoos , described in the movie 's introduction . All of which is located inside the frozen crystal structure of a snowflake , rather than on a clover flower . Because the city of Whoville resides on a speck , it is possible Whoville is prone to unexpected movement , weather , and activity , and may from time to time change location altogether . In fact , this unexpected movement was used as a major plot device in the 2008 film . Inhabitants Many different characters , known as Whos , live within the speck of dust . The Whos are whimsical , animal-like creatures who live in pumpkin-shaped houses , known for their warm hearts and welcoming spirits . They are furry humanoids with canine snouts and twelve toes . In the live-action film , the fur was missing from the Whos . Just north of Whoville , atop a high mountain , a bitter , cave-dwelling creature named The Grinch lives with his dog Max . Cindy Lou Who is a generous young girl who was introduced in the book How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! In the 2000 live action film , `` How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! '' she is played by actress Taylor Momsen . The Grinch is a fictional , green colored man with a cat-like face and cynical personality . He lives in isolation upon Mt . Crumpet with his dog Max . The Grinch overlooks the city of Whoville with a lack of empathy for all Whos . He is known to be of a different species than the Whos , being stated as a What . The Grinch is played by actor Jim Carrey in the 2000 production of How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! In the book Horton Hears a Who ! , there is a mayor in Whoville . In the live-action film How the Grinch Stole Christmas , there is a mayor named Augustus Maywho , played by Jeffrey Tambor . Actor Steve Carell plays the Mayor of Whoville in the 2008 animated film Horton Hears a Who ! . In this version , he is named Ned McDodd , and he lives with his wife , 96 daughters and 1 son named Jo-Jo . There are differences between Maywho and McDodd that are instantly noticeable : Maywho is a pompous , arrogant man who views himself as the only person worth listening to , whereas McDodd is `` devoted , and fair , and a little bit odd '' . Adaptations of Whoville Books Dr. Seuss created two children 's books introducing readers to the magical world of Whoville . His first story , Horton Hears a Who ! was published in 1954 . His second use of Whoville was in the story How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! published in 1957 . Both books went on to be among Dr. Seuss 's most popular works . Broadway Seussical , is a Broadway musical produced by Lynn Ahrens and Stephen Flaherty in 2000 . The musical is a collection of Dr. Seuss 's most famous stories that were combined to represent a synthesis of his work . The majority of the musical centers around the life in Whoville , especially the Whos ' Christmas pageant and Horton the elephant . Both themes were based on the plots of How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! and Horton Hears a Who ! Theme Parks Universal Orlando Resort endorses Dr. Seuss 's work by attributing a section of the amusement park to him . Within the Islands of Adventure , there is a component designated to the city of Whoville . In the town , visitors of Universal Orlando Resort are able to interact with the characters and explore the theme park . Movies and Television The television program How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! was a 26-minute segment originally telecasted on CBS in 1966 . In 2000 How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! was developed into a motion picture , which became the first Dr. Seuss story ever made into a featured film . Also , Horton Hears a Who ! was adapted into a 26-minute television segment in 1970 . In 2008 `` Horton Hears a Who ! '' was made into a full-length movie .

qg_4615--Whoville.txt

Who tried to steal Christmas from the town of Whoville?

The Honda Torneo is a sedan introduced by Honda in 1997 exclusively for the Japanese domestic market , derived from the Honda Accord . While the Accord was sold exclusively at Honda Clio dealerships , the Torneo was available at the other two Honda networks , Honda Verno and Honda Primo as the successor to the Honda Ascot and Honda Rafaga , respectively . The introduction of the Torneo continued the original approach Honda used in 1982 with the introduction of the Honda Vigor in offering a unique variant of the Accord for each of the three dealership Honda sales channels with the sportier Torneo utilizing a different front grille , headlights and tail lights , and exclusive trim packages and color choices . With the release of the seventh-generation Accord in 2002 , the Torneo nameplate was discontinued . However , the seventh-generation Accord assimilated much of the sportier character of the Torneo , making it effectively the successor of the Torneo as well as the previous generation Accord . Trim levels and engines The Torneo was available with HID headlights , which were uncommon at the time . Four engines were available , all equipped with Honda 's VTEC technology . A few sport packages were available , including the `` Euro R '' , the `` SiR-T '' , and the `` SiR Euro '' . The Euro R included an H22A engine rated at 220 bhp , 5-speed manual transmission , Recaro seats , leather-wrapped MOMO steering wheel , helical-torsen LSD , sports suspension , sports exhaust ( including 4-2-1 stainless headers ) and an aluminum-alloy gear shift knob . It was also fitted with a unique factory body kit that included flares and was available in some colors not available to lower trim package Accords ( such as Milano Red ) . The Accord and the Torneo are the same car , aside from minor cosmetic differences in the exterior . All trim levels were installed with Honda 's internet-based navigation system called Internavi . SiR-T ( CF4 , 1997–2000 ) The SiR-T model , of which only 1100 were produced , included a 2.0L F20B engine rated for 200 PS at 7200 rpm ( 180 PS automatic ) and at 6800 rpm , 11.0.1 compression , 85 mm X 88 mm ( Bore and Stroke ) 7800 rpm redline . The H-series DOHC VTEC engines were limited to 7800 rpms . The F20B had a unique blue valve cover and like all the larger displacement Honda engines , the F20B was mounted with a tilt towards the driver . F20B engines could rev at higher rpms than H22As because it had a shorter stroke . The F20B had an 85 mm x 88 mm bore and stroke when compared to an H22A which had an 87 mm x 90.7 mm bore and stroke . The F20B was also classified as a low emissions engine . SiR ( CF4 , 1997–2001 ) The Accord SiR was based on the SiR-T , but used the S-Matic automatic transmission with sequential manual shift mode . The engine was rated at 180 PS but with better midrange characteristics . Moving the gear-stick over to the right allowed manual selection of 1st , 2nd , 3rd , or 4th gear using up and down shift actions . The manumatic feature would hold the gear up to the rev limiter as a manual transmission would . Demise As sales of the Accord proved more popular than the Torneo , plus the economic effects of the Japanese asset price bubble or `` bubble economy '' , the Torneo was discontinued in 2001 , along with the dissolvement of Honda 's three dealership networks Verno , Primo , and Clio three years later . The succeeding Accord also effectively assimilated the sportier character of the Torneo into one car .

sfq_9379--Honda_Torneo.txt

Which car manufacturer produces models called Concerto, Inspire, Legend, Torneo, etc?

The rule of thirds is a `` rule of thumb '' or guideline which applies to the process of composing visual images such as designs , films , paintings , and photographs . The guideline proposes that an image should be imagined as divided into nine equal parts by two equally spaced horizontal lines and two equally spaced vertical lines , and that important compositional elements should be placed along these lines or their intersections . Proponents of the technique claim that aligning a subject with these points creates more tension , energy and interest in the composition than simply centering the subject . The photograph to the right demonstrates the application of the rule of thirds . The horizon sits at the horizontal line dividing the lower third of the photo from the upper two-thirds . The tree sits at the intersection of two lines , sometimes called a power point or a crash point . Points of interest in the photo do not have to actually touch one of these lines to take advantage of the rule of thirds . For example , the brightest part of the sky near the horizon where the sun recently set does not fall directly on one of the lines , but does fall near the intersection of two of the lines , close enough to take advantage of the rule . Use The rule of thirds is applied by aligning a subject with the guide lines and their intersection points , placing the horizon on the top or bottom line , or allowing linear features in the image to flow from section to section . The main reason for observing the rule of thirds is to discourage placement of the subject at the center , or prevent a horizon from appearing to divide the picture in half . Michael Ryan and Melissa Lenos , authors of the book An Introduction to Film Analysis : Technique and Meaning in Narrative Film state that the use of rule of thirds is `` favored by cinematographers in their effort to design balanced and unified images '' ( page 40 ) . When filming or photographing people , it is common to line the body up to a vertical line and the person 's eyes to a horizontal line . If filming a moving subject , the same pattern is often followed , with the majority of the extra room being in front of the person ( the way they are moving ) . [ http : //www.mapacourse.com/DVpages/leadroom.htm leadroom ] Likewise , when photographing a still subject who is not directly facing the camera , the majority of the extra room should be in front of the subject with the vertical line running through their perceived center of mass . History The rule of thirds was first written down by John Thomas Smith in 1797 . In his book Remarks on Rural Scenery , Smith quotes a 1783 work by Sir Joshua Reynolds , in which Reynolds discusses , in unquantified terms , the balance of dark and light in a painting . Smith then continues with an expansion on the idea , naming it the `` Rule of thirds '' : Two distinct , equal lights , should never appear in the same picture : One should be principal , and the rest sub-ordinate , both in dimension and degree : Unequal parts and gradations lead the attention easily from part to part , while parts of equal appearance hold it awkwardly suspended , as if unable to determine which of those parts is to be considered as the subordinate . `` And to give the utmost force and solidity to your work , some part of the picture should be as light , and some as dark as possible : These two extremes are then to be harmonized and reconciled to each other . '' ( Reynolds ' Annot . on Du Fresnoy . ) Analogous to this `` Rule of thirds '' , ( if I may be allowed so to call it ) I have presumed to think that , in connecting or in breaking the various lines of a picture , it would likewise be a good rule to do it , in general , by a similar scheme of proportion ; for example , in a design of landscape , to determine the sky at about two-thirds ; or else at about one-third , so that the material objects might occupy the other two : Again , two thirds of one element , ( as of water ) to one third of another element ( as of land ) ; and then both together to make but one third of the picture , of which the two other thirds should go for the sky and aerial perspectives . This rule would likewise apply in breaking a length of wall , or any other too great continuation of line that it may be found necessary to break by crossing or hiding it with some other object : In short , in applying this invention , generally speaking , or to any other case , whether of light , shade , form , or color , I have found the ratio of about two thirds to one third , or of one to two , a much better and more harmonizing proportion , than the precise formal half , the too-far-extending four-fifths—and , in short , than any other proportion whatever . I should think myself honored by the opinion of any gentleman on this point ; but until I shall by better informed , shall conclude this general proportion of two and one to be the most pictoresque medium in all cases of breaking or otherwise qualifying straight lines and masses and groupes [ sic ] , as Hogarth 's line is agreed to be the most beautiful , ( or , in other words , the most pictoresque ) medium of curves . Writing in 1845 , in his book Chromatics , George Field notes ( perhaps erroneously ) that Sir Joshua Reynolds gives the ratio 2:1 as a rule for the proportion of warm to cold colors in a painting , and attributes to Smith the expansion of that rule to all proportions in painting : Sir Joshua has given it as a rule , that the proportion of warm to cold colour in a picture should be as two to one , although he has frequently deviated therefrom ; and Smith , in his `` Remarks on Rural Scenery , '' would extend a like rule to all the proportions of painting , begging for it the term of the `` rule of thirds , '' according to which , a landscape , having one third of land , should have two thirds of water , and these together , forming about one-third of the picture , the remaining two-thirds to be for air and sky ; and he applies the same rule to the crossing and breaking of lines and objects , & c . Even at this early date , there is skepticism over the universality of such a rule , at least in regards to color , for Field continues : This rule , however , does not supply a general law , but universalises a particular , the invariable observance of which would produce a uniform and monotonous practice . But , however occasionally useful , it is neither accurate nor universal , the true mean of nature requiring compensation , which , in the case of warmth and coolness , is in about equal proportions , while , in regard to advancing and retiring colours , the true balance of effect is , approximately , three of the latter to one of the former ; nevertheless , the proportions in both cases are to be governed by the predominance of light or shade , and the required effect of a picture , in which , and other species of antagonism , the scale of equivalents affords a guide . Smith 's conception of the rule is meant to apply more generally than the version commonly explained today , as he recommends it not just for dividing the frame , but also for all division of straight lines , masses , or groups . On the other hand , he does not discuss the now-common idea that intersections of the third-lines of the frame are particularly strong or interesting for composition .

bb_6022--Rule_of_thirds.txt

What is a third divided by a half?

Sir Edward William Elgar , 1st Baronet ( 2 June 1857 – 23 February 1934 ) was an English composer , many of whose works have entered the British and international classical concert repertoire . Among his best-known compositions are orchestral works including the Enigma Variations , the Pomp and Circumstance Marches , concertos for violin and cello , and two symphonies . He also composed choral works , including The Dream of Gerontius , chamber music and songs . He was appointed Master of the King 's Musick in 1924 . Although Elgar is often regarded as a typically English composer , most of his musical influences were not from England but from continental Europe . He felt himself to be an outsider , not only musically , but socially . In musical circles dominated by academics , he was a self-taught composer ; in Protestant Britain , his Roman Catholicism was regarded with suspicion in some quarters ; and in the class-conscious society of Victorian and Edwardian Britain , he was acutely sensitive about his humble origins even after he achieved recognition . He nevertheless married the daughter of a senior British army officer . She inspired him both musically and socially , but he struggled to achieve success until his forties , when after a series of moderately successful works his Enigma Variations ( 1899 ) became immediately popular in Britain and overseas . He followed the Variations with a choral work , The Dream of Gerontius ( 1900 ) , based on a Roman Catholic text that caused some disquiet in the Anglican establishment in Britain , but it became , and has remained , a core repertory work in Britain and elsewhere . His later full-length religious choral works were well received but have not entered the regular repertory . In his fifties , Elgar composed a symphony and a violin concerto that were immensely successful . His second symphony and his cello concerto did not gain immediate public popularity and took many years to achieve a regular place in the concert repertory of British orchestras . Elgar 's music came , in his later years , to be seen as appealing chiefly to British audiences . His stock remained low for a generation after his death . It began to revive significantly in the 1960s , helped by new recordings of his works . Some of his works have , in recent years , been taken up again internationally , but the music continues to be played more in Britain than elsewhere . Elgar has been described as the first composer to take the gramophone seriously . Between 1914 and 1925 , he conducted a series of acoustic recordings of his works . The introduction of the microphone in 1925 made far more accurate sound reproduction possible , and Elgar made new recordings of most of his major orchestral works and excerpts from The Dream of Gerontius . Biography Early years Edward Elgar was born in the small village of Lower Broadheath , outside Worcester , England . His father , William Henry Elgar ( 1821–1906 ) , was raised in Dover and had been apprenticed to a London music publisher . In 1841 William moved to Worcester , where he worked as a piano tuner and set up a shop selling sheet music and musical instruments.Kennedy , Michael , [ http : //www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32988 `` Elgar , Sir Edward William , baronet ( 1857–1934 ) '' . ] Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , Oxford University Press , 2004 . Accessed 22 April 2010 . In 1848 he married Ann Greening ( 1822–1902 ) , daughter of a farm worker.McVeagh , Diana , [ http : //www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/08709 ? qelgar & search quick & pos1 & _start 1 # firsthit `` Elgar , Edward '' . ] Grove Music Online . Accessed 20 April 2010 Edward was the fourth of their seven children . Ann Elgar had converted to Roman Catholicism shortly before Edward 's birth , and he was baptised and brought up as a Roman Catholic , to the disapproval of his father . William Elgar was a violinist of professional standard and held the post of organist of St. George 's Roman Catholic Church , Worcester , from 1846 to 1885 . At his instigation , masses by Cherubini and Hummel were first heard at the Three Choirs Festival by the orchestra in which he played the violin . `` Edward Elgar '' , The Musical Times , 1 October 1900 , pp . 641–48 All the Elgar children received a musical upbringing . By the age of eight , Elgar was taking piano and violin lessons , and his father , who tuned the pianos at many grand houses in Worcestershire , would sometimes take him along , giving him the chance to display his skill to important local figures . Elgar 's mother was interested in the arts and encouraged his musical development . He inherited from her a discerning taste for literature and a passionate love of the countryside . His friend and biographer W. H. `` Billy '' Reed wrote that Elgar 's early surroundings had an influence that `` permeated all his work and gave to his whole life that subtle but none the less true and sturdy English quality '' . He began composing at an early age ; for a play written and acted by the Elgar children when he was about ten , he wrote music that forty years later he rearranged with only minor changes and orchestrated as the suites titled The Wand of Youth . Until he was fifteen , Elgar received a general education at Littleton ( now Lyttleton ) House school , near Worcester . However , his only formal musical training beyond piano and violin lessons from local teachers consisted of more advanced violin studies with Adolf Pollitzer , during brief visits to London in 1877–78 . Elgar said , `` my first music was learnt in the Cathedral ... from books borrowed from the music library , when I was eight , nine or ten . `` Quoted by Kennedy ( ODNB ) He worked through manuals of instruction on organ playing and read every book he could find on the theory of music . He later said that he had been most helped by Hubert Parry 's articles in the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians . Elgar began to learn German , in the hope of going to the Leipzig Conservatory for further musical studies , but his father could not afford to send him . Years later , a profile in The Musical Times considered that his failure to get to Leipzig was fortunate for Elgar 's musical development : `` Thus the budding composer escaped the dogmatism of the schools . '' However , it was a disappointment to Elgar that on leaving school in 1872 he went not to Leipzig but to the office of a local solicitor as a clerk . He did not find an office career congenial , and for fulfilment he turned not only to music but to literature , becoming a voracious reader . Around this time , he made his first public appearances as a violinist and organist . After a few months , Elgar left the solicitor to embark on a musical career , giving piano and violin lessons and working occasionally in his father 's shop . He was an active member of the Worcester Glee Club , along with his father , and he accompanied singers , played the violin , composed and arranged works , and conducted for the first time . Pollitzer believed that , as a violinist , Elgar had the potential to be one of the leading soloists in the country , but Elgar himself , having heard leading virtuosi at London concerts , felt his own violin playing lacked a full enough tone , and he abandoned his ambitions to be a soloist . At twenty-two he took up the post of conductor of the attendants ' band at the Worcester and County Lunatic Asylum in Powick , 3 mi from Worcester . The band consisted of : piccolo , flute , clarinet , two cornets , euphonium , three or four first and a similar number of second violins , occasional viola , cello , double bass and piano . Elgar coached the players and wrote and arranged their music , including quadrilles and polkas , for the unusual combination of instruments . The Musical Times wrote , `` This practical experience proved to be of the greatest value to the young musician . ... He acquired a practical knowledge of the capabilities of these different instruments . ... He thereby got to know intimately the tone colour , the ins and outs of these and many other instruments . '' He held the post for five years , from 1879 , travelling to Powick once a week . Another post he held in his early days was professor of the violin at the Worcester College for the Blind Sons of Gentlemen . Although rather solitary and introspective by nature , Elgar thrived in Worcester 's musical circles . He played in the violins at the Worcester and Birmingham Festivals , and one great experience was to play Dvořák 's Symphony No . 6 and Stabat Mater under the composer 's baton.Maine , Basil , [ http : //www.oxforddnb.com/view/olddnb/32988 `` Elgar , Sir Edward William '' ] , Oxford Dictionary of National Biography archive , Oxford University Press , 1949 . Accessed 20 April 2010 . Elgar regularly played the bassoon in a wind quintet , alongside his brother Frank , an oboist ( and conductor who ran his own wind band ) . Elgar arranged numerous pieces by Mozart , Beethoven , Haydn , and others for the quintet , honing his arranging and compositional skills . In his first trips abroad , Elgar visited Paris in 1880 and Leipzig in 1882 . He heard Saint-Saëns play the organ at the Madeleine and attended concerts by first-rate orchestras . In 1882 he wrote , `` I got pretty well dosed with Schumann ( my ideal ! ) , Brahms , Rubinstein & Wagner , so had no cause to complain . '' In Leipzig he visited a friend , Helen Weaver , who was a student at the Conservatoire . They became engaged in the summer of 1883 , but for unknown reasons the engagement was broken off the next year . Elgar was greatly distressed , and some of his later cryptic dedications of romantic music may have alluded to Helen and his feelings for her . Throughout his life , Elgar was often inspired by close women friends ; Helen Weaver was succeeded by Mary Lygon , Dora Penny , Julia Worthington , Alice Stuart Wortley and finally Vera Hockman , who enlivened his old age . In 1883 , while a regular member of the orchestra for W. C. Stockley 's winter concert seasons in Birmingham , Elgar took part in a performance of one of his first works for full orchestra , the Sérénade mauresque . Stockley had invited him to conduct the piece , but , as Stockley later recalled , `` he declined , and , further , insisted upon playing in his place in the orchestra . The consequence was that he had to appear , fiddle in hand , to acknowledge the genuine and hearty applause of the audience . '' He often went to London in an attempt to get his works published , but this period in his life found him frequently despondent and low on money . He wrote to a friend in April 1884 , `` My prospects are about as hopeless as ever ... I am not wanting in energy I think , so sometimes I conclude that 't is want of ability . ... I have no money – not a cent . '' Marriage When Elgar was twenty-nine , he took on a new pupil , Caroline Alice Roberts , daughter of the late Major-General Sir Henry Roberts , and a published author of verse and prose fiction . Eight years older than Elgar , Alice became his wife three years later . Elgar 's biographer Michael Kennedy writes , `` Alice 's family was horrified by her intention to marry an unknown musician who worked in a shop and was a Roman Catholic . She was disinherited . '' They were married on 8 May 1889 , at Brompton Oratory . From then until her death she acted as his business manager and social secretary , dealt with his mood swings and was a perceptive musical critic . She did her best to gain him the attention of influential society , though with limited success . In time he would learn to accept the honours given him , realising that they mattered more to her and her social class and recognising what she had given up to further his career . In her diary she wrote , `` The care of a genius is enough of a life work for any woman . '' As an engagement present , Elgar dedicated his short violin and piano piece Salut d'Amour to her . With Alice 's encouragement , the Elgars moved to London to be closer to the centre of British musical life , and Elgar started devoting his time to composition . Their only child , Carice Irene , was born at their home in West Kensington on 14 August 1890 . Her name , revealed in Elgar 's dedication of Salut d'Amour , was a contraction of her mother 's names Caroline and Alice . Elgar took full advantage of the opportunity to hear unfamiliar music . In the days before miniature scores and recordings were available , it was not easy for young composers to get to know new music . Elgar took every chance to do so at the Crystal Palace concerts . He and Alice attended day after day , hearing music by a wide range of composers . Among these were masters of orchestration from whom he learned much , such as Berlioz and Richard Wagner . His own compositions , however , made little impact on London 's musical scene . August Manns conducted Elgar 's orchestral version of Salut d'amour and the Suite in D at the Crystal Palace , and two publishers accepted some of Elgar 's violin pieces , organ voluntaries , and partsongs.Reed , p. 23 Some tantalising opportunities seemed to be within reach but vanished unexpectedly . For example , an offer from the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden , to run through some of his works was withdrawn at the last second when Sir Arthur Sullivan arrived unannounced to rehearse some of his own music . Sullivan was horrified when Elgar later told him what had happened . Elgar 's only important commission while in London came from his home city : the Worcester Festival Committee invited him to compose a short orchestral work for the 1890 Three Choirs Festival . The result is described by Diana McVeagh in the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , as `` his first major work , the assured and uninhibited Froissart . '' Elgar conducted the first performance in Worcester in September 1890 . For lack of other work , he was obliged to leave London in 1891 and return with his wife and child to Worcestershire , where he could earn a living conducting local musical ensembles and teaching . They settled in Alice 's former home town , Great Malvern . Growing reputation During the 1890s , Elgar gradually built up a reputation as a composer , chiefly of works for the great choral festivals of the English Midlands . The Black Knight ( 1892 ) and King Olaf ( 1896 ) , both inspired by Longfellow , The Light of Life ( 1896 ) and Caractacus ( 1898 ) were all modestly successful , and he obtained a long-standing publisher in Novello and Co.The Musical Times , obituary of Elgar , April 1934 , pp . 314–18 Other works of this decade included the Serenade for Strings ( 1892 ) and Three Bavarian Dances ( 1897 ) . Elgar was of enough consequence locally to recommend the young composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor to the Three Choirs Festival for a concert piece , which helped establish the younger man 's career . Elgar was catching the attention of prominent critics , but their reviews were polite rather than enthusiastic . Although he was in demand as a festival composer , he was only just getting by financially and felt unappreciated . In 1898 , he said he was `` very sick at heart over music '' and hoped to find a way to succeed with a larger work . His friend August Jaeger tried to lift his spirits : `` A day 's attack of the blues ... will not drive away your desire , your necessity , which is to exercise those creative faculties which a kind providence has given you . Your time of universal recognition will come . '' In 1899 , that prediction suddenly came true . At the age of forty-two , Elgar produced the Enigma Variations , which were premiered in London under the baton of the eminent German conductor Hans Richter . In Elgar 's own words , `` I have sketched a set of Variations on an original theme . The Variations have amused me because I 've labelled them with the nicknames of my particular friends ... that is to say I 've written the variations each one to represent the mood of the 'party ' ( the person ) ... and have written what I think they would have written – if they were asses enough to compose '' . He dedicated the work `` To my friends pictured within '' . Probably the best known variation is `` Nimrod '' , depicting Jaeger . Purely musical considerations led Elgar to omit variations depicting Arthur Sullivan and Hubert Parry , whose styles he tried but failed to incorporate in the variations . The large-scale work was received with general acclaim for its originality , charm and craftsmanship , and it established Elgar as the pre-eminent British composer of his generation . The work is formally titled Variations on an Original Theme ; the word `` Enigma '' appears over the first six bars of music , which led to the familiar version of the title . The enigma is that , although there are fourteen variations on the `` original theme '' , there is another overarching theme , never identified by Elgar , which he said `` runs through and over the whole set '' but is never heard . Later commentators have observed that although Elgar is today regarded as a characteristically English composer , his orchestral music and this work in particular share much with the Central European tradition typified at the time by the work of Richard Strauss . The Enigma Variations were well received in Germany and Italy , and remain to the present day a worldwide concert staple . National and international fame Elgar 's biographer Basil Maine commented , `` When Sir Arthur Sullivan died in 1900 it became apparent to many that Elgar , although a composer of another build , was his true successor as first musician of the land . '' Elgar 's next major work was eagerly awaited . For the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival of 1900 , he set Cardinal John Henry Newman 's poem The Dream of Gerontius for soloists , chorus and orchestra . Richter conducted the premiere , which was marred by a poorly prepared chorus , which sang badly . Critics recognised the mastery of the piece despite the defects in performance . It was performed in Düsseldorf , Germany , in 1901 and again in 1902 , conducted by Julius Buths , who also conducted the European premiere of the Enigma Variations in 1901 . The German press was enthusiastic . The Cologne Gazette said , `` In both parts we meet with beauties of imperishable value . ... Elgar stands on the shoulders of Berlioz , Wagner , and Liszt , from whose influences he has freed himself until he has become an important individuality . He is one of the leaders of musical art of modern times . '' The Düsseldorfer Volksblatt wrote , `` A memorable and epoch-making first performance ! Since the days of Liszt nothing has been produced in the way of oratorio ... which reaches the greatness and importance of this sacred cantata . '' Richard Strauss , then widely viewed as the leading composer of his day , Reed , p. 61 was so impressed that in Elgar 's presence he proposed a toast to the success of `` the first English progressive musician , Meister Elgar . '' Performances in Vienna , Paris and New York followed , and The Dream of Gerontius soon became equally admired in Britain . According to Kennedy , `` It is unquestionably the greatest British work in the oratorio form ... [ it ] opened a new chapter in the English choral tradition and liberated it from its Handelian preoccupation . '' Elgar , as a Roman Catholic , was much moved by Newman 's poem about the death and redemption of a sinner , but some influential members of the Anglican establishment disagreed . His colleague , Charles Villiers Stanford complained that the work `` stinks of incense '' . The Dean of Gloucester banned Gerontius from his cathedral in 1901 , and at Worcester the following year , the Dean insisted on expurgations before allowing a performance . Elgar is probably best known for the first of the five Pomp and Circumstance Marches , which were composed between 1901 and 1930.Kennedy ( 1970 ) , pp . 38–39 It is familiar to millions of television viewers all over the world every year who watch the Last Night of the Proms , where it is traditionally performed . When the theme of the slower middle section ( technically called the `` trio '' ) of the first march came into his head , he told his friend Dora Penny , `` I 've got a tune that will knock 'em – will knock 'em flat '' . When the first march was played in 1901 at a London Promenade Concert , it was conducted by Henry J . Wood , who later wrote that the audience `` rose and yelled ... the one and only time in the history of the Promenade concerts that an orchestral item was accorded a double encore . '' To mark the coronation of Edward VII , Elgar was commissioned to set A. C. Benson 's Coronation Ode for a gala concert at the Royal Opera House in June 1901 . The approval of the king was confirmed , and Elgar began work . The contralto Clara Butt had persuaded him that the trio of the first Pomp and Circumstance march could have words fitted to it , and Elgar invited Benson to do so . Elgar incorporated the new vocal version into the Ode . The publishers of the score recognised the potential of the vocal piece , `` Land of Hope and Glory '' , and asked Benson and Elgar to make a further revision for publication as a separate song . It was immensely popular and is now considered an unofficial British national anthem . In the United States , the trio , known simply as `` Pomp and Circumstance '' or `` The Graduation March '' , has been adopted since 1905 for virtually all high school and university graduations . [ http : //www.elgar.org/3pomp-b.htm `` Why Americans graduate to Elgar '' ] , The Elgar Society . Accessed 5 June 2010 . In March 1904 a three-day festival of Elgar 's works was presented at Covent Garden , an honour never before given to any English composer . The Times commented , `` Four or five years ago if any one had predicted that the Opera-house would be full from floor to ceiling for the performance of an oratorio by an English composer he would probably have been supposed to be out of his mind . `` `` Concerts '' , The Times , 15 March 1904 , p. 8 The king and queen attended the first concert , at which Richter conducted The Dream of Gerontius , and returned the next evening for the second , the London premiere of The Apostles ( first heard the previous year at the Birmingham Festival ) . The final concert of the festival , conducted by Elgar , was primarily orchestral , apart for an excerpt from Caractacus and the complete Sea Pictures ( sung by Clara Butt ) . The orchestral items were Froissart , the Enigma Variations , Cockaigne , the first two ( at that time the only two ) Pomp and Circumstance marches , and the premiere of a new orchestral work , In the South ( Alassio ) , inspired by a holiday in Italy . Elgar was knighted at Buckingham Palace on 5 July 1904 . The following month , he and his family moved to Plâs Gwyn , a large house on the outskirts of Hereford , overlooking the River Wye , where they lived until 1911 . Between 1902 and 1914 , Elgar was , in Kennedy 's words , at the zenith of popularity . He made four visits to the U.S. , including one conducting tour , and earned considerable fees from the performance of his music . Between 1905 and 1908 , he held the post of Peyton Professor of Music at the University of Birmingham . He had accepted the post reluctantly , feeling that a composer should not head a school of music . He was not at ease in the role , and his lectures caused controversy , with his attacks on the critics and on English music in general : `` Vulgarity in the course of time may be refined . Vulgarity often goes with inventiveness ... but the commonplace mind can never be anything but commonplace . An Englishman will take you into a large room , beautifully proportioned , and will point out to you that it is white – all over white – and somebody will say , 'What exquisite taste ' . You know in your own mind , in your own soul , that it is not taste at all , that it is the want of taste , that is mere evasion . English music is white , and evades everything . '' He regretted the controversy and was glad to hand on the post to his friend Granville Bantock in 1908 . His new life as a celebrity was a mixed blessing to the highly strung Elgar , as it interrupted his privacy , and he often was in ill-health . He complained to Jaeger in 1903 , `` My life is one continual giving up of little things which I love . '' Both W. S. Gilbert and Thomas Hardy sought to collaborate with Elgar in this decade . Elgar refused , but would have collaborated with George Bernard Shaw had Shaw been willing . Elgar 's principal composition in 1905 was the Introduction and Allegro for Strings , dedicated to Samuel Sanford , professor at Yale University . Elgar visited America in that year to conduct his music and to accept a doctorate from Yale . His next large-scale work was the sequel to The Apostles – the oratorio The Kingdom ( 1906 ) . It was well received but did not catch the public imagination as The Dream of Gerontius had done and continued to do . Among keen Elgarians , however , The Kingdom was sometimes preferred to the earlier work : Elgar 's friend Frank Schuster told the young Adrian Boult : `` compared with The Kingdom , Gerontius is the work of a raw amateur . '' As Elgar approached his fiftieth birthday , he began work on his first symphony , a project that had been in his mind in various forms for nearly ten years . His First Symphony ( 1908 ) was a national and international triumph . Within weeks of the premiere it was performed in New York under Walter Damrosch , Vienna under Ferdinand Löwe , St. Petersburg under Alexander Siloti , and Leipzig under Arthur Nikisch . There were performances in Rome , Chicago , Boston , Toronto and fifteen British towns and cities . In just over a year , it received a hundred performances in Britain , America and continental Europe . `` Elgar 's Symphony '' , The Musical Times , 1 February 1909 , p. 102 The Violin Concerto ( 1910 ) was commissioned by Fritz Kreisler , one of the leading international violinists of the time . Elgar wrote it during the summer of 1910 , with occasional help from W. H. Reed , the leader of the London Symphony Orchestra , who helped the composer with advice on technical points . Elgar and Reed formed

sfq_9907--Edward_Elgar.txt

Which musical work of 1898 features a section called 'Nimrod'?

