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A holodeck is a fictional virtual reality facility featured in the Star Trek universe . It is often used for recreational activities . The holodeck is often used to recreate familiar places , participate in interactive stories , and to practice a variety of sports and skills . In the Star Trek universe , Holodeck environments and people are created by the use of `` hard light '' holograms , which are confined to the holodeck or other areas with `` holographic projectors . '' In the real world there is no such technology although scientists predict virtual reality tools similar to the holodeck ( but without the ability to touch ) `` will become a consumer-ready product by 2024 . '' Features The holodeck is depicted as an enclosed room in which objects and people are simulated by a combination of transported matter , replicated matter , tractor beams , and shaped force fields onto which holographic images are projected . Most holodeck programs shown in the episodes run in first person `` subjective mode '' , in which the user actively interacts with the program and its characters . The user may also employ third-person `` objective mode '' , in which he or she is `` apart '' from the actual running of the program and does not interact with it ( all of the program 's characters will ignore the user as if he or she was not there ( this was shown in the Enterprise episode `` These Are the Voyages ... '' ) . Matter created on the holodeck ( `` holomatter '' ) requires the holoemitters to remain stable and will quickly disintegrate if it is removed from the holodeck without a mobile emitter to sustain it , although this principle has been overlooked in some episodes . Writer Phil Farrand has often pointed out how in many episodes matter from the holodeck that gets on a real person still exists when the real person exits the holodeck . In `` Encounter at Farpoint '' , Wesley Crusher falls into a holodeck stream , but is still wet after exiting the holodeck . In `` The Big Goodbye '' , Picard has lipstick on his cheek after encountering a holodeck simulation of a 20th-century woman . In `` Elementary , Dear Data '' , Data and Geordi La Forge exit the holodeck with a piece of paper that originated in the holodeck . This could be explained using replicated rather than holographic matter . In most episodes , the holodeck is controlled by voice commands , though physical controls have been shown in a few episodes . They also include safety protocols to protect the users . Some users may develop an addiction to the holodeck ( a condition known as `` holodiction '' ) , leading to them spending unhealthy amounts of time there and personifying artificial characters . This was demonstrated by the Starfleet human character Reginald Barclay in the Voyager episode `` Pathfinder '' and The Next Generation episode `` Hollow Pursuits . '' In the timeline of the fictional universe , the concept of a holodeck was first shown to humans in an encounter with the Xyrillian race in the Star Trek : Enterprise episode `` Unexpected '' . In real-time , the holodeck is first presented as an idea called the 'Rec room ' within the Star Trek animated series ( released in 1974 . During the episode `` The Practical Joker , '' Dr McCoy , Sulu and Uhura are trapped within it by the Enterprise ( NCC-1701 ) computer . Holodeck variations of being by the sea , in a forest , falling down a pit and being trapped in a snow-storm all having physical characteristics place the lives of McCoy , Sulu and Uhura at risk . During a scene from Star Trek : First Contact that took place 100 years before the events of Enterprise , Jean-Luc Picard was in Earth 's past and had a human from that time period named Lily along with him on board the Enterprise . When they were running from the Borg on his starship they hid in the holodeck , therefore introducing the technology before the events of `` Unexpected . '' Scientists and researchers predict that variations of the holodeck will become a consumer-ready product ( without matter materialization ) by 2024 and that the actualization of Star Trek 's holodeck in the future will make extensive use of artificial intelligence and cyborgs . Although the holodeck was described in the first season of Star Trek : The Next Generation as being fairly new technology ( on starships ) , in the episode `` Once Upon A Time , '' Captain Janeway and Harry Kim mention having used a holodeck as children . Conception The Star Trek Holodeck was inspired by New York inventor and holographer , Gene Dolgoff , who is also the inventor of the digital projector . His holography laboratory , built in 1964 , was the first holography lab in New York City . In 1973 , Dolgoff was giving a technical paper on his holographic model of the human brain at a conference in Prague . There he met Melanie Toyofuku , also based in New York , who became a close friend of Dolgoff 's . After spending a great deal of time with Dolgoff learning about his pioneering work in holography , including visiting his holography laboratory in New York City , Melanie introduced him to her close friend Gene Roddenberry , who was visiting New York with his wife Majel Barrett in late 1973 . Dolgoff spent the day with Roddenberry and his wife showing them many holograms and explaining his theories of `` matter holograms '' , the holographic nature of the universe , and the holographic nature of the human brain . Dolgoff emphasized the importance holography will play in the future and that if Gene Roddenberry wanted to be accurate he must introduce holography into his Star Trek scripts , including the concept of a holographic `` room '' for the crew to use for amusement , training , and other purposes . Dolgoff had won 4th prize in the student paper contest in 1968 in which he described how such a holographic `` TV system '' could work ( in addition to describing how to use it to provide a machine capable of invisibility ) . Roddenberry wrote the concept into Star Trek : The Next Generation , in its debut in 1987 . However , the concept had already been tested in 1974 in Star Trek : the Animated Series . Applications Starfleet personnel use holodecks for training , diagnostics and recreation . Holodecks are used to recreate or simulate settings and events for analysis , such as to explore the forensics and logistics of a crime scene for law enforcement purposes , or for scientific experimentation . In general , the holodeck `` functions as a cultural repository of narrative possibilities that would normally be excluded from the ship 's own sociohistorical moment '' and `` allows the Enterprise community to include even that which it excludes by containing the excluded within a proper , controlled place which in no way intrudes upon the everyday space of the ship . '' The Emergency Medical Hologram on ships such as USS Voyager applies holodeck technology to present a single `` character '' within the otherwise natural environment of the ship 's sick bay . An example of the holodeck 's recreational functions are the holosuites that are owned and rented out—often for sexual purposes—by Quark on Deep Space Nine . Writing stories and plotlines for the holodeck is an activity pursued by people known as holonovelists . It was the chosen profession of Lt. Tom Paris of the USS Voyager , and he pursued it when the ship finally returned from the Delta Quadrant in the show 's finale . The Holosuites and holodecks use two major subsystems : the holographic image and the conversion of matter . The holographic imaging system creates realistic environments and landscapes . The conversion system of matter creates physical objects from the central supply of raw materials from the ship . Under normal conditions , a participant in a holographic simulation should not be able to distinguish a real object from a simulated one . The holodeck also generates impressive recreations of humanoid and other forms of life with precisely-shaped force fields covered by holographic imagery , with the effect that they seem solid to the touch . They are made to move by use of tractor beams , resulting in highly articulated and computer-controlled `` puppets '' which are exceptionally realistic , showing nearly equal behavior to that exhibited by living beings , depending , of course , on the limits of the software involved . However , the replication-based material transport system is obviously unable to reproduce a living being . Solid , inanimate objects on the holodeck—items such as a book , a rock , or an apple—are composed of matter arranged by the replication system and , when deemed appropriate by the computer system , can be interacted with or even consumed . Objects created by replication of matter are physically real and can indeed be removed from the holodeck , noting only that they will no longer be under the control of the computer once removed from the simulation . However , objects created on the holodeck that are purely images can not be removed from the simulated environment , even if they seem