A beard is the collection of hair that grows on the chin and cheeks of humans and some non-human animals . In humans , usually only pubescent or adult males are able to grow beards . From an evolutionary viewpoint the beard is a part of the broader category of androgenic hair . It is a vestigial trait from a time when humans had hair on their face and entire body like the hair on gorillas . The evolutionary loss of hair is pronounced in some populations such as indigenous Americans and some east Asian populations , who have less facial hair , whereas Caucasians and the Ainu have more facial hair . Women with hirsutism , a hormonal condition of excessive hairiness , may develop a beard . Throughout the course of history , societal attitudes toward male beards have varied widely depending on factors such as prevailing cultural-religious traditions and the current era 's fashion trends . Some religions ( such as Sikhism ) have considered a full beard to be absolutely essential for all males able to grow one , and mandate it as part of their official dogma . Other cultures , even while not officially mandating it , view a beard as central to a man 's virility , exemplifying such virtues as wisdom , strength , sexual prowess and high social status . However , in cultures where facial hair is uncommon ( or currently out of fashion ) , beards may be associated with poor hygiene or a `` savage '' , uncivilized , or even dangerous demeanor . Biology The beard develops during puberty . Beard growth is linked to stimulation of hair follicles in the area by dihydrotestosterone , which continues to affect beard growth after puberty . Various hormones stimulate hair follicles from different areas . Dihydrotestosterone , for example , may also promote short-term pogonotrophy ( i.e. , the grooming of facial hair ) . For example , a scientist who chose to remain anonymous had to spend periods of several weeks on a remote island in comparative isolation . He noticed that his beard growth diminished , but the day before he was due to leave the island it increased again , to reach unusually high rates during the first day or two on the mainland . He studied the effect and concluded that the stimulus for increased beard growth was related to the resumption of sexual activity . However , at that time professional pogonologists such as R.M . Hardisty reacted vigorously and almost dismissively . Beard growth rate is also genetic . Evolution Biologists characterize beards as a secondary sexual characteristic because they are unique to one sex , yet do not play a direct role in reproduction . Charles Darwin first suggested possible evolutionary explanation of beards in his work The Descent of Man , which hypothesized that the process of sexual selection may have led to beards . Modern biologists have reaffirmed the role of sexual selection in the evolution of beards , concluding that there is evidence that a majority of females find men with beards more attractive than men without beards . Evolutionary psychology explanations for the existence of beards include signalling sexual maturity and signalling dominance by increasing perceived size of jaws , and clean-shaved faces are rated less dominant than bearded . Some scholars assert that it is not yet established whether the sexual selection leading to beards is rooted in attractiveness ( inter-sexual selection ) or dominance ( intra-sexual selection ) . A beard can be explained as an indicator of a male 's overall condition . The rate of facial hairiness appears to influence male attractiveness . The presence of a beard makes the male vulnerable in fights , which is costly , so biologists have speculated that there must be other evolutionary benefits that outweigh that drawback . Excess testosterone evidenced by the beard may indicate mild immunosuppression , which may support spermatogenesis . History Ancient and classical world Lebanon The ancient Semitic civilization situated on the western , coastal part of the Fertile Crescent and centered on the coastline of modern Lebanon gave great attention to the hair and beard . Where the beard has mostly a strong resemblance to that affected by the Assyrians , and familiar to us from their sculptures . It is arranged in three , four , or five rows of small tight curls , and extends from ear to ear around the cheeks and chin . Sometimes , however , in lieu of the many rows , we find one row only , the beard falling in tresses , which are curled at the extremity . There is no indication of the Phoenicians having cultivated mustachios . Mesopotamia Mesopotamian civilizations ( Sumerian , Assyrians , Babylonians and Chaldeans ) devoted great care to oiling and dressing their beards , using tongs and curling irons to create elaborate ringlets and tiered patterns . Egypt The highest ranking Ancient Egyptians grew hair on their chins which was often dyed or hennaed ( reddish brown ) and sometimes plaited with interwoven gold thread . A metal false beard , or postiche , which was a sign of sovereignty , was worn by queens and kings . This was held in place by a ribbon tied over the head and attached to a gold chin strap , a fashion existing from about 3000 to 1580 BC . India In ancient India , the beard was allowed to grow long , a symbol of dignity and of wisdom ( cf . sadhu ) . The nations in the east generally treated their beards with great care and veneration , and the punishment for licentiousness and adultery was to have the beard of the offending parties publicly cut off . They had such a sacred regard for the preservation of their beards that a man might pledge it for the payment of a debt . China Confucius held that the human body was a gift from one 's parents to which no alterations should be made . Aside from abstaining from body modifications such as tattoos , Confucians were also discouraged from cutting their hair , fingernails or beards . To what extent people could actually comply with this ideal depended on their profession ; farmers or soldiers could probably not grow long beards as it would have interfered with their work . Most of the clay soldiers in the Terracotta Army have mustasches or goatees but shaved cheeks , indicating that this was likely the fashion of the Qin dynasty . Most Chinese beards are thin and the mustaches were kept similar to cat 's whiskers . Iran The Iranians were fond of long beards , and almost all the Iranian kings had a beard . In Travels by Adam Olearius , a King of Iran commands his steward 's head to be cut off , and on its being brought to him , remarks , `` what a pity it was , that a man possessing such fine mustachios , should have been executed . '' Men in the Achaemenid era wore long beards , with warriors adorning theirs with jewelry . Men also commonly wore beards during the Safavid and Qajar eras . Greece The ancient Greeks regarded the beard as a badge or sign of virility ; in the Homeric epics it had almost sanctified significance , so that a common form of entreaty was to touch the beard of the person addressed . It was only shaven as a sign of mourning , though in this case it was instead often left untrimmed . A smooth face was regarded as a sign of effeminacy . The Spartans punished cowards by shaving off a portion of their beards . From the earliest times , however , the shaving of the upper lip was not uncommon . Greek beards were also frequently curled with tongs . Kingdom of Macedonia In the time of Alexander the Great the custom of smooth shaving was introduced . Reportedly , Alexander ordered his soldiers to be clean-shaven , fearing that their beards would serve as handles for their enemies to grab and to hold the soldier as he was killed . The practice of shaving spread from the Macedonians , whose kings are represented on coins , etc . with smooth faces , throughout the whole known world of the Macedonian Empire . Laws were passed against it , without effect , at Rhodes and Byzantium ; and even Aristotle conformed to the new custom , unlike the other philosophers , who retained the beard as a badge of their profession . A man with a beard after the Macedonian period implied a philosopher , and there are many allusions to this custom of the later philosophers in such proverbs as : `` The beard does not make the sage . '' Rome Shaving seems to have not been known to the Romans during their early history ( under the kings of Rome and the early Republic ) . Pliny tells us that P. Ticinius was the first who brought a barber to Rome , which was in the 454th year from the founding of the city ( that is , around 299 BC ) . Scipio Africanus was apparently the first among the Romans who shaved his beard . However , after that point , shaving seems to have caught on very quickly , and soon almost all Roman men were clean-shaven ; being clean-shaven became a sign of being Roman and not Greek . Only in the later times of the Republic did the Roman youth begin shaving their beards only partially , trimming it into an ornamental form ; prepubescent boys oiled their chins in hopes of forcing premature growth of a beard . Still , beards remained rare among the Romans throughout the Late Republic and the early Principate . In a general way , in Rome at this time , a long beard was considered a mark of slovenliness and squalor . The censors L. Veturius and P. Licinius compelled M. Livius , who had been banished , on his restoration to the city , to be shaved , and to lay aside his dirty appearance , and then , but not until then , to come into the Senate . The first occasion of shaving was regarded as the beginning of manhood , and the day on which this took place was celebrated as a festival . Usually , this was done when the young Roman assumed the toga virilis . Augustus did it in his twenty-fourth year , Julius Caesar in his twentieth . The hair cut off on such occasions was consecrated to a god . Thus Nero put his into a golden box set with pearls , and dedicated it to Jupiter Capitolinus . The Romans , unlike the Greeks , let their beards grow in time of mourning ; so did Augustus for the death of Julius Caesar . Other occasions of mourning on which the beard was allowed to grow were , appearance as a reus , condemnation , or some public calamity . On the other hand , men of the country areas around Rome in the time of Varro seem not to have shaved except when they came to market every eighth day , so that their usual appearance was most likely a short stubble . In the second century AD the Emperor Hadrian , according to Dion Cassius , was the first of all the Caesars to grow a beard ; Plutarch says that he did it to hide scars on his face . This was a period in Rome of widespread imitation of Greek culture , and many other men grew beards in imitation of Hadrian and the Greek fashion . Until the time of Constantine the Great the emperors appear in busts and coins with beards ; but Constantine and his successors until the reign of Phocas , with the exception of Julian the Apostate , are represented as beardless . Celts and Germanic tribes Late Hellenistic sculptures of Celts portray them with long hair and mustaches but beardless . Among the Gaelic Celts of Scotland and Ireland , men typically let their facial hair grow into a full beard , and it was often seen as dishonourable for a Gaelic man to have no facial hair . Tacitus states that among the Catti , a Germanic tribe ( perhaps the Chatten ) , a young man was not allowed to shave or cut his hair until he had slain an enemy . The Lombards derived their name from the great length of their beards ( Longobards – Long Beards ) . When Otto the Great said anything serious , he swore by his beard , which covered his breast . Middle ages In the Middle-Age Europe , a beard displayed a knight 's virility and honour . The Castilian knight El Cid is described in The Lay of the Cid as `` the one with the flowery beard '' . Holding somebody else 's beard was a serious offence that had to be righted in a duel . While most noblemen and knights were bearded , the Catholic clergy were generally required to be clean-shaven . This was understood as a symbol of their celibacy . In pre-Islamic Arabia men would apparently keep mustaches but shave the hair on their chins . The prophet Muhammad encouraged his followers to do the opposite , long chin hair but trimmed mustaches , to signify their break with the old religion . This style of beard subsequently spread along with Islam during the Muslim expansion in the Middle Ages . From the Renaissance to the present day Most Chinese emperors of the Ming dynasty ( 1368-1644 ) appear with beards or mustaches in portraits . In the 15th century , most European men were clean-shaven . 16th-century beards were allowed to grow to an amazing length ( see the portraits of John Knox , Bishop Gardiner , Cardinal Pole and Thomas Cranmer ) . Some beards of this time were the Spanish spade beard , the English square cut beard , the forked beard , and the stiletto beard . In 1587 Francis Drake claimed , in a figure of speech , to have singed the King of Spain 's beard . During the Chinese Qing dynasty ( 1644-1911 ) , the ruling Manchu minority were either clean-shaven or at most wore mustaches , in contrast to the Han majority who still wore beards in keeping with the Confucian ideal . In the beginning of the 17th century , the size of beards decreased in urban circles of Western Europe . In the second half of the century , being clean-shaven gradually become more common again , so much so that in 1698 , Peter the Great of Russia ordered men to shave off their beards , and in 1705 levied a tax on beards in order to bring Russian society more in line with contemporary Western Europe . 19th century During the early 19th century most men , particularly amongst the nobility and upper classes , went clean-shaven . There was , however , a dramatic shift in the beard 's popularity during the 1850s , with it becoming markedly more popular . Consequently , beards were adopted by many leaders , such as Alexander III of Russia , Napoleon III of France and Frederick III of Germany , as well as many leading statesmen and cultural figures , such as Benjamin Disraeli , Charles Dickens , Giuseppe Garibaldi , Karl Marx , and Giuseppe Verdi . This trend can be recognised in the United States of America , where the shift can be seen amongst the post-Civil War presidents . Before Abraham Lincoln , no President had a beard ; after Lincoln until Woodrow Wilson , every President except Andrew Johnson and William McKinley had either a beard or a moustache . The beard became linked in this period with notions of masculinity and male courage . The resulting popularity has contributed to the stereotypical Victorian male figure in the popular mind , the stern figure clothed in black whose gravitas is added to by a heavy beard . 20th century By the early 20th century beards began a slow decline in popularity . Although retained by some prominent figures who were young men in the Victorian period ( like Sigmund Freud ) , most men who retained facial hair during the 1920s and 1930s limited themselves to a moustache or a goatee ( such as with Marcel Proust , Albert Einstein , Vladimir Lenin , Leon Trotsky , Adolf Hitler , and Joseph Stalin ) . In China , the revolution of 1911 and subsequent May Fourth Movement of 1919 led the Chinese to idealize the West as more modern and progressive than themselves . This included the realm of fashion , and Chinese men began shaving their faces and cutting their hair short . In the United States , meanwhile , popular movies portrayed heroes with clean-shaven faces and `` crew cuts '' . Concurrently , the psychological mass marketing of Madison Avenue was becoming prevalent . The Gillette Safety Razor Company was one of these marketers ' early clients . These events conspired to popularize short hair and clean shaven faces as the only acceptable style for decades to come . The few men who wore the beard or portions of the beard during this period were frequently either old , Central European , members of a religious sect that required it , sailors , or in academia . The beard was reintroduced to mainstream society by the counterculture , firstly with the `` beatniks '' in the 1950s , and then with the hippie movement of the mid-1960s . Following the Vietnam War , beards exploded in popularity . In the mid-late 1960s and throughout the 1970s , beards were worn by hippies and businessmen alike . Popular music artists like The Beatles , Barry White , The Beach Boys , Jim Morrison ( The Doors ) and the male members of Peter , Paul , and Mary , among many others , wore full beards . The trend of seemingly ubiquitous beards in American culture subsided in the mid-1980s . By the end of the 20th century , the closely clipped Verdi beard , often with a matching integrated moustache , had become relatively common . From the 1990s onward , the fashion in the United States has generally trended toward either a goatee , Van Dyke , or a closely cropped full beard undercut on the throat . By 2010 , the fashionable length approached a `` two-day shadow '' . The 2010s decade also saw the full beard become fashionable again amongst young men . This most recent trend for beards is strongly associated with the 'lumbersexual ' stereotype . Facial hair and Political Leaders Facial hair has progressively grown out of fashion in Western societies , as evidenced by the rare number of Western leaders to grow facial hair since the 1930s . The last US President to wear a mustache was William Howard Taft , who served from 1909 to 1913 ) . Leaders in other parts of the world continue to wear facial hair . Amongst the countries listed below , the most recent head of government or state to have worn facial hair whilst in office include : * Nigeria : President Muhammadu Buhari ( 2015 - ) mustache * Saudi Arabia : King Salman of Saudi Arabia ( 2015 - ) beard and mustache . * Belgium : Prime Minister Charles Michel ( 2014 - ) beard and mustache . * Turkey : President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan ( 2014 - ) mustache . Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu ( 2014 - ) mustache . * Sri Lanka : President Mahinda Rajapaksa ( 2005 - 2015 ) mustache . * India : Prime Minister Narendra Modi ( 2014 - ) beard and mustache . President Shankar Dayal Sharma ( 1992 - 1997 ) mustache . * Iran : President Hassan Rouhani ( 2013 - ) beard and mustache * Pakistan : President Mamnoon Hussain ( 2013 - ) mustache * Spain : President Mariano Rajoy ( 2011 - ) beard and mustache . * Malaysia : Prime Minister Najib Razak ( 2009 - ) mustache . * Mexico : President Vicente Fox ( 2000 - 2006 ) mustache . * Egypt : President Mohamed Morsi ( 2012 - 2013 ) beard and mustache . * Brazil : President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva ( 2003 - 2011 ) beard and mustache . * South Africa : President Kgalema Motlanthe ( 2008 - 2009 ) beard . * Italy : Prime Minister Massimo D'Alema ( 1998 - 2000 ) mustache . * Romania : Prime Minister Radu Vasile ( 1988 - 1999 ) , mustache . * Poland : President Lech Wałęsa ( 1990 - 1995 ) mustache . * Israel : Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir ( 1983 - 1984 , 1986 - 1992 ) mustache . * Argentina : President Raúl Alfonsín ( 1983 - 1989 ) mustache . * Japan : Prime Minister Takeo Miki ( 1974 - 1976 ) mustache . Emperor of Japan Hirohito ( 1926 - 1989 ) mustache . * Germany : Chairman of the ( East German ) State Council Walter Ulbricht ( 1960 - 1973 ) beard and mustache ( reportedly styled as V.I . Lenin ) . Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler ( 1933 - 1945 ) mustache . * France : Prime Minister , then President Charles de Gaulle ( 1940 - 1946 , 1958 - 1969 ) mustache . * Soviet Union/Russian Federation : Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet Anastas Mikoyan ( 1964-1965 ) mustache . * United Kingdom : Prime Minister Harold Macmillan ( 1957 - 1963 ) mustache . * Vietnam : Prime Minister then President Hồ Chí Minh ( 1945 - 1969 ) mustache and beard . * Netherlands : Prime Minister Willem Drees ( 1948 - 1958 ) mustache . * Finland : President J. K. Paasikivi ( 1946–1956 ) mustache . * Sweden : Prime Minister Axel Pehrsson-Bramstorp ( 1936 ) mustache . * New Zealand Prime Minister George Forbes ( 1930 - 1935 ) mustache . * Australia : Prime Minister Billy Hughes ( 1915 - 1923 ) mustache . * Canada : Prime Minister Robert Borden ( 1911 - 1920 ) mustache . * United States : President William Howard Taft ( 1909 - 1913 ) mustache . The last Vice President of the United States to wear any facial hair was Charles Curtis , who was in office from 1929 till 1933 . In 2015 , Paul Ryan became the first Speaker of the House to wear a beard in ninety years . There have been no heads of state of the Republic of Korea and Indonesia , or heads of government of Thailand and Singapore , who have worn facial hair . Beards in religion Beards also play an important role in some religions . In Greek mythology and art , Zeus and Poseidon are always portrayed with beards , but Apollo never is . A bearded Hermes was replaced with the more familiar beardless youth in the 5th century BC . Zoroaster , the 11th/10th century BC era founder of Zoroastrianism is almost always depicted with a beard . In Norse mythology , Thor the god of thunder is portrayed wearing a red beard . Christianity Iconography and art dating from the 4th century onward almost always portray Jesus with a beard . In paintings and statues most of the Old Testament Biblical characters such as Moses and Abraham and Jesus ' New Testament disciples such as St Peter appear with beards , as does John the Baptist . However , Western European art generally depicts John the Apostle as clean-shaven , to emphasize his relative youth . Eight of the figures portrayed in the painting entitled The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci are bearded . Mainstream Christianity holds Isaiah Chapter 50 : Verse 6 as a prophecy of Christ 's crucifixion , and as such , as a description of Christ having his beard plucked by his tormentors . In Eastern Christianity , members of the priesthood and monastics often wear beards , and religious authorities at times have recommended or required beards for all male believers . Amish and Hutterite men shave until they marry , then grow a beard and are never thereafter without one , although it is a particular form of a beard ( see Visual markers of marital status ) . Many Syrian Christians from Kerala in India wore long beards . In the 1160s Burchardus , abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Bellevaux in the Franche-Comté , wrote a treatise on beards . He regarded beards as appropriate for lay brothers , but not for the priests among the monks . At various times in its history and depending on various circumstances , the Catholic Church in the West permitted or prohibited facial hair ( barbae nutritio – literally meaning `` nourishing a beard '' ) for clergy . A decree of the beginning of the 6th century in either Carthage or the south of Gaul forbade clerics to let their hair and beards grow freely . The phrase `` nourishing a beard '' was interpreted in different ways , either as imposing a clean-shaven face or only excluding a too-lengthy beard . In relatively modern times , the first pope to wear a beard was Pope Julius II , who in 1511–12 did so for a while as a sign of mourning for the loss of the city of Bologna . Pope Clement VI let his beard grow at the time of the sack of Rome ( 1527 ) and kept it . All his successors did so until the death in 1700 of Pope Innocent XII . Since then , no pope has worn a beard . Most Latin-rite clergy are now clean-shaven , but Capuchins and some others are bearded . Present canon law is silent on the matter . Although most Protestant Christians regard the beard as a matter of choice , some have taken the lead in fashion by openly encouraging its growth as `` a habit most natural , scriptural , manly , and beneficial '' ( C. H. Spurgeon ) . Some Messianic Jews also wear beards to show their observance of the Old Testament . Diarmaid MacCulloch writes : `` There is no doubt that Cranmer mourned the dead king ( Henry VIII ) '' , and it was said that he showed his grief by growing a beard . But `` it was a break from the past for a clergyman to abandon his clean-shaven appearance which was the norm for late medieval priesthood ; with Luther providing a precedent [ during his exile period ] , virtually all the continental reformers had deliberately grown beards as a mark of their rejection of the old church , and the significance of clerical beards as an aggressive anti-Catholic gesture was well recognised in mid-Tudor England . '' LDS Church Since the mid-twentieth century , The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) has encouraged men to be clean-shaven , particularly those that serve in ecclesiastical leadership positions . The church 's encouragement of men 's shaving has no theological basis , but stems from the general waning of facial hair 's popularity in Western society during the twentieth century and its association with the hippie and drug culture aspects of the counterculture of the 1960s , and has not been a permanent rule . After Joseph Smith , many of the early presidents of the LDS Church , such as Brigham Young and Lorenzo Snow , wore beards . Since David O. McKay became church president in 1951 , most LDS Church leaders have been clean-shaven . The church maintains no formal policy on facial hair for its general membership . However , formal prohibitions against facial hair are currently enforced for young men providing two-year missionary service . Students and staff of the church-sponsored higher education institutions , such as Brigham Young University ( BYU ) , are required to adhere to the Church Educational System Honor Code , which states in part : `` Men are expected to be clean-shaven ; beards are not acceptable '' , although male BYU students are permitted to wear a neatly groomed moustache . A beard exception is granted for `` serious skin

odql_10008--Beard.txt

Who was the first Roman Emperor to sport a beard?

Oblation , meaning an offering ( Late Latin oblatio , from offerre , oblatum , to offer ) , is a term used , particularly in ecclesiastical use , for a solemn offering or presentation to God . Bible use The Latin Vulgate , and following this many English versions such as the KJV , 1611 , uses the word to stand for the meal offering under the Law of Moses . Ecclesiastical use It is thus applied to certain parts of the Eucharistic service in liturgical Christianity . The rites of Roman Catholicism , Eastern Orthodoxy , Anglicanism , and some Lutheran churches employ an oblation : gifts of bread and wine are offered to God . Liturgically speaking , there are two oblations : the lesser oblation , sometimes known as the offertory , in which the bread and wine , as yet unconsecrated , are presented and offered to God , and the greater oblation , the oblation proper , in which the Body and Blood of Christ are offered to God . The word oblate is also an ecclesiastical term for persons who have devoted themselves or have been devoted as children by their parents to a monastic life . Oblate is more familiar in the Roman Catholic Church as the name of a Religious Congregation of secular or diocesan priests , the Oblate Fathers of St. Charles . They are placed under the absolute authority of the bishop of the diocese in which they are established and can be employed by him on any duties he may think fit . This congregation was founded in 1578 under the name of Oblates of the Blessed Virgin and St. Ambrose by St. Charles Borromeo , Archbishop of Milan . A similar congregation of secular priests , the Oblates of Mary Immaculate , was founded at Marseilles in 1815 .

bb_1767--Oblation.txt

What is an oblation in relation to a god? Offering; Curse; Damnation; or Church?

The President of the French Republic ( , ) , is the executive head of state of the French Fifth Republic . The powers , functions and duties of prior presidential offices , and their relation with the first minister and cabinets has over time differed with the various French constitutions . The President of France is also the ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra , Grand Master of the Légion d'honneur and the Ordre national du Mérite and honorary proto-canon of the Basilica of St. John Lateran in Rome . The current President of France is François Hollande , who took office on 15 May 2012 . Election Since the Referendum on the Direct Election of the President of the French Republic in 1962 , the President has been directly elected by universal suffrage ; he or she was previously elected by an electoral college . After the Referendum on the Reduction of the Mandate of the President of the French Republic , 2000 , the length of the term was reduced to five years from the previous seven ; the first election to a shorter term was held in 2002 . President Chirac was first elected in 1995 and again in 2002 . At that time , there was no limit on the number of terms , so Chirac could have run again , but chose not to . He was succeeded by Nicolas Sarkozy on 16 May 2007 . Following a further change , the Constitutional law on the Modernisation of the Institutions of the Fifth Republic , 2008 , a president can not serve more than two consecutive terms . François Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac are the only Presidents to date who have served a full two terms ( 14 years for the former , 12 years for the latter ) . In order to be admitted as an official candidate , potential candidates must receive signed nominations ( informally known as parrainages , for `` godfathering '' ) from more than 500 elected officials , mostly mayors . These officials must be from at least 30 départements or overseas collectivities , and no more than 10 % of them should be from the same département or collectivity .. Furthermore , each official may nominate only one candidate .. There are exactly 45,543 elected officials , including 33,872 mayors . Spending and financing of campaigns and political parties are highly regulated . There is a cap on spending , at approximately 20 million euros , and government public financing of 50 % of spending if the candidate scores more than 5 % . If the candidate receives less than 5 % of the vote , the government funds €8,000,000 to the party ( €4,000,000 paid in advance ) . Advertising on TV is forbidden but official time is given to candidates on public TV . An independent agency regulates election and party financing . French presidential elections are conducted via run-off voting which ensures that the elected President always obtains a majority : if no candidate receives a majority of votes in the first round of voting , the two highest-scoring candidates arrive at a run-off . After the president is elected , he goes through a solemn investiture ceremony called a `` passation des pouvoirs '' ( `` handing over of powers '' ) . Powers The French Fifth Republic is a semi-presidential system . Unlike many other European presidents , the French President is quite powerful . Although it is the Prime Minister of France and parliament that oversee much of the nation 's actual day-to-day affairs , the French President wields significant influence and authority , especially in the fields of national security and foreign policy . The president holds the nation 's most senior office , and outranks all other politicians . The president 's greatest power is his/her ability to choose the prime minister . However , since the French National Assembly has the sole power to dismiss the Prime Minister 's government , the president is forced to name a prime minister who can command the support of a majority in the assembly . * When the majority of the Assembly has opposite political views to that of the president , this leads to political cohabitation . In that case , the president 's power is diminished , since much of the de facto power relies on a supportive prime minister and National Assembly , and is not directly attributed to the post of president . * When the majority of the Assembly sides with him , the President can take a more active role and may , in effect , direct government policy . The prime minister is then the personal choice of the President , and can be easily replaced if the administration becomes unpopular . This device has been used in recent years by François Mitterrand , Jacques Chirac , and François Hollande . Since 2002 , the mandate of the president and the Assembly are both 5 years and the two elections are close to each other . Therefore , the likelihood of a `` cohabitation '' is lower . Among the powers of the government : * The president promulgates laws . * * The president has a very limited form of suspensive veto : when presented with a law , he or she can request another reading of it by Parliament , but only once per law . * * The president may also refer the law for review to the Constitutional Council prior to promulgation . * The president may dissolve the French National Assembly * The president may refer treaties or certain types of laws to popular referendum , within certain conditions , among them the agreement of the Prime minister or the parliament . * The president is the Commander-in-Chief of the French Armed Forces . * The president may order the use of nuclear weapons . * The president names the Prime minister but he can not dismiss him . He names and dismisses the other ministers , with the agreement of the Prime minister . * The president names most officials ( with the assent of the cabinet ) . * The president names certain members of the Constitutional Council . * The president receives foreign ambassadors . * The president may grant a pardon ( but not an amnesty ) to convicted criminals ; the president can also lessen or suppress criminal sentences . This was of crucial importance when France still operated the death penalty : criminals sentenced to death would generally request that the president commute their sentence to life imprisonment . All decisions of the president must be countersigned by the prime minister , except dissolving the French National Assembly , choice of prime minister , dispositions of Article 19 . Detailed constitutional powers The constitutional attributions of the president are defined in Title II of the Constitution of France . Article 5 The President of the Republic shall see that the Constitution is observed . He shall ensure , by his arbitration , the proper functioning of the public authorities and the continuity of the State . He shall be the guarantor of national independence , territorial integrity and observance of treaties . Article 8 The President of the Republic shall appoint the Prime Minister . He shall terminate the appointment of the Prime Minister when the latter tenders the resignation of the Government . On the proposal of the Prime Minister , he shall appoint the other members of the Government and terminate their appointments . Article 9 The President of the Republic shall preside over the Council of Ministers . Article 10 The President of the Republic shall promulgate Acts of Parliament within fifteen days following the final adoption of an Act and its transmission to the Government . He may , before the expiry of this time limit , ask Parliament to reconsider the Act or sections of the Act . Reconsideration shall not be refused . While the president has to sign all acts adopted by parliament into law , he can not refuse to do so and exercise a kind of right of veto ; his only power in that matter is to ask for a single reconsideration of the law by parliament and this power is subject to countersigning by the Prime minister . Article 11 The president could submit laws to the people in a referendum with advice and consent of the cabinet . Article 12 The President of the Republic may , after consulting the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the assemblies , declare the National Assembly dissolved . A general election shall take place not less than twenty days and not more than forty days after the dissolution . The National Assembly shall convene as of right on the second Thursday following its election . Should it so convene outside the period prescribed for the ordinary session , a session shall be called by right for a fifteen-day period . No further dissolution shall take place within a year following this election . Article 13 The President of the Republic shall sign the ordinances and decrees deliberated upon in the Council of Ministers . He shall make appointments to the civil and military posts of the State . [ ... ] Article 14 The President of the Republic shall accredit ambassadors and envoys extraordinary to foreign powers ; foreign ambassadors and envoys extraordinary shall be accredited to him . Article 15 The President of the Republic shall be commander-in-chief of the armed forces . He shall preside over the higher national defence councils and committees . Article 16 Where the institutions of the Republic , the independence of the Nation , the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat , and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted , the President of the Republic shall take the measures required by these circumstances , after formally consulting the Prime Minister , the Presidents of the assemblies and the Constitutional Council . He shall inform the Nation of these measures in a message . The measures must stem from the desire to provide the constitutional public authorities , in the shortest possible time , with the means to carry out their duties . The Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures . Parliament shall convene as of right . The National Assembly shall not be dissolved during the exercise of the emergency powers . Article 16 , allowing the president a limited form of rule by decree for a limited period of time in exceptional circumstance , has been used only once , by Charles de Gaulle during the Algerian War , from 23 April to 29 September 1961 . Article 17 The President of the Republic has the right to grant pardon . Article 18 The President of the Republic shall communicate with the two assemblies of Parliament by means of messages , which he shall cause to be read and which shall not be the occasion for any debate . He can also give an address in front of the Congress of France in Versailles . Outside sessions , Parliament shall be convened especially for this purpose . From 1875 to 2008 , the President was prohibited from entering the houses of Parliament . Article 19 Acts of the President of the Republic , other than those provided for under articles 8 ( first paragraph ) , 11 , 12 , 16 , 18 , 54 , 56 and 61 , shall be countersigned by the Prime Minister and , where required , by the appropriate ministers . Article 49 Para 3 allows the president to adopt a law on his authority . To this end , the prime minister goes before the lower and upper houses , reads out the bill to the legislators and closes with `` the administration engages its responsibility '' on the foregoing . Deprived of Gaullist party support halfway into his seven-year term spanning 1974 to 1981 , Pres . Valéry Giscard d'Estaing relied heavily on this provision to stalemate Paris Mayor Jacques Chirac 's attempt to bring him back under Gaullist control . Presidential amnesties There is a tradition of so-called `` presidential amnesties '' , which are something of a misnomer : after the election of a president , and of a National Assembly of the same party , parliament traditionally votes a law granting amnesty for some petty crimes . This practice has been increasingly criticized , particularly because it is believed to incite people to commit traffic offences in the months preceding the election . Such an amnesty law may also authorize the president to designate individuals who have committed certain categories of crimes to be offered amnesty , if certain conditions are met . Such individual measures have been criticized for the political patronage that they allow . Still , it is argued that such amnesty laws help reduce prison overpopulation . An amnesty law was passed in 2002 ; none have yet been passed as of January 2008 . The difference between an amnesty and a presidential pardon is that the former clears all subsequent effects of the sentencing , as though the crime had not been committed , while pardon simply relieves the sentenced individual from part or all of the remainder of the sentence . Criminal responsibility and impeachment Articles 67 and 68 organize the regime of criminal responsibility of the President . They were reformed by a 2007 constitutional act , . in order to clarify a situation that previously resulted in legal controversies . The President of the Republic enjoys immunity during his term : he can not be requested to testify before any jurisdiction , he can not be prosecuted , etc . However , the statute of limitation is suspended during his term , and enquiries and prosecutions can be restarted , at the latest one month after he leaves office . The President is not deemed personally responsible for his actions in his official capacity , except where his actions are indicted before the International Criminal Court or where impeachment is moved against him . Impeachment can be pronounced by the High Court , a special court convened from both houses of Parliament on the proposal of either House , should the president have failed to discharge his duties in a way that evidently precludes the continuation of his term . Succession and incapacity Upon the death , removal , or resignation of the President , the President of the Senate takes over as acting president . Alain Poher is the only person to have served in this temporary position twice : the first time in 1969 after Charles de Gaulle 's resignation and a second time in 1974 after Georges Pompidou 's death . In this situation , the President of the Senate becomes Acting President of the Republic ; he or she does not become the new President of the Republic as elected and therefore does not have to resign from his or her position as President of the Senate . In spite of his title as Acting President of the Republic , Poher is regarded in France as a former President and is listed in the presidents ' gallery on [ http : //www.elysee.fr the official presidential website ] . This is in contrast to acting presidents from the Third Republic . The first round of a new presidential election must be organized no sooner than twenty days and no later than thirty-five days following the vacancy of the presidency . Because fifteen days can separate the first and second rounds of a presidential election , this means that the President of the Senate can only act as President of the Republic for a maximum period of fifty days . During this period of Interim president is not allowed to dismiss the national assembly nor are they allowed to call for a referendum or initiate any constitutional changes . If there is no acting president of the senate , the powers of the president of the republic are exercised by the `` Gouvernement '' , meaning the Cabinet . This has been interpreted by some constitutional academics as meaning first the Prime Minister and , if he is himself not able to act , the members of the cabinet in the order of the list of the decree that nominated them . This is in fact unlikely to happen , because if the president of the Senate is not able to act , the Senate will normally name a new president of the Senate , that will act as President of the Republic . During the Third French Republic the President of the Council of Ministers acted as President whenever office was vacant . : `` In case of a vacancy due to a decease or for any cause , the two houses of Parliament elect a new president . In the meantime , the executive power is vested in the council of ministers . '' According to article 7 of the Constitution , if the presidency becomes vacant for any reason , or if the president becomes incapacitated , upon the request of the gouvernement , the Constitutional Council may rule , by a majority vote , [ http : //www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexteArticle.do ? idArticleLEGIARTI000006529987 & cidTexte LEGITEXT000006069199 Ordonnance no 58-1067 du 7 novembre 1958 portant loi organique sur le Conseil constitutionnel ] ( in French ) . that the presidency is to be temporarily assumed by the President of the Senate . If the Council rules that the incapacity is permanent , the same procedure as for the resignation is applied , as described above . If the President can not attend meetings , including meetings of the Council of Ministers , he can ask the Prime Minister to attend in his stead ( Constitution , article 21 ) . This clause has been applied by presidents travelling abroad , ill , or undergoing surgery . Pay and official residences The President of the Republic is paid a salary according to a pay grade defined in comparison to the pay grades of the most seniors members of the French Civil Service ( `` out of scale '' , hors échelle , those whose pay grades are known as letters and not as numeric indices ) . In addition he is paid a residence stipend of 3 % , and a function stipend of 25 % on top of the salary and residence indemnity . This gross salary and these indemnities are the same as those of the Prime Minister , and are 50 % higher than the highest paid to other members of the government , as amended . which is itself defined as twice the average of the highest ( pay grade G ) and the lowest ( pay grade A1 ) salaries in the `` out of scale '' pay grades .. Using the 2008 `` out of scale '' pay grades this amounts to a monthly pay of 20,963 € , which fits the 19,000 € quoted to the press in early 2008 . Using the pay grades starting from 1 July 2009 , . this amounts to a gross monthly pay of 21,131 € . The salary and the residence stipend are taxable for income tax . The official residence and office of the president is the Élysée Palace in Paris . Other presidential residences include : * the Hôtel de Marigny ; standing next to the Élysée Palace , houses foreign official guests ; * the Château de Rambouillet is normally open to visitors when not used for ( rare ) official meetings ; * the Domaine National de Marly is normally open to visitors when not used for ( rare ) official meetings ; * the Fort de Brégançon , in southeastern France , the official presidential vacation residence until 2013 , became a national monument and opened to the public in 2014 . The president 's private quarters there are still available for his ( rare ) use . La Lanterne became the official presidential vacation residence at that time . 2012 election Living former Presidents There are three living former French Presidents : File : WDK_6198_28.JPG|Valéry Giscard d'Estaing served 1974-1981 , born 02 February 1926 ( 90 years ) File : Chirac_Lula_ABr62198_ ( without_light ) .jpeg|Jacques Chirac served 1995–2007 , born 29 November 1932 ( 83 years ) File : Nicolas_Sarkozy_ ( 2015-10-29 ) _03_ ( cropped ) .jpg|Nicolas Sarkozy served 2007-2012 , born 28 January 1955 ( 61 years ) According to French law , Former Presidents have guaranteed lifetime pension defined according to the pay grade of the Councillors of State , . a courtesy diplomatic passport , and , according to the French Constitution ( Article 56 ) , membership of the Constitutional Council . They also get personnel , an apartment and/or office , and other amenities , though the legal basis for these is disputed . In 2008 , according to an answer by the services of the Prime Minister to a question from member of the National Assembly René Dosière , these facilities comprised : a security detail , a car with a chauffeur , office or housing space , maintained by the State . Two people service this space . In addition , the State funds 7 permanent collaborators . Age upon entering and leaving office Time in office Interim President # Alain Poher – as President of the Senate was called on to serve as Interim President of France in April–June 1969 and April–May 1974 Non-Presidential Heads of State # Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure , Chairman of the Provisional Government and de facto head of state in 1848 : served less than three months # Executive Commission : joint head of state with five co-presidents in 1848 : served less than two months . François Arago was its most prominent member . # Louis-Eugène Cavaignac , head of government and de facto head of state in 1848 : served about six months # Louis Jules Trochu , President of the Government of National Defense and de facto head of state ( served 4 months , September 1870 to January 1871 ) # Philippe Pétain , Chief of State of Vichy France : served four years ( considered an illegal usurper by later governments ) # Charles de Gaulle , First President of the 1944-46 Provisional Government : served over one and a half years # Félix Gouin , Second President of the Provisional Government : served five months # Georges Bidault , Third President of the Provisional Government : served five months # Léon Blum , Fourth President of the Provisional Government : served one month History Under the Third and Fourth Republic , which were parliamentary systems , the office of President of the Republic was a largely ceremonial and powerless one . The constitution of the Fifth Republic greatly increased the President 's powers . A 1962 referendum changed the constitution , so that the President would be directly elected by universal suffrage and not by the Parliament . In 2000 , a referendum shortened the presidential term from seven years to five years . A maximum of two consecutive terms was imposed after the 2008 constitutional reform .

odql_1598--President_of_France.txt

Who was the President of France at the time of the Falklands War?

Paul David Hewson ( born 10 May 1960 ) , known by his stage name Bono , is an Irish singer-songwriter , musician , venture capitalist , businessman , and philanthropist . He is best known as the lead vocalist of rock band U2 . Bono was born and raised in Dublin , Ireland , and attended Mount Temple Comprehensive School where he met his future wife , Alison Stewart , and the future members of U2 . Bono writes almost all U2 lyrics , frequently using religious , social , and political themes . During U2 's early years , his lyrics contributed to their rebellious and spiritual tone . As the band matured , his lyrics became inspired more by personal experiences shared with the other members . Outside the band , he has collaborated and recorded with numerous artists , is managing director and a managing partner of Elevation Partners , and has refurbished and owns the Clarence Hotel in Dublin with The Edge . Bono is also widely known for his activism concerning Africa , for which he co-founded DATA , EDUN , the ONE Campaign and Product Red . He has organised and played in several benefit concerts and has met with influential politicians . Bono has been praised and criticised for his activism and involvement with U2.Mellgren , D. ( 24 February 2006 ) . Bono Among Nobel Peace Prize Nominees . Associated Press . Retrieved 14 January 2007 , from [ http : //www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi ? file /news/archive/2006/02/24/international/i082615S45.DTL Bono Among Nobel Peace Prize Nominees ] . Bono was granted an honorary knighthood by Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom for `` his services to the music industry and for his humanitarian work '' , and has been made a Commandeur of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres ( Order of Arts and Letters ) . Together with Bill and Melinda Gates , Bono was named Time Person of the Year in 2005 , among other awards and nominations . Early life Bono was born in the Rotunda Hospital , Dublin , on 10 May 1960 . He was raised in the Northside suburb of Finglas with his brother ( who is eight years older than Bono ) by their mother , Iris ( née Rankin ) , a member of the Church of Ireland , and their father , Brendan Robert `` Bob '' Hewson , a Roman Catholic . His parents initially agreed that the first child would be raised Anglican and the second Catholic . Although Bono was the second child , he also attended Church of Ireland services with his mother and brother . He went to the local primary Glasnevin National School . Bono 's mother died on 10 September 1974 , after suffering a cerebral aneurysm at her father 's funeral . Many U2 songs , including `` I Will Follow '' , `` Mofo '' , `` Out of Control '' , `` Lemon '' and `` Tomorrow '' focus on the loss of his mother . Bono attended Mount Temple Comprehensive School , a multi-denominational school in Clontarf . During his childhood and adolescence , Bono and his friends were part of a surrealist street gang called `` Lypton Village '' . Bono met one of his closest friends , Guggi , in Lypton Village . The gang had a ritual of nickname-giving . Bono had several names : first , he was `` Steinhegvanhuysenolegbangbangbang '' , then just `` Huyseman '' , followed by `` Houseman '' , `` Bon Murray '' , `` Bono Vox of O'Connell Street '' , and finally just `` Bono '' . `` Bono Vox '' is an alteration of Bonavox , a Latin phrase which translates to `` good voice '' . It is said he was nicknamed `` Bono Vox '' by his friend Gavin Friday . He initially disliked the name ; however , when he learned it translated to `` good voice '' , he accepted it . Hewson has been known as `` Bono '' since the late 1970s . Although he uses Bono as his stage name , close family and friends also refer to him as Bono , including fellow band members . After he left school , his father Bob Hewson , told him he could live at home for one year but if he was not able to pay his own way , he would have to leave the house . Personal life Bono is married to Alison Hewson ( née Stewart ) . ; ; The couple have four children : daughters Jordan ( born 10 May 1989 ) and Memphis Eve ( 7 July 1991 ) and sons Elijah Bob Patricius Guggi Q ( 17 August 1999 ) and John Abraham ( 20 May 2001 ) . Bono is almost never seen in public without sunglasses , as he suffers from glaucoma . During a Rolling Stone interview he stated : In the late 1980s or early 90s , Bono bought a top-floor duplex apartment in Manhattan 's San Remo apartment building from Steve Jobs for $ 15 million . Jobs had renovated it for his own use , but never moved in . In 2002 , he was listed as one of the 100 Greatest Britons in a poll conducted among the general public , despite the fact he is Irish . In 2004 , Bono was given an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Pennsylvania . In May 2010 , Bono suffered a spinal injury while preparing for a U2 tour , and was taken to a German clinic in Munich for emergency neurosurgery . The North American leg of the tour was postponed and rescheduled for 2011 . Bono was named one of the 17 Irish artists to be proud of by the Irish Post on 9 April 2013 . Time magazine ranked him at the 8th place on its list of the `` Most Influential Celebrities '' in 2013 ; he was the only person from the music industry in the Top 10 . Bono 's work as an activist , which is due largely to his Christian beliefs , began in earnest when , inspired by Live Aid , he travelled to Ethiopia to work in a feeding camp with his wife Alison and the charity World Vision , an Evangelical Christian humanitarian aid , development , and advocacy organisation . With regard to Bono 's 2013 declarations in interviews published and videotaped of his faith in Jesus Christ , he states that Christ was either who he said he was , or he is `` a complete and utter nutcase '' . As early as 2005 , Bono was invoking this argument , identified as the `` Lewis trilemma '' . On 16 November 2014 , Bono was involved in a `` high energy bicycle accident '' when he attempted to avoid another rider . Bono was rushed to NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital/Weill Cornell Medical Center 's Emergency Department and underwent `` multiple X-rays and CAT scans '' followed by five hours of surgery . Bono suffered fractures of the shoulder blade , humerus , orbit and pinky finger . Orthopedic trauma surgeon Dean Lorich , MD , stated that `` [ Bono ] was taken emergently to the operating room ... where the elbow was washed out and debrided , a nerve trapped in the break was moved and the bone was repaired with three metal plates and 18 screws . '' Bono posted to U2 's official website , `` As I write this , it is not clear that I will ever play guitar again , '' as reported in Cycling Weekly . Musical career U2 On 25 September 1976 , Bono , David Evans ( `` The Edge '' ) , his brother Dik and Adam Clayton responded to an advertisement on a bulletin board at Mount Temple posted by fellow student Larry Mullen Jr. to form a rock band . The band had occasional jam sessions in which they did covers of other bands . Tired of long guitar solos and hard rock , Bono wanted to play The Rolling Stones and Beach Boys songs . Unfortunately the band could not play covers very well , so they started writing their own songs . The band went by the name `` Feedback '' for a few months , before changing to `` The Hype '' later on . After Dik Evans left the group to join another local band , the Virgin Prunes , the remaining four officially changed the name from `` The Hype '' to `` U2 '' . Initially Bono sang , played guitar and wrote the band 's songs . He said of his early guitar playing in a 1982 interview , `` When we started out I was the guitar player , along with the Edge—except I could n't play guitar . I still ca n't . I was such a lousy guitar player that one day they broke it to me that maybe I should sing instead . I had tried before , but I had no voice at all . I remember the day I found I could sing . I said , 'Oh , that 's how you do it . ' '' When The Edge 's guitar playing improved , Bono was relegated mostly to the microphone , although he occasionally still plays rhythm guitar and harmonica . As of 2006 , Bono has taken piano lessons from his children 's piano teacher as a means to improve his songwriting . Bono writes the lyrics for almost all U2 songs , which are often rich in social and political themes . His lyrics frequently allude to a religious connection or meaning , evident in songs such as `` Gloria '' from the band 's album October and `` I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' from The Joshua Tree.Stockman ( 2005 ) During the band 's early years , Bono was known for his rebellious tone which turned to political anger and rage during the band 's War , The Joshua Tree and Rattle and Hum eras . Following the Enniskillen bombing that left 11 dead and 63 injured on 8 November 1987 , the Provisional IRA paramilitaries threatened to kidnap Bono . IRA supporters also attacked a vehicle carrying the band members . These acts were in response to his speech condemning the Enniskillen bombing during a live performance of `` Sunday Bloody Sunday '' . The singer had been advised to cut his on-stage outburst from the Rattle and Hum film , but it was left in . Also featured in the film is footage of Bono spray-painting a monument during an outdoor performance ; Bono was forced to pay a fine . U2 's sound and focus dramatically changed with their 1991 album , Achtung Baby . Bono 's lyrics became more personal , inspired by experiences related to the private lives of the members of the band . During the band 's Zoo TV Tour several of his stage personas were showcased ; these included `` The Fly '' , a stereotypical rock star , the `` Mirror Ball Man '' , a parody of American televangelists , and `` Mr. MacPhisto '' , a combination of a corrupted rock star and the Devil . During performances he attempts to interact with the crowd as often as possible and is known for pulling audience members onto the stage or moving himself down to the physical level of the audience . This has happened on several occasions including at the Live Aid concert in 1985 where he leapt off the stage and pulled a woman from the crowd to dance with her as the band played `` Bad '' , and in 2005 during U2 's Vertigo Tour stop in Chicago , where he pulled a boy onto the stage during the song `` An Cat Dubh / Into the Heart '' . Bono has often allowed fans to come on stage and perform songs with the band . Bono has won numerous awards with U2 , including 22 Grammy awards and the 2003 Golden Globe award for best original song , `` The Hands That Built America '' , for the film Gangs of New York . During the live broadcast of the Golden Globe ceremony , Bono called the award `` really , really fucking brilliant ! `` . In response , the Parents Television Council condemned Bono for his profanity and started a campaign for its members to file complaints with the FCC . Although Bono 's use of `` fuck '' violated FCC indecency standards , the FCC refused to fine NBC because the network did not receive advance notice of the consequences of broadcasting such profanity and the profanity in question was not used in its literal sexual meaning . In apparent reaction to the refusal , a group of congressmen introduced House Resolution 3687 , the `` Clean Airwaves Act '' , on 8 December 2003 , [ https : //www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/108/hr3687 H.R . 3687 ( 108th ) ] — GovTrack aiming to amend section 1464 of title 18 of the United States Code to provide an explicit list of profane words and phrases and remove ambiguity that could enable certain uses of the phrases to be allowed . The bill was not enacted . The incident has had a long-term impact in the handling of profanity on live broadcasts . In 2005 , the U2 band members were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , in their first year of eligibility . [ http : //www.rockhall.com/hof/inductee.asp ? id 2348 ] In November 2008 , Rolling Stone ranked Bono the 32nd-greatest singer of all time . Bono and his bandmates were criticised in 2007 for moving part of their multimillion-euro song catalogue from Ireland to Amsterdam six months before Ireland ended a tax exemption on musicians ' royalties . Under Dutch tax law , bands are subject to low to non-existent tax rates . U2 's manager , Paul McGuinness , stated that the arrangement is legal and customary and businesses often seek to minimise their tax burdens . The move prompted criticisms in the Irish parliament . The band later responded by stating that approximately 95 % of their business took place outside Ireland , and that they were taxed globally because of this . Bono was one of several wealthy figures whose tax arrangements were singled out for criticism in a report by the charity Christian Aid in 2008 . Collaborations In addition to his work with U2 , he has collaborated with Frank Sinatra , Simon , S. ( Host ) . ( 13 November 1993 ) . Weekend Edition Saturday . Washington , DC : National Public Radio . Johnny Cash , Willie Nelson , U2 . ( 1998 ) . Slow Dancing . On If God Will Send His Angels [ CD-Single ] . New York : Island Records . Luciano Pavarotti , Sinéad O'Connor , Voyer , R. ( 1 October 2005 ) .. Splendid . Retrieved 3 May 2007 , from [ http : //www.splendidezine.com/review.html ? reviewid 1126871570221522 Splendid Magazine reviews Sinéad O'Connor ] splendidezine.com . Green Day , Tom Petty , Roy Orbison , Bob Dylan , Patti Smith , Tina Turner , B.B . King and Zucchero . U2 . ( 1988 ) . When Love Comes to Town . On Rattle and Hum [ CD ] . New York : Island Records . He has recorded with Ray Charles , U2 Wanderer . ( Unknown last update ) . [ http : //www.u2wanderer.org/disco/coll23.html U2 Discography—Q 's Jook Joint ] . Retrieved 4 July 2007 . Quincy Jones , Kirk Franklin , Kirk Franklin . ( 1998 ) . Lean on me . On THE NU NATION PROJECT [ CD-Album ] . Inglewood : GospoCentric Records . Bruce Springsteen , Stanley , A . ( 19 May 2007 ) . [ http : //www.echoes.com/greymatter/archives/00000082.html Bruce Springsteen : THE RISING TOUR 2003-2003 FINAL TOUR STATISTICS ] . Retrieved 4 July 2007 . Tony Bennett , TonyBennett.net . ( Unknown last update ) . [ http : //www.tonybennett.net/ Tony Bennett , Columbia Records ] . Retrieved 4 July 2007 . Clannad , U2tour.de . ( Unknown last update ) . [ http : //www.u2tour.de/discographie/videos/In_A_Lifetime_Clannad__Bono.html In A Lifetime ( Clannad & Bono ) ] . Retrieved 4 July 2007 . The Corrs , Cashmere , P. ( 14 April 2004 ) . The Corrs Record Another Bono Song . Undercover Media . Retrieved 4 July 2007 , from [ http : //www.undercover.com.au/news/2004/apr04/20040414_corrs.html undercover.com.au ] . Wyclef Jean , U2Wanderer.org . ( Unknown last update ) . [ http : //www.u2wanderer.org/disco/newday.html U2 Discography—New Day Single ] . Retrieved 4 July 2007 . Kylie Minogue , Carl Perkins , Herbert Grönemeyer , Jay-Z and Rihanna , as well as reportedly completing an unreleased duet with Jennifer Lopez.Barile , L.A. ( 28 March 2003 ) . [ http : //www.people.com/people/article/0,26334,625803,00.html PASSAGES : Jennifer Lopez 's Latest Duet ] . People . Retrieved 4 July 2007 . On Robbie Robertson 's 1987 eponymous album , he plays bass guitar and vocals.Robbie Robertson . ( 1987 ) . Sweet Fire of Love . On Robbie Robertson [ CD-Album ] . Santa Monica : Geffen Records . On Michael Hutchence 's 1999 posthumous eponymous album , Bono completed a recording of `` Slide Away '' as a duet with Hutchence . Bono recently collaborated with African stars like D'banj , Waje and Omotola Jalade Ekeinde for the women empowerment song titled Strong Girl Bono and The Edge also wrote the music and lyrics for the Broadway musical Spider-Man : Turn Off the Dark . On 25 May 2011 , a single titled `` Rise Above 1 '' by Reeve Carney featuring Bono and The Edge was released digitally . The music video was released on 28 July 2011 . Philanthropic work Bono has become one of the world 's best-known philanthropic performers and was named the most politically effective celebrity of all time by the National Journal . He has been dubbed , `` the face of fusion philanthropy '' , both for his success enlisting powerful allies from a diverse spectrum of leaders in government , religious institutions , philanthropic organisations , popular media , and the business world , as well as for spearheading new organizational networks that bind global humanitarian relief with geopolitical activism and corporate commercial enterprise . In a 1986 interview with Rolling Stone magazine , Bono explained that he was motivated to become involved in social and political causes by seeing one of the Secret Policeman 's Ball benefit shows , staged by John Cleese and producer Martin Lewis for the human-rights organisation Amnesty International in 1979.Boyd , B . ( 20 October 2006 ) . [ http : //www.irishtimes.com/theticket/articles/2006/1020/1160606784745.html A secret history of the old Ball game ] . Irish Times . Retrieved 4 July 2007 . `` I saw 'The Secret Policeman 's Ball ' and it became a part of me . It sowed a seed ... '' . In 2001 , Bono arranged for U2 to videotape a special live performance for that year 's Amnesty benefit show . In 1984 , Bono sang on the Band Aid single `` Do They Know it 's Christmas ? /Feed the World '' ( a role that was reprised on the 2004 Band Aid 20 and 2014 Band Aid 30 singles of the same name ) . Bob Geldof and Bono later collaborated to organise the 2005 Live 8 project , where U2 also performed.Wolinsky , D. ( 31 May 2005 ) . DMB , U2 Lead Live 7 Shows . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 25 July 2007 , from [ http : //www.rollingstone.com/news/story/7371363/dmb_u2_lead_live_8_shows Rolling Stone ] . Bono and U2 performed on Amnesty 's Conspiracy of Hope tour of the United States in 1986 alongside Sting.Booth , C. ( 23 June 1986 ) . Conspiracy of Hope Tour . Time , 127 . U2 also performed in the Band Aid and Live Aid projects , organised by Geldof.Flannery , M. ( 15 July 1985 ) . Bob Geldof . Philadelphia Daily News , pp . L15 . Since 1999 , Bono has become increasingly involved in campaigning for third-world debt relief and raising awareness of the plight of Africa , including the AIDS pandemic . In the past decade Bono has met with several influential politicians , including former United States President George W. Bush and former Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin.Denny , C. , & Black , I . ( 15 March 2002 ) . [ http : //www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,667739,00.html US and Europe boost aid to poorest countries ] . The Guardian . Retrieved 14 January 2007 . During a March 2002 visit to the White House , after President Bush unveiled a $ 5 billion aid package , he accompanied the President for a speech on the White House lawn where he stated , `` This is an important first step , and a serious and impressive new level of commitment . ( ... ) This must happen urgently , because this is a crisis . '' In May of that year , Bono took US Treasury Secretary Paul H. O'Neill on a four-country tour of Africa . In contrast , in 2005 , Bono spoke on CBC Radio , alleging then Prime Minister Martin was being slow about increasing Canada 's foreign aid . In 2004 , he was awarded the Pablo Neruda International Presidential Medal of Honour from the Government of Chile . Time Magazine named Bono one of the `` 100 Most Influential People '' in its May 2004 special issue and again in the 2006 Time 100 special issue . In 2005 , Time , named Bono , with Bill and Melinda Gates , a Person of the Year.Gibbs , N. ( 26 December 2005 ) . [ http : //www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1142278,00.html The Good Samaritans ] . Time , 166 . Also in 2005 , he received the Portuguese Order of Liberty for his humanitarian work . That year Bono was also among the first three recipients of the TED Prize , which grants each winner `` A wish to change the world '' . Bono made three wishes , the first two related to the ONE campaign and the third that every hospital , health clinic and school in Ethiopia should be connected to the Internet . TED rejected the third wish as being a sub-optimal way for TED to help Africa and instead organised a TED conference in Arusha , Tanzania . Bono attended the conference , which was held in June 2007 . In 2005 he recorded a version of `` Do n't Give Up '' with Alicia Keys , with proceeds going to Keep a Child Alive . On 3 April 2005 , Bono paid a personal tribute to John Paul II and called him `` a street fighter and a wily campaigner on behalf of the world 's poor . We would never have gotten the debts of 23 countries completely cancelled without him . '' Bono spoke in advance of President Bush at the 54th Annual National Prayer Breakfast , held at the Hilton Washington Hotel on 2 February 2006 . In a speech containing biblical references , Bono encouraged the care of the socially and economically depressed . His comments included a call for an extra one percent tithe of the United States ' national budget . He brought his Christian views into harmony with other faiths by noting that Christian , Jewish , and Muslim writings all call for the care of the widow , orphan , and stranger . President Bush received praise from the singer-activist for the United States ' increase in aid for the African continent . Bono continued by saying much work is left to be done to be a part of God 's ongoing purposes.Bono . ( February 2006 ) . Remarks at the National Prayer Breakfast . Speech presented at Hilton Washington Hotel at Washington , DC . Also in 2005 , Bono , Ali Hewson and designer Rogan Gregory co-founded the EDUN fashion label ( `` nude '' spelled backwards , to suggest both `` natural '' and the Garden of Eden ) . It was intended to help bring about positive change in Africa through a fair trade-based relationship rather than by direct aid . On 15 December 2005 , Paul Theroux published an op-ed in The New York Times called The Rock Star 's Burden ( cf . Kipling 's The White Man 's Burden ) that criticised stars such as Bono , Brad Pitt , and Angelina Jolie , labelling them as `` mythomaniacs , people who wish to convince the world of their worth . '' Theroux , who lived in Africa as a Peace Corps Volunteer , added that `` the impression that Africa is fatally troubled and can be saved only by outside help—not to mention celebrities and charity concerts—is a destructive and misleading conceit . '' Elsewhere , Bono has been criticised , along with other celebrities , for `` [ ignoring ] the legitimate voices of Africa and [ turning ] a global movement for justice into a grand orgy of narcissistic philanthropy '' . In 2007 , Bono was named in the UK 's New Years Honours List as an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire . [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6206063.stm `` Honorary knighthood for U2 's Bono '' ] . BBC News . ( 23 December 2006 ) . Retrieved 14 January 2007 [ Unknown Author ] ( 23 December 2006 ) . Bono gets honorary knighthood . RTÉ News . Retrieved 14 January 2007 , from [ http : //www.rte.ie/news/2006/1223/bono.html RTE ] . He was formally granted knighthood on 29 March 2007 in a ceremony at the residence of British Ambassador David Reddaway in Dublin , Ireland . [ Unknown Author ] , ( 29 March 2007 ) . [ http : //www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17854722/ Do n't call him 'sir ' : U2 's Bono knighted ] . Associated Press . Retrieved 29 March 2007 . Bono also received the NAACP Image Award 's Chairman 's Award in 2007 . On 24 May 2007 , the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia announced that Bono would receive the Philadelphia Liberty Medal on 27 September 2007 for his work to end world poverty and hunger . On 28 September 2007 , in accepting the Liberty Medal , Bono said , `` When you are trapped by poverty , you are not free . When trade laws prevent you from selling the food you grew , you are not free ... When you are a monk in Burma this very week , barred from entering a temple because of your gospel of peace ... well , then none of us are truly free '' . Bono donated the $ 100,000 prize to the organisation . Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala accepted the award for the Washington-based Debt AIDS Trade Africa . The organisation DATA ( Debt , AIDS , Trade , Africa ) was established in 2002 by Bono and Bobby Shriver , along with activists from the Jubilee 2000 Drop the Debt Campaign . DATA aims to eradicate poverty and HIV/AIDS in Africa . DATA encourages Americans to contact senators and other legislators and elected officials to voice their opinions . Bono was a special guest editor of the July 2007 issue of Vanity Fair magazine . The issue was named `` The Africa Issue : Politics & Power '' and featured an assortment of 20 different covers , with photographs by Annie Leibovitz of a number of prominent celebrities , political leaders , and philanthropists . Each one showcased in the issue for their contributions to the humanitarian relief in Africa . In an article in Bloomberg Markets in March 2007 , journalists Richard Tomlinson and Fergal O'Brien noted that Bono used his band 's 2006 Vertigo world tour to promote his ONE Campaign while at the same time `` U2 was racking up $ 389 million in gross ticket receipts , making Vertigo the second-most lucrative tour of all time , according to Billboard magazine ... Revenue from the Vertigo tour is funnelled through companies that are mostly registered in Ireland and structured to minimise taxes . '' Further criticism came in November 2007 , when Bono 's various charity campaigns were targeted by Jobs Selasie , head of African Aid Action . Selasie claimed that these charities had increased corruption and dependency in Africa because they failed to work with African entrepreneurs and grassroots organisations , and as a result , Africa has become more dependent on international handouts . Bono responded to his critics in Times Online on 19 February 2006 , calling them `` cranks carping from the sidelines . A lot of them would n't know what to do if they were on the field . They 're the party who will always be in opposition so they 'll never have to take responsibility for decisions because

sfq_5871--Bono.txt

As whom is Paul David Hewson better known?

The Schilling ( German : Österreichischer Schilling ) was the currency of Austria from 1925 to 1938 and from 1945 to 1999 , and the circulating currency until 2002 . The euro was introduced at a fixed parity of €1 = 13.7603 Schilling to replace it . The Schilling was divided into 100 Groschen . History First Schilling The Schilling was established by the Schilling Act ( Schillingrechnungsgesetz ) of December 20 , 1924 at a rate of 1 Schilling to 10,000 Austro-Hungarian Kronen and issued on March 1 , 1925 . The Schilling was abolished in the wake of the Anschluss ( 1938 ) , when it was exchanged at a rate of 2 German Reichsmark to 3 Schilling . Second Schilling The Schilling was reintroduced after World War II on November 30 , 1945 by the Allied Military , who issued paper money ( dated 1944 ) in denominations of 50 Groschen up to 100 Schilling . The exchange rate to the Reichsmark was 1:1 , limited to 150 Schilling per person . The Nationalbank also began issuing Schilling notes in 1945 and the first coins were issued in 1946 . With a second `` Schilling '' law on November 21 , 1947 , new banknotes were introduced . The earlier notes could be exchanged for new notes at par for the first 150 Schilling and at a rate of 1 new Schilling for 3 old Schilling thereafter . Coins were not affected by this reform . The currency stabilised in the 1950s , with the Schilling being tied to the U.S. dollar at a rate of $ 1 = 26 Schilling . Following the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system in 1971 , the Schilling was initially tied to a basket of currencies and then , in July 1976 , the Schilling was coupled to the German mark . Although the Euro became the official currency of Austria in 1999 , euro coins and notes were not introduced until 2002 . Old Schilling denominated coins and notes were phased out from circulation because of the introduction of the euro by 28 February of that year . Schilling banknotes and coins which were valid at the time of the introduction of the euro will remain exchangeable for euros at any branch of the Austrian National Bank ( Österreichische Nationalbank ) indefinitely . Coins First Schilling In 1925 , bronze 1 and 2 Groschen , cupro-nickel 10 groschen , and silver and 1 Schilling coins were introduced , followed by cupro-nickel 5 Groschen issues in 1931 . In 1934 , cupro-nickel 50 Groschen and 1 Schilling were introduced , together with silver 5 Schilling . Coins were issued until 1938 . Second Schilling Between 1947 and 1952 , coins in denominations of 1 , 2 , 5 , 10 , 20 , and 50 Groschen ; and 1 , 2 , and 5 Schilling were introduced . The 2 and 50 Groschen ; 1 , 2 , and 5 Schilling were struck in aluminium , as was the second type of 10 groschen coin . The 1 and 5 groschen and the first type of 10 groschen were in zinc , with the 20 groschen struck in aluminium-bronze . The 1 groschen was only struck in 1947 , while the 20 groschen and 2 Schilling coins were suspended from production in 1954 and 1952 , respectively . In 1957 , silver 10 Schilling coins were introduced , followed in 1959 by aluminium-bronze 50 groschen and 1 Schilling , and in 1960 by silver 5 Schilling coins . Thus , the 5 Schilling coins went from an aluminium composition to a silver one , a highly unusual event made possible by the substantial improvement of the Austrian economy in the 1950s . Cupro-nickel replaced silver in the 5 and 10 Schilling coins in 1969 and 1974 , respectively . An aluminium-bronze 20 Schilling coin was introduced in 1980 . Silver coins were in the value of 25 , 50 , 100 , 200 and 500 Schilling , but gold coins also existed for 500 and 1,000 Schilling . They were considered legal currency , but were rarely found in actual transactions . At the time of the changeover to the euro , the coins in circulation were the following . Coins under 10 groschen were rarely seen in circulation during their final years . # 10 Schilling has pure nickel core # Smoothly with 19 pits until 1992 . In 1993 , all previous 20 Schilling coins were reissued with smooth edges . Banknotes First Schilling In 1925 , notes were introduced by the Austrian National Bank in denominations of 1 , 5 , 10 , 20 , 100 and 1,000 Schillinge ( note the different spelling of the plural on this first 1925-series of notes ) . In 1927–1929 a second series was added with 5 , 10 , 20 , 50 and 100 Schilling notes . The one Schilling was substituted by a coin . Second Schilling In 1945 , the Allies introduced notes ( dated 1944 ) in denominations of 50 groschen , 1 , 2 , 5 , 10 , 20 , 25 , 50 , 100 and 1,000 Schilling . The National Bank also introduced notes in 1945 , in denominations of 10 , 20 , 100 and 1,000 Schilling and the allied currency with smale values up to 5 Schilling remained valid until 1947 . With the banknote reform of 1947 , new notes were issued in denominations of 5 , 10 , 20 , 50 , 100 and 1,000 Schilling . Until 1957 , the first 500 Schilling banknote was issued and the 5 and 10 Schilling notes were replaced by coins . However , although 20 Schilling coins were issued from 1980 , the 20 Schilling note continued to be produced , with 5,000 Schilling notes added in 1988 .

qw_11750--Austrian_schilling.txt

Until the introduction of the euro, on 1 January 2002, which country had the schilling as its basic currency unit?

Swedish ( ) is a North Germanic language , spoken natively by about 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland , where it has equal legal standing with Finnish . It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish ( see the section `` Classification '' ) . Along with the other North Germanic languages , Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse , the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era . It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers . Standard Swedish , spoken by most Swedes , is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century . While distinct regional varieties descended from the older rural dialects still exist , the spoken and written language is uniform and standardized . The standard word order is , as in most Germanic languages , V2 , which means that the finite verb appears in second position of a declarative main clause . Swedish morphology is similar to English ; that is , words have comparatively few inflections . There are two genders , no grammatical cases , and a distinction between plural and singular . Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are some remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well . Adjectives are compared as in English , and are also inflected according to gender , number and definiteness . The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes ( endings ) , complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles . The prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities . The language has a comparatively large vowel inventory . Swedish is also notable for the voiceless dorso-palatal velar fricative , a highly variable consonant phoneme . Classification Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages . In the established classification , it belongs to the East Scandinavian languages together with Danish , separating it from the West Scandinavian languages , consisting of Faroese , Icelandic and Norwegian . However , more recent analyses divide the North Germanic languages into two groups : Insular Scandinavian ( Faroese and Icelandic ) , and Continental Scandinavian ( Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish ) , based on mutual intelligibility due to heavy influence of East Scandinavian ( particularly Danish ) on Norwegian during the last millennium and divergence from both Faroese and Icelandic . By many general criteria of mutual intelligibility , the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language . However , because of several hundred years of sometimes quite intense rivalry between Denmark and Sweden , including a long series of wars from the 16th to 18th centuries , and the nationalist ideas that emerged during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , the languages have separate orthographies , dictionaries , grammars , and regulatory bodies . Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish are thus from a linguistic perspective more accurately described as a dialect continuum of Scandinavian ( North Germanic ) , and some of the dialects , such as those on the border between Norway and Sweden , especially parts of Bohuslän , Dalsland , western Värmland , western Dalarna , Härjedalen , Jämtland and Scania , could be described as intermediate dialects of the national standard languages . History Old Norse In the 8th century , the common Germanic language of Scandinavia , Proto-Norse , had undergone some changes and evolved into Old Norse . This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia , which resulted in the appearance of two similar dialects , Old West Norse ( Norway and Iceland ) and Old East Norse ( Denmark and Sweden ) . The dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish . The dialects are described as `` runic '' because the main body of text appears in the runic alphabet . Unlike Proto-Norse , which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet , Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet , which had only 16 letters . Because the number of runes was limited , some runes were used for a range of phonemes , such as the rune for the vowel u which was also used for the vowels o , ø and y , and the rune for i which was also used for e.Lars-Erik Edlund , `` Språkhistorisk översikt '' in From 1200 onwards , the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden . The innovations spread unevenly from Denmark which created a series of minor dialectal boundaries , or isoglosses , ranging from Zealand in the south to Norrland , Österbotten and northwestern Finland in the north . An early change that separated Runic Danish from the other dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é , as in stæinn to sténn `` stone '' . This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain and the later stin . There was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr `` dead '' . This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from tauþr into tuþr . Moreover , the øy diphthong changed into a long , close ø , as in the Old Norse word for `` island '' . By the end of the period , these innovations had affected most of the Runic Swedish-speaking area as well , with the exception of the dialects spoken north and east of Mälardalen where the diphthongs still exist in remote areas . Old Swedish Old Swedish ( fornsvenska ) is the term used for the medieval Swedish language . The start date is usually set to 1225 since this is the year that Västgötalagen ( `` the Västgöta Law '' ) is believed to have been compiled for the first time . It is among the most important documents of the period written in Latin script and the oldest Swedish law codes . Old Swedish is divided into äldre fornsvenska ( 1225–1375 ) and yngre fornsvenska ( 1375–1526 ) , `` older '' and `` younger '' Old Swedish Important outside influences during this time came with the firm establishment of the Christian church and various monastic orders , introducing many Greek and Latin loanwords . With the rise of Hanseatic power in the late 13th and early 14th century , Middle Low German became very influential . The Hanseatic league provided Swedish commerce and administration with a large number of Low German-speaking immigrants . Many became quite influential members of Swedish medieval society , and brought terms from their native languages into the vocabulary . Besides a great number of loanwords for such areas as warfare , trade and administration , general grammatical suffixes and even conjunctions were imported . The League also brought a certain measure of influence from Danish ( at the time much more similar than today 's language ) .Lars-Erik Edlund , `` Språkhistorisk översikt '' in Early Old Swedish was markedly different from the modern language in that it had a more complex case structure and yet retained the original Germanic three-gender system . Nouns , adjectives , pronouns and certain numerals were inflected in four cases ; besides the extant nominative , there were also the genitive ( later possessive ) , dative and accusative . The gender system resembled that of modern German , having masculine , feminine and neuter genders . The masculine and feminine genders were later merged into a common gender with the definite suffix -en and the definite article den , in contrast with the neuter gender equivalents -et and det . The verb system was also more complex : it included subjunctive and imperative moods and verbs were conjugated according to person as well as number . By the 16th century , the case and gender systems of the colloquial spoken language and the profane literature had been largely reduced to the two cases and two genders of modern Swedish . A transitional change of the Latin script in the Nordic countries was to spell the letter combination `` ae '' as æ – and sometimes as a ' – though it varied between persons and regions . The combination `` ao '' was similarly rendered ao , and `` oe '' became oe . These three were later to evolve into the separate letters ä , å and ö . The first time the new letters were used in print was in Aff dyäffwlsens frästilse ( `` By the Devil 's temptation '' ) published by Johan Gerson in 1495 . Modern Swedish Modern Swedish ( Swedish : nysvenska ) begins with the advent of the printing press and the European Reformation . After assuming power , the new monarch Gustav Vasa ordered a Swedish translation of the Bible . The New Testament was published in 1526 , followed by a full Bible translation in 1541 , usually referred to as the Gustav Vasa Bible , a translation deemed so successful and influential that , with revisions incorporated in successive editions , it remained the most common Bible translation until 1917 . The main translators were Laurentius Andreæ and the brothers Laurentius and Olaus Petri . The Vasa Bible is often considered to be a reasonable compromise between old and new ; while not adhering to the colloquial spoken language of its day , it was not overly conservative in its use of archaic forms . It was a major step towards a more consistent Swedish orthography . It established the use of the vowels `` å '' , `` ä '' , and `` ö '' , and the spelling `` ck '' in place of `` kk '' , distinguishing it clearly from the Danish Bible , perhaps intentionally , given the ongoing rivalry between the countries . All three translators came from central Sweden which is generally seen as adding specific Central Swedish features to the new Bible . Though it might seem as if the Bible translation set a very powerful precedent for orthographic standards , spelling actually became more inconsistent during the remainder of the century . It was not until the 17th century that spelling began to be discussed , around the time when the first grammars were written . The spelling debate raged on until the early 19th century , and it was not until the latter half of the 19th century that the orthography reached generally acknowledged standards . Capitalization during this time was not standardized . It depended on the authors and their background . Those influenced by German capitalized all nouns , while others capitalized more sparsely . It is also not always apparent which letters are capitalized owing to the Gothic or blackletter typeface which was used to print the Bible . This typeface was in use until the mid-18th century , when it was gradually replaced with a Latin typeface ( often antiqua ) . Some important changes in sound during the Modern Swedish period were the gradual assimilation of several different consonant clusters into the fricative and later into . There was also the gradual softening of and into and the fricative before front vowels . The velar fricative was also transformed into the corresponding plosive . Contemporary Swedish The period that includes Swedish as it is spoken today is termed nusvenska ( lit . `` Now-Swedish '' ) in linguistic terminology and started in the last decades of the 19th century . The period saw a democratization of the language with a less formal written form that came closer to the spoken one . The growth of a public schooling system also led to the evolution of so-called boksvenska ( literally `` book Swedish '' ) , especially among the working classes , where spelling to some extent influenced pronunciation , particularly in official contexts . With the industrialization and urbanization of Sweden well under way by the last decades of the 19th century , a new breed of authors made their mark on Swedish literature . Many scholars , politicians and other public figures had a great influence on the new national language that was emerging , and among them were prolific authors like the poet Gustaf Fröding , Nobel laureate Selma Lagerlöf , and radical writer and playwright August Strindberg . It was during the 20th century that a common , standardized national language became available to all Swedes . The orthography was finally stabilized , and was almost completely uniform , with the exception of some minor deviations , by the time of the spelling reform of 1906 . With the exception of plural forms of verbs and a slightly different syntax , particularly in the written language , the language was the same as the Swedish of today . The plural verb forms appeared decreasingly in formal writing into the 1950s , when their use was removed from all official recommendations . A very significant change in Swedish occurred in the late 1960s , with the so-called du-reformen , `` the you-reform '' . Previously , the proper way to address people of the same or higher social status had been by title and surname . The use of herr ( `` Mr '' or `` Sir '' ) , fru ( `` Mrs '' or `` Ma'am '' ) or fröken ( `` Miss '' ) was considered the only acceptable mode of initiating conversation with strangers of unknown occupation , academic title or military rank . The fact that the listener should preferably be referred to in the third person tended to further complicate spoken communication between members of society . In the early 20th century , an unsuccessful attempt was made to replace the insistence on titles with ni ( the standard second person plural pronoun ) , analogous to the French Vous . ( Cf . T-V distinction . ) Ni ( plural second person pronoun ) wound up being used as a slightly less familiar form of du ( singular second person pronoun ) used to address people of lower social status . With the liberalization and radicalization of Swedish society in the 1950s and 1960s , these previously significant distinctions of class became less important , and du became the standard , even in formal and official contexts . Though the reform was not an act of any centralized political decrees , but rather a sweeping change in social attitudes , it was completed in just a few years from the late 1960s to early 1970s . The use of ni as a polite form of address is occasionally encountered today in both the written and spoken language , particularly among younger speakers . Former language minorities From the 13th to 20th century , there were Swedish-speaking communities in Estonia , particularly on the islands ( e.g. , Hiiumaa , Vormsi , Ruhnu ; in Swedish , known as Dagö , Ormsö , Runö , respectively ) along the coast of the Baltic , communities which today have all but disappeared . The Swedish-speaking minority was represented in parliament , and entitled to use their native language in parliamentary debates . After the loss of Estonia to the Russian Empire in the early 18th century , around 1,000 Estonian Swedish speakers were forced to march to southern Ukraine , where they founded a village , Gammalsvenskby ( `` Old Swedish Village '' ) . A few elderly people in the village still speak Swedish and observe the holidays of the Swedish calendar , although the dialect is most likely facing extinction . From 1918–1940 , when Estonia was independent , the small Swedish community was well treated . Municipalities with a Swedish majority , mainly found along the coast , used Swedish as the administrative language and Swedish-Estonian culture saw an upswing . However , most Swedish-speaking people fled to Sweden before the end of World War II , that is , before the invasion of Estonia by the Soviet army in 1944 . Only a handful of older speakers remain . Geographic distribution Swedish is the official national language of both Sweden and Finland ( in Finland besides Finnish language who is the biggest official language of Finland ) . As of 2006 , it was the first or sole native language of 7.5 to 8 million Swedish residents . In 2007 around 5.5 % ( c. 290,000 ) of the population of Finland were native speakers of Swedish , though the percentage has been declining steadily since Finland became part of Russia after the Finnish War 1808–1809 . The Finland Swedish minority is concentrated in the coastal areas and archipelagos of southern and western Finland . In some of these areas , Swedish is the predominant language ; in 19 municipalities , 16 of which are located in Åland , Swedish is the sole official language . Åland county is an autonomous region of Finland . According to a rough estimation , as of 2010 there were up to 300,000 Swedish-speakers living outside Sweden and Finland . The largest populations were in the United States ( up to 100,000 ) , the UK , Spain and Germany ( c. 30,000 each ) and a large proportion of the remaining 100,000 in the Scandinavian countries , France , Switzerland , Belgium , the Netherlands , Canada and Australia . A considerable majority of Swedish residents born outside Sweden ( c. 1.5 million ) speak Swedish and according to the ELDIA Project , there were c. 2,390,000 second-language speakers in Finland . According to a survey by the European Commission , 44 % of respondents from Finland who did not have Swedish as a native language considered themselves to be proficient enough in Swedish to hold a conversation , for a total of about 5 million second-language speakers . The total number of native speakers could be up to 8.6 million with an additional 4–5 million second language speakers in Sweden and Finland . Due to the close relation between the Scandinavian languages , a considerable proportion of speakers of Danish and especially Norwegian are highly fluent in Swedish for a total number of speakers that could be as high as 15 million . There is considerable migration between the Nordic countries , but owing to the similarity between the cultures and languages ( with the exception of Finnish ) , expatriates generally assimilate quickly and do not stand out as a group . According to the 2000 United States Census , some 67,000 people over the age of five were reported as Swedish speakers , though without any information on the degree of language proficiency . Similarly , there were 16,915 reported Swedish speakers in Canada from the 2001 census . Although there are no certain numbers , some 40,000 Swedes are estimated to live in the London area in the United Kingdom . Outside Sweden and Finland , there are about 40,000 active learners enrolled in Swedish language courses . Official status Swedish is officially the main language of Sweden . Swedish is also one of two official languages of Finland . In Sweden it has long been used in local and state government and most of the educational system but remained only a de facto primary language with no official status in law until 2009 . A bill was proposed in 2005 that would have made Swedish an official language but failed to pass by the narrowest possible margin ( 145–147 ) due to a pairing-off failure . A proposal for a broader language law , designating Swedish as the main language of the country and bolstering the status of the minority languages , was submitted by an expert committee to the Swedish Ministry of Culture in March 2008 . It was subsequently enacted by the Riksdag and entered into effect on 1 July 2009 . Swedish is the sole official language of Åland ( an autonomous province under the sovereignty of Finland ) where the vast majority of the 26,000 inhabitants speak Swedish as a first language . In Finland as a whole Swedish is one of the two `` national '' languages , with the same official status as Finnish ( spoken by the majority ) on the state level and an official language in some municipalities . Swedish is one of the official languages of the European Union and one of the working languages of the Nordic Council . Under the Nordic Language Convention , citizens of the Nordic countries speaking Swedish have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable to any interpretation or translation costs . Regulatory bodies The Swedish Language Council ( Språkrådet ) is the official regulator of Swedish in Sweden but does not attempt to enforce control of the language , as for instance the Académie française does for French . However , many organizations and agencies require the use of the council 's publication Svenska skrivregler in official contexts , with it otherwise being regarded as a de facto orthographic standard . Among the many organizations that make up the Swedish Language Council , the Swedish Academy ( established 1786 ) is arguably the most influential . Its primary instruments are the glossary Svenska Akademiens ordlista ( SAOL , currently in its 14th edition ) and the dictionary Svenska Akademiens Ordbok , in addition to various books on grammar , spelling and manuals of style . Even though the dictionaries are sometimes used as official decrees of the language , their main purpose is to describe current usage . In Finland a special branch of the Research Institute for the Languages of Finland has official status as the regulatory body for Swedish in Finland . Among its highest priorities is to maintain intelligibility with the language spoken in Sweden . It has published Finlandssvensk ordbok , a dictionary about the differences between Swedish in Finland and Sweden . Dialects According to a traditional division of Swedish dialects , there are six main groups of dialects : * Norrland dialects * Finland Swedish * Svealand dialects * Gotland dialects * Götaland dialects * South Swedish dialects The traditional definition of a Swedish dialect has been a local variant that has not been heavily influenced by the standard language and that can trace a separate development all the way back to Old Norse . Many of the genuine rural dialects , such as those of Orsa in Dalarna or Närpes in Österbotten , have very distinct phonetic and grammatical features , such as plural forms of verbs or archaic case inflections . These dialects can be near-incomprehensible to a majority of Swedes , and most of their speakers are also fluent in Standard Swedish . The different dialects are often so localized that they are limited to individual parishes and are referred to by Swedish linguists as sockenmål ( lit . `` parish speech '' ) . They are generally separated into six major groups , with common characteristics of prosody , grammar and vocabulary . One or several examples from each group are given here . Though each example is intended to be also representative of the nearby dialects , the actual number of dialects is several hundred if each individual community is considered separately . This type of classification , however , is based on a somewhat romanticized nationalist view of ethnicity and language . The idea that only rural variants of Swedish should be considered `` genuine '' is not generally accepted by modern scholars . No dialects , no matter how remote or obscure , remained unchanged or undisturbed by a minimum of influences from surrounding dialects or the standard language , especially not from the late 19th century onwards with the advent of mass media and advanced forms of transport . The differences are today more accurately described by a scale that runs from `` standard language '' to `` rural dialect '' where the speech even of the same person may vary from one extreme to the other depending on the situation . All Swedish dialects with the exception of the highly diverging forms of speech in Dalarna , Norrbotten and , to some extent , Gotland can be considered to be part of a common , mutually intelligible dialect continuum . This continuum may also include Norwegian and some Danish dialects . The samples linked below have been taken from SweDia , a research project on Swedish modern dialects available for download ( though with information in Swedish only ) , with many more samples from 100 different dialects with recordings from four different speakers : older female , older male , younger female and younger male . The dialect groups are those traditionally used by dialectologists . # Överkalix , Norrbotten ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Norrland/Norrbotten/Overkalix/yw.html younger female ] # Burträsk , Västerbotten ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Norrland/Vasterbotten/Burtrask/ow.html older female ] # Aspås , Jämtland ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Norrland/Jamtland/Aspas/yw.html younger female ] # Färila , Hälsingland ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Norrland/Halsingland/Farila/om.html older male ] # Älvdalen , Dalarna ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Svealand/Dalarna/Alvdalen/ow.html older female ] ; traditionally considered a dialect , but now often recognized as Elfdalian , a separate language # Gräsö , Uppland ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Svealand/Uppland/Graso/om.html older male ] # Sorunda , Södermanland ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Svealand/Sodermanland/Sorunda/ym.html younger male ] # Köla , Värmland [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Svealand/Varmland/Kola/yw.html younger female ] # Viby , Närke ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Svealand/Narke/Viby/om.html older male ] # Sproge , Gotland ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Gotland/Sproge/yw.html younger female ] # Närpes , Ostrobothnia ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Finland/Osterbotten/Narpes/yw.html younger female ] # Dragsfjärd , Southwest Finland ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Finland/Aboland/Dragsfjard/om.html older male ] # Borgå , Eastern Uusimaa ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Finland/Nyland/Borga/ym.html younger male ] # Orust , Bohuslän ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Bohuslan/Orust/om.html older male ] # Floby , Västergötland ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Vastergotland/Floby/ow.html older female ] # Rimforsa , Östergötland ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Ostergotland/Rimforsa/ow.html older female ] # Årstad-Heberg , Halland ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Halland/Arstad/ym.html younger male ] # Stenberga , Småland ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Smaland/Stenberga/yw.html younger female ] # Jämshög , Blekinge ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Blekinge/Jamshog/ow.html older female ] # Bara , Scania ; [ http : //swedia.ling.gu.se/Gotaland/Skane/Bara/om.html older male ] Standard Swedish Standard Swedish is the language used by virtually all Swedes and most Swedish-speaking Finns . It is called rikssvenska or standardsvenska ( `` Standard Swedish '' ) in Sweden . In Finland högsvenska ( `` High Swedish '' ) is used for the Finnish variant of standard Swedish and rikssvenska refers to Swedish as spoken in Sweden in general . The word högsvenska is seldom used in Sweden . There are many regional varieties of the standard language that are specific to geographical areas of varying size ( regions , historical provinces , cities , towns , etc . ) . In mass media it is no longer uncommon for journalists to speak with a distinct regional accent , but the most common pronunciation and the one perceived as the most formal is still Central Standard Swedish . Though this terminology and its definitions have long been established among linguists , most Swedes are unaware of the distinction and its historical background , and often refer to the regional varieties as `` dialects '' . In a poll that was conducted in 2005 by the Swedish Retail Institute ( [ http : //www.hui.se/ Handelns Utredningsinstitut ] ) , the attitudes of Swedes to the use of certain dialects by salesmen revealed that 54 % believed that rikssvenska was the variety they would prefer to hear when speaking with salesmen over the phone , even though several dialects such as gotländska or skånska were provided as alternatives in the poll . Finland Swedish Finland was a part of Sweden from the 13th century until the loss of the Finnish territories to Russia in 1809 . Swedish was the sole administrative language until 1902 as well as the dominant language of culture and education until Finnish independence in 1917 . The percentage of Swedish speakers in Finland has steadily decreased since then . The Swedish-speaking population is mainly concentrated in the coastal areas of Ostrobothnia , Southwest Finland and Nyland where the percentage of Finland Swedes partly is high , with Swedish being spoken by more than 90 % of the population in several municipalities , and on Åland , where Swedish is spoken by a vast majority of the population and is the only official language . Swedish is an official language also in the rest of Finland , though

dpql_2122--Swedish_language.txt

“Scandicrime” drama The Bridge is mainly set in Copenhagen and in which Swedish city?