to have a physical reality due to the force fields . In order for a given item to be removed from the environment of the holodeck , a person would need to be holding the object as he/she leaves . The basic mechanism behind the holodeck is the omnidirectional holo-diode ( HDO or OHD , its acronym in English ) . The HDO comprises two types of micro-miniature devices that project a variety of special force field . The density of HDOS in a holographic surface is 400 per square centimeter , fed by an outlet electroplasma medium power . Entire walls are covered with HDOS , manufactured in an inexpensive process of printing circuits on a roll . A typical surface holodeck includes twelve sub-layers processed a total of 3.5 mm , fused to a thermal-structural light panel , which on average is 3.04 cm thick . The primary materials include sub-processor/emitter of superconducting material . Each individual HDO measures 0.01 mm . The mechanism of digital optical network , by which an HDOS receive impulses , is similar to that which feeds smaller display panels , although the walls are divided into major sections , and easier to control with greater speed , each with 0.61 m² . Sub-sections which are dedicated to the main computer can control such `` monitors '' which are the size of rooms . Besides the ability to project stereoscopic color images , HDOS manipulate the force fields in three dimensions to allow visitors to `` feel '' objects that are not really there . This tactile stimulus provides the appropriate response one would expect from a rock on the ground or a tree growing in a forest . The only factors limiting the number and types of object are given by the computer memory and time to retrieve or calculate the beginning pattern of an object , either real or imaginary . The version of `` optics '' of a HDO sends a complete picture of the environment or landscape , based on their location relative to the full panel . The visitor , however , sees only a small portion of each HDOS , almost like a fly 's eye operating in reverse . When the visitor moves the visible portions of HDOS change , changing the perspective . In reality , the energy emitted is not a visible electromagnetic emission , but is actually polarized patterns of interference . The image is reconstructed where the patterns intersect the lens of the eye or any visual receiver . Sentience of holodeck creations Several times in Next Generation storylines , it is hinted that some advanced holodeck creations , possessing artificial intelligence , have the potential to gain sentience . This is most notably indicated with the character of Moriarty . In Voyager , this is taken one step further by establishing that the ship 's Emergency Medical Hologram ( EMH ) , forced to remain active due to the ship 's human medical crew being killed , achieves recognized sentience and is awarded the same rights as `` living '' crew members . For example , the captain agrees to never turn off the EMH without its permission , and subplots during the series involve the EMH considering taking a name ( though he ultimately remains identified as the Doctor ) and developing a friendship with and implied attraction to the character Seven of Nine . Notable appearances It has been noted Star Trek has `` a number of interesting 'holodeck ' episodes that very roughly point towards interesting philosophical and sociological issues of virtual realities '' . The first episode featuring a holodeck was `` The Practical Joker '' , an animated episode in which it was called a `` recreation room '' . Due to interference with the ship 's computers , several crew members were trapped in it until the engineering crew managed to force open the doors . There were several incidents of crew being trapped or injured by holodeck malfunctions in later episodes . One resulted in the shooting of the ship 's historian on board Enterprise . In the episode `` A Fistful of Datas '' , Lt. Worf , his son Alexander , and Counselor Troi were trapped in a 19th-century American West adventure with the safety protocols disabled when a computer experiment involving Lt. Cmdr . Data went awry . Worf received a minor gunshot wound when the computer began remaking all the characters as replicas of Data . However he was able to safely play out the story , and once the story ended the trio was able to leave the holodeck . Jean-Luc Picard experiences an upgraded holodeck in `` The Big Goodbye '' , in which he portrays the detective Dixon Hill , a boyhood hero of the captain 's . This episode establishes the power and function of the holodeck . A malfunction leads to Data , Jean-Luc , and Beverly Crusher being trapped on the holodeck . Picard portrayed the character again in Star Trek : First Contact . The disabling of a holodeck 's safety protocols was used as a tactical advantage in Star Trek : First Contact , when under attack from the Borg , Jean-Luc Picard disables the security protocols and grabs a holographic tommy gun , shooting and killing two Borg drones . The holodeck was used as a plot device to explore metaphysical questions , in such episodes as `` Elementary , Dear Data '' and `` Ship in a Bottle '' , in which a holodeck character becomes self-aware and contemplates the nature of his identity and continued existence . In Michio Kaku 's TV series Sci-Fi Science : Physics of the Impossible , he discussed the Holodeck in an episode entitled Hollodeck . Usage in Star Trek : Voyager In Star Trek : Voyager the holodeck was used extensively because ( 1 ) a crew isolated from their homes required more frequent diversion , ( 2 ) the holographic Doctor could , in the early seasons , be located only in the Sick Bay or one of the holodecks , ( 3 ) one of the main characters , Tom Paris , was by nature and calling a writer ( holonovelist ) . Significant/Innovative uses of the holodeck in Star Trek Voyager include : the existence of alien `` Photonic Lifeforms '' who interact with the `` Organics '' on board Voyager primarily through the holodecks ; the introduction of children 's holonovels ; and the long-term use of holodeck locations as gathering places for all crew members : Captain Janeway gives holo-technology to the hunter-race the Hirogen after they take over Voyager for an extended period of time and use the ship 's holodecks ( safety protocols off ) to hunt down the members of the Voyager crew in ( what they consider ) intriguing holographic environments . Episode `` Flesh and Blood '' reveals that the Hirogen 's improvements ( designed to create more challenging holographic prey ) have essentially created a new race of photonic beings . In Episode `` Nothing Human '' a holographic version of a real-life war criminal ( whose unethical research helps save a crew-member 's life ) is held responsible for the crimes of the Cardassian he was modeled upon . A holonovel `` Photons Be Free '' authored by the Doctor ( Episode : `` Author , Author '' ) raises the issue of whether the holographic Doctor is a person and has any legal rights . The episode ends showing dozens of EMH Mark Is mining dilithium by hand for the federation , essentially as slaves . One of them recommends this program to another , calling it `` provocative . '' Voyager added an additional safety feature to the holodeck . Several holodeck environments are shown to include a hidden computer terminal that allows access to the holodeck controls as well as other ship systems , such as the transporters . Similar technology in other works * Ray Bradbury was perhaps the first science fiction author to envision a simulated environment similar to the holodeck . His 1951 book of short stories , The Illustrated Man , includes a story called The Veldt , in which a children 's nursery can create material objects based on thought . * In 1965 , computer scientist Ivan Sutherland stated : `` The ultimate display would , of course , be a room within which the computer can control the existence of matter . A chair displayed in such a room would be good enough to sit in . Handcuffs displayed in such a room would be confining , and a bullet displayed in such a room would be fatal . '' * In the 1973 Russian science-fiction movie Moscow-Cassiopeia , a `` Surprise Room '' operated in the same way as the holodeck in Star Trek : The Next Generation . * In `` The Practical Joker '' , a 1974 episode of Star Trek : The Animated Series , a holodeck-like `` Rec Room '' on the USS Enterprise ( NCC-1701 ) is reprogrammed to trap crew members in a snow storm . * The 1974 Japanese TV series Space Battleship Yamato ( Star Blazers in English syndication ) features a `` resort room '' which allowed the crew to combat homesickness by immersing themselves in simulated scenes of Earth . * In the X-Men comic book series , the X-Men train in the Danger Room . In the earliest version of this room depicted in the 1960s , the Danger Room used mere mechanical devices to simulate threats , but the version depicted following an upgrade by the extraterrestrial Shi'ar in the early 1980s uses sophisticated holograms , robots , and other sensory