The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28 , 1986 , when the NASA Space Shuttle orbiter Challenger ( OV-099 ) ( mission STS-51-L ) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight , leading to the deaths of its seven crew members , which included five NASA astronauts and two Payload Specialists . The spacecraft disintegrated over the Atlantic Ocean , off the coast of Cape Canaveral , Florida , at 11:39 EST ( 16:39 UTC ) . Disintegration of the vehicle began after an O-ring seal in its right solid rocket booster ( SRB ) failed at liftoff . The O-ring was not designed to fly under unusually cold conditions as in this launch . Its failure caused a breach in the SRB joint it sealed , allowing pressurized burning gas from within the solid rocket motor to reach the outside and impinge upon the adjacent SRB aft field joint attachment hardware and external fuel tank . This led to the separation of the right-hand SRB 's aft field joint attachment and the structural failure of the external tank . Aerodynamic forces broke up the orbiter . The crew compartment and many other vehicle fragments were eventually recovered from the ocean floor after a lengthy search and recovery operation . The exact timing of the death of the crew is unknown ; several crew members are known to have survived the initial breakup of the spacecraft . The shuttle had no escape system , and the impact of the crew compartment with the ocean surface was too violent to be survivable . The disaster resulted in a 32-month hiatus in the shuttle program and the formation of the Rogers Commission , a special commission appointed by United States President Ronald Reagan to investigate the accident . The Rogers Commission found NASA 's organizational culture and decision-making processes had been key contributing factors to the accident , with the agency violating its own safety rules . NASA managers had known since 1977 that contractor Morton Thiokol 's design of the SRBs contained a potentially catastrophic flaw in the O-rings , but they had failed to address this problem properly . They also disregarded warnings ( an example of `` go fever '' ) from engineers about the dangers of launching posed by the low temperatures of that morning , and failed to adequately report these technical concerns to their superiors . As a result of the disaster , the Air Force decided to cancel its plans to use the Shuttle for classified military satellite launches from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California , deciding to use the Titan IV instead . Approximately 17 percent of Americans witnessed the launch live because of the presence of Payload Specialist Christa McAuliffe , who would have been the first teacher in space . Media coverage of the accident was extensive : one study reported that 85 percent of Americans surveyed had heard the news within an hour of the accident . The Challenger disaster has been used as a case study in many discussions of engineering safety and workplace ethics . O-ring concerns Each of the Space Shuttle 's two Solid Rocket Boosters ( SRBs ) was constructed of seven sections , six of which were permanently joined in pairs at the factory . For each flight , the four resulting segments were then assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building at Kennedy Space Center ( KSC ) , with three field joints . The factory joints were sealed with asbestos-silica insulation applied over the joint , while each field joint was sealed with two rubber O-rings . ( After the destruction of Challenger , the number of O-rings per field joint was increased to three . ) The seals of all of the SRB joints were required to contain the hot , high-pressure gases produced by the burning solid propellant inside , thus forcing them out of the nozzle at the aft end of each rocket . During the Space Shuttle design process , a McDonnell Douglas report in September 1971 discussed the safety record of solid rockets . While a safe abort was possible after most types of failures , one was especially dangerous : a burnthrough by hot gases of the rocket 's casing . The report stated that `` if burnthrough occurs adjacent to [ liquid hydrogen/oxygen ] tank or orbiter , timely sensing may not be feasible and abort not possible '' , accurately foreshadowing the Challenger accident . Morton Thiokol was the contractor responsible for the construction and maintenance of the shuttle 's SRBs . As originally designed by Thiokol , the O-ring joints in the SRBs were supposed to close more tightly due to forces generated at ignition , but a 1977 test showed that when pressurized water was used to simulate the effects of booster combustion , the metal parts bent away from each other , opening a gap through which gases could leak . This phenomenon , known as `` joint rotation , '' caused a momentary drop in air pressure . This made it possible for combustion gases to erode the O-rings . In the event of widespread erosion , a flame path could develop , causing the joint to burst—which would have destroyed the booster and the shuttle . Engineers at the Marshall Space Flight Center wrote to the manager of the Solid Rocket Booster project , George Hardy , on several occasions suggesting that Thiokol 's field joint design was unacceptable . For example , one engineer suggested that joint rotation would render the secondary O-ring useless , but Hardy did not forward these memos to Thiokol , and the field joints were accepted for flight in 1980 . Evidence of serious O-ring erosion was present as early as the second space shuttle mission , STS-2 , which was flown by Columbia . Contrary to NASA regulations , the Marshall Center did not report this problem to senior management at NASA , but opted to keep the problem within their reporting channels with Thiokol . Even after the O-rings were redesignated as `` Criticality 1 '' —meaning that their failure would result in the destruction of the Orbiter—no one at Marshall suggested that the shuttles be grounded until the flaw could be fixed . By 1985 , Marshall and Thiokol realized that they had a potentially catastrophic problem on their hands . They began the process of redesigning the joint with three inches ( 76 mm ) of additional steel around the tang . This tang would grip the inner face of the joint and prevent it from rotating . They did not call for a halt to shuttle flights until the joints could be redesigned , but rather treated the problem as an acceptable flight risk . For example , Lawrence Mulloy , Marshall 's manager for the SRB project since 1982 , issued and waived launch constraints for six consecutive flights . Thiokol even went as far as to persuade NASA to declare the O-ring problem `` closed '' . Donald Kutyna , a member of the Rogers Commission , later likened this situation to an airline permitting one of its planes to continue to fly despite evidence that one of its wings was about to fall off . Pre-launch conditions Delays Challenger was originally set to launch from KSC in Florida at 14:42 Eastern Standard Time ( EST ) on January 22 . Delays in the previous mission , STS-61-C , caused the launch date to be moved to January 23 and then to January 24 . The launch was then rescheduled to January 25 due to bad weather at the Transoceanic Abort Landing ( TAL ) site in Dakar , Senegal . NASA decided to use Casablanca as the TAL site , but because it was not equipped for night landings , the launch had to be moved to the morning ( Florida time ) . Predictions of unacceptable weather at KSC on January 26 , caused the launch to be rescheduled for 09:37 EST on January 27 . The launch was delayed the next day , due to problems with the exterior access hatch . First , one of the micro-switch indicators , used to verify that the hatch was safely locked , malfunctioned . Then , a stripped bolt prevented the closeout crew from removing a closing fixture from the orbiter 's hatch . By the time repair personnel had sawed the fixture off , crosswinds at the Shuttle Landing Facility exceeded the limits for a Return to Launch Site ( RTLS ) abort . While the crew waited for winds to die down , the launch window expired , forcing yet another scrub . Thiokol-NASA conference call Forecasts for January 28 predicted an unusually cold morning , with temperatures close to , the minimum temperature permitted for launch . The Shuttle was never certified to operate in temperatures that low . The O-rings , as well as many other critical components , had no test data to support any expectation of a successful launch in such conditions . By mid-1985 Thiokol engineers worried that others did not share their concerns about low temperatures ' effects on the boosters . Bob Ebeling in October 1985 wrote a memo—titled `` Help ! '' so others would read it—of concerns regarding low temperatures and O-rings . After the weather forecast , NASA personnel remembered Thiokol 's warnings and contacted the company . When a Thiokol manager asked Ebeling about the possibility of a launch at 18 degrees , he answered `` [ W ] e 're only qualified to 40 degrees ... 'what business does anyone even have thinking about 18 degrees , we 're in no man 's land . ' '' After his team agreed that a launch risked disaster , Thiokol immediately called NASA recommending a postponement until temperatures rose in the afternoon . NASA manager Jud Lovingood responded that Thiokol could not make the recommendation without providing a safe temperature . The company prepared for a teleconference two hours later during which it would have to justify a no-launch recommendation . At the teleconference on the evening of January 27 , Thiokol engineers and managers discussed the weather conditions with NASA managers from Kennedy Space Center and Marshall Space Flight Center . Several engineers ( most notably Roger Boisjoly ) re-expressed their concerns about the effect of low temperatures on the resilience of the rubber O-rings that sealed the joints of the SRBs , and recommended a launch postponement . They argued that they did not have enough data to determine whether the joints would properly seal if the O-rings were colder than 12 C. This was an important consideration , since the SRB O-rings had been designated as a `` Criticality 1 '' component , meaning that there was no backup if both the primary and secondary O-rings failed , and their failure could destroy the Orbiter and kill its crew . Thiokol management initially supported its engineers ' recommendation to postpone the launch , but NASA staff opposed a delay . During the conference call , Hardy told Thiokol , `` I am appalled . I am appalled by your recommendation . '' Mulloy said , `` My God , Thiokol , when do you want me to launch — next April ? '' NASA believed that Thiokol 's hastily prepared presentation 's quality was too poor to support such a statement on flight safety . One argument by NASA personnel contesting Thiokol 's concerns was that if the primary O-ring failed , the secondary O-ring would still seal . This was unproven , and was in any case an argument that did not apply to a `` Criticality 1 '' component . As astronaut Sally Ride stated when questioning NASA managers before the Rogers Commission , it is forbidden to rely on a backup for a `` Criticality 1 '' component.http : //www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/01/28/464744781/30-years-after-disaster-challenger-engineer-still-blames-himself `` 30 Years After Explosion , Challenger Engineer Still Blames Himself '' NASA claimed that it did not know of Thiokol 's earlier concerns about the effects of the cold on the O-rings , and did not understand that Rockwell International , the shuttle 's prime contractor , viewed the large amount of ice present on the pad as a constraint to launch . For reasons that are unclear , Thiokol management reversed itself and recommended that the launch proceed as scheduled ; NASA did not ask why . Ebeling told his wife that night that Challenger would blow up . Ken Iliff , a former NASA Chief Scientist who had worked on the Space Shuttle Program since its first mission ( and the X-15 program before that ) stated in 2004 , `` Violating a couple of mission rules was the primary cause of the Challenger accident . '' Ice The Thiokol engineers had also argued that the low overnight temperatures ( the evening prior to launch ) would almost certainly result in SRB temperatures below their redline of 4 C. Ice had accumulated all over the launch pad , raising concerns that ice could damage the shuttle upon lift-off . The Kennedy Ice Team inadvertently pointed an infrared camera at the aft field joint of the right SRB and found the temperature to be only . This was believed to be the result of supercooled air blowing on the joint from the liquid oxygen tank vent . It was much lower than the air temperature and far below the design specifications for the O-rings . The low reading was later determined to be erroneous , the error caused by not following the temperature probe manufacturer 's instructions . Tests and adjusted calculations later confirmed that the temperature of the joint was not substantially different from the ambient temperature . The temperature on the day of the launch was far lower than had been the case with previous launches : below freezing at ; previously , the coldest launch had been at 12 C. Although the Ice Team had worked through the night removing ice , engineers at Rockwell still expressed concern . Rockwell engineers watching the pad from their headquarters in Downey , California , were horrified when they saw the amount of ice . They feared that during launch , ice might be shaken loose and strike the shuttle 's thermal protection tiles , possibly due to the aspiration induced by the jet of exhaust gas from the SRBs . Rocco Petrone , the head of Rockwell 's space transportation division , and his colleagues viewed this situation as a launch constraint , and told Rockwell 's managers at the Cape that Rockwell could not support a launch . Rockwell 's managers at the Cape voiced their concerns in a manner that led Houston-based mission manager Arnold Aldrich to go ahead with the launch . Aldrich decided to postpone the shuttle launch by an hour to give the Ice Team time to perform another inspection . After that last inspection , during which the ice appeared to be melting , Challenger was cleared to launch at 11:38 am EST . January 28 launch and failure Liftoff and initial ascent The following account of the accident is derived from real time telemetry data and photographic analysis , as well as from transcripts of air-to-ground and mission control voice communications . All times are given in seconds after launch and correspond to the telemetry time-codes from the closest instrumented event to each described event . The Space Shuttle main engines ( SSMEs ) were ignited at T-6.6 seconds . The SSMEs were liquid-fueled and could be safely shut down ( and the launch aborted if necessary ) until the Solid Rocket Boosters ignited at T0 ( which was at 11:38:00.010 EST ) and the hold-down bolts were released with explosives , freeing the vehicle from the pad . At lift off , the three SSMEs were at 100 % of their original rated performance , and began throttling up to 104 % under computer control . With the first vertical motion of the vehicle , the gaseous hydrogen vent arm retracted from the External Tank ( ET ) but failed to latch back . Review of film shot by pad cameras showed that the arm did not re-contact the vehicle , and thus it was ruled out as a contributing factor in the accident . The post-launch inspection of the pad also revealed that kick springs on four of the hold-down bolts were missing , but they were similarly ruled out as a possible cause . Later review of launch film showed that at T+0.678 , strong puffs of dark gray smoke were emitted from the right-hand SRB near the aft strut that attaches the booster to the ET . The last smoke puff occurred at about T+2.733 . The last view of smoke around the strut was at T+3.375 . It was later determined that these smoke puffs were caused by the opening and closing of the aft field joint of the right-hand SRB . The booster 's casing had ballooned under the stress of ignition . As a result of this ballooning , the metal parts of the casing bent away from each other , opening a gap through which hot gases—above —leaked . This had occurred in previous launches , but each time the primary O-ring had shifted out of its groove and formed a seal . Although the SRB was not designed to function this way , it appeared to work well enough , and Morton-Thiokol changed the design specs to accommodate this process , known as extrusion . While extrusion was taking place , hot gases leaked past ( a process called `` blow-by '' ) , damaging the O-rings until a seal was made . Investigations by Morton-Thiokol engineers determined that the amount of damage to the O-rings was directly related to the time it took for extrusion to occur , and that cold weather , by causing the O-rings to harden , lengthened the time of extrusion . ( The redesigned SRB field joint used subsequent to the Challenger accident used an additional interlocking mortise and tang with a third O-ring , mitigating blow-by . ) On the morning of the disaster , the primary O-ring had become so hard due to the cold that it could not seal in time . The secondary O-ring was not in its seated position due to the metal bending . There was now no barrier to the gases , and both O-rings were vaporized across 70 degrees of arc . Aluminium oxides from the burned solid propellant sealed the damaged joint , temporarily replacing the O-ring seal before flame passed through the joint . As the vehicle cleared the tower , the SSMEs were operating at 104 % of their rated maximum thrust , and control switched from the Launch Control Center ( LCC ) at Kennedy to the Mission Control Center ( MCC ) at Johnson Space Center in Houston , Texas . To prevent aerodynamic forces from structurally overloading the orbiter , at T+28 the SSMEs began throttling down to limit the velocity of the shuttle in the dense lower atmosphere , per normal operating procedure . At T+35.379 , the SSMEs throttled back further to the planned 65 % . Five seconds later , at about 5800 m , Challenger passed through Mach 1 . At T+51.860 , the SSMEs began throttling back up to 104 % as the vehicle passed beyond Max Q , the period of maximum aerodynamic pressure on the vehicle . Plume Beginning at about T+37 and for 27 seconds , the shuttle experienced a series of wind shear events that were stronger than on any previous flight . At T+58.788 , a tracking film camera captured the beginnings of a plume near the aft attach strut on the right SRB . Unknown to those on Challenger or in Houston , hot gas had begun to leak through a growing hole in one of the right-hand SRBs joints . The force of the wind shear shattered the temporary oxide seal that had taken the place of the damaged O-rings , removing the last barrier to flame passing through the joint . Had it not been for the wind shear , the fortuitous oxide seal might have held through booster burnout . Within a second , the plume became well defined and intense . Internal pressure in the right SRB began to drop because of the rapidly enlarging hole in the failed joint , and at T+60.238 there was visual evidence of flame burning through the joint and impinging on the external tank . At T+64.660 , the plume suddenly changed shape , indicating that a leak had begun in the liquid hydrogen tank , located in the aft portion of the external tank . The nozzles of the main engines pivoted under computer control to compensate for the unbalanced thrust produced by the booster burn-through . The pressure in the shuttle 's external liquid hydrogen tank began to drop at T+66.764 , indicating the effect of the leak . At this stage the situation still seemed normal both to the crew and to flight controllers . At T+68 , the CAPCOM Richard O . Covey informed the crew that they were `` go at throttle up '' , and Commander Dick Scobee confirmed , `` Roger , go at throttle up '' ; this was the last communication from Challenger on the air-to-ground loop . Vehicle breakup At T+72.284 , the right SRB pulled away from the aft strut attaching it to the external tank . Later analysis of telemetry data showed a sudden lateral acceleration to the right at T+72.525 , which may have been felt by the crew . The last statement captured by the crew cabin recorder came just half a second after this acceleration , when Pilot Michael J. Smith said `` Uh-oh . '' Smith may also have been responding to onboard indications of main engine performance , or to falling pressures in the external fuel tank . At T+73.124 , the aft dome of the liquid hydrogen tank failed , producing a propulsive force that rammed the hydrogen tank into the liquid oxygen tank in the forward part of the ET . At the same time , the right SRB rotated about the forward attach strut , and struck the intertank structure . The external tank at this point suffered a complete structural failure , the LH2 and LOX tanks rupturing , mixing , and igniting , creating a fireball that enveloped the whole stack . The breakup of the vehicle began at T+73.162 seconds and at an altitude of 48000 ft. With the external tank disintegrating ( and with the semi-detached right SRB contributing its thrust on an anomalous vector ) , Challenger veered from its correct attitude with respect to the local airflow , resulting in a load factor of up to 20 ( or 20 g ) , well over its design limit of 5 g and was quickly ripped apart by abnormal aerodynamic forces ( contrary to popular belief , the orbiter did not explode as the force of the external tank breakup was well within its structural limits ) . The two SRBs , which could withstand greater aerodynamic loads , separated from the ET and continued in uncontrolled powered flight . The SRB casings were made of half-inch ( 12.7 mm ) thick steel and were much stronger than the orbiter and ET ; thus , both SRBs survived the breakup of the space shuttle stack , even though the right SRB was still suffering the effects of the joint burn-through that had set the destruction of Challenger in motion . The more robustly constructed crew cabin also survived the breakup of the launch vehicle ; while the SRBs were subsequently destroyed remotely by the Range Safety Officer , the detached cabin continued along a ballistic trajectory and was observed exiting the cloud of gases at T+75.237 . Twenty-five seconds after the breakup of the vehicle , the altitude of the crew compartment peaked at a height of 65000 ft . The Thiokol engineers who had opposed the decision to launch were watching the events on television . They had believed that any O-ring failure would have occurred at liftoff , and thus were happy to see the shuttle successfully leave the launch pad . At about one minute after liftoff , a friend of Boisjoly said to him `` Oh God . We made it . We made it ! '' Boisjoly recalled that when the shuttle was destroyed a few seconds later , `` we all knew exactly what happened . '' Post-breakup flight controller dialogue In Mission Control , there was a burst of static on the air-to-ground loop as Challenger disintegrated . Television screens showed a cloud of smoke and water vapor ( the product of hydrogen combustion ) where Challenger had been , with pieces of debris falling toward the ocean . At about T+89 , flight director Jay Greene prompted his Flight Dynamics Officer ( FIDO ) for information . FIDO responded that `` the filter has discreting sources '' , a further indication that Challenger had broken into multiple pieces . A minute later , the ground controller reported `` negative contact ( and ) loss of downlink '' of radio and telemetry data from Challenger . Greene ordered his team to `` watch your data carefully '' and look for any sign that the Orbiter had escaped . At T+110.250 , the Range Safety Officer ( RSO ) at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station sent radio signals that activated the range safety system 's `` destruct '' packages on board both solid rocket boosters . This was a normal contingency procedure , undertaken because the RSO judged the free-flying SRBs a possible threat to land or sea . The same destruct signal would have destroyed the External Tank had it not already disintegrated . The SRBs were close to the end of their scheduled burn ( T+110 seconds after launch ) and had nearly exhausted their propellants when the destruct command was sent , so very little , if any explosive force was generated by this event . Public affairs officer Steve Nesbitt reported : `` Flight controllers here are looking very carefully at the situation . Obviously a major malfunction . We have no downlink . '' On the Mission Control loop , Greene ordered that contingency procedures be put into effect ; these procedures included locking the doors of the control center , shutting down telephone communications with the outside world , and following checklists that ensured that the relevant data were correctly recorded and preserved . Nesbitt relayed this information to the public : `` We have a report from the Flight Dynamics Officer that the vehicle has exploded . The flight director confirms that . We are looking at checking with the recovery forces to see what can be done at this point . '' Cause and time of death The crew cabin , made of reinforced aluminum , was a particularly robust section of the orbiter . During vehicle breakup , it detached in one piece and slowly tumbled into a ballistic arc . NASA estimated the load factor at separation to be between 12 and 20 g ; within two seconds it had already dropped to below 4 g and within 10 seconds the cabin was in free fall . The forces involved at this stage were probably insufficient to cause major injury . At least some of the crew were probably alive and at least briefly conscious after the breakup , as three of the four recovered Personal Egress Air Packs ( PEAPs ) on the flight deck were found to have been activated . Investigators found their remaining unused air supply consistent with the expected consumption during the 2 minute 45 second post-breakup trajectory . While analyzing the wreckage , investigators discovered that several electrical system switches on Pilot Mike Smith 's right-hand panel had been moved from their usual launch positions . Fellow astronaut Richard Mullane wrote , `` These switches were protected with lever locks that required them to be pulled outward against a spring force before they could be moved to a new position . '' Later tests established that neither force of the explosion nor the impact with the ocean could have moved them , indicating that Smith made the switch changes , presumably in a futile attempt to restore electrical power to the cockpit after the crew cabin detached from the rest of the orbiter . Whether the crew members remained conscious long after the breakup is unknown , and largely depends on whether the detached crew cabin maintained pressure integrity . If it did not , the time of useful consciousness at that altitude is just a few seconds ; the PEAPs supplied only unpressurized air , and hence would not have helped the crew to retain consciousness . If , on the other hand , the cabin was

sfq_17796--Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster.txt

Name the space craft that exploded 72 seconds after lift off killing all 7 crew members in 1986.

Old Wave is the ninth studio album by the Beatles ' former drummer , Ringo Starr . The album was released in 1983 , on the label Bellaphon Records , and is the two-year follow-up to his 1981 album Stop and Smell the Roses . The title is a play on new wave music . Background and recording After John Lennon 's murder in late 1980 , Starr returned home to England to live at Tittenhurst Park , which Starr had purchased from Lennon in 1973 . In early 1982 , Starr was eager to move on to his next solo project . Deciding that he needed more consistency this time around , he would work with only one producer , Joe Walsh , a former member of the recently disbanded Eagles . Walsh and Starr had known each other since the mid-1970s , having met and befriended each other in Los Angeles . Walsh immediately agreed to work with Starr and they met at Tittenhurst in February to begin writing material . Recording shortly afterwards begun and instrumental backing tracks for seven songs were recorded at Startling Studios , after Starr had previously converted Lennon 's recording studio . Engineering duties were handled by Jim Nipor . These sessions were mainly done with a team consisting of Starr on drums and percussion , Walsh on guitar and backing vocals , Mo Foster on bass and keyboardists Gary Brooker and Chris Stainton . Sessions came to a halt when Walsh and Nipor went to California on 19 March . Sessions recommenced on 6 April for a few days until 16 April . On 15 April , Rolling Stone broke the news that Starr was `` in London working on a new album with Joe Walsh acting as the producer . '' Lead vocals were laid down from 19 to 23 April . Sometime in May , Starr requested permission to build a new building on his Tittenhurst Park land , which he would use for video and recording purposes , from Windsor and Maidenhead District Council . Sessions resumed from 31 May until 10 June ; the next day , taking the masters recorded up to that point with him , Starr and his wife Barbara Bach fly from London to Los Angeles , and return on 14 June . The album was finished with a third batch of sessions from 24 June into early July . `` Everybody 's in a Hurry But Me '' came about from a jam session between The Who 's former bassist , John Entwistle , Drummer and percussionist Ray Cooper and also Cream 's former guitarist , Eric Clapton . `` As Far as We Can Go '' , the final track on the album , was originally recorded at Sweet Silence Studios , in Copenhagen , Denmark , on 23 July 1978 . Release and aftermath The album was originally titled It Beats Sleep . The album cover was taken in a booth in northern England . As Starr 's RCA contract had been cancelled , he needed to find a new label for Old Wave . Though it was just over a decade after The Beatles ' dissolution , no major UK or US record company was interested in signing him . Starr would not accept that and was determined to have Old Wave released any way he could . The album was due to be released on the Boardwalk label , but never appeared due to the death of the label 's head , Neil Bogart . RCA Canada ended up distributing the album in June 1983 in Canada , Australia , New Zealand , Japan , the Netherlands , Mexico , and Brazil ; while in Germany , the album and lone single pulled from it , both released on 16 June , appeared on the Bellaphon label . The Canadian release of the album occurred on 24 June . However , Old Wave failed to achieve success in any of these territories , and would be Starr 's last studio album until 1992 's Time Takes Time . The two singles pulled from the album : one in Germany , `` In My Car '' , backed with `` As Far as We Can Go '' , and the other in Mexico ( `` I Keep Forgettin ' '' b/w `` She 's About a Mover '' ) . Walsh 's 1987 album Got Any Gum ? included a cover of `` In My Car '' , which was released as a single and became a moderate hit . Four tracks from the album appear on Starr 's US compilation Starr Struck : Best of Ringo Starr , Vol . 2 in 1989 . The album was reissued on CD , on the same day as Stop and Smell the Roses ( 1981 ) , in the US by The Right Stuff on 22 August 1994 . A further release , on 6 September , as both CD and cassette deluxe editions , included a bonus track , the original 1978 version of `` As Far as We Can Go '' . `` In My Car '' was re-released , this time on yellow vinyl , with `` She 's About a Mover '' as the B-side , on The Right Stuff on 1 November 1994 . A promotional CD was released in 1994 by Capitol , featuring three songs from both Old Wave and Stop and Smell the Roses . Track listing ; Bonus track on the 1994 re-issue Personnel * Ringo Starr - Lead vocals ( Tracks 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ) , Drums ( Tracks 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 7 , 9 , 10 ) , Percussion ( Tracks 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 10 ) , Backing vocals ( Tracks 10 ) ; Additional personnel * Joe Walsh - Guitar ( Tracks 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ) , Synthesizer ( Track 8 ) , Harmonica ( Track 10 ) , Backing vocals , ( Track 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 10 ) * Waddy Wachtel - Lead Guitar ( Tracks 7 , 10 ) , Harmonica ( Track 10 ) * Eric Clapton - Guitar ( Track 9 ) * Kal David - Guitar ( Track 5 ) * Sherwood Ball - Guitar ( Track 5 ) * Peter Bunetta - Drums ( Track 5 ) * Russ Kunkel - Drums ( Track 6 ) * Mo Foster - Bass ( Tracks 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 10 ) , Backing vocals ( Track 10 ) * Freebo - Tuba ( Track 5 ) , Bass ( Track 5 ) * John Entwistle - Bass ( Track 9 ) * Kenny Edwards - Bass ( Track 10 ) * Chris Stainton - Keyboards ( Tracks 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 10 ) , Piano ( Track 9 ) * Gary Brooker - Keyboards ( Tracks 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 10 ) , Backing vocals ( Track 10 ) * Joe Vitale - Piano ( Track 8 ) , Backing vocals ( Track 8 ) * Bruce MacPherson - Organ ( Track 5 ) * David Wooford - Saxophone ( Track 5 ) * Lee Thornburg - Trumpet ( Track 5 ) * Garrett Adkins - Trombone ( Track 5 ) * Ray Cooper - Percussion ( Track 6 , 9 ) * Sam Clayton - Percussion ( Track 5 ) * Joe Lala - Percussion ( Track 5 ) * Jocko Marcellino - Percussion ( Track 5 ) * Mark Easterling - Backing vocals ( Tracks 1 , 7 ) * Steve Hess - Backing vocals ( Tracks 1 , 7 ) * Patrick Maroshek - Backing vocals ( Tracks 1 , 7 ) * Barbara Bach - Backing vocals ( Track 10 ) ; Production * Joe Walsh - Producer * Russ Ballard - Producer ; Engineering * David DeVore - Engineer * Jim Nipar - Engineer

qw_13873--Old_Wave.txt

"Who released the albums ""Sentimental Journey"", ""Goodnight Vienna"", ""Bad Boy"", ""Old Wave"" and ""Vertical Man"" between 1970 and 1999?"

Russian ( , ' , pronounced ) is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia , Belarus , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories . It is an unofficial but widely-spoken language in Ukraine , Latvia , Estonia , and to a lesser extent , the other countries that were once constituent republics of the Soviet Union and former participants of the Eastern Bloc . Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the three living members of the East Slavic languages . Written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond . It is the most geographically-widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages . It is also the largest native language in Europe , with 144 million native speakers in Russia , Ukraine and Belarus . Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers and the seventh by total number of speakers . The language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations . Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without , the so-called soft and hard sounds . This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language . Another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels . Stress , which is unpredictable , is not normally indicated orthographically though an optional acute accent ( ) may be used to mark stress , such as to distinguish between homographic words , for example замо́к ( zamok , meaning a lock ) and за́мок ( zamok , meaning a castle ) , or to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words or names . Classification Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family . It is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus ' . From the point of view of the spoken language , its closest relatives are Ukrainian , Belarusian , and Rusyn , the other three languages in the East Slavic group . In many places in eastern and southern Ukraine and throughout Belarus , these languages are spoken interchangeably , and in certain areas traditional bilingualism resulted in language mixtures , e.g . Surzhyk in eastern Ukraine and Trasianka in Belarus . An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect , although vanished during the 15th or 16th century , is sometimes considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian . Also Russian has notable lexical similarities with Bulgarian due to a common Church Slavonic influence on both languages , as well as because of later interaction in the 19th–20th centuries , although Bulgarian grammar differs markedly from Russian . In the 19th century , the language was often called `` Great Russian '' to distinguish it from Belarusian , then called `` White Russian '' and Ukrainian , then called `` Little Russian '' . The vocabulary ( mainly abstract and literary words ) , principles of word formations , and , to some extent , inflections and literary style of Russian have been also influenced by Church Slavonic , a developed and partly russified form of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic language used by the Russian Orthodox Church . However , the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline . In some cases , both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use , with many different meanings . For details , see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language . Over the course of centuries , the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have also been influenced by Western and Central European languages such as Greek , Latin , Polish , Dutch , German , French , Italian and English , and to a lesser extent the languages to the south and the east : Uralic , Turkic , Persian , Arabic , as well as Hebrew . According to the Defense Language Institute in Monterey , California , Russian is classified as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers , requiring approximately 1,100 hours of immersion instruction to achieve intermediate fluency . It is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a `` hard target '' language , due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy . Standard Russian The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language ( современный русский литературный язык ) . It arose in the beginning of the 18th century with the modernization reforms of the Russian state under the rule of Peter the Great , and developed from the Moscow ( Middle or Central Russian ) dialect substratum under the influence of some of the previous century 's Russian chancellery language . Mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755 ; in 1783 the Russian Academy 's first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared . During the end of the 18th and 19th centuries , during a period known as the `` Golden Age '' , the grammar , vocabulary and pronunciation of the Russian language was stabilized and standardized , and it became the nationwide literary language ; meanwhile , Russia 's world-famous literature flourished . Until the 20th century , the language 's spoken form was the language of only the upper noble classes and urban population , as Russian peasants from the countryside continued to speak in their own dialects . By the mid-20th century , such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the compulsory education system that was established by the Soviet government . Despite the formalization of Standard Russian , some nonstandard dialectal features ( such as fricative in Southern Russian dialects ) are still observed in colloquial speech . Geographic distribution In 2010 , there were 259.8 million speakers of Russian in the world : in Russia - 137.5 , in the CIS and Baltic countries - 93.7 , in Eastern Europe and the Balkans - 12.9 , Western Europe - 7.3 , Asia - 2.7 , Middle East and North Africa - 1.3 , Sub-Saharan Africa - 0.1 , Latin America - 0.2 , USA , Canada , Australia and New Zealand - 4.1 . Thus , the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers , after English , Mandarin , Hindi/Urdu , Spanish and Arabic . Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations . Education in Russian is still a popular choice for both Russian as a second language ( RSL ) and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics . Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics . [ http : //www.gallup.com/poll/112270/Russias-Language-Could-Ticket-Migrants.aspx Russia 's Language Could Be Ticket in for Migrants ] Gallup Retrieved on May 26 , 2010 Samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations , `` During the heyday of the Soviet Union , Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi . '' Statistics USSR Europe Belarus In Belarus , Russian is co-official alongside Belarusian per the Constitution of Belarus . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 3,243,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 8 million active speakers . 77 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 67 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . Estonia In Estonia , Russian is officially considered a foreign language . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 470,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 500,000 active speakers . 35 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 25 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . Russian is spoken by 29.6 % of the population according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook . Ethnic Russians constitute 25.5 % of the country 's current population and 58.6 % of the native Estonian population is also able to speak Russian . In all , 67.8 % of Estonia 's population could speak Russian . Command of Russian language , however , is rapidly decreasing among younger Estonians ( primarily being replaced by the command of English ) . For example , if 53 % of ethnic Estonians between 15 and 19 claimed to speak some Russian in 2000 , then among the 10- to 14-year-old group , command of Russian had fallen to 19 % ( which is about one-third the percentage of those who claim to have command of English in the same age group ) . Finland As the Grand Duchy of Finland was part of the Russian Empire from 1809 to 1918 , a number of Russian speakers have remained in Finland . There are 33,400 Russian-speaking Finns , amounting to 0.6 % of the population . Five thousand ( 0.1 % ) of them are late 19th century and 20th century immigrants or their descendants , and the remaining majority are recent immigrants who moved there in the 1990s and later . Russian is spoken by 1.4 % of the population of Finland according to a 2014 estimate from the World Factbook . Germany Germany has the highest Russian-speaking population outside the former Soviet Union with approximately 3 million people . They are split into three groups , from largest to smallest : Russian-speaking ethnic Germans ( Aussiedler ) , ethnic Russians , and Jews . Latvia In Latvia Russian is officially considered a foreign language . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2011 there were 557 119 native speakers . 55 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 26 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . Russian is the language most spoken at home for 29.8 % of the population according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook . Its official recognition and legality in the classroom have been a topic of considerable debate in a country where one-third of the population is Russian-speaking ( see Russians in Latvia ) . Due to recent high school reforms in Latvia ( whereby the government pays a substantial sum to a school to teach in the national language ) , the number of subjects taught in Russian has been reduced in the country . Lithuania In Lithuania Russian is not official , but it still retains the function of lingua franca . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 250,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 500,000 active speakers . 20 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 3 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . Russian is spoken by 8 % of the population according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook . In 2011 , 63 % of the Lithuanian population , or 1,917,500 people , had a command of the Russian language . Moldova In Moldova , Russian is considered to be the language of inter-ethnic communication under a Soviet-era law . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 450,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 1.9 million active speakers . 50 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 19 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . Russian is the language usually spoken by 16 % of Moldovans according to a 2004 estimate from the World Factbook . Russian has a co-official status alongside Romanian in the autonomies of Gagauzia and Transnistria in Moldova . Russia According to the census of 2010 in Russia Russian language skills were indicated by 138 million people ( 99.4 % population ) , while according to the 2002 census - 142.6 million people ( 99.2 % population ) . Among the urban residents 101 million people ( 99.8 % population ) had Russian language skills , while in rural areas - 37 million people ( 98.7 % population ) . The number of native Russian speakers in 2010 was 118.6 millions or 85.7 % , that was a little higher than the number of ethnic Russians ( 111 million , 80.9 % ) . Russian is the official language of Russia , although it shares the official status at regional level with other languages in the numerous ethnic autonomies within Russia , such as Chuvashia , Bashkortostan , Tatarstan , and Yakutia . 94 % of school students in Russia receive their education primarily in Russian . Ukraine In Ukraine , Russian is seen as a language of inter-ethnic communication , and a minority language , under the 1996 Constitution of Ukraine . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 14,400,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 29 million active speakers . 65 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 38 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . Russian is spoken by 29.6 % of the population according to a 2001 estimate from the World Factbook . 20 % of school students receive their education primarily in Russian . Russian lacks the status of a state language , but still enjoys an extensive protection as a regional and minority language with some official functions . The Constitution of Ukraine guarantees `` free development , use and protection '' of the Russian language . According to a poll by FOM-Ukraine , Russian is the most widely spoken language in Ukraine understood by everyone . Rest of Europe In the 20th century , Russian was a mandatory language taught in the schools of the members of the old Warsaw Pact and in other countries that used to be satellites of the USSR . In particular , these countries include Poland , Bulgaria , the Czech Republic , Slovakia , Hungary , Albania , former East Germany and Cuba . However , younger generations are usually not fluent in it , because Russian is no longer mandatory in the school system . According to the Eurobarometer 2005 survey , though , fluency in Russian remains fairly high ( 20–40 % ) in some countries , in particular those where the people speak a Slavic language and thereby have an edge in learning Russian ( namely , Poland , Czech Republic , Slovakia , and Bulgaria ) . Significant Russian-speaking groups also exist in Western Europe . These have been fed by several waves of immigrants since the beginning of the 20th century , each with its own flavor of language . The United Kingdom , Spain , Portugal , France , Italy , Belgium , Greece , Brazil , Norway , and Austria have significant Russian-speaking communities . According to the 2011 Census of Ireland , there were 21,639 people in the nation who use Russian as a home language . However , of this only 13 % were Russian nationals . 20 % held Irish citizenship , while 27 % and 14 % were holding the passports of Latvia and Lithuania respectively . There were 20,984 Russian speakers in Cyprus according to the Census of 2011 , accounting for 2.5 % of the population . Russian is spoken by 1.6 % of the Hungarian population according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook . Asia Armenia In Armenia Russian has no official status , but it 's recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 15,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 1 million active speakers . 30 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 2 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . Russian is spoken by 1.4 % of the population according to a 2009 estimate from the World Factbook . Azerbaijan In Azerbaijan Russian has no official status , but is a lingua franca of the country . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 250,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 2 million active speakers . 26 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 5 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . Georgia In Georgia Russian has no official status , but it 's recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 130,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 1.7 million active speakers . 27 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 1 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . Russian is the language of 9 % of the population according to the World Factbook . Ethnologue cites Russian as the country 's de facto working language . Kazakhstan In Kazakhstan Russian is not a state language , but according to article 7 of the Constitution of Kazakhstan its usage enjoys equal status to that of the Kazakh language in state and local administration . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 4,200,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 10 million active speakers . 63 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 46 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . According to a 2001 estimate from the World Factbook , 95 % of the population can speak Russian . Large Russian-speaking communities still exist in northern Kazakhstan , and ethnic Russians comprise 25.6 % of Kazakhstan 's population . The 2009 census reported that 10,309,500 people , or 84.8 % of the population aged 15 and above , could read and write well in Russian , as well as understand the spoken language . Kyrgyzstan In Kyrgyzstan Russian is an official language per article 5 of the Constitution of Kyrgyzstan . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 600,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 1.5 million active speakers . 38 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 22 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . The 2009 census states that 482,200 people speak Russian as a native language , including 419,000 ethnic Russians , and 63,200 from other ethnic groups , for a total of 8.99 % of the population . Additionally , 1,854,700 residents of Kyrgyzstan aged 15 and above fluently speak Russian as a second language , or 49.6 % of the population in the age group . Tajikistan In Tajikistan Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication under the Constitution of Tajikistan . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 90,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 1 million active speakers . 28 % of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006 , and 7 % used it as the main language with family , friends or at work . The World Factbook notes that Russian is widely used in government and business . Turkmenistan In Turkmenistan Russian lost its status as the official lingua franca in 1996 . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 150,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 100,000 active speakers . Russian is spoken by 12 % of the population according to an undated estimate from the World Factbook . Uzbekistan In Uzbekistan Russian has no official status , but is a lingua franca of the country . According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly , in 2004 there were 1,200,000 native speakers of Russian in the country , and 5 million active speakers . Russian is spoken by 14.2 % of the population according to an undated estimate from the World Factbook . Rest of Asia In 2005 , Russian was the most widely taught foreign language in Mongolia , and was compulsory in Year 7 onward as a second foreign language in 2006 . Russian is also spoken in Israel by at least 1,000,000 ethnic Jewish immigrants from the former Soviet Union , according to the 1999 census . The Israeli press and websites regularly publish material in Russian . See also Russian language in Israel . Russian is also spoken as a second language by a small number of people in Afghanistan . North America The language was first introduced in North America when Russian explorers voyaged into Alaska and claimed it for Russia during the 1700s . Although most Russian colonists left after the United States bought the land in 1867 , a handful stayed and preserved the Russian language in this region to this day , although only a few elderly speakers of this unique dialect are left . Sizable Russian-speaking communities also exist in North America , especially in large urban centers of the U.S. and Canada , such as New York City , Philadelphia , Boston , Los Angeles , Nashville , San Francisco , Seattle , Spokane , Toronto , Baltimore , Miami , Chicago , Denver and Cleveland . In a number of locations they issue their own newspapers , and live in ethnic enclaves ( especially the generation of immigrants who started arriving in the early 1960s ) . Only about 25 % of them are ethnic Russians , however . Before the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the overwhelming majority of Russophones in Brighton Beach , Brooklyn in New York City were Russian-speaking Jews . Afterward , the influx from the countries of the former Soviet Union changed the statistics somewhat , with ethnic Russians and Ukrainians immigrating along with some more Russian Jews and Central Asians . According to the United States Census , in 2007 Russian was the primary language spoken in the homes of over 850,000 individuals living in the United States . Australia Australian cities Melbourne and Sydney have Russian-speaking populations , with the most Russians living in southeast Melbourne , particularly the suburbs of Carnegie and Caulfield . Two-thirds of them are actually Russian-speaking descendants of Germans , Greeks , Jews , Azerbaijanis , Armenians or Ukrainians , who either repatriated after the USSR collapsed , or are just looking for temporary employment . Russian as an international language Russian is one of the official languages ( or has similar status and interpretation must be provided into Russian ) of the United Nations , International Atomic Energy Agency , World Health Organization , International Civil Aviation Organization , UNESCO , World Intellectual Property Organization , International Telecommunication Union , World Meteorological Organization , Food and Agriculture Organization , International Fund for Agricultural Development , International Criminal Court , International Monetary Fund , International Olympic Committee , Universal Postal Union , World Bank , Commonwealth of Independent States , Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , Shanghai Cooperation Organisation , Eurasian Economic Community , Collective Security Treaty Organization , Antarctic Treaty Secretariat , International Organization for Standardization , GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development , International Mathematical Olympiad . The Russian language is also one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station - NASA astronauts who serve alongside Russian cosmonauts usually take Russian language courses . This practice goes back to the Apollo-Soyuz mission , which first flew in 1975 . In March 2013 it was announced that Russian is now the second-most used language on the Internet after English . People use the Russian language on 5.9 % of all websites , slightly ahead of German and far behind English ( 54.7 % ) . Russian is used not only on 89.8 % of .ru sites , but also on 88.7 % of sites with the former Soviet Union domain .su . The websites of former Soviet Union nations also use high levels of Russian : 79.0 % in Ukraine , 86.9 % in Belarus , 84.0 % in Kazakhstan , 79.6 % in Uzbekistan , 75.9 % in Kyrgyzstan and 81.8 % in Tajikistan . However , Russian is the sixth-most used language on the top 1,000 sites , behind English , Chinese , French , German and Japanese . Dialects Russian is a rather homogeneous language , in terms of dialectal variation , due to the early political centralization under the Moscow rule , compulsory education , mass migration from rural to urban areas in the 20th century , as well as other factors . The standard language is used in written and spoken form almost everywhere in the country , from Kaliningrad and Saint Petersburg in the West to Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in the East , notwithstanding the enormous distance in between . Despite leveling after 1900 , especially in matters of vocabulary and phonetics , a number of dialects still exist in Russia . Some linguists divide the dialects of Russian into two primary regional groupings , `` Northern '' and `` Southern '' , with Moscow lying on the zone of transition between the two . Others divide the language into three groupings , Northern , Central ( or Middle ) and Southern , with Moscow lying in the Central region . All dialects also divided in two main chronological categories : the dialects of primary formation ( the territory of the Eastern Rus ' or Muscovy , roughly consists of the modern Central and Northwestern Federal districts ) ; and secondary formation ( other territory ) . Dialectology within Russia recognizes dozens of smaller-scale variants . The dialects often show distinct and non-standard features of pronunciation and intonation , vocabulary and grammar . Some of these are relics of ancient usage now completely discarded by the standard language . The Northern Russian dialects and those spoken along the Volga River typically pronounce unstressed clearly ( the phenomenon called okanye/оканье ) . Besides the absence of vowel reduction , some dialects have high or diphthongal in the place of and in stressed closed syllables ( as in Ukrainian ) instead of Standard Russian and . An interesting morphological feature is a post-posed definite article -to , -ta , -te similarly to that existing in Bulgarian and Macedonian . In the Southern Russian dialects , instances of unstressed and following palatalized consonants and preceding a stressed syllable are not reduced to ( as occurs in the Moscow dialect ) , being instead pronounced in such positions ( e.g . несли is pronounced , not ) – this is called yakanye/яканье . Consonants include a fricative , a semivowel and , whereas the Standard and Northern dialects have the consonants , , and final and , respectively . The morphology features a palatalized final in 3rd person forms of verbs ( this is unpalatalized in the Standard and Northern dialects ) . Some of these features such as akanye/yakanye , a debuccalized or lenited , a semivowel and palatalized final in 3rd person forms of verbs are also present in modern Belarusian and some dialects of Ukrainian ( Eastern Polesian ) , indicating a linguistic continuum . The city of Veliky Novgorod has historically displayed a feature called chokanye/tsokanye ( чоканье/цоканье ) , where and were switched or merged . So , цапля ( 'heron ' ) has been recorded as 'чапля ' . Also , the second palatalization of velars did not occur there , so the so-called ě² ( from the Proto-Slavic diphthong * ai ) did not cause to shift to ; therefore , where Standard Russian has цепь ( 'chain ' ) , the form кепь is attested in earlier texts . Among the first to study Russian dialects was Lomonosov in the 18th century . In the 19th , Vladimir Dal compiled the first dictionary that included dialectal vocabulary . Detailed mapping of Russian dialects began at the turn of the 20th century . In modern times , the monumental Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language ( Диалектологический атлас русского языка ) , was published in three folio volumes 1986–1989 , after four decades of preparatory work . Derived

jp_3613--Russian_language.txt

What alphabet is used in Russia?