simulation to create environments as realistic as those on the holodeck . In the film X-Men : The Last Stand , the Danger Room 's holography is shown to be a combination of light projection and solid objects . * In the science fiction television series Stargate SG-1 and Stargate Atlantis , some advanced races ( such as the Asgard and the Ancients ) have holo technology , albeit generally not to the extent of a Star Trek-style holodeck . * In the series Jake 2.0 , the protagonist was seen training in a holographic room in one of the early episodes . * In the series Power Rangers : S.P.D. , the Rangers train in a similar room on at least two occasions . * In Futurama , the Nimbus is equipped with a `` holoshed '' , a parody of the holodeck . * Madden NFL 09 features a `` holographic environment '' for players to train . * In the film Spy Kids , Fegan Floop uses a holodeck-like room known as the `` virtual room '' as a film set for his television show . * In the Nintendo 64 game Perfect Dark , players can use a holo room for basic training purposes . * In Power Rangers in Space , the Power Rangers use the Simudeck on the Astro Megaship to train and exercise . * In the Show Squidbillies , ( episode `` Holodeck Redneck '' ) The Sheriff uses a holodeck to distract Early while he repossesses his truck-boat-truck-boat-truck-wave-runner , which happened inside a holodeck within a therapist 's office as a fantasy of The Sheriff 's , which in turn took place inside a holodeck in the therapist 's office as a part of one of Early 's fantasies . * Albeit being a police procedural rather than a SF-show , the medical examiners in CSI : NY use a holodeck frequently . * In 2011 author A . A. Farr created a similar environment in the book Koschei : The Conclusion : A Fallen Hero . The concept took place in a large black building said to be used for training , but once inside a city would be before you . The building contained a mix between fluctuating reality and virtual reality by a means of magic and imagination , and was in actuality just one large room . * In Future Boy Conan episode The Solar Tower , Lao shows the kids the Triangle Tower 's virtual park , which works similarly to the Holodeck * In Community , Troy and Abed have a room in their apartment painted to resemble a deactivated `` Next Generation '' holodeck . The room itself is non-functional as an actual holodeck because the technology does not exist and since the series is set in the present day , everything represented in this room are figments of Troy and Abed 's over-active imagination . * In the George Michael music video , Fastlove , the music video takes place in a holodeck like environment , with all the user 's fantasies coming to life . * In the book , Holo.Wars , the characters spend more time in holodecks , referred to as Chambers , instead of real life . * In the video game series Mass Effect , there are several holodeck like environment simulator for combat training or for entertainment in the form of arena games . * In The Transformers comic series by Marvel , issue 48 features a Holodeck-type device called Realvision .

jp_1852--Holodeck.txt

What TV show featured the Holodeck?

A steeplechase is a distance horse race in which competitors are required to jump diverse fence and ditch obstacles . Steeplechasing is primarily conducted in Ireland ( where it originated ) , the United Kingdom , Canada , United States , Australia and France . The name is derived from early races in which orientation of the course was by reference to a church steeple , jumping fences and ditches and generally traversing the many intervening obstacles in the countryside . Modern usage of the term `` steeplechase '' differs between countries . In Ireland and the United Kingdom , it refers only to races run over large , fixed obstacles , in contrast to `` hurdle '' races where the obstacles are much smaller . The collective term `` jump racing '' or `` National Hunt racing '' is used when referring to steeplechases and hurdle races collectively ( although , properly speaking , National Hunt racing also includes some flat races ) . Elsewhere in the world , `` steeplechase '' is used to refer to any race that involves jumping obstacles . The most famous steeplechase in the world is the Grand National run annually at Aintree Racecourse , in Liverpool , since its inception in 1836 ( the official race was held three years later ) , which in 2014 offered a prize fund of £1 million . History The steeplechase originated in Ireland in the 18th century as an analogue to cross-country thoroughbred horse races which went from church steeple to church steeple , hence `` steeplechase '' . The first steeplechase is said to have been the result of a wager in 1752 between Cornelius O'Callaghan and Edmund Blake , racing four miles ( 6.4 km ) cross-country from Buttevant Church to St. Leger Church in Doneraile , in Cork , Ireland . An account of the race was believed to have been in the library of the O'Briens of Dromoland Castle . Most of the earlier steeplechases were contested cross-country rather than on a track , and resembled English cross country as it exists today . The first recorded steeplechase over a prepared track with fences was run at Bedford in 1810 , although a race had been run at Newmarket in 1794 over a mile with five-foot bars every quarter mile . The first recognised English National Steeplechase took place on Monday 8 March 1830 . The 4 mi race , organised by Thomas Coleman of St Albans , was run from Bury Orchard , Harlington in Bedfordshire to the Obelisk in Wrest Park , Bedfordshire . The winner was Captain Macdowall on `` The Wonder '' , owned by Lord Ranelagh , who won in a time of 16 minutes 25 seconds . Report of the event appeared in the May and July editions of Sporting Magazine in 1830 . Steeplechasing by country Europe Great Britain and Ireland In Great Britain and Ireland , `` steeplechase '' only refers to one branch of jump racing . Collectively , Great Britain and Ireland account for over 50 % of all jump races worldwide , carding 4,800 races over fences in 2008 . Jump racing in Great Britain and Ireland is officially known as National Hunt racing . France French jump racing is similar to British and Irish National Hunt races , with a few notable differences . Hurdles are not collapsible , being more akin to small brush fences . Chases often have large fences called bullfinches , a large hedge up to 8 ft tall that horses have to jump through rather than over . There are also a larger number of cross-country chases where horses have to jump up and down banks , gallop through water , jump over stone walls as well as jump normal chasing fences . Unlike in most countries where the thoroughbred is almost exclusively used for jump racing , many of the horses in French jump racing are AQPS ( Autre Que Pur Sang ) , a breed of horse developed in France crossing thoroughbreds with saddle horses and other local breeds . Auteuil in Paris is perhaps the best known racecourse in France for French jump racing . Czech Republic The Velká pardubická Steeplechase in Pardubice in the Czech Republic is the location of one of the longest steeplechase races in Europe . The first Velka Pardubice Steeplechase was held on 5 November 1874 and it has been hosted annually since . Rest of the world United States In the United States , there are two forms of steeplechasing ( or jumps racing ) : hurdle and timber . Hurdle races occur almost always over the National fences , standardized plastic and steel fences that are 52 inches tall , with traditional natural fences of packed pine ( Springdale Race Course in Camden , S.C. ) and live hedges ( Montpelier , Va. ) in use on a few courses . National fences stand 52 inches tall at the highest point , but are mostly made of synthetic `` brush '' that can be brushed through ( much like the synthetic fences now used in other countries ) . The hurdle horse is trained to jump in as much of a regular stride as possible . This allows the horse to maintain its speed upon landing . Since it is not always possible to meet a fence in stride , the horses are also schooled in how to jump out of stride . An out of stride jump can decrease a horse 's speed drastically . Hurdle races are commonly run at distances of 2–3 miles . Hurdle races occur at steeplechase meets mainly in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast and on the turf courses of several racetracks – Saratoga , Colonial Downs , Penn National , Monmouth Park and others . Timber racing is conducted over solid and immovable wooden rail fences that , in the most extreme case , may reach five feet high . The distances are longer , ranging from three to four miles ( 6 km ) , and the jumping effort required of the horse is much different . Because of the size of the fences and their solid and unyielding construction , a timber horse is trained to jump with an arc , unlike a hurdle racer . An important factor in success at timber racing is for the horse to land in stride , so that it can carry its speed forward on the flat