Flemington Racecourse is a major horse racing venue located in Melbourne , Victoria , Australia . It is most notable for hosting the Melbourne Cup , which is Australia 's richest horse race . The racecourse is situated on low alluvial flats , next to the Maribyrnong River . The area was first used for horse racing in March 1840 . Overview The Flemington Racecourse site comprises 1.27 square kilometres of Crown land . The course was originally leased to the Victoria Turf Club in 1848 , which merged with the Victoria Jockey Club in 1864 to form the Victoria Racing Club . The first Melbourne Cup was run in 1861 . In 1871 the Victoria Racing Club Act was passed , giving the VRC legal control over Flemington Racecourse . The racecourse is shaped not unlike a pear , and boasts a six-furlong ( 1,200 m ) straight known as 'the Straight Six . ' The track has a circumference of 2,312 metres and a final straight of 450 metres for race distances over 1,200 metres . Races are run in an anti-clockwise direction . The course has a crowd capacity of over 120,000 and contains three grandstands . The biggest ever attendance was on VRC Derby Day in 2006 when 129,089 people saw Efficient win the VRC Derby . [ http : //www.theage.com.au/news/national/100000-and-more-8212-but-nobodys-counting/2006/11/06/1162661617906.html 100,000 and more — but nobody 's counting ] The racecourse has undergone a facelift in recent years , with the opening of a new $ 45 million grandstand in 2000 . It also contains a bronze statue of the famous racehorse Phar Lap , which was donated to the Club as part of Australia 's bicentenary celebrations in 1988 . The Hill Stand , built in 1977 , houses the artist Harold Freedman 's seven panel mural which traces the History of Racing . The work was commissioned to mark the Australian bicentenary in 1988 . Flemington Racecourse was added to the Australian National Heritage List on 7 November 2006 , announced during the 2006 Melbourne Cup . The site is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register . Flemington Racecourse today hosts many of Australia 's top races , including the Melbourne Cup , VRC Derby , VRC Oaks , MacKinnon Stakes , Newmarket Handicap , Australian Cup and Lightning Stakes . Transport The site has its own railway branch line , which operates on race days , bringing visitors to the adjacent railway station . Originally , it was serviced by Salt Water River station , before that was demolished in the 1860s and replaced with a station on the present site . Trains depart from platforms 8 and 9 at Flinders Street Station . The No . 57 tram from the City ( Elizabeth and Flinders Streets ) stops at the Epsom Road entrance . Car spaces for the disabled are available and taxi ranks are located adjacent to the main entrances . Shuttle buses run from Epsom Road to the main turnstiles of the racecourse . Lift access is available in the Prince of Wales Stand and to the first floor of the Members Stand . Races The following is a list of Group races which are run at Flemington Racecourse . Key * hcp - handicap * qlty - quality handicap * sw - set weights * sw+p - set weights with penalties * wfa - Weight for Age Gallery

bb_4598--Flemington_Racecourse.txt

Flemington, Greyville, and Longchamp are associated with what, respectively in Australia, South Africa, and France?

The Church of England is the established Christian church in England and the mother church of the worldwide Anglican Communion . The church has both liberal and conservative clergy and members . The church dates its establishment to the 6th-century Gregorian mission in Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury . The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s . The English Reformation accelerated under Edward VI 's regents before a brief restoration of Catholicism under Queen Mary I and King Philip . The Act of Supremacy 1558 renewed the breach and the Elizabethan Settlement charted a course whereby the English church was to be both Catholic and Reformed : * Catholic in that it views itself as a part of the universal church of Jesus Christ in unbroken continuity with the early apostolic church . This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers , as formalised in the Apostles ' , Nicene , and Athanasian creeds . * Reformed in that it has been shaped by some of the doctrinal principles of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation , in particular in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion and the Book of Common Prayer . In the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were Catholic martyrs but some radical Protestants were martyred as well . The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish both Catholic and nonconforming Protestants . In the 17th century , political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church , but this ended with the Restoration . Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to greater religious tolerance . Since the English Reformation , the Church of England has used a liturgy in English . The church contains several doctrinal strands , the main three known as Anglo-Catholic , Evangelical and Broad Church . Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality . The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses , each presided over by a bishop . Within each diocese are local parishes . The Archbishop of Canterbury is the Primate of All England , leading the Church of England and acting as a focus of unity for the wider Anglican Communion . The Supreme Governor of the Church of England is the British monarch , currently Elizabeth II , whose role is largely ceremonial . The General Synod of the Church of England is the legislative body for the church and comprises bishops , other clergy and laity . Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament . History Early Christianity in England According to tradition , Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century , during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire . The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian and Origen in the first years of the 3rd century . Three Romano-British bishops , including Restitutus , are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314 . Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360 , and a number of references to the church in Roman Britain are found in the writings of 4th century Christian fathers . Britain was the home of Pelagius , who opposed Augustine of Hippo 's doctrine of original sin . While Christianity was long established as the religion of the Britons at the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasion , Christian Britons made little progress in converting the newcomers from their native paganism . Consequently , in 597 , Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew 's ( later canonised as Augustine of Canterbury ) from Rome to evangelise the Angles . This event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history . With the help of Christians already residing in Kent , Augustine established his church at Canterbury , the capital of the Kingdom of Kent , and became the first in the series of Archbishops of Canterbury in 598 . A later archbishop , the Greek Theodore of Tarsus , also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England . While some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby , the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times . Queen Bertha of Kent was among the Christians in England who recognised papal authority before Augustine arrived and Celtic Christians were carrying out missionary work with papal approval long before the Synod of Whitby . The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain . This meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hilda 's double monastery of Streonshalh ( Streanæshalch ) , later called Whitby Abbey . It was presided over by King Oswiu , who did not engage in the debate but made the final ruling . Separation from Rome In 1534 , King Henry VIII separated the English Church from Rome . [ http : //www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/english_reformation_01.shtml The English Reformation by Professor Andrew Pettegree ] . Bbc.co.uk . A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English Church , such as Lollardy , but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn . Pope Clement VII , considering that the earlier marriage had been entered under a papal dispensation and how Catherine 's nephew , Emperor Charles V , might react to such a move , refused the annulment . Eventually , Henry , although theologically opposed to Protestantism , took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage . He was excommunicated by Pope Paul III . In 1536–40 Henry VIII engaged in the Dissolution of the Monasteries , which controlled much of the richest land . He disbanded monasteries , priories , convents and friaries in England , Wales and Ireland , appropriated their income , disposed of their assets , and provided pensions for the former residents . The properties were sold to pay for the wars . Bernard argues : The dissolution of the monasteries in the late 1530s was one of the most revolutionary events in English history . There were nearly 900 religious houses in England , around 260 for monks , 300 for regular canons , 142 nunneries and 183 friaries ; some 12,000 people in total , 4,000 monks , 3,000 canons , 3,000 friars and 2,000 nuns .... one adult man in fifty was in religious orders . Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and , during his reign , Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England . Indeed , this part of Henry 's reign saw the trial for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics . Under his son , King Edward VI , more Protestant-influenced forms of worship were adopted . Under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Cranmer , a more radical reformation proceeded . A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer ( 1549 and 1552 ) . These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles . The confession of the reformed Church of England was set out in the Forty-two Articles ( later revised to thirty-nine ) . The reformation however was cut short by the death of the king . Queen Mary I , who succeeded him , returned England again to the authority of the papacy , thereby ending the first attempt at an independent Church of England . During her co-reign with her husband , King Philip , many leaders and common people were burnt for their refusal to recant of their reformed faith . These are known as the Marian martyrs and the persecution led to her nickname of `` Bloody Mary '' . Mary also died childless and so it was left to the new regime of her half-sister Elizabeth to resolve the direction of the church . The settlement under Queen Elizabeth I ( from 1558 ) , known as the Elizabethan Settlement , developed the via media ( middle way ) character of the Church of England , a church moderately Reformed in doctrine , as expressed in the Thirty-Nine Articles , but also emphasising continuity with the Catholic and Apostolic traditions of the Church Fathers . It was also an established church ( constitutionally established by the state with the head of state as its supreme governor ) . The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century . Stuart period For the next century , through the reigns of James I , who ordered the creation of what became known as the King James Bible , and Charles I , culminating in the English Civil War and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell , there were significant swings back and forth between two factions : the Puritans ( and other radicals ) who sought more far-reaching Protestant reforms , and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and Catholic practices . The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare . By Continental standards , the level of violence over religion was not high , but the casualties included King Charles I and Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud . Under the Commonwealth and the Protectorate of England from 1649 to 1660 , the bishops were dethroned and former practices were outlawed , and Presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced in place of the episcopate . The 39 Articles were replaced by the Westminster Confession , the Book of Common Prayer by the Directory of Public Worship . Despite this , about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform to this form of State Presbyterianism . With the Restoration of Charles II , Parliament restored the Church of England to a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version . One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation , taken for granted by the Tudors , had to be abandoned . The religious landscape of England assumed its present form , with the Anglican established church occupying the middle ground , and those Puritans and Protestants who dissented from the Anglican establishment , and Roman Catholics , too strong to be suppressed altogether , having to continue their existence outside the National Church rather than controlling it . Continuing official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the 19th century . 19th century By the Fifth Article of the Union with Ireland 1800 , the Church of England and Church of Ireland were united into `` one Protestant Episcopal church , to be called , the United Church of England and Ireland '' . Although this union was declared `` an essential and fundamental Part of the Union '' , the Irish Church Act 1869 separated the Irish part of the church again and disestablished it , the Act coming into effect on 1 January 1871 . Overseas developments As the British Empire expanded , British colonists and colonial administrators took the established church doctrines and practices together with ordained ministry and formed overseas branches of the Church of England . As they developed or , beginning with the United States of America , became sovereign or independent states many of their churches became separate organizationally but remained linked to the Church of England through the Anglican Communion . 21st century Deposition from holy orders overturned Under the guidance of Rowan Williams and with significant pressure from clergy union representatives , the ecclesiastical penalty for convicted felons to be defrocked was set aside from the Clergy Discipline Measure 2003 . The clergy union argued that the penalty was unfair to victims of hypothetical miscarriages of criminal justice , because the ecclesiastical penalty is considered irreversible . Although clerics can still be banned for life from ministry , they remain ordained as priests . Dwindling congregations The archbishops of Canterbury and York warned in January 2015 that the Church of England will no longer be able to carry on in its current form unless the downward spiral in membership is somehow reversed as typical Sunday attendances have halved to 800,000 in the last 40 years : However , Sarah Mullally , the fourth woman chosen to become a bishop in the Church of England , insisted in June 2015 that declining numbers at services should not necessarily be a cause of despair for churches because people will still `` encounter God '' without ever taking their place in a pew , saying that people might hear the Christian message through social media sites such as Facebook or in a café run as a community project . Additionally , the church 's own statistics reveal that 9.7 million people visit an Anglican church every year and 1 million students are educated at Anglican schools . Low salaries In 2015 the Church of England admitted that it was embarrassed to be paying staff under the living wage . The Church of England had previously campaigned for all employers to pay this minimum amount . The archbishop acknowledged it was not the only area where the church `` fell short of its standards '' . Doctrine and practice The canon law of the Church of England identifies the Christian scriptures as the source of its doctrine . In addition , doctrine is also derived from the teachings of the Church Fathers and ecumenical councils ( as well as the ecumenical creeds ) in so far as these agree with scripture . This doctrine is expressed in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion , the Book of Common Prayer , and the Ordinal containing the rites for the ordination of deacons , priests , and the consecration of bishops.Canon A5 . [ http : //www.cofe.anglican.org/about/churchlawlegis/canons/church.pdf Canons of the Church of England ] . Unlike other traditions , the Church of England has no single theologian that it can look to as a founder . However , Richard Hooker 's appeal to scripture , church tradition , and reason as sources of authority continue to inform Anglican identity.Massey H. Shepherd , Jr. and Dale B. Martin , `` Anglicanism '' in Encyclopedia of Religion , vol . 1 , 2nd . ed. , edited by Lindsay Jones ( Detroit : Macmillan Reference USA , 2005 ) , pp . 349–350 . The Church of England 's doctrinal character today is largely the result of the Elizabethan Settlement , which sought to establish a comprehensive middle way between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism . The Church of England affirms the Protestant Reformation principle that scripture contains all things necessary to salvation and is the final arbiter in doctrinal matters . The Thirty-nine Articles are the church 's only official confessional statement . Though not a complete system of doctrine , the articles highlight areas of agreement with Lutheran and Reformed positions , while differentiating Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism and Anabaptism . While embracing some themes of the Protestant Reformation , the Church of England also maintains Catholic traditions of the ancient church and teachings of the Church Fathers , unless these are considered contrary to scripture . It accepts the decisions of the first four ecumenical councils concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation . The Church of England also preserves Catholic order by adhering to episcopal polity , with ordained orders of bishops , priests and deacons . There are differences of opinion within the Church of England over the necessity of episcopacy . Some consider it essential , while others feel it is needed for the proper ordering of the church . The Church of England has , as one of its distinguishing marks , a breadth and `` open-mindedness '' . This tolerance has allowed Anglicans who emphasise the Catholic tradition and others who emphasise the Reformed tradition to coexist . The three `` parties '' ( see Churchmanship ) in the Church of England are sometimes called high church ( or Anglo-Catholic ) , low church ( or Evangelical ) and broad church ( or liberal ) . The high church party places importance on the Church of England 's continuity with the pre-Reformation Catholic Church , adherence to ancient liturgical usages and the sacerdotal nature of the priesthood . As their name suggests , Anglo-Catholics maintain many traditional Catholic practices and liturgical forms . `` High Church '' , New Catholic Encyclopedia , 2nd ed. , vol . 6 ( Detroit : Gale , 2003 ) , pp . 823–824 . The low church party is more Protestant in both ceremony and theology . `` Low Church '' , New Catholic Encyclopedia , 2nd ed. , vol . 8 ( Detroit : Gale , 2003 ) , p. 836 . Historically , broad church has been used to describe those of middle-of-the-road ceremonial preferences who lean theologically towards liberal Protestantism.E . McDermott , `` Broad Church '' , New Catholic Encyclopedia , 2nd ed. , vol . 2 ( Detroit : Gale , 2003 ) , pp . 624–625 . The balance between these strands of churchmanship is not static : in 2013 , 40 % of Church of England worshippers attended evangelical churches ( compared with 26 % in 1989 ) , and 83 % of very large congregations were evangelical . Such churches were also reported to attract higher numbers of men and young adults than others . Worship and liturgy The Church of England 's official book of liturgy as established in English Law is the Book of Common Prayer . In addition to this book the General Synod has also legislated for a modern liturgical book , Common Worship , dating from 2000 , which can be used as an alternative to the BCP . Like its predecessor , the 1980 Alternative Service Book , it differs from the Book of Common Prayer in providing a range of alternative services , mostly in modern language , although it does include some BCP-based forms as well , for example Order Two for Holy Communion . ( This is a revision of the BCP service , altering some words and allowing the insertion of some other liturgical texts such as the Agnus Dei before communion . ) The Order One rite follows the pattern of more modern liturgical scholarship . The liturgies are organised according to the traditional liturgical year and the calendar of saints . The sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist are generally thought necessary to salvation . Infant baptism is practised . At a later age , individuals baptised as infants receive confirmation by a bishop , at which time they reaffirm the baptismal promises made by their parents or sponsors . The Eucharist , consecrated by a thanksgiving prayer including Christ 's Words of Institution , is believed to be `` a memorial of Christ 's once-for-all redemptive acts in which Christ is objectively present and effectually received in faith '' .Shepherd , Jr. and Martin , `` Anglicanism '' , p. 350 . The use of hymns and music in the Church of England has changed dramatically over the centuries . Traditional Choral evensong is a staple of most cathedrals . The style of psalm chanting harks back to the Church of England 's pre-reformation roots . During the 18th century , clergy such as Charles Wesley introduced their own styles of worship with poetic hymns . In the latter half of the 20th century , the influence of the Charismatic Movement significantly altered the worship traditions of numerous Church of England parishes , primarily affecting those of evangelical persuasion . These churches now adopt a contemporary worship form of service , with minimal liturgical or ritual elements , and incorporating contemporary worship music . Women 's ministry Women were appointed as deaconesses from 1861 but they could not function fully as deacons and were not considered ordained clergy . Women have been lay readers for a long time . During the First World War , some women were appointed as lay readers , known as `` bishop 's messengers '' , who also led missions and ran churches in the absence of men . After that no more lay readers were appointed until 1969 . Legislation authorising the ordination of women as deacons was passed in 1986 and they were first ordained in 1987 . The ordination of women as priests was passed by the General Synod in 1992 and began in 1994 . In 2010 , for the first time in the history of the Church of England , more women than men were ordained as priests ( 290 women and 273 men ) . In July 2005 , the synod voted to `` set in train '' the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops . In February 2006 , the synod voted overwhelmingly for the `` further exploration '' of possible arrangements for parishes that did not want to be directly under the authority of a bishop who is a woman . On 7 July 2008 , the synod voted to approve the ordination of women as bishops and rejected moves for alternative episcopal oversight for those who do not accept the ministry of bishops who are women . Actual ordinations of women to the episcopate required further legislation , which was narrowly rejected in a vote at General Synod in November 2012 . On 20 November 2013 , the General Synod voted overwhelmingly in support of a plan to allow the ordination of women as bishops , with 378 in favour , 8 against and 25 abstentions . On 14 July 2014 , the General Synod approved the ordination of women as bishops . The House of Bishops recorded 37 votes in favour , two against with one abstention . The House of Clergy had 162 in favour , 25 against and four abstentions . The House of Laity voted 152 for , 45 against with five abstentions . This legislation had to be approved by the Ecclesiastical Committee of the Parliament before it could be finally implemented at the November 2014 synod . In December 2014 , Libby Lane was announced as the first woman to become a bishop in the Church of England . She was consecrated as a bishop in January 2015 . In July 2015 , Rachel Treweek was the first woman to become a diocesan bishop in the Church of England when she became the Bishop of Gloucester . She and Sarah Mullally , Bishop of Crediton , were the first women to be ordained as bishops at Canterbury Cathedral . Treweek later made headlines by calling for gender-inclusive language , saying that `` God is not to be seen as male . God is God . '' After the consecration of the first women as bishops , Women and the Church ( WATCH ) , a group supporting the ministries of women in the Church of England , called for language referring to God as `` Mother '' . This call for more gender inclusive language has receive the outspoken support of the Rt Rev Alan Wilson , the Bishop of Buckingham . In 2015 , the Rev Jody Stowell , from WATCH , expressed her support for female images saying `` we 're not restricted to understanding God with one gender . I would encourage people to explore those kinds of images . They 're wholly Biblical . '' Same-sex marriage and LGBT clergy The Church of England has been discussing same-sex marriages and LGBT clergy . The official position , although not allowing same-sex marriage , is that `` Same-sex relationships often embody genuine mutuality and fidelity '' . Within wedding guidelines , the church states that `` the law prevents ministers of the Church of England from carrying out same-sex marriages . And although there are no authorised services for blessing a same-sex civil marriage , your local church can still support you with prayer . '' As such , many Anglican churches , with clergy open to it , `` already bless same-sex couples on an unofficial basis '' . In 2005 , David Jenkins , a former Bishop of Durham , offered a blessing for a vicar who had entered into a same-sex partnership , and other churches offer a blessing for those entering into a civil partnership . Other congregations have published `` Prayers for a Same Sex Commitment '' . The Diocese of London provided guidelines for dedication services for same-sex partnerships . The General Synod has voted in favour of extending pensions and other employee rights to gay and lesbian priests . After same-sex marriage became legal , Archbishop Welby stated the civil reality was `` great '' but that the church would not perform same-sex marriages at that time . Additionally , a church report recommended that priests be able to bless same-sex unions . In 2014 , the House of Bishops released guidelines that permit `` more informal kind of prayer '' for couples . Thus , some congregations invite same-sex couples to receive `` services of thanksgiving '' after a civil marriage . In 2016 , the General Synod will again consider blessings for same-sex unions . Regarding transgender issues , the General Synod will discuss proposals submitted to offer naming ceremonies for transgender members in their transitions . The Diocese of Blackburn has already begun recognising the ceremony . The first openly transgender person was ordained as a priest in 2005 . In 2014 , a transgender and lesbian priest was appointed as a minor canon at Manchester Cathedral . Liberal theology Just as the Church of England has a large conservative or `` traditionalist '' wing , it also has many liberal members and clergy . Approximately one third of clergy `` doubt or disbelieve in the physical resurrection '' . Others , such as the Revd Giles Fraser , a contributor to The Guardian , have argued for an allegorical interpretation the Virgin Birth . The Independent reported in 2014 that , according to a YouGov survey of Church of England clergy , `` as many as 16 per cent are unclear about God and two per cent think it is no more than a human construct . '' Moreover , many congregations are seeker-friendly environments . For example , one report from the Church Mission Society suggested that the church open up `` a pagan church where Christianity [ is ] very much in the centre '' to reach out to spiritual people . Bioethics issues The Church of England is generally opposed to abortion but recognises that `` there can be - strictly limited - conditions under which it may be morally preferable to any available alternative '' . The church also opposes euthanasia . Its official stance is that `` While acknowledging the complexity of the issues involved in assisted dying/suicide and voluntary euthanasia , the Church of England is opposed to any change in the law or in medical practice that would make assisted dying/suicide or voluntary euthanasia permissible in law or acceptable in practice . '' It also states that `` Equally , the Church shares the desire to alleviate physical and psychological suffering , but believes that assisted dying/suicide and voluntary euthanasia are not acceptable means of achieving these laudable goals . '' However , George Carey , a former Archbishop of Canterbury , announced that he had changed his stance on euthanasia in 2014 and now advocated legalising `` assisted dying '' . On embryonic stem-cell research , the church has announced `` cautious acceptance to the proposal to produce cytoplasmic hybrid embryos for research '' . Poverty Church Urban Fund The Church of England set up the Church Urban Fund in the 1980s to tackle poverty and deprivation . They see poverty as trapping individuals and communities with some people in urgent need . This leads to dependency , homelessness , hunger , isolation , low income , mental health problems , social exclusion and violence . They feel that poverty reduces confidence and life expectancy and that people born in poor conditions have difficulty escaping their disadvantaged circumstances . Child poverty In parts of Liverpool , Manchester and Newcastle two-thirds of babies are born to poverty and have poorer life chances , also life expectancy 15 years lower than babies

qb_2823--Church_of_England.txt

Who always holds the title of the Supreme Governor of the Church of England?

The Inca Empire ( Quechua : Tawantinsuyu , '' The Four Regions '' ) , also known as the Incan Empire , was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America . The administrative , political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru . The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century . Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572 . From 1438 to 1533 , the Incas used methods including conquest and peaceful assimilation , to incorporate a large portion of western South America , centered on the Andean mountain ranges . At its largest , the empire joined , Peru , large parts of modern Ecuador , western and south central Bolivia , northwest Argentina , north and central Chile and a small part of southern Colombia into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia . Its official language was Quechua . Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire , most of them concerning local sacred Huacas , but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti—their sun god—and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama . The Incas considered their king , the Sapa Inca , to be the `` son of the sun . '' Name The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu , `` the four suyu '' . In Quechua , tawa is four and -ntin is a suffix naming a group , so that a tawantin is a quartet , a group of four things taken together , in this case representing the four suyu ( `` regions '' or `` provinces '' ) whose corners met at the capital . The four suyu were : Chinchaysuyu ( north ) , Antisuyu ( east ; the Amazon jungle ) , Qullasuyu ( south ) and Kuntisuyu ( west ) . The name Tawantinsuyu was , therefore , a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces . The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu . The term Inka means `` ruler '' or `` lord '' in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family . The Spanish adopted the term ( transliterated as Inca in Spanish ) as an ethnic term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class . As such the name Imperio inca ( `` Inca Empire '' ) referred to the nation that they encountered and subsequently conquered . History Origin The Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century . Incan oral history tells an origin story of three caves . The center cave at Tampu T'uqu ( Tambo Tocco ) was named Qhapaq T'uqu ( `` principal niche '' , also spelled Capac Tocco ) . The other caves were Maras T'uqu ( Maras Tocco ) and Sutiq T'uqu ( Sutic Tocco ) . Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave . They were : Ayar Manco , Ayar Cachi , Ayar Awqa ( Ayar Auca ) and Ayar Uchu ; and Mama Ocllo , Mama Raua , Mama Huaco and Mama Qura ( Mama Cora ) . Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans . Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold . Where this staff landed , the people would live . They traveled for a long time . On the way , Ayar Cachi boasted about his strength and power . His siblings tricked him into returning to the cave to get a sacred llama . When he went into the cave , they trapped him inside to get rid of him . Ayar Uchu decided to stay on the top of the cave to look over the Inca people . The minute he proclaimed that , he turned to stone . They built a shrine around the stone and it became a sacred object . Ayar Auca grew tired of all this and decided to travel alone . Only Ayar Manco and his four sisters remained . Finally , they reached Cusco . The staff sank into the ground . Before they arrived , Mama Ocllo had already borne Ayar Manco a child , Sinchi Roca . The people who were already living in Cusco fought hard to keep their land , but Mama Huaca was a good fighter . When the enemy attacked , she threw her bolas ( several stones tied together that spun through the air when thrown ) at a soldier ( gualla ) and killed him instantly . The other people were became afraid and ran away . After that , Ayar Manco became known as Manco Cápac , the founder of the Inca . It is said that he and his sisters built the first Inca homes in the valley with their own hands . When the time came , Manco Cápac turned to stone like his brothers before him . His son , Sinchi Roca , became the second emperor of the Inca . Kingdom of Cusco Under the leadership of Manco Cápac , the Inca formed the small city-state Kingdom of Cusco ( Quechua Qusqu ' , Qosqo ) . In 1438 , they began a far-reaching expansion under the command of Sapa Inca ( paramount leader ) Pachacuti-Cusi Yupanqui , whose name literally meant `` earth-shaker '' . The name of Pachacuti was given to him after he conquered the Tribe of Chancas ( modern Apurímac ) . During his reign , he and his son Tupac Yupanqui brought much of the Andes mountains ( roughly modern Peru and Ecuador ) under Inca control . Reorganization and formation Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cusco into the Tahuantinsuyu , which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders : Chinchasuyu ( NW ) , Antisuyu ( NE ) , Kuntisuyu ( SW ) and Qullasuyu ( SE ) . Pachacuti is thought to have built Machu Picchu , either as a family home or summer retreat , although it may have been an agricultural station . Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire ; they brought reports on political organization , military strength and wealth . He then sent messages to their leaders extolling the benefits of joining his empire , offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles and promising that they would be materially richer as his subjects . Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully . The ruler 's children were brought to Cusco to learn about Inca administration systems , then return to rule their native lands . This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate them into the Inca nobility and , with luck , marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire . Expansion and consolidation Traditionally the son of the Inca ruler led the army . Pachacuti 's son Túpac Inca Yupanqui began conquests to the north in 1463 and continued them as Inca ruler after Pachacuti 's death in 1471 . Túpac Inca 's most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor , the Inca 's only serious rival for the Peruvian coast . Túpac Inca 's empire stretched north into modern-day Ecuador and Colombia . Túpac Inca 's son Huayna Cápac added a small portion of land to the north in modern-day Ecuador and in parts of Peru . At its height , the Inca Empire included Peru and Bolivia , most of what is now Ecuador and a large portion of what is today Chile , north of the Maule River . The advance south halted after the Battle of the Maule where they met determined resistance from the Mapuche . The empire 's push into the Amazon Basin near the Chinchipe River was stopped by the Shuar in 1527 . The empire extended into corners of Argentina and Colombia . However , most of the southern portion of the Inca empire , the portion denominated as Qullasuyu , was located in the Altiplano . The Inca Empire was an amalgamation of languages , cultures and peoples . The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal , nor were the local cultures all fully integrated . The Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour . The following quote describes a method of taxation : For as is well known to all , not a single village of the highlands or the plains failed to pay the tribute levied on it by those who were in charge of these matters . There were even provinces where , when the natives alleged that they were unable to pay their tribute , the Inca ordered that each inhabitant should be obliged to turn in every four months a large quill full of live lice , which was the Inca 's way of teaching and accustoming them to pay tribute . Inca Civil War and Spanish conquest Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what is today Panama , reaching Inca territory by 1526 . It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure and after one more expedition in 1529 , Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy . This approval was received as detailed in the following quote : `` In July 1529 the queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Incas . Pizarro was named governor and captain of all conquests in Peru , or New Castile , as the Spanish now called the land . '' When they returned to Peru in 1532 , a war of the two brothers between Huayna Capac 's sons Huáscar and Atahualpa and unrest among newly conquered territories—and perhaps more importantly , smallpox , which had spread from Central America—had considerably weakened the empire . Pizarro did not have a formidable force ; with just 168 men , 1 cannon and 27 horses , he often talked his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party . The Spanish horsemen , fully armored , had technological superiority over the Inca forces . The traditional mode of battle in the Andes was a kind of siege warfare where large numbers of usually reluctant draftees were sent to overwhelm opponents . The Spaniards developed one of the finest military machines in the premodern world , tactics learned in their centuries-long fight against Moorish kingdoms in Iberia . Along with this tactical and material superiority , the Spaniards acquired tens of thousands of native allies who sought to end the Inca control of their territories . Their first engagement was the Battle of Puná , near present-day Guayaquil , Ecuador , on the Pacific Coast ; Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532 . Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca , Atahualpa , who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops . Pizarro and some of his men , most notably a friar named Vincente de Valverde , met with the Inca , who had brought only a small retinue . Through an interpreter Friar Vincente read the `` Requerimiento '' that demanded that he and his empire accept the yoke of King Charles I of Spain and convert to Christianity . Because of the language barrier and perhaps poor interpretation , Atahualpa became somewhat puzzled by the friar 's description of Christian faith and was said to have not fully understood the envoy 's intentions . After Atahualpa attempted further enquiry into the doctrines of the Christian faith , the Spanish became frustrated and impatient . They attacked the Inca 's retinue and captured Atahualpa as hostage . Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in and twice that amount of silver . The Inca fulfilled this ransom , but Pizarro deceived them , refusing to release the Inca afterwards . During Atahualpa 's imprisonment Huáscar was assassinated elsewhere . The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa 's orders ; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally executed him , in August 1533 . Last Incas The Spanish installed Atahualpa 's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power ; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish , while the Spanish fought to put down resistance in the north . Meanwhile , an associate of Pizarro 's , Diego de Almagro , attempted to claim Cusco for himself . Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage , recapturing Cusco in 1536 , but the Spanish retook the city afterwards . Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State , where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years , sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them . In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered and the last ruler , Túpac Amaru , Manco 's son , was captured and executed . This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the political authority of the Inca state . After the fall of the Inca Empire many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed , including their sophisticated farming system , known as the vertical archipelago model of agriculture . Spanish colonial officials used the Inca mita corvée labor system for colonial aims , sometimes brutally . One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines , the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí . When a family member died , which would usually happen within a year or two , the family was required to send a replacement . The effects of smallpox on the Inca empire were even more devastating . Beginning in Colombia , smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire . The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system . Within a few years smallpox claimed between 60 % and 94 % of the Inca population , with other waves of European disease weakening them further . Smallpox was only the first epidemic . Typhus ( probably ) in 1546 , influenza and smallpox together in 1558 , smallpox again in 1589 , diphtheria in 1614 , measles in 1618 – all ravaged the Inca people . Society Population The number of people inhabiting Tawantinsuyu at its peak is uncertain , with estimates ranging from 4-37 million . In spite of the fact that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipu , knowledge of how to read them was lost and almost all of them were destroyed by the Spaniards . Language Since the Inca Empire lacked a written language , the main form of communication and recording in the empire were quipus , ceramics and spoken Quechua , the language the Incas imposed upon the peoples within the empire . The plethora of civilizations in the Andean region provided for a general disunity that the Incas had to subdue in order to maintain control . While Quechua had been spoken in the Andean region , including central Peru , for several years prior to the expansion of the Inca civilization , the dialect of Quechua the Incas imposed was an adaptation from the Kingdom of Cusco ( an early form of `` Southern Quechua '' originally named Qhapaq Runasimi , or 'the great language of the people ' ) , or what some historians define as the Cusco dialect . The language imposed by the Incas diverted from its original phonetics as some societies formed their own regional varieties . The diversity of Quechua at that point and even today does not come directly from the Incas , who were just a part of the reason for Quechua 's diversity . The civilizations within the empire that had previously spoken Quechua kept their own variety distinct from the Quechua the Incas spread . Although these dialects of Quechua had a similar linguistic structure , they differed according to the region in which they were spoken . Although most of the societies within the empire accepted Quechua , the Incas allowed several societies to keep their original languages , such as Aymara , which remains in use in contemporary Bolivia , where it is the primary indigenous language and in various regions surrounding Bolivia . The linguistic body of the Inca Empire was thus varied . The Inca 's impact outlasted their empire , as the Spanish continued the use of Quechua . Religion Inca myths were transmitted orally until early Spanish colonists recorded them ; however , some scholars claim that they were recorded on quipus , Andean knotted string records . The Inca believed in reincarnation . Death was a passage to the next world that was full of difficulties . The spirit of the dead , camaquen , would need to follow a long road and during the trip the assistance of a black dog that could see in the dark was required . Most Incas imagined the after world to be like that of the European notion of heaven , with flower-covered fields and snow-capped mountains . It was important to the Inca that they not die as a result of burning or that the body of the deceased not be incinerated . Burning would cause their vital force to disappear and threaten their passage to the after world . Those who obeyed the Inca moral code – ama suwa , ama llulla , ama quella ( do not steal , do not lie , do not be lazy ) – `` went to live in the Sun 's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth '' . The Inca nobility practiced cranial deformation . They wrapped tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns to shape their soft skulls into a more conical form , thus distinguishing the nobility from other social classes . The Incas made human sacrifices . As many as 4,000 servants , court officials , favorites and concubines were killed upon the death of the Inca Huayna Capac in 1527 . The Incas performed child sacrifices around important events , such as the death of the Sapa Inca or during a famine . These sacrifices were known as qhapaq hucha . Deities The Incas were polytheists who attempted to please many gods . These included : * Viracocha ( also Pachacamac ) – Created all living things * Apu Illapu – Rain God , prayed to when they need rain * Ayar Cachi – Hot-tempered God , causes earthquakes * Illapa – Goddess of lightning and thunder ( also Yakumama water goddess ) * Inti – sun god and patron deity of the holy city of Cusco ( home of the sun ) * Kuychi – Rainbow God , connected with fertility * Mama Killa – Wife of Inti , called Moon Mother * Mama Occlo – Wisdom to civilize the people , taught women to weave cloth and build houses * Manco Cápac – known for his courage and sent to earth to become first king of the Incas . Taught people how to grow plants , make weapons , work together , share resources and worship the Gods . * Pachamama – The Goddess of earth and wife of Viracocha . People give her offerings of coca leaves and beer and pray to her for major agricultural occasions * Quchamama – Goddess of the sea * Sachamama – Means Mother Tree , goddess in the shape of a snake with two heads * Yakumama – Means mother Water . Represented as a snake . When she came to earth she transformed into a great river ( also Illapa ) . Economy The Inca Empire employed central planning . The Inca Empire traded with outside regions , although they did not operate a substantial internal market economy . While axe-monies were used along the northern coast , presumably by the provincial mindaláe trading class , most lived in a traditional economy in which households were required to pay taxes both in kind ( e.g. , crops , textiles , etc . ) and in the form of the mit ' a corvée labor and military obligations , though barter ( or trueque ) was present in some areas . In return , the state provided security , food in times of hardship through the supply of emergency resources , agricultural projects ( e.g . aqueducts and terraces ) to increase productivity and occasional feasts . The economy rested on the material foundations of the vertical archipelago , a system of ecological complementarity in accessing resources and the cultural foundation of ayni , or reciprocal exchange . Government Beliefs The Sapa Inca was conceptualized as divine and was effectively head of the state religion . The Willaq Umu ( or Chief Priest ) was second to the emperor . Local religious traditions continued and in some cases such as the Oracle at Pachacamac on the Peruvian coast , were officially venerated . Following Pachacuti , the Sapa Inca claimed descent from Inti , who placed a high value on imperial blood ; by the end of the empire , it was common to incestuously wed brother and sister . He was `` son of the sun , '' and his people the intip churin , or `` children of the sun , '' and both his right to rule and mission to conquer derived from his holy ancestor . The Sapa Inca also presided over ideologically important festivals , notably during the Inti Raymi , or `` warriors ’ cultivation , '' attended by soldiers , mummified rulers , nobles , clerics and the general population of Cusco beginning on the June solstice and culminating nine days later with the ritual breaking of the earth using a foot plow by the Inca . Moreover , Cusco was considered cosmologically central , loaded as it was with huacas and radiating ceque lines and geographic center of the Four Quarters ; Inca Garcilaso de la Vega called it `` the navel of the universe '' . Organization of the empire The Inca Empire was a federalist system consisting of a central government with the Inca at its head and four quarters , or suyu : Chinchay Suyu ( NW ) , Anti Suyu ( NE ) , Kunti Suyu ( SW ) and Qulla Suyu ( SE ) . The four corners of these quarters met at the center , Cusco . These suyu were likely created around 1460 during the reign of Pachacuti before the empire reached its largest territorial extent . At the time the suyu were established they were roughly of equal size and only later changed their proportions as the empire expanded north and south along the Andes . Cusco was likely not organized as a wamani , or province . Rather , it was probably somewhat akin to a modern federal district , like Washington , D.C. or Mexico City . The city sat at the center of the four suyu and served as the preeminent center of politics and religion . While Cusco was essentially governed by the Sapa Inca , his relatives and the royal panaqa lineages , each suyu was governed by an Apu , a term of esteem used for men of high status and for venerated mountains . Both Cusco as a district and the four suyu as administrative regions were grouped into upper hanan and lower hurin divisions . As the Inca did not have written records , it is impossible to exhaustively list the constituent wamani . However , colonial records allow us to reconstruct a partial list . There were likely more than 86 wamani , with more than 48 in the highlands and more than 38 on the coast . Suyu The most populous suyu was Chinchaysuyu , which encompassed the former Chimu empire and much of the northern Andes . At its largest extent , it extended through much of modern Ecuador and into modern Colombia . The largest suyu by area was Qullasuyu , named after the Aymara-speaking Qulla people . It encompassed the Bolivian Altiplano and much of the southern Andes , reaching Argentina and as far south as the Maipo or Maule river in Central Chile . Historian José Bengoa singled out Quillota as perhaps the foremost Inca settlement . The second smallest suyu , Antisuyu , was northwest of Cusco in the high Andes . Its name is the root of the word `` Andes . '' Kuntisuyu was the smallest suyu , located along the southern coast of modern Peru , extending into the highlands towards Cusco . Laws The Inca state had no separate judiciary or codified laws . Customs , expectations and traditional local power holders governed behavior . The state had legal force , such as through tokoyrikoq ( lit . `` he who sees all '' ) , or inspectors . The highest such inspector , typically a blood relative to the Sapa Inca , acted independently of the conventional hierarchy , providing a point of view for the Sapa Inca free of bureaucratic influence . Administration Colonial sources are not entirely clear or in agreement about Inca government structure , such as exact duties and functions of government positions . But the basic structure can be broadly described . The top was the Sapa Inca . Below that may have been the Willaq Umu , literally the `` priest who recounts '' , the High Priest of the Sun . However , beneath the Sapa Inca also sat the Inkap rantin , who was a confidant and assistant to the Sapa Inca , perhaps similar to a Prime Minister . Starting with Topa Inca Yupanqui , a `` Council of the Realm '' waas composed of 16 nobles : 2 from hanan Cusco ; 2 from hurin Cusco ; 4 from Chinchaysuyu ; 2 from Cuntisuyu ; 4 from Collasuyu ; and 2 from Antisuyu . This weighting of representation balanced the hanan and hurin divisions of the empire , both within Cusco and within the Quarters ( hanan suyukuna and hurin suyukuna ) . While provincial bureaucracy and government varied greatly , the basic organization was decimal . Taxpayers – male heads of household of a certain age range – were organized into corvée labor units ( often doubling as military units ) that formed the state 's muscle as part of mit ' a service . Each unit of more than 100 tax-payers were headed by a kuraka , while smaller units were headed by a kamayuq , a lower , non-hereditary status . However , while kuraka status was hereditary and typically served for life , the position of a kuraka in the hierarchy was subject to change based on the privileges of superiors in the hierarchy ; a pachaka kuraka could be appointed to the position by a waranqa kuraka . Furthermore , one kuraka in each decimal level could serve as the head of one of the nine groups at a lower level , so that a pachaka kuraka might also be a waranqa kuraka , in effect directly responsible for one unit of 100 tax-payers and less directly responsible for nine other such units . Arts and technology Monumental architecture Architecture was the most important of the Incan arts , with textiles reflecting architectural motifs . The main example is the capital city of Cusco . Machu Picchu was constructed by Inca engineers . The prime Inca structures were made of stone blocks that fit together so well that a knife could not be fitted through the stonework . These constructs have survived for centuries , with no use of mortar to sustain them . This process was first used on a large scale by the Pucara ( ca . 300 BC–AD 300 ) peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca and later in the city of Tiwanaku ( ca . AD 400–1100 ) in present-day Bolivia . The rocks were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed . The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable , despite the ongoing challenge of earthquakes and volcanic activity

bb_1870--Inca_Empire.txt

The Inca people lived in which continent before conquest by the Spanish?

Quantum mechanics ( QM ; also known as quantum physics or quantum theory ) , including quantum field theory , is a fundamental branch of physics concerned with processes involving , for example , atoms and photons . Systems such as these which obey quantum mechanics can be in a quantum superposition of different states , unlike in classical physics . Quantum mechanics gradually arose from Max Planck 's solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem ( reported 1859 ) and Albert Einstein 's 1905 paper which offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric effect ( reported 1887 ) . Early quantum theory was profoundly reconceived in the mid-1920s . The reconceived theory is formulated in various specially developed mathematical formalisms . In one of them , a mathematical function , the wave function , provides information about the probability amplitude of position , momentum , and other physical properties of a particle . Important applications of quantum theory include superconducting magnets , light-emitting diodes and the laser , the transistor and semiconductors such as the microprocessor , medical and research imaging such as magnetic resonance imaging and electron microscopy , and explanations for many biological and physical phenomena . History Scientific inquiry into the wave nature of light began in the 17th and 18th centuries , when scientists such as Robert Hooke , Christiaan Huygens and Leonhard Euler proposed a wave theory of light based on experimental observations . In 1803 , Thomas Young , an English polymath , performed the famous double-slit experiment that he later described in a paper titled On the nature of light and colours . This experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light . In 1838 , Michael Faraday discovered cathode rays . These studies were followed by the 1859 statement of the black-body radiation problem by Gustav Kirchhoff , the 1877 suggestion by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of a physical system can be discrete , and the 1900 quantum hypothesis of Max Planck . Planck 's hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete `` quanta '' ( or energy elements ) precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation . In 1896 , Wilhelm Wien empirically determined a distribution law of black-body radiation , known as Wien 's law in his honor . Ludwig Boltzmann independently arrived at this result by considerations of Maxwell 's equations . However , it was valid only at high frequencies and underestimated the radiance at low frequencies . Later , Planck corrected this model using Boltzmann 's statistical interpretation of thermodynamics and proposed what is now called Planck 's law , which led to the development of quantum mechanics . Following Max Planck 's solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem ( reported 1859 ) , Albert Einstein offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric effect ( 1905 , reported 1887 ) . Around 1900-1910 , the atomic theory and the corpuscular theory of light first came to be widely accepted as scientific fact ; these latter theories can be viewed as quantum theories of matter and electromagnetic radiation , respectively . Among the first to study quantum phenomena in nature were Arthur Compton , C. V. Raman , and Pieter Zeeman , each of whom has a quantum effect named after him . Robert Andrews Millikan studied the photoelectric effect experimentally , and Albert Einstein developed a theory for it . At the same time , Niels Bohr developed his theory of the atomic structure , which was later confirmed by the experiments of Henry Moseley . In 1913 , Peter Debye extended Niels Bohr 's theory of atomic structure , introducing elliptical orbits , a concept also introduced by Arnold Sommerfeld . This phase is known as old quantum theory . According to Planck , each energy element ( E ) is proportional to its frequency ( ν ) : E = h \nu\ where h is Planck 's constant . Planck cautiously insisted that this was simply an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and had nothing to do with the physical reality of the radiation itself . In fact , he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right answer rather than a sizable discovery . However , in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck 's quantum hypothesis realistically and used it to explain the photoelectric effect , in which shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material . He won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work . Einstein further developed this idea to show that an electromagnetic wave such as light could also be described as a particle ( later called the photon ) , with a discrete quantum of energy that was dependent on its frequency . The foundations of quantum mechanics were established during the first half of the 20th century by Max Planck , Niels Bohr , Werner Heisenberg , Louis de Broglie , Arthur Compton , Albert Einstein , Erwin Schrödinger , Max Born , John von Neumann , Paul Dirac , Enrico Fermi , Wolfgang Pauli , Max von Laue , Freeman Dyson , David Hilbert , Wilhelm Wien , Satyendra Nath Bose , Arnold Sommerfeld , and others . The Copenhagen interpretation of Niels Bohr became widely accepted . In the mid-1920s , developments in quantum mechanics led to its becoming the standard formulation for atomic physics . In the summer of 1925 , Bohr and Heisenberg published results that closed the old quantum theory . Out of deference to their particle-like behavior in certain processes and measurements , light quanta came to be called photons ( 1926 ) . From Einstein 's simple postulation was born a flurry of debating , theorizing , and testing . Thus , the entire field of quantum physics emerged , leading to its wider acceptance at the Fifth Solvay Conference in 1927 . It was found that subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves are neither simply particle nor wave but have certain properties of each . This originated the concept of wave–particle duality . By 1930 , quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized by the work of David Hilbert , Paul Dirac and John von Neumann with greater emphasis on measurement , the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality , and philosophical speculation about the 'observer ' . It has since permeated many disciplines including quantum chemistry , quantum electronics , quantum optics , and quantum information science . Its speculative modern developments include string theory and quantum gravity theories . It also provides a useful framework for many features of the modern periodic table of elements , and describes the behaviors of atoms during chemical bonding and the flow of electrons in computer semiconductors , and therefore plays a crucial role in many modern technologies . While quantum mechanics was constructed to describe the world of the very small , it is also needed to explain some macroscopic phenomena such as superconductors , and superfluids . The word quantum derives from the Latin , meaning `` how great '' or `` how much '' . In quantum mechanics , it refers to a discrete unit assigned to certain physical quantities such as the energy of an atom at rest ( see Figure 1 ) . The discovery that particles are discrete packets of energy with wave-like properties led to the branch of physics dealing with atomic and subatomic systems which is today called quantum mechanics . It underlies the mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry , including condensed matter physics , solid-state physics , atomic physics , molecular physics , computational physics , computational chemistry , quantum chemistry , particle physics , nuclear chemistry , and nuclear physics . Some fundamental aspects of the theory are still actively studied . Quantum mechanics is essential to understanding the behavior of systems at atomic length scales and smaller . If the physical nature of an atom were solely described by classical mechanics , electrons would not orbit the nucleus , since orbiting electrons emit radiation ( due to circular motion ) and would eventually collide with the nucleus due to this loss of energy . This framework was unable to explain the stability of atoms . Instead , electrons remain in an uncertain , non-deterministic , smeared , probabilistic wave–particle orbital about the nucleus , defying the traditional assumptions of classical mechanics and electromagnetism . Quantum mechanics was initially developed to provide a better explanation and description of the atom , especially the differences in the spectra of light emitted by different isotopes of the same chemical element , as well as subatomic particles . In short , the quantum-mechanical atomic model has succeeded spectacularly in the realm where classical mechanics and electromagnetism falter . Broadly speaking , quantum mechanics incorporates four classes of phenomena for which classical physics can not account : * quantization of certain physical properties * quantum entanglement * principle of uncertainty * wave–particle duality Mathematical formulations In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics developed by Paul Dirac , David Hilbert , John von Neumann , and Hermann Weyl , the possible states of a quantum mechanical system are symbolized as unit vectors ( called state vectors ) . Formally , these reside in a complex separable Hilbert space—variously called the state space or the associated Hilbert space of the system—that is well defined up to a complex number of norm 1 ( the phase factor ) . In other words , the possible states are points in the projective space of a Hilbert space , usually called the complex projective space . The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system—for example , the state space for position and momentum states is the space of square-integrable functions , while the state space for the spin of a single proton is just the product of two complex planes . Each observable is represented by a maximally Hermitian ( precisely : by a self-adjoint ) linear operator acting on the state space . Each eigenstate of an observable corresponds to an eigenvector of the operator , and the associated eigenvalue corresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate . If the operator 's spectrum is discrete , the observable can attain only those discrete eigenvalues . In the formalism of quantum mechanics , the state of a system at a given time is described by a complex wave function , also referred to as state vector in a complex vector space . This abstract mathematical object allows for the calculation of probabilities of outcomes of concrete experiments . For example , it allows one to compute the probability of finding an electron in a particular region around the nucleus at a particular time . Contrary to classical mechanics , one can never make simultaneous predictions of conjugate variables , such as position and momentum , with accuracy . For instance , electrons may be considered ( to a certain probability ) to be located somewhere within a given region of space , but with their exact positions unknown . Contours of constant probability , often referred to as `` clouds '' , may be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where the electron might be located with the most probability . Heisenberg 's uncertainty principle quantifies the inability to precisely locate the particle given its conjugate momentum . According to one interpretation , as the result of a measurement the wave function containing the probability information for a system collapses from a given initial state to a particular eigenstate . The possible results of a measurement are the eigenvalues of the operator representing the observable—which explains the choice of Hermitian operators , for which all the eigenvalues are real . The probability distribution of an observable in a given state can be found by computing the spectral decomposition of the corresponding operator . Heisenberg 's uncertainty principle is represented by the statement that the operators corresponding to certain observables do not commute . The probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement . This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand . It was the central topic in the famous Bohr–Einstein debates , in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way of thought experiments . In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics , the question of what constitutes a `` measurement '' has been extensively studied . Newer interpretations of quantum mechanics have been formulated that do away with the concept of `` wave function collapse '' ( see , for example , the relative state interpretation ) . The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus , their respective wave functions become entangled , so that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity . For details , see the article on measurement in quantum mechanics . Generally , quantum mechanics does not assign definite values . Instead , it makes a prediction using a probability distribution ; that is , it describes the probability of obtaining the possible outcomes from measuring an observable . Often these results are skewed by many causes , such as dense probability clouds . Probability clouds are approximate ( but better than the Bohr model ) whereby electron location is given by a probability function , the wave function eigenvalue , such that the probability is the squared modulus of the complex amplitude , or quantum state nuclear attraction . Naturally , these probabilities will depend on the quantum state at the `` instant '' of the measurement . Hence , uncertainty is involved in the value . There are , however , certain states that are associated with a definite value of a particular observable . These are known as eigenstates of the observable ( `` eigen '' can be translated from German as meaning `` inherent '' or `` characteristic '' ) . In the everyday world , it is natural and intuitive to think of everything ( every observable ) as being in an eigenstate . Everything appears to have a definite position , a definite momentum , a definite energy , and a definite time of occurrence . However , quantum mechanics does not pinpoint the exact values of a particle 's position and momentum ( since they are conjugate pairs ) or its energy and time ( since they too are conjugate pairs ) ; rather , it provides only a range of probabilities in which that particle might be given its momentum and momentum probability . Therefore , it is helpful to use different words to describe states having uncertain values and states having definite values ( eigenstates ) . Usually , a system will not be in an eigenstate of the observable ( particle ) we are interested in . However , if one measures the observable , the wave function will instantaneously be an eigenstate ( or `` generalized '' eigenstate ) of that observable . This process is known as wave function collapse , a controversial and much-debated process that involves expanding the system under study to include the measurement device . If one knows the corresponding wave function at the instant before the measurement , one will be able to compute the probability of the wave function collapsing into each of the possible eigenstates . For example , the free particle in the previous example will usually have a wave function that is a wave packet centered around some mean position x0 ( neither an eigenstate of position nor of momentum ) . When one measures the position of the particle , it is impossible to predict with certainty the result . It is probable , but not certain , that it will be near x0 , where the amplitude of the wave function is large . After the measurement is performed , having obtained some result x , the wave function collapses into a position eigenstate centered at x . The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation , in which the Hamiltonian ( the operator corresponding to the total energy of the system ) generates the time evolution . The time evolution of wave functions is deterministic in the sense that - given a wave function at an initial time - it makes a definite prediction of what the wave function will be at any later time . During a measurement , on the other hand , the change of the initial wave function into another , later wave function is not deterministic , it is unpredictable ( i.e. , random ) . A time-evolution simulation can be seen here . Wave functions change as time progresses . The Schrödinger equation describes how wave functions change in time , playing a role similar to Newton 's second law in classical mechanics . The Schrödinger equation , applied to the aforementioned example of the free particle , predicts that the center of a wave packet will move through space at a constant velocity ( like a classical particle with no forces acting on it ) . However , the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses , which means that the position becomes more uncertain with time . This also has the effect of turning a position eigenstate ( which can be thought of as an infinitely sharp wave packet ) into a broadened wave packet that no longer represents a ( definite , certain ) position eigenstate . Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are constant , or independent of time—such as when in a stationary state of constant energy , time vanishes in the absolute square of the wave function . Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such `` static '' wave functions . For example , a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus , whereas in quantum mechanics it is described by a static , spherically symmetric wave function surrounding the nucleus ( Fig . 1 ) ( note , however , that only the lowest angular momentum states , labeled s , are spherically symmetric ) . The Schrödinger equation acts on the entire probability amplitude , not merely its absolute value . Whereas the absolute value of the probability amplitude encodes information about probabilities , its phase encodes information about the interference between quantum states . This gives rise to the `` wave-like '' behavior of quantum states . As it turns out , analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are available for only a very small number of relatively simple model Hamiltonians , of which the quantum harmonic oscillator , the particle in a box , the dihydrogen cation , and the hydrogen atom are the most important representatives . Even the helium atom—which contains just one more electron than does the hydrogen atom—has defied all attempts at a fully analytic treatment . There exist several techniques for generating approximate solutions , however . In the important method known as perturbation theory , one uses the analytic result for a simple quantum mechanical model to generate a result for a more complicated model that is related to the simpler model by ( for one example ) the addition of a weak potential energy . Another method is the `` semi-classical equation of motion '' approach , which applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces only weak ( small ) deviations from classical behavior . These deviations can then be computed based on the classical motion . This approach is particularly important in the field of quantum chaos . Mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics There are numerous mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics . One of the oldest and most commonly used formulations is the `` transformation theory '' proposed by Paul Dirac , which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics - matrix mechanics ( invented by Werner Heisenberg ) and wave mechanics ( invented by Erwin Schrödinger ) . Especially since Werner Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 for the creation of quantum mechanics , the role of Max Born in the development of QM was overlooked until the 1954 Nobel award . The role is noted in a 2005 biography of Born , which recounts his role in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics , and the use of probability amplitudes . Heisenberg himself acknowledges having learned matrices from Born , as published in a 1940 festschrift honoring Max Planck . In the matrix formulation , the instantaneous state of a quantum system encodes the probabilities of its measurable properties , or `` observables '' . Examples of observables include energy , position , momentum , and angular momentum . Observables can be either continuous ( e.g. , the position of a particle ) or discrete ( e.g. , the energy of an electron bound to a hydrogen atom ) . An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics is Feynman 's path integral formulation , in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over all possible classical and non-classical paths between the initial and final states . This is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of the action principle in classical mechanics . Interactions with other scientific theories The rules of quantum mechanics are fundamental . They assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and that observables of that system are Hermitian operators acting on that space—although they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators . These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system . An important guide for making these choices is the correspondence principle , which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those of classical mechanics when a system moves to higher energies or , equivalently , larger quantum numbers , i.e . whereas a single particle exhibits a degree of randomness , in systems incorporating millions of particles averaging takes over and , at the high energy limit , the statistical probability of random behaviour approaches zero . In other words , classical mechanics is simply a quantum mechanics of large systems . This `` high energy '' limit is known as the classical or correspondence limit . One can even start from an established classical model of a particular system , then attempt to guess the underlying quantum model that would give rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit . When quantum mechanics was originally formulated , it was applied to models whose correspondence limit was non-relativistic classical mechanics . For instance , the well-known model of the quantum harmonic oscillator uses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for the kinetic energy of the oscillator , and is thus a quantum version of the classical harmonic oscillator . Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics with special relativity involved the replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as the Klein–Gordon equation or the Dirac equation . While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results , they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles . A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory , which applies quantization to a field ( rather than a fixed set of particles ) . The first complete quantum field theory , quantum electrodynamics , provides a fully quantum description of the electromagnetic interaction . The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems . A simpler approach , one that has been employed since the inception of quantum mechanics , is to treat charged particles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classical electromagnetic field . For example , the elementary quantum model of the hydrogen atom describes the electric field of the hydrogen atom using a classical \scriptstyle -e^2/ ( 4 \pi\ \epsilon_ { _0 } \ r ) Coulomb potential . This `` semi-classical '' approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role , such as in the emission of photons by charged particles . Quantum field theories for the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force have also been developed . The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics , and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles such as quarks and gluons . The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified , in their quantized forms , into a single quantum field theory ( known as electroweak theory ) , by the physicists Abdus Salam , Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg . These three men shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for this work . It has proven difficult to construct quantum models of gravity , the remaining fundamental force . Semi-classical approximations are workable , and have led to predictions such as Hawking radiation . However , the formulation of a complete theory of quantum gravity is hindered by apparent incompatibilities between general relativity ( the most accurate theory of gravity currently known ) and some of the fundamental assumptions of quantum theory . The resolution of these incompatibilities is an area of active research , and theories such as string theory are among the possible candidates for a future theory of quantum gravity . Classical mechanics has also been extended into the complex domain , with complex classical mechanics exhibiting behaviors similar to quantum mechanics . Quantum mechanics and classical physics Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree of accuracy.See , for example , Precision tests of QED . The relativistic refinement of quantum mechanics known as quantum electrodynamics ( QED ) has been shown to agree with experiment to within 1 part in 108 for some atomic properties . According to the correspondence principle between classical and quantum mechanics , all objects obey the laws of quantum mechanics , and classical mechanics is just an approximation for large systems of objects ( or a statistical quantum mechanics of a large collection of particles ) . The laws of classical mechanics thus follow from the laws of quantum mechanics as a statistical average at the limit of large systems or large quantum numbers . However , chaotic systems do not have good quantum numbers , and quantum chaos studies the relationship between classical and quantum descriptions in these systems . Quantum coherence is an essential difference between classical and quantum theories as illustrated by the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen ( EPR ) paradox — an attack on a certain philosophical interpretation of quantum mechanics by an appeal to local realism . Quantum interference involves adding together probability amplitudes , whereas classical `` waves '' infer that there is an adding together of intensities . For microscopic bodies , the extension of the system is much smaller than the coherence length , which gives rise to long-range entanglement and other nonlocal phenomena characteristic of quantum systems . Quantum coherence is not typically evident at macroscopic scales , though an exception to this rule may occur at extremely low temperatures ( i.e . approaching absolute zero ) at which quantum behavior may manifest itself macroscopically . This is in accordance with the following observations : * Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the quantum behavior of its parts . For example , the stability of bulk matter ( consisting of atoms and molecules which would quickly collapse under electric forces alone ) , the rigidity of solids , and the mechanical , thermal , chemical , optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction of electric charges under the rules of quantum mechanics . * While the seemingly `` exotic '' behavior of matter posited by quantum mechanics and relativity theory become more apparent when dealing with particles of extremely small size or velocities approaching the speed of light , the laws of classical , often considered `` Newtonian '' , physics remain accurate in predicting the behavior of the vast majority of `` large '' objects ( on the order of the size of large molecules or bigger ) at velocities much smaller than the velocity of light . Copenhagen interpretation of quantum versus classical kinematics A big difference between classical and quantum mechanics is that they use very different kinematic descriptions . In Niels Bohr 's mature view , quantum mechanical phenomena are required to be experiments , with complete descriptions of all the devices for the system , preparative , intermediary , and finally measuring . The descriptions are in macroscopic terms , expressed in ordinary language , supplemented with the concepts of classical mechanics . The initial condition and the final condition of the system are respectively described by values

qw_2610--Quantum_mechanics.txt

Who won a Nobel prize in 1918 for his Law of Radiation and is the originator of Quantum Theory?

Boston Legal is an American legal dramedy created by David E. Kelley and produced in association with 20th Century Fox Television for ABC . The series aired from October 3 , 2004 , to December 8 , 2008 . The series , starring James Spader , with Candice Bergen , and William Shatner , is a spin-off of the long-running Kelley series The Practice , following the exploits of former Practice character Alan Shore at the legal firm of Crane , Poole & Schmidt . Production details Prior to the show 's premiere , it had a working title of Fleet Street , an allusion to the real street in Boston where the fictitious Crane , Poole & Schmidt had its offices . The working title was later modified to The Practice : Fleet Street , but this title was dropped in favor of Boston Legal . The real building shown as the law office is located at 500 Boylston Street , 1.4 miles away from Fleet Street . The American producers of the series also hired British writer Sir John Mortimer , QC , ( creator of the UK legal series Rumpole of the Bailey ) as a consultant for Boston Legal . The show 's pilot was originally produced with former The Practice stars James Spader and Rhona Mitra , guest stars William Shatner and Lake Bell , and Mark Valley . It featured an expanded storyline with Larry Miller as Edwin Poole and John Michael Higgins as senior partner Jerry Austin . Monica Potter was later cast as junior partner Lori Colson and René Auberjonois as senior partner Paul Lewiston , replacing John Michael Higgins . The pilot premiered on ABC on October 3 , 2004 . On November 30 , 2004 , it was announced that Candice Bergen would join the cast as senior partner Shirley Schmidt , a character the producers had planned to introduce for several months . Lake Bell left the series mid-season , and René Auberjonois was promoted to main cast member . Anthony Heald and Betty White also made regular guest appearances , having both appeared as the same characters on The Practice . On April 5 , 2005 , the series was renewed for a second season , although ABC chose not to screen the final five episodes of Season 1 until April 24 , 2005 to allow greater exposure of mid-season series Grey 's Anatomy to a larger audience . The success of Grey 's Anatomy placed Boston Legal on hold until autumn 2005 , when it returned for an extended season of 27 episodes . Both Rhona Mitra and Monica Potter left the series during the hiatus , while Julie Bowen was cast as Denise Bauer . Ryan Michelle Bathe and Justin Mentell were later cast as junior associates Sara Holt and Garrett Wells . The second episode of Season 3 introduced Craig Bierko as Jeffrey Coho and Constance Zimmer as Claire Simms . In Episode 11 , guest star Gary Anthony Williams joined the cast , with Craig Bierko leaving in Episode 15 . On June 4 , 2007 , TV Guide announced that René Auberjonois , Julie Bowen , Mark Valley , and Constance Zimmer would not return for Season 4 . On June 13 , 2007 , it was announced that actor John Larroquette ( former The Practice guest star ) would join the cast as a senior partner transferred from the New York offices of Crane , Poole & Schmidt , with actress Tara Summers joining as a young associate . Christian Clemenson ( former The Practice guest star ) , who had guest-starred occasionally as Jerry Espenson ( a brilliant but socially inept lawyer ) – was promoted to main cast . Production also stated that René Auberjonois , Mark Valley , Julie Bowen , and Constance Zimmer may return in guest roles . On July 2 , 2007 , it was reported that both René Auberjonois and Mark Valley would return in recurring roles ; It was also announced that Taraji P. Henson would join the cast in Season 4 , with Saffron Burrows appearing in a recurring role . Burrows later became a full-time cast member . On May 13 , 2008 , ABC announced that Boston Legal would return for a fifth ( and final ) season in the fall . Saffron Burrows did not return as a series regular , having joined the cast of My Own Worst Enemy . The final season consisted of 13 episodes to reach the `` 100 '' episode mark , which facilitated successful syndication . There was speculation that Boston Legal might receive an additional episode-order if the show had another strong showing in the Emmy Awards and produced solid ratings in its new fall time slot . The season began airing on September 22 , 2008 . On June 18 and June 20 , 2008 , it was reported that Gary Anthony Williams and Taraji P. Henson would not return for Season 5 as Clarence Bell and Whitney Rome , respectively . [ http : //www.accessatlanta.com/blogs/content/shared-blogs/accessatlanta/peachbuzz/entries/2008/06/20/clarice_not_bit.html Welcome to AccessAtlanta ! | AccessAtlanta ] [ http : //blogs.bet.com/entertainment/whattheflick/ ? p=226 BET.com – What The Flick » Working Girl ] On July 17 , 2008 , Boston Legal was nominated for a series-high seven Emmy nominations , including for Best Drama Series for the second consecutive year . Spader , Bergen , and Shatner were each nominated for their respective roles . Boston Legals two-hour-long series finale aired on Monday , December 8 , 2008 , at 9:00PM Eastern/8:00PM Central . David E. Kelley stated in an interview with the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette on December 7 , 2008 that it was ABC 's decision to end Boston Legal , and that he `` had to fight to bring it back for a short season of 13 episodes '' . The series features a trademark routine whereby characters would occasionally break the fourth wall and make comments implying they are aware that they are characters in a television show . Shatner , being famous for portraying Captain Kirk , also makes occasional Star Trek references . The series aired on TV Land in the past . Cast The Practice characters * James Spader as Alan Shore ( seasons 1-5 ; The Practice season 8 ) * William Shatner as Denny Crane ( seasons 1-5 ; The Practice season 8 ) * Rhona Mitra as Tara Wilson ( season 1 , recurring 2 ; The Practice season 8 ) * Lake Bell as Sally Heep ( season 1 , guest 3 ; The Practice season 8 ) Main characters * Candice Bergen as Shirley Schmidt ( episodes 11-101 ) * René Auberjonois as Paul Lewiston ( seasons 1-3 , recurring 4-5 ) * Mark Valley as Brad Chase ( seasons 1-3 , recurring 4 ) * Monica Potter as Lori Colson ( season 1 , recurring 2 ) * Julie Bowen as Denise Bauer ( seasons 2-3 , guest 5 ) * Ryan Michelle Bathe as Sara Holt ( season 2 ) * Justin Mentell as Garrett Wells ( season 2 ) * Christian Clemenson as Jerry Espenson ( seasons 4-5 , recurring 2-3 ) * Constance Zimmer as Claire Simms ( season 3 ) * Craig Bierko as Jeffrey Coho ( season 3 ) * Gary Anthony Williams as Clarence Bell ( seasons 3-4 ) * Taraji P. Henson as Whitney Rome ( season 4 ) * Saffron Burrows as Lorraine Weller ( season 4 ) * Tara Summers as Katie Lloyd ( seasons 4-5 ) * John Larroquette as Carl Sack ( seasons 4-5 ) Episodes Ratings and audience profile According to Nielsen Media Research , Boston Legal drew the richest viewing audience on television , based on the concentration of high-income viewers in its young adult audience ( Adult 18–49 index w/ $ 100k+ annual income ) . Seasonal rankings ( based on average total viewers per episode ) of Boston Legal on ABC . Note : Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May , which coincides with the completion of May sweeps . All times mentioned in this section were in the Eastern and Pacific time zones . DVD releases Awards Primetime Emmy Awards : * 2005 Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series ( James Spader ) * 2005 Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series ( William Shatner ) * 2006 Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series ( Christian Clemenson ) * 2007 Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series ( James Spader ) * * James Spader also won the 2004 Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for the same role on `` The Practice '' . Golden Globe Awards : * 2004 Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Series , Miniseries , or TV Movie ( William Shatner ) Peabody Awards * 2005 , as David E. Kelley Productions , in association with 20th Century Fox Television

qw_4124--Boston_Legal.txt

"Which American legal TV drama-comedy (2004 to 2008), a spin-off of ""The Practice"", followed the exploits of attorneys at Crane, Poole & Schmidt?"

Catherine `` Kate '' Bush , CBE ( born 30 July 1958 ) is an English singer-songwriter , musician and record producer . She is known for her eclectic and experimental music as well as her idiosyncratic performances . Bush first came to note in 1978 when , at the age of 19 , she topped the UK Singles Chart for four weeks with her debut single , `` Wuthering Heights '' , becoming the first female artist to achieve a UK number-one with a self-written song . She has since released twenty-five UK Top 40 singles , including the top ten hits `` The Man with the Child in His Eyes '' , `` Babooshka '' , `` Running Up That Hill '' , and `` King of the Mountain '' . She has released ten studio albums , all of which reached the UK Top 10 , including the UK number-one albums , Never for Ever ( 1980 ) and Hounds of Love ( 1985 ) . She is the first British solo female artist to top the UK album charts and the first female artist ever to enter the album chart at number-one , as well as the first ( and to date , only ) female artist to have top five albums in the UK charts in five successive decades . Bush has been nominated 13 times for British Phonographic Industry accolades , and in 1987 she won a Brit Award for Best British Female Artist . During the course of her career , she has also been nominated for three Grammy Awards . In 2002 , she was recognised with an Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music . Bush was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to music . Early life Bush was born in Bexleyheath , Kent , ( now part of the London Borough of Bexley ) to English medical doctor Robert Bush ( 1920–2008 ) and Hannah Daly ( 1918–1992 ; from County Waterford , Ireland ) . She was raised as a Roman Catholic in their farmhouse in East Wickham with her older brothers , John and Paddy . Bush came from an artistic background : her mother was an accomplished traditional Irish dancer , her father was an accomplished pianist , Paddy worked as a musical instrument maker and John was a poet and photographer . Both brothers were involved in the local folk music scene . John was a karateka at Goldsmiths College karate club and Kate also trained there , becoming known as `` Ee-ee '' because of her squeaky kiai . One of the instructors , Dave Hazard , later noted in his autobiography that her dance moves seemed to owe something to karate . Her family 's musical influence inspired Bush to teach herself the piano at the age of 11 . She also played the organ in a barn behind her parents ' house and studied the violin . She soon began writing her own tunes and eventually added lyrics to them . Musical career 1975–77 : Beginnings Bush attended St Joseph 's Convent Grammar School , a Catholic girls ' school ( later part of St Mary 's and St Joseph 's School , Sidcup ) , in Woolwich Road , Abbey Wood , south east London , in the mid-1970s . During this time her family produced a demo tape with over 50 of her compositions , which was turned down by record labels . David Gilmour of Pink Floyd received the demo from Ricky Hopper , a mutual friend of Gilmour and the Bush family . Impressed with what he heard , Gilmour helped the sixteen-year-old Bush get a more professional-sounding demo tape recorded that would be more saleable to the record companies . Three tracks in total were recorded and paid for by Gilmour . The tape was produced by Gilmour 's friend Andrew Powell , who would go on to produce Bush 's first two albums , and sound engineer Geoff Emerick . The tape was sent to EMI executive Terry Slater. , Originally published in Slater was impressed by the tape and signed her . The British record industry was reaching a point of stagnation . Progressive rock was very popular and visually oriented rock performers were growing in popularity , thus record labels looking for the next big thing were considering experimental acts . Bush was put on retainer for two years by Bob Mercer , managing director of EMI group-repertoire division . According to Mercer he felt Bush 's material was good enough to be released but felt that if the album failed it would be demoralising and if it was successful Bush was too young to handle it . For the first two years of her contract , Bush spent more time on school work than making an album . She left school after doing her mock A-levels and having gained ten GCE O-Level qualifications . In 2005 , Bush stated in an interview with Mark Radcliffe on BBC Radio 2 that she believed EMI signed her before she was ready to make an album so that no other record company could offer her a contract . After the contract signing , EMI forwarded her a sizeable advance which she used to enroll in interpretive dance classes taught by Lindsay Kemp , a former teacher of David Bowie , and mime training with Adam Darius . Bush also wrote and made demos of close to 200 songs , a few of which today can be found on bootleg recordings and are known as the Phoenix Recordings . From March to August 1977 , she fronted the KT Bush Band at public houses around London – specifically at the Rose of Lee public house ( now Dirty South ) in Lewisham . The other three band members were Del Palmer ( bass ) , Brian Bath ( guitar ) , and Vic King ( drums ) . She began recording her first album in August 1977 , although two tracks had been recorded during the summer of 1975 . 1978–79 : The Kick Inside and Lionheart As part of her preparation for entering the studio , Bush toured pubs with the KT Bush Band . However , for her début album , The Kick Inside ( 1978 ) , she was persuaded to use established session musicians , some of whom she would retain even after she had brought her bandmates back on board . Her brother Paddy played the harmonica and mandolin , unlike on later albums where he would play more exotic instruments such as the balalaika and didgeridoo . Stuart Elliott played some of the drums and would become her main drummer on subsequent albums . Bush released The Kick Inside when she was 19 years old , but some of the songs had been written when she was as young as 13 . EMI originally wanted the more rock-oriented track `` James and the Cold Gun '' to be her début single , but Bush insisted that it should be `` Wuthering Heights '' . Even at this early stage of her career , she had gained a reputation for her determination to have a say in decisions affecting her work . `` Wuthering Heights '' topped the UK and Australian charts and became an international hit . Bush became the first woman to reach number one in the UK charts with a self-penned song . Despite her considerable subsequent chart success it is still her only No . 1 single ( as of 2015 ) . A second single , `` The Man with the Child in His Eyes '' , reached number six in the UK charts . It also made it onto the American Billboard Hot 100 where it reached number 85 in early 1979 , and went on to win her an Ivor Novello Award in 1979 for Outstanding British Lyric . Bob Mercer felt that Bush 's relative lack of success in the United States compared to the rest of the world was due to her music being a poor fit for American radio formats , and that there were no outlets for the visual presentation central to Bush 's appeal . EMI capitalised on Bush 's appearance by promoting the album with a poster of her in a tight pink top that emphasised her breasts . In an interview with NME magazine in 1982 Bush criticised this marketing technique , stating : `` People were n't even generally aware that I wrote my own songs or played the piano . The media just promoted me as a female body . It 's like I 've had to prove that I 'm an artist in a female body . '' In late 1978 , EMI persuaded Bush to quickly record a follow-up album , Lionheart , to take advantage of the success of The Kick Inside . Bush has often expressed dissatisfaction with Lionheart , feeling that she had needed more time to get it right . The album was produced by Andrew Powell , assisted by Bush . While it had spawned several hit singles , most notably `` Wow '' , it did not garner the same reception as her first album , reaching number six in the UK album charts . Bush was displeased with being rushed into making the second album . She set up her own publishing company , Kate Bush Music , and her own management company , Novercia , to maintain complete control over her work . Members of her family , along with Bush herself , composed the company 's board of directors . Following the album 's release , she was required by EMI to undertake heavy promotional work and an exhausting tour . The tour , named The Tour of Life , began in April 1979 and lasted six weeks . This live show was co-devised and performed on stage with magician Simon Drake . Typical of her determination to have creative control , she was involved in every aspect of the production , choreography , set design and staff recruitment for the show . The shows were noted for her dancing , complex lighting and her 17 costume changes per show . Because of her intention to dance as she sang , her sound engineers used a wire coat hanger and a radio microphone to fashion the first headset microphone to be used by a rock performer since the Swedish group the Spotnicks used a very primitive version in the early 1960s . 1980–84 : Never for Ever and The Dreaming Released in September 1980 , Never for Ever saw Bush 's second foray into production , co-producing with Jon Kelly . Her first time as a producer was on her Live on Stage EP , released after her tour the previous year . The first two albums had resulted in a definitive sound evident in every track , with orchestral arrangements supporting the live band sound . The range of styles on Never for Ever is much more diverse , veering from the straightforward rocker `` Violin '' to the wistful waltz of hit single `` Army Dreamers '' . Never for Ever was the first Kate Bush album to feature synthesisers and drum machines , in particular the Fairlight CMI , to which she was introduced when providing backing vocals on Peter Gabriel 's eponymous third album in early 1980 . It was her first record to reach the top position in the UK album charts , also making her the first female British artist to achieve that status , and the first female artist ever to enter the album chart at the top . The top-selling single from the album was `` Babooshka '' , which reached number five in the UK singles chart . In November 1980 , she released the standalone Christmas single `` December Will Be Magic Again '' , which reached number 29 in the UK charts . September 1982 saw the release of The Dreaming , the first album Bush produced by herself . With her new-found freedom , she experimented with production techniques , creating an album that features a diverse blend of musical styles and is known for its near-exhaustive use of the Fairlight CMI . The Dreaming received a mixed critical reception in the UK , and many were baffled by the dense soundscapes Bush had created to become `` less accessible '' . In a 1993 interview with Q ( magazine ) , Bush stated : `` That was my 'She 's gone mad ' album . '' However , the album became her first to enter the US Billboard 200 chart , albeit only reaching number 157 . The album entered the UK album chart at number-three , but is to date her lowest-selling album , garnering only a silver disc . `` Sat in Your Lap '' was the first single from the album to be released . It pre-dated the album by over a year and peaked at number 11 in the UK . The album 's title track , featuring the talents of Rolf Harris and Percy Edwards , stalled at number 48 , while the third single , `` There Goes a Tenner '' , stalled at # 93 , UK singles chart peak for `` There Goes a Tenner '' : despite promotion from EMI and Bush . The track `` Suspended in Gaffa '' was released as a single in Europe , but not in the UK . Continuing in her storytelling tradition , Bush looked far outside her own personal experience for sources of inspiration . She drew on old crime films for `` There Goes a Tenner '' , a documentary about the war in Vietnam for `` Pull Out the Pin '' , and the plight of Indigenous Australians for `` The Dreaming '' . `` Houdini '' is about the magician 's death , and `` Get Out of My House '' was inspired by Stephen King 's novel The Shining . 1985–88 : Hounds of Love and The Whole Story Hounds of Love was released in 1985 . Because of the high cost of hiring studio space for her previous album , she built a private studio near her home , where she could work at her own pace . Hounds of Love ultimately topped the charts in the UK , knocking Madonna 's Like a Virgin from the number-one position . The album takes advantage of the vinyl and cassette formats with two very different sides . The first side , Hounds of Love , contains five `` accessible '' pop songs , including the four singles `` Running Up that Hill '' , `` Cloudbusting '' , `` Hounds of Love '' , and `` The Big Sky '' . `` Running Up that Hill '' reached number-three in the UK charts and re-introduced Bush to American listeners , climbing to number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 in November 1985 . The second side of the album , The Ninth Wave , takes its name from Tennyson 's poem , `` Idylls of the King '' , about the legendary King Arthur 's reign , and is seven interconnecting songs joined in one continuous piece of music . The album earned Bush nominations for Best Female Solo Artist , Best Album , Best Single , and Best Producer at the 1986 BRIT Awards . In the same year , Bush and Peter Gabriel had a UK Top 10 hit with the duet `` Do n't Give Up '' ( Dolly Parton , Gabriel 's original choice to sing the female vocal , turned his offer down ) , and EMI released her `` greatest hits '' album , The Whole Story . Bush provided a new lead vocal and refreshed backing track on `` Wuthering Heights '' , and recorded a new single , `` Experiment IV '' , for inclusion on the compilation . Dawn French and Hugh Laurie were among those featured in the video for Experiment IV . At the 1987 BRIT Awards , Bush won the award for Best Female Solo Artist . 1989–93 : The Sensual World and The Red Shoes The increasingly personal tone of her writing continued on 1989 's The Sensual World . One of the quirkiest tracks on the album , touched by Bush 's black humour , is `` Heads We 're Dancing '' , about a woman who dances all night with a charming stranger only to discover in the morning that he is Adolf Hitler . The title track drew its inspiration from James Joyce 's novel Ulysses . The Sensual World went on to become her biggest-selling album in the US , receiving an RIAA Gold certification four years after its release for 500,000 copies sold . In the United Kingdom album charts , it reached the number-two position . In 1990 , the boxed-set This Woman 's Work was released and included all of her albums with their original cover art , as well as two discs of all single B sides recorded from 1978 to 1990 . In 1991 , Bush released a cover of Elton John 's `` Rocket Man '' , which reached number 12 in the UK singles chart , and went as high as number-two in Australia , and in 2007 , was voted the greatest cover ever by readers of The Observer newspaper . She recorded `` Candle in the Wind '' , as the single 's b-side . Bush 's seventh studio album , The Red Shoes , was released in November 1993 . The album features more high-profile cameo appearances than her previous efforts , including contributions from composer and conductor Michael Kamen , comedy actor Lenny Henry , Prince , Eric Clapton , Gary Brooker of Procol Harum , Trevor Whittaker , and Jeff Beck . Both The Sensual World and The Red Shoes featured contributions from Trio Bulgarka , the Bulgarian female vocal trio , who sang on six tracks , including `` You 're The One '' and `` Rocket 's Tail '' . The album gave Bush her highest chart position in the US , reaching number 28 , although the only song from the album to make the US singles chart was `` Rubberband Girl '' , which peaked at number 88 in January 1994 . In the UK , the album reached number-two , and the singles `` Rubberband Girl '' , `` The Red Shoes '' , `` Moments of Pleasure '' , and `` And So Is Love '' all reached the top 30 . In 1994 , Bush released an accompanying short film , The Line , the Cross & the Curve . Written , directed by , and starring Bush , along with English actress Miranda Richardson , the film was based around the concept of The Red Shoes and featured six of the songs from the album . The initial plan had been to take the songs out on the road , but no new tour transpired . Thus , Bush deliberately aimed for a live-band feel , with less of the studio trickery that had typified her last three albums and which would have been too difficult to re-create on stage . The result alienated some of her fan base , who had enjoyed the intricacy of her earlier compositions , but others found a new complexity in the lyrics and the emotions they expressed . This period had been a troubled time for Bush . She had suffered a series of bereavements , including the loss of guitarist Alan Murphy , who had started working with her on The Tour of Life in 1979 , and her mother Hannah , to whom she was exceptionally close . Many of the people she lost are honoured in the ballad `` Moments of Pleasure . '' However , Bush 's mother was still alive when `` Moments of Pleasure '' was written and recorded . Bush describes playing the song to her mother , who thought the line where she is quoted by Bush as saying , `` Every old sock meets an old shoe '' , was hilarious and `` could n't stop laughing . '' 1994–2010 : Aerial After the release of The Red Shoes , Kate Bush dropped out of the public eye for many years , although her name occasionally cropped up in the media with rumours of a new album release . Bush had originally intended to take one year off but despite working on material twelve years passed before her next album release . The press often viewed her as an eccentric recluse , sometimes drawing a comparison with Miss Havisham from Charles Dickens 's Great Expectations . In 1998 , Bush had given birth to Albert , known as `` Bertie '' , fathered by her guitarist and now husband Danny McIntosh . In 2001 , Bush was awarded a Q Award as Classic Songwriter . In 2002 , she was awarded an Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music , and performed `` Comfortably Numb '' at David Gilmour 's concert at the Royal Festival Hall in London . Kate Bush 's eighth studio album , Aerial , was released on double CD and vinyl in November 2005 . The first single from the album was `` King of the Mountain '' , which was played for the first time on BBC Radio 2 on 21 September 2005 . As on Hounds of Love ( 1985 ) , the album is divided into two sections , each with its own theme and mood . The first disc , subtitled A Sea of Honey , features a set of unrelated themed songs , including `` King of the Mountain '' ; `` Bertie '' , a Renaissance-style ode to her son ; and `` Joanni '' , based on the story of Joan of Arc . In the song `` \pi '' , Bush sings 117 digits of the number Pi , but misses 22 digits from the 80th to the 101st place of the value of pi . The second disc , subtitled A Sky of Honey , features one continuous piece of music describing the experience of being outdoors after waking at dawn , moving through afternoon , dusk , to night , then back to the following dawn of single summer 's day . All the pieces in this suite refer or allude to sky and sea in their lyrical content . Bush mixed her voice with cooing woodpigeons to repeat the phrases `` A sea of honey , a sky of honey '' , and `` You 're full of beauty '' throughout the piece , and uses recordings of actual birdsong throughout . A Sky of Honey features Rolf Harris playing the didgeridoo on one track , and providing vocals on `` The Painter 's Link '' . Other artists making guest appearances on the album include Peter Erskine , Eberhard Weber , Lol Creme , and Gary Brooker . Two tracks feature string arrangements by Michael Kamen , performed by the London Metropolitan Orchestra . A CD release of the single `` King of the Mountain '' included a cover of `` Sexual Healing '' by Marvin Gaye . `` King of the Mountain '' entered the UK Downloads Chart at number-six on 17 October 2005 , and by 30 October it had become Bush 's third-highest-charting single ever in the UK , peaking at number-four on the full chart . Aerial entered the UK albums chart at number-three , and the US chart at number 48 . Bush herself carried out relatively little publicity for the album , only conducting a handful of magazine and radio interviews . Aerial earned Bush two nominations at the 2006 BRIT Awards , for Best British Female Solo Artist and Best British Album . In late 2007 , Bush composed and recorded a new song , `` Lyra '' , for the soundtrack to the fantasy film The Golden Compass . 2011-12 : Director 's Cut and 50 Words for Snow On 16 May 2011 , Bush released the album , Director 's Cut . The album , which Bush has described as an entirely new project rather than a collection of mere remixes , contains 11 tracks of substantially reworked material from her earlier albums , The Sensual World and The Red Shoes , all of which have been recorded using analogue , rather than digital , equipment to create `` a warmer sound '' . All the tracks have new lead vocals , new drums , and radically reworked instrumentation . Some of them have been transposed to a lower key to accommodate her lowering voice . Three of the songs , including `` This Woman 's Work '' , have been completely re-recorded , with lyrics often changed in places . The album has been met with a wide range of reviews with most reviewers a bit confused about the concept of the album itself , while responding with varying degrees of enthusiasm about its revamped tracks . Of particular note is the warmer , more intimate tone of the songs and the richer , more mature sound of her voice . This is the first album on her new label , Fish People , a division of EMI Records , with whom she 's had a relationship since she started recording . In addition to the album , Director 's Cut in both its single CD form and in a box-set with The Sensual World and the analogue re-mastered The Red Shoes , Fish People will be releasing re-mastered editions of The Hounds of Love and The Dreaming . The album debuted at number-two on the United Kingdom chart . The song `` The Sensual World '' has been renamed `` Flower of the Mountain '' and contains a passage of Molly Bloom 's famous soliloquy from James Joyce 's novel Ulysses . Bush said , `` Originally when I wrote the song 'The Sensual World ' , I had used text from the end of Ulysses . When I asked for permission to use the text I was refused , which was disappointing . I then wrote my own lyrics for the song , although I felt that the original idea had been more interesting . Well , I 'm not James Joyce am I ? When I came to work on this project I thought I would ask for permission again and this time they said yes . '' The first single released from the album was `` Deeper Understanding '' and contains a new chorus featuring computerised vocals from Bush 's son , Albert . A video for the song , directed by Bush , has been released through her channel on YouTube . It features Robbie Coltrane as a man consumed by his relationship with his computer ( voiced by Bush 's son ) . Frances Barber plays the man 's wife , and Noel Fielding also appears . Bush 's next studio album , 50 Words for Snow , was released on 21 November 2011 . The album contains seven new songs `` set against a backdrop of falling snow '' , with a total running time of 65 minutes . A radio edit of the first single , `` Wild Man '' , was played on BBC Radio 2 's The Ken Bruce Show on 10 October . and was released as a digital download on 11 October . The album is distributed in the United States by Anti-Records . On 14 November 2011 , NPR played 50 Words for Snow in its entirety for the first time . Australia 's ABC Radio National declared 50 Words for Snow album of the week of 12 November 2011 . The album 's songs are built around Bush 's quietly jazzy piano and Steve Gadd 's drums , and utilise both sung and spoken word vocals in what Classic Rock critic Stephen Dalton calls `` a ... supple and experimental affair , with a contemporary chamber pop sound grounded in crisp piano , minimal percussion and light-touch electronics ... billowing jazz-rock soundscapes , interwoven with fragmentary narratives delivered in a range of voices from shrill to Laurie Anderson-style cooing . '' Bassist Danny Thompson appears on the album , which also features performances by Elton John and actor Stephen Fry . On the first track , `` Snowflake '' , in a song written specifically to use his still high choir-boy voice , Bush 's son Albert ( Bertie ) sings the role of a falling snowflake in a song expressing the hope of a noisy world soon being hushed by snowfall . `` Snowflake '' drifts into `` Lake Tahoe '' , where choral singer Stefan Roberts and Bush sing about a rarely seen ghost : a woman who appears in a Victorian gown to call