part of the race course . This is harder than in hurdle races because the nature of the obstacle being jumped - if a horse hits a timber fence hard enough , it can bring it almost to a complete stop . Most notable US timber races include the Maryland Hunt Cup in Glyndon and the Virginia Gold Cup in The Plains . Timber races currently are not held at any major US tracks ( since the fences are not portable ) but can be found at almost all steeplechase meets . American jump racing happens in 11 states : Georgia , South Carolina , North Carolina , Tennessee , Kentucky , Virginia , Maryland , Pennsylvania , Delaware , New Jersey and New York . The National Steeplechase Association is the official sanctioning body of American jump racing . [ http : //www.steeplechasetimes.com Steeplechase Times ] newspaper covers the sport . Thomas Hitchcock ( 1860–1941 ) is known as the father of American steeplechasing . In the late 1800s , he built a steeplechase training center on his 3000 acre property in Aiken , South Carolina and trained horses imported from England . No less important are the contributions by fellow Aiken seasonal resident F. Ambrose Clark . Clark held many important chases on his Brookville ( Long Island ) estate , Broad Hollow , in the 1920s and 1930s . Ford Conger Field was built by F. Ambrose Clark and is the site of the annual Aiken Steeplechase , a part of the Triple Crown in March . The first Steeplechase Meet in Aiken was held March 14 , 1930 in Hitchcock Woods . In addition to the Aiken Steeplechase , South Carolina is also home to the Colonial Cup and the Carolina Cup , which is the largest event on the circuit . Both of these races are held in Camden , South Carolina . The Virginia Gold Cup is also among the oldest steeplechase races in the United States , with its first running in 1922 . Up until recently , the Gold Cup was a four-mile ( 6 km ) long hurdle race . The length of this race prompted many jokes - such as the jockeys putting marbles in their mouth and spitting one out each lap to keep track of what lap they had completed . Since the Gold Cup moved to the present course , it has been changed into a timber race with a very large purse . Every first Saturday in May , more than 50,000 spectators gather at Great Meadow near The Plains , Virginia ( 45 miles west of Washington , DC ) . The 4 mi grass course with 4 ft high timber fences is often referred to as the `` crown jewel of steeplechasing . '' Tennessee State Historian Walter T. Durham 's book Grasslands relates the history of the Southern Grasslands Hunt and Racing Foundation , a group that organized the first international steeplechase held on U.S. soil 80 years ago at Grassland Downs , a 24 sqmi course located in Gallatin , TN between 1929 and 1932 . In addition to holding an inaugural race in 1930 , two international steeplechases were held at Grasslands in 1930 and 1931 . The winners were awarded a gold trophy designed by King Alfonso XIII of Spain . The Iroquois Steeplechase event is held in Nashville , Tennessee . Beginning in 1941 , with one year off during World War II , the race has been run continuously at Percy Warner Park on the a course inspired by Marcellus Frost and designed by William duPont . The Queens Cup Steeplechase is held annually on the last Saturday of April at Brooklandwood , a farm and estate in Mineral Springs , North Carolina , about 20 mi from Charlotte . The Breeders ' Cup Grand National Steeplechase ( formerly known as the American Grand National ) is held each October at the Far Hills Races in Far Hills , New Jersey and draws about 50,000 spectators for a single day race-meet . It is the richest event in American steeplechasing with a purse of $ 500,000 . During the 1940s and 50s , the Broad Hollow Steeplechase Handicap , the Brook National Steeplechase Handicap and the American Grand National were regarded as American steeplechasing 's Triple Crown . Kentucky Downs near Franklin , Kentucky ( originally Dueling Grounds Race Course ) was built in 1990 as a steeplechase track , with a kidney-shaped turf circuit . At its inception , the track offered some of the richest purses in the history of American steeplechase including a $ 750,000 race . The track has undergone numerous ownership changes , with steeplechase races playing an on-and-off role ( mainly off ) in the track 's limited live race meets . The Stoneybrook Steeplechase was initiated in Southern Pines , North Carolina on a private farm owned by Michael G. Walsh in 1949 and was held annually in the spring until 1996 , with attendance near 20,000 . It resumed as an annual spring event at the new Carolina Horse Park in 2001 . The New York Turf Writers Cup is held each year at Saratoga Race Course , attracting the best steeplechasing horses in the U.S . Australia Australia has a long history of jumps racing which was introduced by British settlers . In the 20th century the northern states of Queensland and New South Wales phased out all jumps racing . Tasmania ceased jumps racing as of April 2007 due to economic unfeasibility . The jumping season in Australia normally takes place from March until September . ( some minor races are held either side of these months ) . Horses used for steeplechasing are primarily former flat racing horses , rather than horses specifically bred for jumping . There is an emphasis on safety in Australia which has led to a reduction in the size of obstacles . As jumps races take place at flat racing meetings there is also a need for portable jumps . Most chasing occurs on steeple lanes but also includes parts of the main flat racing track . From Easter to May the major distance races occur . The Great Eastern Steeplechase is held on Easter Monday at Oakbank , South Australia drawing crowds of over 100,000 . The Grand Annual , which has the most fences of any steeplechase in the world , is held in May at Warrnambool . Each state holds its own Grand National race ; the most prestigious is the VRC Grand National at Flemington run in the winter . The jumping season culminates with the set-weights-and-penalties Hiskens Steeple run at Moonee Valley . The Hiskens is regarded as the Cox Plate of jumps racing . The most famous Australian horse in the field was Crisp , who was narrowly beaten by the champion Red Rum in the English Grand National . Crisp subsequently beat Red Rum at set weights . More recently Karasi has won the Nakayama Grand Jump , the world 's richest jumps race held in Japan , three times . Jumps racing was set to end in Victoria after the 2010 season . In September 2010 , having satisfied a limit on the maximum number of deaths among starting horses , hurdle racing was granted a 3-year extension by Racing Victoria . A decision regarding steeplechase was postponed until October 2010 when a program for the 2011 season only was granted . Since 2012 , both hurdle races and steeplechases have been approved by Racing Victoria . Statistics Number of jumping races by country in 2008 . * Great Britain : 3366 * France : 2194 * Ireland : 1434 * United States of America : 200 * Australia : 146 * Japan : 132 * New Zealand : 129 * Germany : 58 Opposition to jumps racing Australia Jumps racing has been phased out in all states in Australia except for Victoria and South Australia . The NSW government banned jumps racing in 1997 after a bill was put through linked with bird tethering ; however , by that stage there had not been regular jumps race meetings in NSW since World War 2 when it was ceased due to the war efforts ( only a handful of exhibition events on an annual basis in the 1980s . ) In 2012 , the VRC Grand National Steeplechase was worth $ 250,000 and the Warrnambool Grand Annual Steeplechase was worth $ 252,000 . Starting horses have increased by 33 % . Jumps racing is opposed in Australia by groups including the animal rights organisations the RSPCA Australia , Animals Australia , and Animal Liberation ( South Australia ) , and by political parties such as The Greens . Eventing The equestrian sport of eventing had a steeplechase phase , which was held in its CCI 3 Day event format . This phase is called cross country when in the context of eventing . There was a steeplechase phase , a roads and track phase and finally the cross country jumps course . Now only the cross country jumps course remains ( changes were due to space required for the three courses and logistics ) . Unlike the racing form which is far closer to the sport of hunting , the horses do not race each other over the course , but rather are required to come within a pre-set `` optimum time period . '' Penalty points are added to the competitor 's score if they greatly exceed or come in well under the optimum time . The cross country obstacles are usually extremely varied , some being topped with brush as in steeplechasing , others being solid , others are into and out of water and others are over ditches . There are often combinations of several fences to test the horse 's agility . The variety in obstacles is used to make the horse demonstrate agility , power , intelligence , and bravery .

qw_3596--Steeplechase.txt

Where, since 1839, is the Grand National Steeplechase run over 4 1/2 miles in England in March?

Grape phylloxera ( Daktulosphaira vitifoliae ( Fitch 1855 ) ; family Phylloxeridae ) ; originally described in France as Phylloxera vastatrix ; equated to the previously described Daktulosphaira vitifoliae , Phylloxera vitifoliae ; commonly just called phylloxera ( ; from Greek φύλλον , leaf , and ξερόν , dry ) is a pest of commercial grapevines worldwide , originally native to eastern North America . These almost microscopic , pale yellow sap-sucking insects , related to aphids , feed on the roots and leaves of grapevines ( depending on the phylloxera genetic strain ) . On Vitis vinifera L. , the resulting deformations on roots ( `` nodosities '' and `` tuberosities '' ) and secondary fungal infections can girdle roots , gradually cutting off the flow of nutrients and water to the vine . Nymphs also form protective galls on the undersides of grapevine leaves of some Vitis species and overwinter under the bark or on the vine roots ; these leaf galls are typically only found on the leaves of American vines . American vine species ( such as Vitis labrusca ) have evolved to have several natural defenses against phylloxera . The roots of the American vines exude a sticky sap that repels the nymph form when it tries to feed from the vine by clogging its mouth . If the nymph is successful in creating a feeding wound on the root , American vines respond by forming a protective layer of tissue to cover the wound and protect it from secondary bacterial or fungal infections . Currently there is no cure for phylloxera and unlike other grape diseases such as powdery or downy mildew , there is no chemical control or response . The only successful means of controlling phylloxera has been the grafting of phylloxera resistant American rootstock ( usually hybrid varieties created from the Vitis berlandieri , Vitis riparia and Vitis rupestris species ) to more susceptible European vinifera vines . Biology of phylloxera The phylloxera aphid has a complex life-cycle of up to 18 stages , that can be divided into four principal forms : sexual form , leaf form , root form , and winged form . The sexual form begins with male and female eggs laid on the underside of young grape leaves . The male and female at this stage lack a digestive system , and once hatched , they mate and then die . Before the female dies , she lays one winter egg in the bark of the vine 's trunk . This egg develops into the leaf form . This nymph , the fundatrix ( stem mother ) , climbs onto a leaf and lays eggs parthenogenetically in a leaf gall that she creates by injecting saliva into the leaf . The nymphs that hatch from these eggs may move to other leaves , or move to the roots where they begin new infections in the root form . In this form they perforate the root to find nourishment , infecting the root with a poisonous secretion that stops it from healing . This poison eventually kills the vine . This nymph reproduces by laying eggs for up to seven more generations ( which also can reproduce parthenogenetically ) each summer . These offspring spread to other roots of the vine , or to the roots of other vines through cracks in the soil . The generation of nymphs that hatch in the autumn hibernate in the roots and emerge next spring when the sap begins to rise . In humid areas , the nymphs develop into the winged form , else they perform the same role without wings . These nymphs start the cycle again by either staying on the vine to lay male and female eggs on the bottom side of young grape leaves , or flying to an uninfected vine to do the same . Many attempts have been made to interrupt this life cycle to eradicate phylloxera , but the louse has proven to be extremely adaptable , as no one stage of the life cycle is solely dependent upon another for the propagation of the species . Fighting the `` phylloxera plague '' In the late 19th century the phylloxera epidemic destroyed most of the vineyards for wine grapes in Europe , most notably in France . Phylloxera was introduced to Europe when avid botanists in Victorian England collected specimens of American vines in the 1850s . Because phylloxera is native to North America , the native grape species there are at least partially resistant . By contrast , the European wine grape Vitis vinifera is very susceptible to the insect . The epidemic devastated vineyards in Britain and then moved to the European mainland , destroying most of the European grape growing industry . In 1863 , the first vines began to deteriorate inexplicably in the southern Rhône region of France . The problem spread rapidly across the continent . In France alone , total wine production fell from 84.5 million hectolitres in 1875 to only 23.4 million hectolitres in 1889.winepros.com.au Some estimates hold that between two-thirds and nine-tenths of all European vineyards were destroyed . In France , one of the desperate measures of grape growers was to bury a live toad under each vine to draw out the `` poison '' . Areas with soils composed principally of sand or schist were spared , and the spread was slowed in dry climates , but gradually the aphid spread across the continent . A significant amount of research was devoted to finding a solution to the phylloxera problem , and two major solutions gradually emerged : grafting cuttings onto resistant rootstocks and hybridization . Response By the end of the 19th Century , hybridization became a popular avenue of research for stopping the phylloxera louse . Hybridization is the breeding of Vitis vinifera with resistant species . Most native American grapes are naturally phylloxera resistant ( Vitis aestivalis , rupestris , and riparia are particularly so , while Vitis labrusca has a somewhat weak resistance to it ) but have aromas that are off-putting to palates accustomed to European grapes . The intent of the cross was to generate a hybrid vine that was resistant to phylloxera but produced wine that did not taste like the American grape . Ironically , the hybrids tend not to be especially resistant to phylloxera , although they are much more hardy with respect to climate and other vine diseases . The new hybrid varieties have never gained the popularity of the traditional ones . In the EU they are generally banned or at least strongly discouraged from use in quality wine , although they are still in widespread use in much of North America , such as Missouri , Ontario , and upstate New York . Grafting with resistant rootstock Use of a resistant , or tolerant , rootstock , developed by Charles Valentine Riley in collaboration with J. E. Planchon and promoted by T. V. Munson , involved grafting a Vitis vinifera scion onto the roots of a resistant Vitis aestivalis or other American native species . This is the preferred method today , because the rootstock does not interfere with the development of the wine grapes ( more technically , the genes responsible for the grapes are not in the rootstock but in the scion ) , and it furthermore allows the customization of the rootstock to soil and weather conditions , as well as desired vigor . Not all rootstocks are equally resistant . Between the 1960s and the 1980s in California , many growers used a rootstock called AxR1 . Even though it had already failed in many parts of the world by the early twentieth century , it was thought to be resistant by growers in California . Although phylloxera initially did not feed heavily on AxR1 roots , within twenty years , mutation and selective pressures within the phylloxera population began to overcome this rootstock , resulting in the eventual failure of most vineyards planted on AxR1 . The replanting of afflicted vineyards continues today . Many have suggested that this failure was predictable , as one parent of AxR1 is in fact a susceptible V. vinifera cultivar . But the transmission of phylloxera tolerance is more complex , as is demonstrated by the continued success of 41B , an F1 hybrid of Vitis berlandieri and Vitis vinifera . The full story of the planting of AxR1 in California , its recommendation , the warnings , financial consequences , and subsequent recriminations remains to be told . Modern phylloxera infestation also occurs when wineries are in need of fruit immediately , and choose to plant ungrafted vines rather than wait for grafted vines to be available . The use of resistant American rootstock to guard against phylloxera also brought about a debate that remains unsettled to this day : whether self-rooted vines produce better wine than those that are grafted . Of course , the argument is essentially irrelevant wherever phylloxera exists . Had American rootstock not been available and used , there would be no V. vinifera wine industry in Europe or most places other than Chile , Washington State , and most of Australia . Cyprus was spared by the phylloxera plague , and thus its wine stock has not been grafted for phylloxera resistant purposes . Aftermath The only European grapes that are natively resistant to phylloxera are the Assyrtiko grape which grows on the volcanic island of Santorini , Greece , although it is not clear whether the resistance is due to the rootstock itself or the volcanic ash on which it grows ; and the Juan Garcia grape variety , autochthonous to the medieval village of Fermoselle in Spain . The Juan Garcia variety remained—untouched by phylloxera—sheltered on the vineyards planted on the man-made land terraces along the mountainous skirts on the gigantic and steep Arribes River Canyon , where the microclimatic conditions discourage the growth of phylloxera . To escape the threat of phylloxera , wines have been produced since 1979 on the sandy beaches of Provence ’ s Bouches-du-Rhône , which extends from the coastline of the Gard region to the waterfront village of Saintes Maries de la Mer . The sand , sun and wind in this area has been a major deterrent to phylloxera . The wine produced here is called `` Vins des Sables '' or `` wines of the sands '' . In the same department , where the canal irrigation system built by the Romans still partly persists to this day , winter flooding is also practiced where possible , for instance south of the city of Tarascon . Flooding the vineyards for 50 days kills all the nymphs that overwinter in the roots or the bark at the bottom of the plant . Some regions were so blighted by phylloxera that they never recovered , and instead the producers switched crops entirely . The island of Mallorca is one example , where almonds now substitute for vines . Vines that survived phylloxera According to wine critic and author Kerin O'Keefe , thanks to tiny parcels of vineyards throughout Europe which were inexplicably unscathed , some vineyards still exist as they were before the phylloxera devastation . So far , Chilean wine has remained phylloxera free . It is isolated from the world by the Atacama Desert to the north , the Pacific Ocean to the west , and the Andes Mountains to the east . Phylloxera has also never been found in several wine-growing regions of Australia , including Western Australia and South Australia . The Riesling of the Mosel region has also remained untouched by phylloxera ; the parasite is unable to survive in the slate soil . Three tiny parcels of ungrafted Pinot noir escaped phylloxera , which is used to produce Bollinger Vieilles Vignes Françaises , one of the rarest and most expensive Champagnes available . A rare vintage port is made from ungrafted vines grown on a small parcel , called Nacional , in the heart of the Quinta do Noval estate . There is no scientific explanation as to why this plot survived while others succumbed . Another vineyard unaffected by the phylloxera is the Lisini estate in Montalcino in Italy : a half-hectare vineyard of Sangiovese , with vines dating back to the mid-1800s . Since 1985 the winery has produced a few bottles of Prefillossero ( Italian for `` before the phylloxera '' ) . The wine has devout followers , including Italian wine critic Luigi Veronelli who inscribed on a bottle of the 1987 at the winery that drinking Prefillossero was like listening to ‘ the earth singing to the sky ’ . Jumilla in southeastern Spain is an important area of ungrafted vineyards , mainly from Monastrell grapes . Those vineyards , however , are not immune to the louse , which is slowly advancing and destroying the fabled Pie Franco vineyard of the Casa Castillo estate , planted in 1942 , i.e. , when phylloxera had already been in the region for five decades .

qw_6296--Phylloxera.txt

"The ""phylloxera epidemic"" affects what?"

The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War ( , ) , often referred to in France as the War of 1870 ( 19 July 1871 ) , was a conflict between the Second French Empire of Napoleon III and the German states of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia . The conflict was caused by Prussian ambitions to extend German unification and French fears of the shift in the European balance of power that would result if the Prussians succeeded . Some historians argue that the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck deliberately provoked a French attack in order to draw the southern German states—Baden , Württemberg , Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt—into an alliance with the North German Confederation dominated by Prussia , while others contend that Bismarck did not plan anything and merely exploited the circumstances as they unfolded . On 16 July 1870 , the French parliament voted to declare war on the German Kingdom of Prussia and hostilities began three days later . The German coalition mobilised its troops much more quickly than the French and rapidly invaded northeastern France . The German forces were superior in numbers , had better training and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology , particularly railroads and artillery . A series of swift Prussian and German victories in eastern France , culminating in the Siege of Metz and the Battle of Sedan , saw Napoleon III captured and the army of the Second Empire decisively defeated . A Government of National Defence declared the Third Republic in Paris on 4 September and continued the war for another five months ; the German forces fought and defeated new French armies in northern France . Following the Siege of Paris , the capital fell on 28 January 1871 and then a revolutionary uprising called the Paris Commune seized power in the capital and held it for two months , until it was bloodily suppressed by the regular French army at the end of May 1871 . The German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king , Wilhelm I , uniting Germany as a nation-state . The Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 gave Germany most of Alsace and some parts of Lorraine , which became the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine ( Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen ) . The German conquest of France and the unification of Germany upset the European balance of power , that had existed since the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and Otto von Bismarck maintained great authority in international affairs for two decades . French determination to regain Alsace-Lorraine and fear of another Franco-German war , along with British apprehension about the balance of power , became factors in the causes of World War I . Causes The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are deeply rooted in the events surrounding the unification of Germany . In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 , Prussia had annexed numerous territories and formed the North German Confederation . This new power destabilized the European balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars . Napoleon III , then the emperor of France , demanded compensations in Belgium and on the left bank of the Rhine to secure France 's strategic position , which the Prussian chancellor , Otto von Bismarck , flatly refused . Prussia then turned its attention towards the south of Germany , where it sought to incorporate the southern German kingdoms , Bavaria , Württemberg , Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt , into a unified Prussia-dominated Germany . France was strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states , which would have significantly strengthened the Prussian military . In Prussia , some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire . This aim was epitomized by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck 's later statement : `` I did not doubt that a Franco-German war must take place before the construction of a United Germany could be realised . '' Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the southern German states to side with Prussia , hence giving Germans numerical superiority . Many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe , and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace . The immediate cause of the war resided in the candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen , a Prussian prince , to the throne of Spain . France feared encirclement by an alliance between Prussia and Spain . The Hohenzollern prince 's candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure , but Otto von Bismarck goaded the French into declaring war by altering a telegram sent by William I . Releasing the Ems Dispatch to the public , Bismarck made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion , which inflamed public opinion in France . Some historians argue that Napoleon III also sought war , particularly as a result of the diplomatic failure , in 1866 , to obtain any concessions following the Austro-Prussian War , and he believed he would win a conflict with Prussia . They also argue that he wanted a war to resolve growing domestic political problems . Other historians , notably French historian Pierre Milza , dispute this . On 8 May 1870 , shortly before