qz_4267--Kate_Bush.txt

Which singer picked up three Ivor Novello awards in May, including songwriter of the year for her hit single, The Fear?

Johann Sebastian Bach ( - 28 July 1750 ) was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period . He enriched established German styles through his skill in counterpoint , harmonic and motivic organisation , and the adaptation of rhythms , forms , and textures from abroad , particularly from Italy and France . Bach 's compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos , the Goldberg Variations , the Mass in B minor , two Passions , and over three hundred cantatas of which around two hundred survive.Wolff ( 1997 ) , p. 5 His music is revered for its technical command , artistic beauty , and intellectual depth . Bach 's abilities as an organist were highly respected during his lifetime , although he was not widely recognised as a great composer until a revival of interest in and performances of his music in the first half of the 19th century . He is now generally regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time . Life Bach was born in Eisenach , in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach , into a great musical family . His father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians , and all of his uncles were professional musicians . His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord , and his brother Johann Christoph Bach taught him the clavichord and exposed him to much contemporary music.Wolff ( 2000 ) , pp . 19 , 46 Apparently at his own initiative , Bach attended St. Michael 's School in Lüneburg for two years . After graduating he held several musical posts across Germany : he served as ( director of music ) to Leopold , Prince of Anhalt-Köthen , and as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , a position of music director at the main Lutheran churches and educator at the . He received the title of `` Royal Court Composer '' from Augustus III in 1736 . Miles ( 1962 ) , pp . 86–87 Bach 's health and vision declined in 1749 , and he died on 28 July 1750 . Childhood ( 1685–1703 ) Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach , the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach , in present-day Germany , on 21 March 1685 O.S . ( 31 March 1685 N.S . ) . He was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach , the director of the town musicians , and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt . He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius , who probably taught him violin and the basics of music theory . His uncles were all professional musicians , whose posts included church organists , court chamber musicians , and composers . One uncle , Johann Christoph Bach ( 1645–93 ) , introduced him to the organ , and an older second cousin , Johann Ludwig Bach ( 1677–1731 ) , was a well-known composer and violinist . Bach 's mother died in 1694 , and his father died eight months later . The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother , Johann Christoph Bach ( 1671–1721 ) , the organist at St. Michael 's Church in Ohrdruf , Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg . There he studied , performed , and copied music , including his own brother 's , despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly . He received valuable teaching from his brother , who instructed him on the clavichord . J.C. Bach exposed him to the works of great composers of the day , including South German composers such as Johann Pachelbel ( under whom Johann Christoph had studied ) and Johann Jakob Froberger ; North German composers ; Frenchmen , such as Jean-Baptiste Lully , Louis Marchand , and Marin Marais ; and the Italian clavierist Girolamo Frescobaldi . Also during this time he was taught theology , Latin , Greek , French and Italian at the local gymnasium . By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bach 's elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michael 's School in Lüneburg , some two weeks ' travel north of Ohrdruf . Their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot . His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a wider range of European culture . In addition to singing in the choir , he played the School 's three-manual organ and harpsichords . He came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany , sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines . While in Lüneburg , Bach had access to St. John 's Church and possibly used the church 's famous organ from 1553 , since it was played by his organ teacher Georg Böhm . Because of his musical talent Bach had significant contact with Böhm while a student in Lüneburg , and also took trips to nearby Hamburg where he observed `` the great North German organist Johann Adam Reincken '' . Stauffer reports the discovery in 2005 of the organ tablatures that Bach wrote out when still in his teens of works by Reincken and Dieterich Buxtehude , showing `` a disciplined , methodical , well-trained teenager deeply committed to learning his craft '' . Weimar , Arnstadt , and Mühlhausen ( 1703–08 ) In January 1703 , shortly after graduating from St. Michael 's and being turned down for the post of organist at Sangerhausen , Bach was appointed court musician in the chapel of Duke Johann Ernst III in Weimar . His role there is unclear , but it probably included menial , non-musical duties . During his seven-month tenure at Weimar , his reputation as a keyboardist spread so much that he was invited to inspect the new organ , and give the inaugural recital , at the New Church ( now Bach Church ) in Arnstadt , located about southwest of Weimar . In August 1703 , he became the organist at the New Church , with light duties , a relatively generous salary , and a fine new organ tuned in to be used . Despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer , tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post . Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir , while his employer was upset by his unauthorised absence from Arnstadt ; Bach was gone for several months in 1705–06 , to visit the great organist and composer Dieterich Buxtehude and his Abendmusiken at St. Mary 's Church in the northern city of Lübeck . The visit to Buxtehude involved a 450 km journey each way , reportedly on foot . In 1706 , Bach applied for a post as organist at the Blasius Church ( also known as St Blasius or as ) in Mühlhausen . As part of his application he had a cantata performed on Easter , 24 April 1707 , likely an early version of his . A month later Bach 's application was accepted and he took up the post in July . The position included a significantly higher remuneration , improved conditions , and a better choir . Four months after arriving at Mühlhausen , Bach married Maria Barbara Bach , his second cousin . Bach was able to convince the church and town government at Mühlhausen to fund an expensive renovation of the organ at the Blasius Church . In 1708 Bach wrote , a festive cantata for the inauguration of the new Council , which was published at the Council 's expense . Return to Weimar ( 1708–17 ) In 1708 , Bach left Mühlhausen , returning to Weimar this time as organist and from 1714 ' ( director of music ) at the ducal court , where he had an opportunity to work with a large , well-funded contingent of professional musicians . Bach and his wife moved into a house close to the ducal palace . Later the same year , their first child , Catharina Dorothea , was born , and Maria Barbara 's elder , unmarried sister joined them . She remained to help run the household until her death in 1729 . Three sons were also born in Weimar : Wilhelm Friedemann , Carl Philipp Emanuel and Johann Gottfried Bernhard . Johann Sebastian and Maria Barbara had three more children who however did not live to their first birthday , including twins born in 1713 . Bach 's time in Weimar was the start of a sustained period of composing keyboard and orchestral works . He attained the proficiency and confidence to extend the prevailing structures and to include influences from abroad . He learned to write dramatic openings and employ the dynamic motor rhythms and harmonic schemes found in the music of Italians such as Vivaldi , Corelli , and Torelli . Bach absorbed these stylistic aspects in part by transcribing Vivaldi 's string and wind concertos for harpsichord and organ ; many of these transcribed works are still regularly performed . Bach was particularly attracted to the Italian style in which one or more solo instruments alternate section-by-section with the full orchestra throughout a movement . In Weimar , Bach continued to play and compose for the organ , and to perform concert music with the duke 's ensemble . He also began to write the preludes and fugues which were later assembled into his monumental work The Well-Tempered Clavier ( '— '' Klavier '' meaning clavichord or harpsichord ) , consisting of two books , compiled in 1722 and 1744 , each containing 24 preludes and fugues in every major and minor key . Also in Weimar Bach started work on the Little Organ Book , containing traditional Lutheran chorales ( hymn tunes ) set in complex textures . In 1713 , Bach was offered a post in Halle when he advised the authorities during a renovation by Christoph Cuntzius of the main organ in the west gallery of the Market Church of Our Dear Lady . Johann Kuhnau and Bach played again when it was inaugurated in 1716 . In the spring of 1714 , Bach was promoted to ' , an honour that entailed performing a church cantata monthly in the castle church . The first three cantatas Bach composed in Weimar were , for Palm Sunday , which coincided with the Annunciation that year , , for Jubilate Sunday , and for Pentecost.Wolff ( 1991 ) , p. 30 Bach 's first Christmas cantata was premiered in 1714 or 1715 . In 1717 , Bach eventually fell out of favour in Weimar and was , according to a translation of the court secretary 's report , jailed for almost a month before being unfavourably dismissed : `` On November 6 , [ 1717 ] , the quondam concertmaster and organist Bach was confined to the County Judge 's place of detention for too stubbornly forcing the issue of his dismissal and finally on December 2 was freed from arrest with notice of his unfavourable discharge . '' Köthen ( 1717–23 ) Leopold , Prince of Anhalt-Köthen , hired Bach to serve as his ( director of music ) in 1717 . Prince Leopold , himself a musician , appreciated Bach 's talents , paid him well , and gave him considerable latitude in composing and performing . The prince was Calvinist and did not use elaborate music in his worship ; accordingly , most of Bach 's work from this period was secular , including the orchestral suites , the cello suites , the sonatas and partitas for solo violin , and the Brandenburg Concertos . Bach also composed secular cantatas for the court such as . A significant influence upon Bach 's musical development during his years with the Prince is recorded by Stauffer as Bach 's `` complete embrace of dance music , perhaps the most important influence on his mature style other than his adoption of Vivaldi 's music in Weimar '' . Despite being born in the same year and only about apart , Bach and Handel never met . In 1719 , Bach made the 35 km journey from Köthen to Halle with the intention of meeting Handel , however Handel had left the town . In 1730 , Bach 's oldest son Wilhelm Friedemann travelled to Halle to invite Handel to visit the Bach family in Leipzig , but the visit did not come to pass . On 7 July 1720 , while Bach was away in Carlsbad with Prince Leopold , Bach 's wife suddenly died . The following year , he met Anna Magdalena Wilcke , a young , highly gifted soprano sixteen years his junior , who performed at the court in Köthen ; they married on 3 December 1721 . Together they had thirteen more children , six of whom survived into adulthood : Gottfried Heinrich ; Elisabeth Juliane Friederica ( 1726–81 ) , who married Bach 's pupil Johann Christoph Altnickol ; Johann Christoph Friedrich and Johann Christian , who both , especially Johann Christian , became significant musicians ; Johanna Carolina ( 1737–81 ) ; and Regina Susanna ( 1742–1809 ) . Leipzig ( 1723–50 ) In 1723 , Bach was appointed Thomaskantor , Cantor of the at the ( St. Thomas Church ) in Leipzig , which provided music for four churches in the city , the , the ( St. Nicholas Church ) , and to a lesser extent the ( New Church ) and the ( St. Peter 's Church ) . This was `` the leading cantorate in Protestant Germany '' , Wolff 2013 , p. 253 located in in the mercantile city in the Electorate of Saxony , which he held for twenty-seven years until his death . During that time he gained further prestige through honorary appointments at the courts of Köthen and Weissenfels , as well as that of the Elector Frederick Augustus ( who was also King of Poland ) in Dresden . Bach frequently disagreed with his employer , Leipzig 's city council , whom he thought were `` penny-pinching '' . After having been offered the position , Bach was invited to Leipzig only after Georg Philipp Telemann indicated that he would not be interested in relocating to Leipzig.British Library . On-line gallery . [ http : //www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/musicmanu/bach/ Bach biography . ] . Telemann went to Hamburg where he `` had his own struggles with the city 's senate '' . Bach was required to instruct the students of the in singing and to provide church music for the main churches in Leipzig . Bach was required to teach Latin , but he was allowed to employ four `` prefects '' ( deputies ) to do this instead . The prefects also aided with musical instruction . A cantata was required for the church services on Sundays and additional church holidays during the liturgical year . Bach usually led performances of his cantatas , most of which were composed within three years of his relocation to Leipzig . The first was , performed in the on 30 May 1723 , the first Sunday after Trinity . Bach collected his cantatas in annual cycles . Five are mentioned in obituaries , three are extant . Of the more than three hundred cantatas which Bach composed in Leipzig , over one hundred have been lost to posterity . Most of these concerted works expound on the Gospel readings prescribed for every Sunday and feast day in the Lutheran year . Bach started a second annual cycle the first Sunday after Trinity of 1724 , and composed only chorale cantatas , each based on a single church hymn . These include , , , and . Bach drew the soprano and alto choristers from the School , and the tenors and basses from the School and elsewhere in Leipzig . Performing at weddings and funerals provided extra income for these groups ; it was probably for this purpose , and for in-school training , that he wrote at least six motets . As part of his regular church work , he performed other composers ' motets , which served as formal models for his own . Bach 's predecessor as Cantor , Johann Kuhnau , had also been music director for the , the church of Leipzig University . But when Bach was installed as Cantor in 1723 , he was put in charge only of music for `` festal '' ( church holiday ) services at the ; his petition to provide music also for regular Sunday services there ( for a corresponding salary increase ) went all the way up to the Elector but was denied . After this , in 1725 , Bach `` lost interest '' in working even for festal services at the and appeared there only on `` special occasions '' . The had a much better and newer ( 1716 ) organ than did the or the . Bach had been consulted officially about the 1716 organ after its completion , came from Köthen , and submitted a report . Bach was not required to play any organ in his official duties , but it is believed he liked to play on the organ `` for his own pleasure '' . Bach broadened his composing and performing beyond the liturgy by taking over , in March 1729 , the directorship of the Collegium Musicum , a secular performance ensemble started by Telemann . This was one of the dozens of private societies in the major German-speaking cities that was established by musically active university students ; these societies had become increasingly important in public musical life and were typically led by the most prominent professionals in a city . In the words of Christoph Wolff , assuming the directorship was a shrewd move that `` consolidated Bach 's firm grip on Leipzig 's principal musical institutions '' . Year round , the Leipzig 's Collegium Musicum performed regularly in venues such as the Café Zimmermann , a coffeehouse on Catherine Street off the main market square . Many of Bach 's works during the 1730s and 1740s were written for and performed by the Collegium Musicum ; among these were parts of his ' ( Keyboard Practice ) and many of his violin and keyboard concertos . In 1733 , Bach composed a mass for the Dresden court ( Kyrie and Gloria ) which he later incorporated in his Mass in B Minor . He presented the manuscript to the Elector in an eventually successful bid to persuade the prince to give him the title of Court Composer . He later extended this work into a full mass , by adding a ' , ' , and ' , the music for which was partly based on his own cantatas , partly newly composed . Bach 's appointment as Court Composer was part of his long-term struggle to achieve greater bargaining power with the Leipzig council . Between 1737 and 1739 , Bach 's former pupil Carl Gotthelf Gerlach held the directorship of the Collegium Musicum . In 1747 , Bach visited the court of King Frederick II of Prussia at Potsdam . The king played a theme for Bach and challenged him to improvise a fugue based on his theme . Bach improvised a three-part fugue on one of Frederick 's fortepianos , then a novelty , and later presented the king with a Musical Offering consisting of fugues , canons , and a trio based on this theme . Its six-part fugue includes a slightly altered subject more suitable for extensive elaboration . In the same year , Bach joined the Corresponding Society of the Musical Sciences ( ' ) of Lorenz Christoph Mizler . On the occasion of his entry into the Society , Bach composed the Canonic Variations on `` Vom Himmel hoch da komm ' ich her '' ( BWV 769 ) . A portrait had to be submitted by each member of the Society , so in 1746 , during the preparation of Bach 's entry , the famous Bach portrait was painted by Elias Gottlob Haussmann . The Canon triplex á 6 Voc ( BWV 1076 ) on this portrait was dedicated to the Society . Other late works by Bach may also have a connection with the music theory based Society . One of those works was The Art of Fugue , which consists of 18 complex fugues and canons based on a simple theme . The Art of Fugue was only published posthumously in 1751 . Bach 's last large work was the Mass in B minor ( 1748–49 ) which Stauffer describes as `` Bach 's most universal church work . Consisting mainly of recycled movements from cantatas written over a thirty-five-year period , it allowed Bach to survey his vocal pieces one last time and pick select movements for further revision and refinement . '' Although the complete mass was never performed during the composer 's lifetime , it is considered to be among the greatest choral works of all time . Death ( 1750 ) Bach 's health declined in 1749 ; on 2 June , Heinrich von Brühl wrote to one of the Leipzig burgomasters to request that his music director , Johann Gottlob Harrer , fill the ' and ' posts `` upon the eventual ... decease of Mr. Bach '' . Bach was becoming blind , so the British eye surgeon John Taylor twice operated on Bach while visiting Leipzig in March and April 1750 . On 28 July 1750 , Bach died at the age of 65 . A contemporary newspaper reported `` the unhappy consequences of the very unsuccessful eye operation '' as the cause of death . Spitta gives some details . He says that Bach died of `` apoplexy '' , a stroke . He , along with the newspaper , says that `` Medical treatment associated with the [ failed eye ] operation had such bad effects that his health ... was severely shaken '' and Bach was left totally blind . His son Carl Philipp Emanuel and his pupil Johann Friedrich Agricola co-authored Bach 's obituary , which was published in 1754 in Mizler 's ' . Bach 's estate included five harpsichords , two lute-harpsichords , three violins , three violas , two cellos , a viola da gamba , a lute and a spinet , along with 52 `` sacred books '' , including books by Martin Luther and Josephus . He was originally buried at Old St. John 's Cemetery in Leipzig . His grave went unmarked for nearly 150 years , but in 1894 , his remains were located and moved to a vault in St. John 's Church . This building was destroyed by Allied bombing during World War II , so in 1950 Bach 's remains were taken to their present grave in St. Thomas Church . Later research has called into question whether the remains in the grave are actually those of Bach . Musical style To a large extent Bach 's musical style fits in the conventions of his day , which is the final stage of the baroque style . When his contemporaries , such as Handel , Telemann and Vivaldi wrote concertos he did so too . When they wrote suites , he did so too . Similar with recitatives followed by da capo arias , four-part choral music , use of basso continuo etc . The specifics of his style lie with characteristics such as his skill in contrapuntal invention and motivic control and his talent for writing tightly woven music of powerful sonority . From an early age he imbued himself with the compositions of his contemporaries and of prior generations , all of what was available from European composers , such as the French , the Italian , and those from all parts of Germany , and there is little of it that did n't appear in his own music . Religious music was at the centre of Bach 's output for much of his life . The hundreds of sacred works he created are usually seen as manifesting not just his craft but a truly devout relationship with God . He had taught Luther 's Small Catechism as the in Leipzig , and some of his pieces represent it . The Lutheran chorale was the basis of much of his work . In elaborating these hymns into his chorale preludes , he wrote more cogent and tightly integrated works than most , even when they were massive and lengthy . The large-scale structure of every major Bach sacred vocal work is evidence of subtle , elaborate planning to create a religiously and musically powerful expression . For example , the St Matthew Passion , like other works of its kind , illustrated the Passion with Bible text reflected in recitatives , arias , choruses , and chorales ; but in crafting this work , Bach created an overall experience that has been found over the centuries since to be both musically thrilling and spiritually profound . Bach published or carefully compiled in manuscript many collections of pieces that explored the range of artistic and technical possibilities inherent in almost every genre of his time except opera . For example , the The Well-Tempered Clavier comprises two books , each of which presents a prelude and fugue in every major and minor key , displaying a dizzying variety of structural , contrapuntal and fugal techniques . Four-part harmony Four-part harmonies predate Bach , but he lived during a time when modal music in Western tradition was largely supplanted in favour of the tonal system . In this system a piece of music progresses from one chord to the next according to certain rules , each chord being characterised by four notes . The principles of four-part harmony can not only be found in Bach 's four-part choral music , but he also prescribes it for instance for the figured bass accompaniment . The new system was at the core of Bach 's style , and his compositions are to a large extent considered as laying down the rules for the evolving scheme that would dominate musical expression in the next centuries . Some examples of this characteristic of Bach 's style and its influence : * When in the 1740s Bach staged his arrangement of Pergolesi 's Stabat Mater he upgraded the viola part ( that in the original composition plays unisono with the bass part ) to fill out the harmony , thus conforming the composition to his four-part harmony style . * When from the 19th century in Russia there was a discussion about the authenticity of four-part Court chant settings , compared to earlier Russian traditions , Bach 's four-part Chorale settings , such as those ending his Chorale cantatas , were considered as the model of the foreign influence : such influence was however deemed unavoidable . Bach putting his foot down on the tonal system , and contributing to its shaping , did not imply he was less at ease with the older modal system , and the genres associated with it : more than his contemporaries ( who had `` moved on '' to the tonal system without much exception ) Bach often returned to the then antiquated modi and genres . His Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue , re-emulating the chromatic fantasia genre , as used by earlier composers such as Dowland and Sweelinck , in D dorian mode ( comparable to D minor in the tonal system ) , is an example of this . Modulations Modulations , changing key in the course of a piece , is another style characteristic where Bach goes beyond what was usual in his time . Baroque instruments vastly limited modulation possibilities : keyboard instruments , prior to a workable system of temperament , limited the keys that could be modulated to , and wind instruments , especially brass instruments such as trumpets and horns , about a century before they were fitted with valves , were tied to the key of their tuning . Bach pushed the limits : he added `` strange tones '' in his organ playing , confusing the singing , according to an indictment he had to face in Arnstadt , and Louis Marchand , another early experimenter with modulation , seems to have avoided confrontation with Bach because the latter went further than anyone had done before . In the `` Suscepit Israel '' of his 1723 Magnificat he had the trumpets in E-flat play a melody in the enharmonic scale of C minor . The major development taking place in Bach 's time , and to which he contributed in no small way , was the development of a temperament for keyboard instruments that allowed to use these in all available keys ( 12 major and 12 minor ) , and which allowed modulating without retuning . Already his Capriccio on the departure of a beloved brother , a very early work ,

odql_7033--Johann_Sebastian_Bach.txt

CPE Bach was the son of JS Bach. What was the E in his name?

Charles VI ( 1 October 1685 – 20 October 1740 ; ) succeeded his elder brother , Joseph I , as Holy Roman Emperor , King of Bohemia ( as Charles II ) , King of Hungary and Croatia ( as Charles III ) , and King of Serbia , Archduke of Austria , etc. , in 1711 . He unsuccessfully claimed the throne of Spain as Charles III following the death of its ruler , and Charles 's relative , Charles II of Spain , in 1700 . He married Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel , by whom he had his two children : Maria Theresa , born 1717 , the last Habsburg sovereign , and Maria Anna , born 1718 , Governess of the Austrian Netherlands . Four years before the birth of Maria Theresa , faced with his lack of male heirs , Charles provided for a male-line succession failure with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 . The Emperor favoured his own daughters over those of his elder brother and predecessor , Joseph I , in the succession , ignoring the decree he had signed during the reign of his father , Leopold I. Charles sought the other European powers ' approval . They exacted harsh terms : Britain demanded that Austria abolish its overseas trading company . In total , Great Britain , France , Saxony-Poland , the Dutch Republic , Spain , Venice , Crankshaw , 37 . States of the Church , Prussia , Russia , Denmark , [ http : //www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/473697/Pragmatic-Sanction-of-Emperor-Charles-VI Pragmatic Sanction of Emperor Charles VI ] , Encyclopædia Britannica , retrieved 15 October 2009 . Savoy-Sardinia , Bavaria , and the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire recognised the sanction . France , Spain , Saxony-Poland , Bavaria and Prussia later reneged . Charles died in 1740 , sparking the War of the Austrian Succession , which plagued his successor , Maria Theresa , for eight years . Biography Early years Archduke Charles ( baptized Carolus Franciscus Josephus Wenceslaus Balthasar Johannes Antonius Ignatius ) , the second son of the Emperor Leopold I and of his third wife , Princess Eleonor Magdalene of Neuburg , was born on 1 October 1685 . His tutor was Anton Florian , Prince of Liechtenstein . Following the death of Charles II of Spain , in 1700 , without any direct heir , Charles declared himself King of Spain—both were members of the House of Habsburg . The ensuing War of the Spanish Succession , which pitted France 's candidate , Philip , Duke of Anjou , Louis XIV of France 's grandson , against Austria 's Charles , lasted for almost 14 years . The Kingdom of Portugal , Kingdom of England , Scotland , Ireland and the majority of the Holy Roman Empire endorsed Charles 's candidature . Charles III , as he was known , disembarked in his kingdom in 1705 , and stayed there for six years , only being able to exercise his rule in Catalonia , until the death of his brother , Joseph I , Holy Roman Emperor ; he returned to Vienna to assume the imperial crown . Not wanting to see Austria and Spain in personal union again , the new Kingdom of Great Britain withdrew its support from the Austrian coalition , and the war culminated with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt three years later . The former , ratified in 1713 , recognised Philip as King of Spain , however , the Kingdom of Naples , the Duchy of Milan , the Austrian Netherlands and the Kingdom of Sardinia – all previously possessions of the Spanish—were ceded to Austria.Crankshaw , 9 . To prevent a union of Spain and France , Philip was forced to renounce his right to succeed his grandfather 's throne . Charles was extremely discontented at the loss of Spain , and as a result , he mimicked the staid Spanish Habsburg court ceremonial , adopting the dress of a Spanish monarch , which , according to British historian Edward Crankshaw , consisted of `` a black doublet and hose , black shoes and scarlet stockings '' . Charles 's father and his advisors went about arranging a marriage for him . Their eyes fell upon Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel , the eldest child of Louis Rudolph , Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel . She was held to be strikingly beautiful by her contemporaries . On 1 August 1708 , in Barcelona , Charles married her by proxy . She gave him two daughters that survived to adulthood , Maria Theresa and Maria Anna . Succession to the Habsburg dominions Lack of sons irked Charles and eventually led to the promulgation of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 , a document which abolished male-only succession ( hitherto effective in all the Habsburg realms except for Hungary , where Charles only succeeded to get it approved in 1723 ) and declared his lands indivisible . The Emperor favoured his own daughters over those of his elder brother and predecessor , Joseph I , in the succession , ignoring the Mutual Pact of Succession he had signed during the reign of his father , Leopold I . For the next twenty years , Charles sought approval of the Sanction from the other European powers . They exacted harsh terms : for instance , Britain demanded that Austria abolish the Ostend Company . In total , Great Britain , France , Saxony-Poland , the Dutch Republic , Spain , Venice , States of the Church , Prussia , Russia , Denmark , Savoy-Sardinia , Bavaria , and the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire recognised the sanction . France , Spain , Saxony-Poland , Bavaria and Prussia later reneged . For a short time , however , it seemed that the Pragmatic Sanction was gratuitous , when Elisabeth Christine gave birth to a baby boy in 1716 . But he died soon after . A year later , Maria Theresa , his elder surviving child , was born . Contemporaries wrote that at her baptismal ceremony , Charles , despite his best efforts , appeared upset at the child 's gender . The next year saw the arrival of another girl , Maria Anna . Charles was successful in the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18 , adding Banat to Hungary , and establishing direct Austrian rule over Serbia and Oltenia ( Lesser Wallachia ) . This extended Austrian rule to the lower Danube . The War of the Quadruple Alliance ( 1718-1720 ) followed . It too ended in an Austrian victory ; by the Treaty of The Hague ( 1720 ) , Charles swapped Sardinia , which went to the Duke of Savoy , Victor Amadeus , for Sicily , the largest island in the Mediterranean , which was harder to defend than Sardinia . The treaty also recognised Philip V of Spain 's younger son , Don Carlos ( the future Charles III of Spain ) , as heir to the Duchy of Parma and Grand Duchy of Tuscany ; Charles had previously endorsed the succession of the incumbent Grand Duke 's daughter , Anna Maria Luisa , Electress Palatine . In 1722 , Charles founded the Ostend Company to augment Austria 's trade with the East Indies , West Indies and Africa . The charter was for a period of thirty years . The Austrian exchequer was to receive between 3 and 6 percent of its annual surplus . The Company competed with British and Dutch interests , and in the Treaty of Vienna ( 1731 ) , he dissolved the Company in exchange for Britain 's recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction . Peace in Europe was shattered by the War of the Polish Succession ( 1733–1738 ) , a dispute over the throne of Poland between Augustus of Saxony , the previous King 's elder son , and Stanisław Leszczyński . Austria supported the former , France the latter ; thus , a war broke out . By the Treaty of Vienna ( 1738 ) , Augustus ascended the throne , but Charles had to give the Kingdom of Naples to Don Carlos , in exchange for the much smaller Duchy of Parma . The issue of Charles ' elder daughter 's marriage was raised early in her childhood . She was first betrothed to Léopold Clément of Lorraine , who was supposed to come to Vienna and meet Maria Theresa . Instead , he died of smallpox in 1723 , which upset Maria Theresa . Léopold Clément 's younger brother , Francis Stephen , then came to Vienna to replace him . Charles considered other possibilities ( such as Don Carlos ) before announcing the engagement to Francis . At the end of the War of the Polish Succession , France demanded that Francis surrender the Duchy of Lorraine ( his hereditary domain ) , to Stanisław Leszczyński , the deposed King of Poland , who would bequeath it to France at his death . Charles compelled Francis to renounce his rights to Lorraine and told him : `` No renunciation , no archduchess . '' Francis complied ; he was married to Maria Theresa in February 1736 , and Lorraine devolved to Stanisław in July 1737 . In 1737 , the Emperor embarked on another Turkish War in alliance with Russia . Unlike the previous Austro-Turkish War , it ended in a decisive Austrian defeat . Much of the territory gained in 1718 ( Except for the Banat ) was lost . Popular discontent at the costly war reigned in Vienna ; Francis of Lorraine , Maria Theresa 's husband , was dubbed a French spy by the Viennese . The war not only revealed the sorry state of the Austrian army , but also the weakness of the imperial state itself , which did not have the financial strength to sustain a long war without the subsidies of its allies . Death and legacy At the time of Charles ' death , the Habsburg lands were saturated in debt ; the exchequer contained a mere 100,000 florins ; and desertion was rife in Austria 's sporadic army , spread across the Empire in small , ineffective barracks.Crankshaw , 33 . Contemporaries expected that Austria-Hungary would wrench itself from the Habsburg yoke upon his death . The Emperor , after a hunting trip across the Hungarian border in `` a typical day in the wettest and coldest October in memory '' , fell seriously ill at the Favorita Palace , Vienna , and he died on 20 October 1740 in the Hofburg . In his Memoirs Voltaire wrote that Charles ' death was caused by consuming a meal of death cap mushrooms.Wasson RG . ( 1972 ) . The death of Claudius , or mushrooms for murderers . Botanical Museum Leaflets , Harvard University 23 ( 3 ) :101–128 . Charles ' life opus , the Pragmatic Sanction , was ultimately in vain . Maria Theresa was forced to resort to arms to defend her inheritance from the coalition of Prussia , Bavaria , France , Spain , Saxony and Poland—all party to the sanction—who assaulted the Austrian frontier weeks after her father 's death . During the ensuing War of the Austrian Succession , Maria Theresa saved her crown and most of her territory but lost the mineral-rich Duchy of Silesia to Prussia and the Duchy of Parma to Spain . Emperor Charles VI has been the main motif of many collectors ' coins and medals . One of the most recent samples is high value collectors ' coin the Austrian Göttweig Abbey commemorative coin , minted on 11 October 2006 . His portrait can be seen in the foreground of the reverse of the coin . Children Titles , styles , honours and arms Titles and styles * 1 October 1685 – 12 October 1711 His Royal Highness The Archduke Charles of Austria * * 1 November 1700 – 12 October 1711 His Majesty The King of Spain * 12 October 1711 – 20 October 1740 His Imperial Majesty The Holy Roman Emperor Titles Full titles of Charles as the emperor and ruler of Habsburg lands as well as a pretender to the Spanish throne went as follows : Charles , by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor , forever August , King in Germany , of Castile , Aragon , Leon , both Sicilies , Jerusalem , Hungary , Bohemia , Dalmatia , Croatia , Slavonia , Rama , Serbia , Galitia , Lodomeria , Cumania , Navarra , Grenada , Toledo , Valencia , Galicia , Majorca , Sevilla , Sardinia , Cordova , Corsica , Murcia , Jaen , the Algarve , Algeciras , Gibraltar , the Canary Islands , the islands of India and Mainland of the Ocean sea , Archduke of Austria , Duke of Burgundy , Brabant , Milan , Styria , Carinthia , Carniola , Limburg , Luxemburg , Gelderland , Württemberg , the Upper and Lower Silesia , Calabria , Athens and Neopatria , Prince of Swabia , Catalonia , Asturia , Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire , of Burgau , Moravia , the Upper and Lower Lusatia , Princely Count of Habsburg , Flanders , Tyrol , Ferrette , Kyburg , Gorizia , Artois , Landgrave of Alsace , Margrave of Oristano , Count of Goceano , Namur , Roussillon , Cerdagne , Lord of the Wendish March , Pordenone , Biscay , Molina , Salins , Tripoli and Mechelen , etc . Heraldry Ancestors Notes

sfq_12585--Charles_VI,_Holy_Roman_Emperor.txt

Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI created which principality in 1719?