the war , French voters had overwhelmingly supported Napoleon III 's program in a national plebiscite , with 7,358,000 votes yes against 1,582,000 votes no , an increase of support of two million votes since the legislative elections in 1869 . According to Milza , the Emperor had no need for a war to increase his popularity . The Ems telegram had exactly the effect on French public opinion that Bismarck had intended . `` This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull '' , Bismarck later wrote . Gramont , the French foreign minister , declared that he felt `` he had just received a slap '' . The leader of the monarchists in Parliament , Adolphe Thiers , spoke for moderation , arguing that France had won the diplomatic battle and there was no reason for war , but he was drowned out by cries that he was a traitor and a Prussian . Napoleon 's new prime minister , Emile Ollivier , declared that France had done all that it could humanly and honorably do to prevent the war , and that he accepted the responsibility `` with a light heart . '' A crowd of 15–20,000 people , carrying flags and patriotic banners , marched through the streets of Paris , demanding war . On 19 July 1870 a declaration of war was sent to the Prussian government . The southern German states immediately sided with Prussia . Opposing forces The French Army consisted in peacetime of approximately 400,000 soldiers , some of them regulars , others conscripts who until 1869 served the comparatively long period of seven years with the colours . Some of them were veterans of previous French campaigns in the Crimean War , Algeria , the Franco-Austrian War in Italy , and in the Franco-Mexican War . However , following the `` Seven Weeks War '' between Prussia and Austria four years earlier , it had been calculated that the French Army could field only 288,000 men to face the Prussian Army when potentially 1,000,000 would be required . Under Marshal Adolphe Niel , urgent reforms were made . Universal conscription ( rather than by ballot , as previously ) and a shorter period of service gave increased numbers of reservists , who would swell the army to a planned strength of 800,000 on mobilisation . Those who for any reason were not conscripted were to be enrolled in the Garde Mobile , a militia with a nominal strength of 400,000 . However , the Franco-Prussian War broke out before these reforms could be completely implemented . The mobilisation of reservists was chaotic and resulted in large numbers of stragglers , while the Garde Mobile were generally untrained and often mutinous . French infantry were equipped with the breech-loading Chassepot rifle , one of the most modern mass-produced firearms in the world at the time . With a rubber ring seal and a smaller bullet , the Chassepot had a maximum effective range of some with a short reloading time . French tactics emphasised the defensive use of the Chassepot rifle in trench-warfare style fighting—the so-called feu de bataillon . The artillery was equipped with rifled , muzzle-loaded La Hitte guns . The army also possessed a precursor to the machine-gun : the mitrailleuse , which could unleash significant , concentrated firepower but nevertheless lacked range and was comparatively immobile , and thus prone to being easily overrun . The mitrailleuse was mounted on an artillery gun carriage and grouped in batteries in a similar fashion to cannon . The army was nominally led by Napoleon III , with Marshals Francois Achille Bazaine and Patrice de Mac-Mahon in command of the field armies . However , there was no previously arranged plan of campaign in place . The only campaign plan prepared between 1866 and 1870 was a defensive one . The Prussian Army was composed not of regulars but conscripts . Service was compulsory for all of men of military age , and thus Prussia and its North and South German allies could mobilise and field some 1,000,000 soldiers in time of war . German tactics emphasised encirclement battles like Cannae and using artillery offensively whenever possible . Rather than advancing in a column or line formation , Prussian infantry moved in small groups that were harder to target by artillery or French defensive fire . The sheer number of soldiers available made encirclement en masse and destruction of French formations relatively easy . The army was still equipped with the Dreyse needle gun of Battle of Königgrätz fame , which was by this time showing the age of its 25-year-old design . The rifle had a range of only 600 m and lacked the rubber breech seal that permitted aimed shots . The deficiencies of the needle gun were more than compensated for by the famous Krupp 6-pounder ( 3 kg ) steel breech-loading cannons being issued to Prussian artillery batteries . Firing a contact-detonated shell , the Krupp gun had a longer range and a higher rate of fire than the French bronze muzzle loading cannon , which relied on faulty time fuses . The Prussian army was controlled by the General Staff , under Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke . The Prussian army was unique in Europe for having the only such organisation in existence , whose purpose in peacetime was to prepare the overall war strategy , and in wartime to direct operational movement and organise logistics and communications . The officers of the General Staff were hand-picked from the Prussian Kriegsakademie ( War Academy ) . Moltke embraced new technology , particularly the railroad and telegraph , to coordinate and accelerate mobilisation of large forces . French Army incursion Preparations for the offensive On 28 July 1870 Napoleon III left Paris for Metz and assumed command of the newly titled Army of the Rhine , some 202,448 strong and expected to grow as the French mobilization progressed . Marshal MacMahon took command of I Corps ( 4 infantry divisions ) near Wissembourg , Marshal François Canrobert brought VI Corps ( four infantry divisions ) to Châlons-sur-Marne in northern France as a reserve and to guard against a Prussian advance through Belgium . A pre-war plan laid out by the late Marshal Niel called for a strong French offensive from Thionville towards Trier and into the Prussian Rhineland . This plan was discarded in favour of a defensive plan by Generals Charles Frossard and Bartélemy Lebrun , which called for the Army of the Rhine to remain in a defensive posture near the German border and repel any Prussian offensive . As Austria along with Bavaria , Württemberg and Baden were expected to join in a revenge war against Prussia , I Corps would invade the Bavarian Palatinate and proceed to `` free '' the South German states in concert with Austro-Hungarian forces . VI Corps would reinforce either army as needed . Unfortunately for Frossard 's plan , the Prussian army was mobilizing far more rapidly than expected . The Austro-Hungarians , still smarting after their defeat by Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War , were treading carefully before stating that they would only commit to France 's cause if the southern Germans viewed the French positively . This did not materialize as the South German states had come to Prussia 's aid and were mobilizing their armies against France . Occupation of Saarbrücken Napoleon III was under immense domestic pressure to launch an offensive before the full might of Moltke 's forces was mobilized and deployed . Reconnaissance by Frossard 's forces had identified only the Prussian 16th Infantry Division guarding the border town of Saarbrücken , right before the entire Army of the Rhine . Accordingly , on 31 July the Army marched forward toward the Saar River to seize Saarbrücken . General Frossard 's II Corps and Marshal Bazaine 's III Corps crossed the German border on 2 August , and began to force the Prussian 40th Regiment of the 16th Infantry Division from the town of Saarbrücken with a series of direct attacks . The Chassepot rifle proved its worth against the Dreyse rifle , with French riflemen regularly outdistancing their Prussian counterparts in the skirmishing around Saarbrücken . However the Prussians resisted strongly , and the French suffered 86 casualties to the Prussian 83 casualties . Saarbrücken also proved to be a major obstacle in terms of logistics . Only one railway there led to the German hinterland but could be easily defended by a single force , and the only river systems in the region ran along the border instead of inland . While the French hailed the invasion as the first step towards the Rhineland and later Berlin , General Le Bœuf and Napoleon III were receiving alarming reports from foreign news sources of Prussian and Bavarian armies massing to the southeast in addition to the forces to the north and northeast . Moltke had indeed massed three armies in the area—the Prussian First Army with 50,000 men , commanded by General Karl von Steinmetz opposite Saarlouis , the Prussian Second Army with 134,000 men commanded by Prince Friedrich Karl opposite the line Forbach-Spicheren , and the