Gentle Ben is a bear character created by author Walt Morey and first introduced in a 1965 children 's novel , Gentle Ben . The original novel told the story of the friendship between a large male bear named Ben and a boy named Mark . The story provided the basis for the 1967 film Gentle Giant ( 1967 ) , the popular late 1960s U.S. television series Gentle Ben , a 1980s animated cartoon and two early 2000s made-for-TV movies . 1965 children 's novel Gentle Ben Walt Morey , a filbert farmer and former boxer , had previously written many pulp fiction stories for adults dealing with subjects such as boxing , the Old West , and outdoor adventures , published in magazines such as Argosy . However , due to the decline in demand for pulp fiction caused by the advent of broadcast television in the 1950s , Morey stopped writing for ten years . His wife , a schoolteacher , challenged him to write adventure stories that would interest young readers , similar to those of Jack London . After several years , Morey took up her challenge with the goal of producing an adventure story for young readers that adults could also enjoy . The result was Gentle Ben , which was based on Morey 's own past experiences working and traveling in Alaska . Morey said that many of the book characters were based on real Alaskan people he had met . According to Morey , the concept of a boy 's friendship with an Alaskan brown bear was also taken from real life , and such friendships and interactions between humans and bears were not unusual in Alaska . Originally published in 1965 by E.P . Dutton , the novel was a success , selling nearly 3 million copies and winning the Dutton Animal Book Award that year . Morey went on to write many more children 's novels , often involving themes of nature , animals and survival , but is best known for Gentle Ben . Synopsis of the novel Mark Andersen is a young teenage boy who lives in Alaska with his fisherman father and mother , Karl and Ellen Andersen . Mark is lonely after the death of his older brother , and befriends an Alaskan brown bear named Ben that was captured as a cub by local drunkard Fog Benson . Ben , now a large adult bear , spends his days chained alone in a shack on Benson 's property , and the lonely bear bonds with the lonely boy who secretly visits him . Mark 's parents are initially upset that he visits Ben , but eventually see that Mark and Ben have a special friendship and buy Ben from Fog Benson for Mark , on the condition that Mark help his father with the fishing to pay him back . However , Fog Benson and his friends attack Ben and Ben fights back , injuring Fog . The townspeople , who generally regard brown bears as wild and unpredictable , now think that Ben is dangerous , and Mark is forced to abandon Ben on an island , where Ben is still menaced by Fog Benson and hunters . Soon afterwards , Karl 's fishing boat is destroyed in a storm , so he takes a job minding a fish trap on the island where Ben is living , which leads to Mark and Ben renewing their friendship . Then Ben helps a wealthy businessman and trophy hunter visiting the island , Peter King , who has gotten trapped under a rock . Ben gently rolls the rock off him . The grateful King pays a local guide to protect Ben and ends up going into business with Karl Andersen , so Ben will be safe and the Andersen 's financial fortunes are greatly improved . Memorial statue An 8-foot-tall life-size carved wooden statue of `` Gentle Ben '' the bear stands in Walt Morey Park in Wilsonville , Oregon , a bear-themed park created on land that previously belonged to the Morey family . In 2012 , the Gentle Ben statue was stolen from the park by local teens and dumped in a roadside ditch . It was later found and returned to the park . 1967 film Gentle Giant Producer Ivan Tors made the film Gentle Giant ( originally titled Gentle Ben ) for Paramount Pictures based on Morey 's book , and partially funded by CBS . At that time , Tors was focusing on films and television shows involving animals and directed at a family audience . He had previously had popular hits with the 1963 film Flipper about a boy 's friendship with a wild dolphin , which led to a television series of the same name , and with the 1965 film Clarence , the Cross-Eyed Lion , which led to the 1966–1968 series Daktari about a veterinarian on a game preserve in Africa . Originally , Tors planned to release the Gentle Giant film ahead of the TV series , as he had done with Flipper and Clarence , the Cross-Eyed Lion . However , the release date for Gentle Giant was moved to be closer to Thanksgiving . As a result , by the time Gentle Giant was released , the Gentle Ben TV series based on the film had already been airing for six weeks . The film , which was a prequel to the TV series , served as promotion for the series already in progress . The film Gentle Giant and TV series Gentle Ben had the same main characters—Tom and Ellen Wedloe and their son Mark , who befriends Ben the bear—and two of the same lead actors , Dennis Weaver as Tom Wedloe and Clint Howard as Mark Wedloe . Bruno the Bear also appeared as `` Ben '' in both the film and TV series . The film was shot on location in the Florida Everglades and in the old fishing town of Port Salerno , Florida . Differences from the novel Although Gentle Giant follows the same basic storyline as Morey 's novel , there are several differences between the book and the film : * The filmmakers changed the location from Alaska to the Florida Everglades , and changed Ben from a brown bear , a species not native to Florida , to a large American black bear , common in Florida . Tors had an active Florida-based film studio at the time . * The Andersens ' last name was changed to Wedloe , and the father 's first name to Tom , rather than Karl . Fog Benson 's last name was also changed to Hanson . * The character of Mark was made much younger in the film ; Clint Howard was 6 years old when he was cast . In the novel , Mark is a young teenager who is small for his age . * In the film , Mark 's father is a pilot who works spotting fish for fishermen , has a plane crash and then becomes a wildlife officer , whereas in the book , Mark 's father is a fisherman whose boat is destroyed in a storm , causing him to take a job maintaining a fish trap . * In the film , Mark actually sees Fog shoot Ben 's mother and capture the cub Ben , and reports Fog to the local wildlife officer , who fines Fog for illegal hunting . In the book , Mark does not witness the actual killing and capture , and only becomes aware of Ben after Fog brings him to town to show him off and then later chains him in a shack . * In the film , Mark and his family give Ben away to a zoo rather than leaving him on an island as in the book . However , Ben escapes on the way to the zoo and swims to a wilderness area of the Everglades . * The character `` Peter King '' does not appear in the film . At the end of the film , instead of Ben rolling a rock off Peter King , Ben instead rolls a fallen tree off Mark 's father , regaining his trust . * At the end of the film , Ben is shown protecting his female mate and cubs , a scene which is not in the book ( and is unlikely behavior for a male bear ) . Cast Clint Howard , an experienced child TV actor , was cast in the main role of Mark , and Dennis Weaver and Vera Miles played his parents , while the villain Fog Hanson was played by Ralph Meeker . Howard and Weaver played the same roles in the weekly television series . Clint Howard 's father Rance Howard appeared in the film as Tater Coughlin , one of Fog Hanson 's gang , but played a completely different recurring role ( as Henry Boomhauer , the Wedloes ' neighbor ) in the TV series . Several black bears appeared in the film , portraying Ben 's mother , Ben at different stages of his life from cub to full-grown adult , and Ben 's mate and cubs . According to Derrick Rosaire Sr. and his family , the same female bear was used to play both Ben 's mother and an older Ben . Ben as a full-grown adult was played primarily by Bruno , who also was the main bear playing Ben in the TV series . 1960s television series Gentle Ben The CBS television series Gentle Ben premiered September 10 , 1967 and ran until August 31 , 1969 , airing a total of 58 episodes in two seasons . The series chronicled the adventures of young Mark Wedloe ( played by Clint Howard ) and his lovable 650-to-750-pound black bear named Ben . Gentle Ben was produced by Ivan Tors , who also produced the Gentle Giant pilot film . Tors was an established producer of successful TV series , including Lloyd Bridges ' Sea Hunt , Flipper and Daktari . Like the Gentle Giant film , the TV series Gentle Ben was set in Florida ( allowing Tors to use his own studio facilities there ) rather than Alaska , and Ben was a large black bear instead of the brown bear of the original novel . The TV series picked up the story where Gentle Giant left off , with Mark 's father Tom Wedloe already a wildlife officer in the Everglades , and Ben an adult bear and established family pet living outside ( or sometimes inside ) the Wedloes ' house . Cast of the TV series The TV series had few regular characters , consisting of the Wedloe family and their friend and neighbor Henry Boomhauer . Clint Howard and Dennis Weaver continued their roles from the Gentle Giant film . The role of Ellen Wedloe , played in Gentle Giant by Vera Miles , was recast for the TV series with Beth Brickell , after Diana Muldaur turned down the part . The Boomhauer character appeared in nearly half the episodes and was played by Clint 's real-life father Rance Howard ( who also wrote episodes for the show ) . Other recurring characters included Hank Minegar , a squatter played by Robertson White ( who had a different small role in Gentle Giant ) and Willie , a friend of Mark 's , played by Angelo Rutherford . Although several black bears were used to play Ben , depending on what behavior was required for a particular scene , the role was played primarily by Bruno the Bear ( who also played adult Ben in the Gentle Giant film ) . Musician and voice actor Candy Candido provided the voice of Ben . Although the network wanted to have Ben speak like a human on the show , Tors disliked the idea , so Ben only made animal noises . Notable guest stars included Burt Reynolds , Jay Silverheels , Strother Martin , Slim Pickens , Victor French , and Clint Howard 's brother Ron Howard . Bears in the TV series Ralph Helfer 's Africa U.S.A. animal ranch provided Bruno and other bears ( as well as other animals ) used in the series . The bears were obtained from Canada or near the Canada-U.S. border because those bears ' coats were thicker and more photogenic than those of bears located further south in the U.S . The bears were declawed and had most of their teeth removed . Helfer stated that four bears were used to portray Ben , with other sources naming or listing additional bears , who may have been used in particular scenes or as stand-in bears . Some episodes and sequences also involved bear cubs or other bear characters that may have required additional bears . Bruno was the favorite bear actor because of his good disposition , broad range of behaviors , facial expressions , and ability to work with children . A bear named Buck , who closely resembled Bruno but was a slightly smaller , younger and more agile bear , was used for scenes requiring the bear to run . According to Clint Howard , Bruno the bear and Buck the bear together did approximately 75 percent of the bear acting work . A bear named Drum frequently appeared in scenes requiring the bear to enter water . Drum 's coat was brown and had to be spray-painted to match the black coats of the other bears playing Ben . In the 1980s , Dennis Weaver recalled that a bear named Hammer , who occasionally misbehaved on the set , was used for bear scenes involving water . Other bears reportedly used included Smokey , Oscar , Baron , Tudor , Virgil , and a bear ( identity unknown ) with a tendency to fight who was used for bear fight scenes . Bear trainer Tuffy Truesdell , who owned nine bears including the elder and younger Victor the Wrestling Bear , also claimed that his bears did `` most of the stand-in work '' for the TV series . According to most sources , the primary bear trainers and bear handlers who did most of the day-to-day bear work on the series were head bear trainer Monty Cox ( who said that he was hired after `` Ben '' had `` chewed up '' a previous bear trainer ) , and Vern Debord . Other animal trainers involved in the series included Ron Oxley and Steve Martin . Derrick Rosaire Sr. and Pat Derby have also claimed involvement , although it is not clear whether they worked on the TV series or just on the Gentle Giant pilot film . Bruno and some of the other bears were trained using `` affection training '' , which stressed establishing a respectful bond between animal and trainer , rather than using punishment or food rewards . However , food rewards were used to motivate at least one bear who responded better to that method . Bruno reportedly lived with Cox in a Miami apartment , sometimes even following him into the shower and sleeping in his bed . During and after the run of the TV series , the name `` Ben '' or `` Gentle Ben '' was used to refer to a number of bears who had appeared in the show . Bruno 's name was changed to `` Ben '' while he was appearing in the series ; it was changed back to `` Bruno '' after the show ended . Oxley and Martin made personal appearances at fairs and events with a bear ( often Drum ) billed as `` Gentle Ben . '' In the late 1960s and 1970s , Rosaire Sr. appeared with the Emmett Kelly Circus and elsewhere with a trained bear he called `` Gentle Ben '' that purportedly played the role . Rosaire Sr. , his son and grandson have said over the years that this bear was a female bear who played both Ben 's mother and Ben in the Gentle Giant film . ( Ben 's mother never appears in the TV series as she is killed at the beginning of the film , and the TV series takes place after the events of the film . ) Tuffy Truesdell also trained a wrestling brown bear known as `` Gentleman Ben '' and occasionally called `` Gentle Ben '' or `` Ben '' , who wrestled in at least 80 matches for various promotions in the late 1960s and 1970s . Although Truesdell claimed that his bears did work on the TV series , there is no evidence linking the particular bear he called `` Gentleman Ben '' to the TV show , particularly since the show used black bears rather than brown bears . After the Gentle Ben series ended , Bruno moved back to California with trainer Ron Oxley and continued his acting career , making a well-received appearance in the 1972 film The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean with Paul Newman . Bruno reportedly died in 1980 or 1981 . Buck entertained visitors for many years at the Homosassa Springs Attraction in Florida ( now part of Homosassa Springs Wildlife State Park ) . Hammer retired from acting in 1969 and became the first black bear at the Dreher Park Zoo ( later renamed the Palm Beach Zoo ) in West Palm Beach , Florida , where he lived for almost 20 years . Derrick Rosaire Sr. continued to exhibit his bear named `` Gentle Ben '' throughout the 1970s . The fate of the other bear actors involved in Gentle Ben and the Gentle Giant pilot film is not currently known . Although the bear character in a subsequent television series , The Life and Times of Grizzly Adams , was also named `` Ben '' , that character was played by a grizzly bear rather than a black bear , and the show , character and bear actor had no connection to Gentle Ben , except for trainer Steve Martin supplying some animals ( including a `` backup '' grizzly named Grizz ) to the Grizzly Adams show . Production Gentle Ben was filmed in Florida at the Ivan Tors Studios ( now Greenwich Studios ) in North Miami and at various locations in the surrounding area , including Homosassa Springs and Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden . The bears , who were from the northern United States or Canada and thus used to colder temperatures , had trouble adjusting to the warm climate . Following a severe flood that caused major damage to Africa U.S.A. in January 1969 , the bears working on the show were relocated permanently to Homosassa Springs , where the Ivan Tors Animal Actor Training School was then operating . Writers for the series included Roswell Rogers , Earl Hamner , Jr. , Tam Spiva , Rance Howard , Gilbert Ralston , and Frank Telford . Many of the plots focused on themes relating to Tom Wedloe 's work as a wildlife officer , such as animal management , lost children , disasters such as hurricanes or fires , and poaching or other illegal activities taking place in Wedloe 's jurisdiction . In addition to Ben , other animals were frequently featured . A recurring plot device involved a stranger encountering Ben for the first time and being terrified , until Mark explained that Ben was not dangerous . In the series , Tom Wedloe often traveled the Everglades via airboat and Jeep , while Henry Boomhauer drove a swamp buggy . The airboat , with the characters of Tom , Mark and Ben the bear riding it , was prominently featured in the show 's opening credits . Dennis Weaver later recounted an incident where one of the bear actors , Hammer , capsized the airboat . According to trainer Monty Cox , Ivan Tors once expressed concern that when Bruno the bear walked away from the camera , his testicles were visible in some shots , and asked if Cox could somehow tape them up so they would be out of camera view . Cox refused . Several people involved with the series , including Cox , have confirmed that the bears used in the production were sometimes ill-tempered or did not behave as expected , and that working with them could be dangerous . On one occasion , Bruno the bear sat on Clint Howard . According to Dennis Weaver , during the run of the show , the cast and crew were forbidden to publicly mention any incidents of bear misbehavior . However , Clint Howard has stated that he never suffered any injuries from the bears on the show , and that his only injury came from working with a raccoon that had not been declawed . Reception Gentle Ben was a moderate hit , reaching a position of # 19 in the Nielsen ratings during its first season . A number of TV tie-in products were marketed , including children 's books ( by authors other than Walt Morey ) , a board game and a pull-string talking `` Gentle Ben '' plush bear by Mattel , a lunchbox , and an album of songs sung by the cast members entitled The Stars of `` Gentle Ben '' : The Bear Facts . Dell Comics produced a Gentle Ben comic book , featuring photo covers of the TV show actors , that ran for five issues in 1968 . However , in its second season , Gentle Ben failed to make the top 30 and was cancelled . Its decline in popularity has been attributed to its young target audience growing older and losing interest in animal shows , and also to its timeslot forcing it to compete with Walt Disney 's Wonderful World of Color for its target audience . A letter-writing campaign to save the show ( even read into the Congressional Record ) resulted in 2600 letters being sent to the network , but was not successful . In spite of its short lifespan and cancellation , the show continued to run regularly in syndication , including outside the United States . Personal appearances by `` Gentle Ben '' at circuses and events continued to be popular into the 1970s . In October 1969 , after the cancellation of the show , `` Gentle Ben '' the bear even received a personalized invitation from Florida Governor Claude R. Kirk , Jr. to a celebrity party in Fort Lauderdale . Controversy over portrayal of bears Although the show was praised for promoting respect for nature and family values , it also drew criticism for its unrealistic portrayal of a wild bear 's interaction with humans . Some critics noted that the show premiered only a few weeks after the well-publicized Glacier National Park , Montana fatal grizzly bear attacks of August 13 , 1967 , when two female campers were killed by grizzly bears , in separate incidents and locations , on the same night . When the show debuted , PTA Magazine complained that `` [ f ] or years , there have been warnings to children and adults against feeding and playing with bears ... How CBS could permit a program with a black bear for a pet—not a cub either—but a gigantic adult bear—is beyond our comprehension . '' In 1971 , John Hast , the chief National Park Service officer , stated that `` [ t ] he television series 'Gentle Ben ' was the worst thing that ever happened to us . People saw this big lovable bear on television and when they see a bear in the park I guess they think it 's the same one . They do n't realize how wrong they are until they 're bleeding . '' Sweden also refused to broadcast the show due to concerns that children would be influenced to play and interact with the wild bears indigenous to that country . DVD releases On October 15 , 2013 , CBS Home Entertainment ( distributed by Paramount ) released season 1 on DVD in Region 1 . The second and final season was released on February 18 , 2014 . 1981 animated cartoon Gentle Ben In 1981 , a short-lived animated cartoon called Gentle Ben was released in syndication by the Gentle Ben Animation Co . The main character , Gentle Ben the bear , was portrayed as a crime-fighting superhero who wore a cape . 2000s TV movies In the early 2000s , two TV movie remakes of the original series were sponsored by the Animal Planet cable channel in association with Hallmark Entertainment . In both remakes , `` Ben '' was played by Bonkers , a 6-foot-tall , 650 pound male American black bear trained by Ruth La Barge . Gentle Ben ( also known as Gentle Ben : The Movie and Gentle Ben : Terror on the Mountain ) was first shown on 25 March 2002 , although some cable airings list it with a 2003 date . Gentle Ben 2 ( also known as Gentle Ben : Danger on the Mountain ) was first shown on 5 January 2003 . It was known as Gentle Ben : Black Gold for its UK release . Cast The following cast appeared in both 2000s films : * Dean Cain as Jack Wedloe * Corbin Bernsen as Fog Benson * Ashley Laurence as Dakota * Reiley McClendon as Mark Wedloe * Cody Weiant as Ashley June Benson * Collin Bernsen as Kyle * Gil Birmingham as Pete * Jack Conley as Cal Stryker * Jeanne Cooper as Rowland * Martin Kove as Cully * Bonkers the Bear as Ben In popular culture * Since the 1960s , `` Gentle Ben '' has been widely used by many writers as a humorous name when referring to a bear . * `` Gentle Ben '' has also been used as a nickname for various public figures named Ben , including American professional golfer Ben Crenshaw , Australian cricketer Ben Hilfenhaus , and former U.S. Federal Reserve chairman Ben Bernanke . * The `` Homer Badman '' episode of The Simpsons animated cartoon ( Season 6 , episode 9 , originally broadcast on November 27 , 1994 ) included a parody of a TV talk show called Ben , hosted by a bear named `` Gentle Ben '' with a microphone strapped to his head . `` Gentle Ben '' responds to audience members ' comments and questions with growls , then gets distracted by a backstage buffet , runs amok and starts to eat , at which point he is surrounded and shot by marksmen wearing jackets labeled `` Ben Control '' and the TV screen cuts to a test pattern . The sequence has been mentioned in several compilations of funniest moments from the long-running show .

tc_938--Gentle_Ben.txt

Who or what was Gentle Ben in the 60s TV series?

The Bank of England , which is now the Central Bank of the United Kingdom , has issued banknotes since 1694 . In 1921 The Bank of England gained a legal monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales , a process that started with the Bank Charter Act of 1844 when the ability of other banks to issue notes was restricted . Banknotes were originally hand-written ; although they were partially printed from 1725 onwards , cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to someone . Notes were fully printed from 1855 . Since 1970 , the Bank of England 's notes have featured portraits of British historical figures . Of the eight banks authorised to issue banknotes in the UK , only the Bank of England can issue banknotes in England and Wales , where its notes are legal tender . Bank of England notes are not legal tender in Scotland and Northern Ireland , but are accepted there along with other notes . Features All current Bank of England banknotes are printed by contract with De La Rue at Debden , Essex . They include the printed signature of the Chief Cashier of the Bank of England ( Victoria Cleland for notes issued since September 2015 ) . All the notes issued since Series C in 1960 also depict Elizabeth II in full view facing left and as a watermark , hidden , facing right ; more recent issues also include the EURion constellation . The custom of depicting historical figures on the reverse began in 1970 with Series D , designed by the bank 's first permanent artist , Harry Eccleston . The Bank of England Series D £1 note was discontinued in 1984 , having been replaced by a pound coin the year before . Current banknotes The notes currently in circulation are as follows : * £5 note depicting Elizabeth Fry , showing a scene with her reading to prisoners in Newgate Prison * £10 note depicting Charles Darwin , a hummingbird and the HMS Beagle * £20 note , depicting Adam Smith with an illustration of `` The division of labour in pin manufacturing '' . It also includes enhanced security features . This , the first note from the new Series F , entered circulation on 13 March 2007 * £50 note depicting Matthew Boulton and James Watt , with steam engine and Boulton 's Soho factory Forthcoming notes A newly designed £5 banknote is to be issued in September 2016 . It will feature the 1941 Yousuf Karsh photographic portrait of Winston Churchill , a view of the Palace of Westminster , and Churchill 's 1953 Nobel Prize for Literature medal . A newly designed £10 banknote , featuring novelist Jane Austen , will be issued in 2017 . Both new notes are to be made from polymer rather than cotton paper . In 2015 , the Bank of England launched a public competition to nominate historic personalities with links to the visual arts for a future redesign of the £20 banknote . The Governor of the Bank of England asked the public to `` think beyond the obvious '' when nominating suggestions , with over 29,700 nominations finally made . In September 2015 the Bank of England announced that the next £20 note will be printed on polymer , rather than cotton paper . This was followed by an announcement in April 2016 that Adam Smith will be replaced by artist J. M. W. Turner on the next £20 note which will enter circulation in 2020 . Images on the reverse of the Turner note will include a 1799 self-portrait of Turner , a version of Turner 's The Fighting Temeraire , the quote `` Light is therefore colour '' from an 1818 lecture by Turner , and a copy of Turner 's signature as made on his will . History The Bank of England has not always had a monopoly of note issue in England and Wales . Until the middle of the 19th century , private banks in Great Britain and Ireland were free to issue their own banknotes , and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation . Over the years , various Acts of Parliament were introduced by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to increase confidence in banknotes in circulation by limiting the rights of banks to issue notes . Eventually the Bank of England gained a monopoly of note issue in England and Wales . Provincial banknote issues Attempts to restrict banknote issue by other banks began in 1708 and 1709 , when Acts of Parliament were passed which prohibited companies of more than six people to set up banks and issue notes . Many provincial banks , however , were small enough to escape this prohibition , and money issued by provincial English and Welsh banking companies continued to circulate freely as a means of payment . Gold shortages Gold shortages in the 18th century caused by the Seven Years ' War and war with Revolutionary France began to affect the supply of gold bullion reserves , giving rise to the `` Restriction Period '' . The result was that the Bank was often unable to pay out gold for its notes , and it started to issue lower denominations of £1 and £2 notes . Other private note-issuing banks were affected by the gold shortage , with many going out of business , rendering their banknotes worthless . Confidence in the value of banknotes was adversely affected . Restriction of banknote issues The Country Bankers ’ Act 1826 relaxed some of the laws of 1709 , allowing joint-stock banks with more than six partners to issue notes , as long as they were over 65 miles from London . This Act also allowed the Bank of England to open branches in major provincial cities , enabling better distribution for its notes . Introduction of legal tender With the passing of the Bank Notes Act 1833 , Bank of England notes over £5 in value were first given the status of `` legal tender '' in England and Wales , effectively guaranteeing the worth of the Bank 's notes and ensuring public confidence in the notes in times of crisis or war . The Currency and Bank Notes Act 1954 extended the definition of legal tender to ten shilling and £1 notes ; unlike the 1833 act , this law also applied to Scotland , meaning that English notes under £5 were classed as legal tender . The Bank of England ten shilling note was withdrawn in 1969 and the £1 was removed from circulation in 1988 , leaving now a legal curiosity in Scots law whereby there is no paper legal tender in Scotland ( Scottish notes were not included in the 1833 or 1954 acts ) . Note-issuing monopoly The Bank Charter Act 1844 began the process which gave the Bank of England exclusive note-issuing powers . Under the Act , no new banks could start issuing notes , and note-issuing banks in England and Wales were barred from expanding their note issue.The limitations specified in Section 11 of the 1844 Act only refer to banks in England and Wales : Gradually , these banks vanished through mergers and closures , and their note-issuing powers went with them . The last privately issued banknotes in Wales were withdrawn in 1908 , on the closure of the last Welsh bank , the North and South Wales Bank . The last private English banknotes were issued in 1921 by Fox , Fowler and Company , a Somerset bank . Note printing Notes were originally hand-written ; although they were partially printed from 1725 onwards , cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to someone . Notes were fully printed from 1855 , no doubt to the relief of the bank 's workers . Until 1928 all notes were `` White Notes '' , printed in black and with a blank reverse . During the 20th century White Notes were issued in denominations between £5 and £1000 , but in the 18th and 19th centuries there were White Notes for £1 and £2 . The 20th century In 1921 the Bank of England gained a legal monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales , a process that started with the Bank Charter Act of 1844 when the ability of other banks to issue notes was restricted . The Bank 's first issue of ten shillings and £1 notes in the 20th century was on 22 November 1928 when the Bank took over responsibility for these denominations from the Treasury . The Treasury had issued notes of these denominations three days after the declaration of war in 1914 in order to supplant the sovereign and half-sovereign and remove gold coins from circulation . The notes issued by the Bank in 1928 were the first coloured banknotes and also the first notes to be printed on both sides . World War II saw a reversal in the trend of warfare creating more notes when , in order to combat forgery , higher denomination notes ( at the time as high as £1,000 ) were removed from circulation . Denominations 10/- The Bank of England 's first ever ten shilling ( 10/- ) note was issued on 22 November 1928 . This note featured a vignette of Britannia , a feature of the Bank 's notes since 1694 . The predominant colour was red-brown . Unlike previous notes it , and the contemporaneous £1 note , were not dated but are instead identified by the signature of the Chief Cashier of the time . In 1940 a metal security thread was introduced , and the colour of the note was changed to mauve for the duration of the war . The original design of the note was replaced by the Series C design on 12 October 1961 , when Queen Elizabeth II agreed to allow the use of her portrait on the notes . As part of the planned Series D , which introduced historical figures , a new 10/- note was planned that featured Sir Walter Raleigh , which would be converted to a 50p note upon decimalisation . However , given the estimated lifespan of the note , it was decided to replace the 10/- note with the 50p coin . The ten shilling note was withdrawn from circulation on 20 November 1970 following the introduction on 14 October 1969 of the fifty pence coin . £1 The first Bank of England £1 note was issued on 2 March 1797 under the direction of Thomas Raikes , Governor of the Bank of England , and according to the orders of the government of William Pitt The Younger , in response to the need for smaller denomination banknotes to replace gold coin during the French Revolutionary Wars . The Bank of England 's first £1 note since 1845 was issued on 22 November 1928 . This note featured a vignette of Britannia , a feature of the Bank 's notes since 1694 . The predominant colour was green . Unlike previous notes it , and the contemporaneous ten shilling note , were not dated but are instead identified by the signature of the Chief Cashier of the time . In 1940 a metal security thread was introduced , and the colour of the note was changed to blue and pink for the duration of the war , to combat German counterfeits . The original design of the note was replaced by the Series C design on 17 March 1960 , when Queen Elizabeth II agreed to allow the use of her portrait on the notes . The Series C £1 note was withdrawn on 31 May 1979 . On 9 February 1978 the `` Series D '' design ( known as the `` Pictorial Series '' ) featuring Sir Isaac Newton on the reverse was issued , but following the introduction on 21 April 1983 of the £1 coin , the note was withdrawn from circulation on 11 March 1988 . £2 The first Bank of England £2 note was issued on 2 March 1797 under the direction of Thomas Raikes , Governor of the Bank of England and according to the orders of the government of William Pitt The Younger , in response to the need for smaller denomination banknotes to replace gold coin during the French Revolutionary Wars . £2 notes were last issued in 1821 . £5 The first Bank of England £5 note was issued in 1793 in response to the need for smaller denomination banknotes to replace gold coin during the French Revolutionary Wars ( previously the smallest note issued had been £10 ) . The 1793 design , latterly known as the `` White Fiver '' ( black printing on white paper ) , remained in circulation essentially unchanged until 21 February 1957 when the multicoloured ( although predominantly dark blue ) `` Series B '' note , depicting the helmeted Britannia , was introduced . The old `` White Fiver '' was withdrawn on 13 March 1961 . The Series B note was replaced in turn on 21 February 1963 by the `` Series C '' £5 note which for the first time introduced the portrait of the monarch , Queen Elizabeth II , to the £5 note ( the Queen 's portrait having first appeared on the Series C ten shilling and £1 notes issued in 1960 ) . The Series C £5 note was withdrawn on 31 August 1973 . On 11 November 1971 the `` Series D '' pictorial £5 note was issued , showing a slightly older portrait of the Queen and a battle scene featuring the Duke of Wellington on the reverse . It was withdrawn on 29 November 1991 . On 7 June 1990 the `` Series E '' £5 note , by now the smallest denomination issued by the Bank , was issued . The Series E note ( 'known as the `` Historical Series '' ) changed the colour of the denomination to a turquoise blue , and incorporated design elements to make photocopying and computer reproduction of the notes more difficult . Initially the reverse of the Series E £5 note featured the railway engineer George Stephenson , but on 21 May 2002 a new Series E note , in a green colour and featuring the prison reformer Elizabeth Fry , was issued . The initial printing of several million Stephenson notes was destroyed when it was noticed that the wrong year for his death had been printed . The original issue of the Fry banknote was withdrawn after it was found the ink on the serial number could be rubbed off the surface of the note ; these notes are now very rare and sought after amongst collectors . The Stephenson £5 note was withdrawn as legal tender from 21 November 2003 , at which time it formed around 54 million of the 211 million £5 notes in circulation . £10 The first Bank of England £10 note was issued in 1759 , when the Seven Years ' War caused severe gold shortages . Following the withdrawal of the denomination after the Second World War , it was not reintroduced until 21 February 1964 when a new brown-coloured note was issued in the Series C design . The Series C note was withdrawn on 31 May 1979 . The Series D pictorial note appeared on 20 February 1975 , featuring nurse and public health pioneer Florence Nightingale ( 1820–1910 ) on the reverse , plus a scene showing her work at the army hospital in Scutari during the Crimean War . It was withdrawn on 20 May 1994 . On 29 April 1992 a new £10 note in Series E , with orange rather than brown as the dominant colour , was issued . The reverse featured Charles Dickens and a scene from the Pickwick Papers . This note was withdrawn from circulation on 31 July 2003 . A second Series E note was issued on 7 November 2000 featuring Charles Darwin , HMS Beagle , a hummingbird , and flowers under a magnifying glass , illustrating the Origin of Species . The hummingbird 's inclusion has been criticised , since Darwin 's ideas were spurred by finches and mockingbirds , not hummingbirds . £15 A £15 note , in white , was first issued in 1759 and was last issued in 1822 . £20 £20 notes , in white , appeared in 1725 and continued to be issued until 1943 . They ceased to be legal tender in 1945 . After World War II , the £20 denomination did not reappear until 1970 , when the new Series D £20 note , predominantly in purple and featuring a statue of William Shakespeare and the balcony scene from Romeo and Juliet on its reverse , was introduced on 9 July . On 5 June 1991 this note was replaced by the first Series E £20 note , featuring the physicist Michael Faraday and the Royal Institution lectures . By 1999 this note had been extensively copied , and therefore it became the first denomination to be replaced on 22 June 1999 by a second Series E design , featuring a bolder denomination figure at the top left of the obverse side , and a reverse side featuring the composer Sir Edward Elgar and Worcester Cathedral . The £20 banknote was known to have suffered from higher cases of counterfeiting ( 276,000 out of 290,000 cases detected in 2007 ) than any other denominations . In February 2006 , the Bank announced a [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/pop_ups/06/business_enl_1162225010/html/1.stm new design ] for the note which featured Scottish economist Adam Smith with a drawing of a pin factory – the institution which supposedly inspired his theory of economics . Smith is the first Scot to appear on a Bank of England note , although the economist has already appeared on Scottish Clydesdale Bank £50 notes . The design of the £20 note was controversial for two reasons : the choice of a Scottish figure on an English note was a break with tradition ; and the removal of Elgar took place in the year of the 150th anniversary of the composer 's birth , causing a group of English MPs to table a motion in the House of Commons calling for the new design to be delayed . The new note entered circulation on 13 March 2007 . The Elgar note ceased to be legal tender on 30 June 2010 . £25 A £25 note , in white , was first issued in 1765 and was last issued in 1822 . £30 A £30 note , in white , was first issued in 1725 and was last issued in 1852 . £40 A £40 note , in white , was first issued in 1725 and was last issued in 1851 . £50 £50 notes , in white , appeared in 1725 and continued to be issued until 1943 . They ceased to be legal tender in 1945 . The £50 denomination did not reappear until 20 March 1981 when a Series D design was issued featuring the architect Christopher Wren and the plan of Saint Paul 's Cathedral on the reverse of this large note . In 1994 this denomination was the last of the first Series E issue , when the Bank commemorated its 300th birthday by featuring its first governor , Sir John Houblon , on the reverse . The old Series D £50 note was withdrawn from circulation on 20 September 1996 . In May 2009 the Bank of England announced a new design in Series F , featuring James Watt , Matthew Boulton , the Whitbread Engine and Soho Manufactory . It entered circulation on 2 November 2011 and is the first Bank of England note to feature two portraits on the reverse . The predominant colour of this denomination banknote is red . This note includes a security feature not present in the other denominations ( though it is by no means the only security feature in any of the notes ) . The interwoven thread ( `` Motion '' ) is a hologram whose image of a green circle with a `` £ '' sign alternates with a green `` 50 '' as the note is rotated . If the note is rotated , the image appears to move up and down , in the opposite plane to the rotation . £60 £60 notes , in white , were first issued between 1725 and 1745 and had ceased to be issued by 1803 . £70 £70 notes , in white , were first issued between 1725 and 1745 and had ceased to be issued by 1803 . £80 £80 notes , in white , were first issued between 1725 and 1745 and had ceased to be issued by 1803 . £90 £90 notes , in white , were first issued between 1725 and 1745 and had ceased to be issued by 1803 . £100 £100 notes , in white , appeared in 1725 and continued to be issued until 1943 . They ceased to be legal tender in 1945 . £200 £200 notes , in white , were first issued between 1725 and 1745 and continued to be issued until 1928 . They ceased to be legal tender in 1945 . £300 £300 notes , in white , were first issued between 1725 and 1745 and continued to be issued until 1855 . £500 £500 notes , in white , were first issued between 1725 and 1745 and continued to be issued until 1943 . They ceased to be legal tender in 1945 . £1,000 £1,000 notes in white , were first issued between 1725 and 1745 and continued to be issued until 1943 . They ceased to be legal tender in 1945 . £500,000 The Bank of England held money on behalf of other countries and issued Treasury Bills to cover such deposits , on Bank of England paper . Examples include the Royal Roumanian Government , issued London , 21 January 1915 , payable 21 January 1916 , for 500,000 pounds , and a similar Treasury Bill , dated 22 April 1927 payable 22 April 1928 . These exist in private hands as cancelled specimens . £1,000,000 and £100,000,000 The banknotes issued by the banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland are required to be backed pound for pound by Bank of England notes . Due to the large number of notes issued by these banks it would be cumbersome and wasteful to hold Bank of England notes in the standard denominations . High denomination notes , for £1 million ( `` Giants '' ) and £100 million ( `` Titans '' ) , are used for this purpose . They are used only internally within the Bank and are never seen in circulation . They are based on a much older design of banknote , and are A5 and A4 sized respectively . However , the need for these large notes has been obviated by section 217 ( 2 ) ( c ) of the Banking Act 2009 . Nine one-million pound notes were issued in connection with the Marshall Plan on 30 August 1948 , signed by E. E. Bridges , and were used internally as `` records of movement '' , for a six-week period ( along with other denominations , with total face value of £300,000,000 , corresponding to a loan from the US to help shore up the UK Treasury . These were cancelled on 6 October 1948 , and presumably destroyed , except for the £1,000,000 `` Number Seven '' and `` Number Eight '' notes ( serial numbers 000007 and 000008 ) , which were given to the U.K. and U.S. Treasury Secretaries . These two have been in private hands since 1977 , and most recently , the `` Number Eight '' was auctioned for £69,000 . These are `` Treasury Notes '' issued on Bank of England paper , and indicate `` It states : 'This Treasury note entitles the Bank of England to payment of one million pounds on demand out of the Consolidated of the United Kingdom ' . '' A third note surfaced recently on the collector market , dated 8 September 2003 , serial number is R016492 , and it is signed by Andrew Turnbull , Secretary to the Treasury , and cancelled . Until 2006 , these Treasury Notes were issued by the Bank of England , in the City of London . The British Treasury would manage its cash and ensure that adequate funds were available . London 's banks and other financial institutions would bid for these instruments , at a discount , specifying which day the following week they wanted the bills issued . Maturities would be for one , three , six , or theoretically but not practically , twelve months . The tenders were for the face value of the Treasury Notes , less a discount , which represented the interest rate . This system was replaced by a computerised system by the Debt Management Office , which is an Executive Agency of the Treasury , and the last Treasury Notes were printed in September 2003 . These notes would often get traded to other banks , so they did circulate ; this was done without the Bank of England 's knowledge , and the notes would be redeemed by the bank on their date of maturity by the bearer . This circulating nature of the notes led to the robbery on 2 May 1990 , of John Goddard , a messenger for the firm Sheppards , with £292 million in Treasury bills and certificates of deposit having been stolen . All but two of these have been recovered . Counterfeits and withdrawn notes William Booth , of South Staffordshire , was a notable forger of English banknotes , and was hanged for the crime in 1812 . Several of his forgeries and printing plates are in the collection of Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery . During World War II the German Operation Bernhard attempted to counterfeit various denominations between £5 and £50 , producing 500,000 notes each month in 1943 . The original plan was to parachute the money into Britain in an attempt to destabilise the British economy , but it was found more useful to use the notes to pay German agents operating throughout Europe . Although most fell into Allied hands at the end of the war , forgeries were frequently appearing for years afterwards , so all denominations of banknote above £5 were subsequently removed from circulation . The incident is alluded to in Ian Fleming 's James Bond novel Goldfinger . All banknotes , regardless of when they were withdrawn from circulation , may be presented at the Bank of England where they will be exchanged for current banknotes and coins . In practice , commercial banks will accept most banknotes from their customers and negotiate them with the Bank of England themselves . However , forgeries ( including Bernhard notes ) will be retained and destroyed by the Bank . If a suspect note is found to be genuine a full refund by cheque will be made . However , it is a criminal offence to knowingly hold or pass a counterfeit bank note without lawful authority or excuse . In popular culture * The 2007 Austrian-German film The Counterfeiters ( Die Fälscher ) tells the story of Salomon Sorowitsch ( real name Salomon Smolianoff ) , a Jewish forger who is put to work forging Bank of England notes on Operation Bernhard in Sachsenhausen concentration camp . On 13 March 2009 BBC Radio 4 broadcast The Counterfeiter 's Tale , a 30-minute partly dramatised documentary about the production of the notes in Sachsenhausen . It was re-broadcast by Radio 4 Extra on 15 November 2015 . * Mark Twain 's short story `` The Million Pound Bank Note '' deals with an impoverished American in London who is given the use of a million-pound Bank of England note for thirty days—two Englishmen betting whether or not he will be able to survive on a note for which he can not possibly be given change . He does succeed in surviving , quite well , and marries one of the bettors ' daughters . The story was also made into a 1953 film , The Million Pound Note

wh_4170--Bank_of_England_note_issues.txt

In which year was the ten shilling note withdrawn in the UK following the introduction of the 50p coin ?