Prussian Third Army with 120,000 men commanded by Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm , poised to cross the border at Wissembourg . Prussian Army advance Battle of Wissembourg Upon learning from captured Prussian soldiers and a local area police chief , that the Prussian Crown Prince 's Third Army was just 30 mi from Saarbrücken near the town of Wissembourg , General Le Bœuf and Napoleon III decided to retreat to defensive positions . General Frossard , without instructions , hastily withdrew the elements of the Army of the Rhine in Saarbrücken back to Spicheren and Forbach . Marshal MacMahon , now closest to Wissembourg , spread his four divisions over 20 mi to react to any Prussian invasion . This organization of forces was due to a lack of supplies , forcing each division to seek out basic provisions along with the representatives of the army supply arm that was supposed to aid them . What made a bad situation much worse was the conduct of General Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot , commander of the 1st Division . He told General Abel Douay , commander of the 2nd Division , on 1 August that `` The information I have received makes me suppose that the enemy has no considerable forces very near his advance posts , and has no desire to take the offensive '' . Two days later , he told MacMahon that he had not found `` a single enemy post ... it looks to me as if the menace of the Bavarians is simply bluff '' . Even though Ducrot shrugged off the possibility of an attack by the Germans , MacMahon tried to warn the other divisions of his army , without success . The first action of the Franco-Prussian War took place on 4 August 1870 . This battle saw the unsupported division of General Douay of I Corps , with some attached cavalry , which was posted to watch the border , attacked in overwhelming but uncoordinated fashion by the German 3rd Army . During the day , elements of a Bavarian and two Prussian corps became engaged and were aided by Prussian artillery , which blasted holes in the defenses of the town . Douay held a very strong position initially , thanks to the accurate long-range fire of the Chassepots but his force was too thinly stretched to hold it . Douay was killed in the late morning when a caisson of the divisional mitrailleuse battery exploded near him ; the encirclement of the town by the Prussians threatened the French avenue of retreat . The fighting within the town had become extremely intense , becoming a door to door battle of survival . Despite a never-ending attack of Prussian infantry , the soldiers of the 2nd Division kept to their positions . The people of the town of Wissembourg finally surrendered to the Germans . The French troops who did not surrender retreated westward , leaving behind and wounded and another and all of their remaining ammunition . The final attack by the Prussian troops also cost The German cavalry then failed to pursue the French and lost touch with them . The attackers had an initial superiority of numbers , a broad deployment which made envelopment highly likely but the effectiveness of French Chassepot rifle-fire inflicted costly repulses on infantry attacks , until the French infantry had been extensively bombarded by the Prussian artillery . Battle of Spicheren The Battle of Spicheren , on 5 August , was the second of three critical French defeats . Moltke had originally planned to keep Bazaine 's army on the Saar River until he could attack it with the 2nd Army in front and the 1st Army on its left flank , while the 3rd Army closed towards the rear . The aging General von Steinmetz made an overzealous , unplanned move , leading the 1st Army south from his position on the Moselle . He moved straight toward the town of Spicheren , cutting off Prince Frederick Charles from his forward cavalry units in the process . On the French side , planning after the disaster at Wissembourg had become essential . General Le Bœuf , flushed with anger , was intent upon going on the offensive over the Saar and countering their loss . However , planning for the next encounter was more based upon the reality of unfolding events rather than emotion or pride , as Intendant General Wolff told him and his staff that supply beyond the Saar would be impossible . Therefore , the armies of France would take up a defensive position that would protect against every possible attack point , but also left the armies unable to support each other . While the French army under General MacMahon engaged the German 3rd Army at the Battle of Wörth , the German 1st Army under Steinmetz finished their advance west from Saarbrücken . A patrol from the German 2nd Army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia spotted decoy fires close and Frossard 's army farther off on a distant plateau south of the town of Spicheren , and took this as a sign of Frossard 's retreat . Ignoring Moltke 's plan again , both German armies attacked Frossard 's French 2nd Corps , fortified between Spicheren and Forbach . The French were unaware of German numerical superiority at the beginning of the battle as the German 2nd Army did not attack all at once . Treating the oncoming attacks as merely skirmishes , Frossard did not request additional support from other units . By the time he realized what kind of a force he was opposing , it was too late . Seriously flawed communications between Frossard and those in reserve under Bazaine slowed down so much that by the time the reserves received orders to move out to Spicheren , German soldiers from the 1st and 2nd armies had charged up the heights . Because the reserves had not arrived , Frossard erroneously believed that he was in grave danger of being outflanked as German soldiers under General von Glume were spotted in Forbach . Instead of continuing to defend the heights , by the close of battle after dusk he retreated to the south . The German casualties were relatively high due to the advance and the effectiveness of the Chassepot rifle . They were quite startled in the morning when they had found out that their efforts were not in vain—Frossard had abandoned his position on the heights . Battle of Wörth The Battle of Wörth ( also known as Fröschwiller or Reichshoffen ) began when the two armies clashed again on 6 August near Wörth in the town of Fröschwiller , about 10 mi from Wissembourg . The Crown Prince of Prussia 's 3rd army had , on the quick reaction of his Chief of Staff General von Blumenthal , drawn reinforcements which brought its strength up to 140,000 troops . The French had been slowly reinforced and their force numbered only 35,000 . Although badly outnumbered , the French defended their position just outside Fröschwiller . By afternoon , the Germans had suffered or wounded and the French had lost a similar number of casualties and another taken prisoner , a loss of about 50 % . The Germans captured Fröschwiller which sat on a hilltop in the centre of the French line . Having lost any hope for victory and facing a massacre , the French army disengaged and retreated in a westerly direction towards Bitche and Saverne , hoping to join French forces on the other side of the Vosges mountains . The German 3rd army did not pursue the French but remained in Alsace and moved slowly south , attacking and destroying the French garrisons in the vicinity . Battle of Mars-La-Tour About 160,000 French soldiers were besieged in the fortress of Metz following the defeats on the frontier . A retirement from Metz to link up with French forces at Châlons , was ordered on 15 August and spotted by a Prussian cavalry patrol under Major Oskar von Blumenthal . Next day a grossly outnumbered Prussian force of 30,000 men of III Corps ( of the 2nd Army ) under General Konstantin von Alvensleben , found the French Army near Vionville , east of Mars-la-Tour . Despite odds of four to one , the III Corps launched a risky attack . The French were routed and the III Corps captured Vionville , blocking any further escape attempts to the west . Once blocked from retreat , the French in the fortress of Metz had no choice but to engage in a fight that would see the last major cavalry engagement in Western Europe . The battle soon erupted , and III Corps was shattered by incessant cavalry charges , losing over half its soldiers . The German Official History recorded and French casualties of On 16 August , the French had a chance to sweep away the key Prussian defense , and to escape . Two Prussian corps had attacked the French advance guard , thinking that it was the rearguard of the retreat of the French Army of the Meuse . Despite this misjudgment the two Prussian corps held the entire French army for the whole day . Outnumbered 5 to 1 , the extraordinary élan of the Prussians prevailed over gross indecision by the French . The French had lost the opportunity to win a decisive victory . Battle of Gravelotte The Battle of Gravelotte , or Gravelotte–St . Privat ( 18 August ) , was the largest battle during the Franco-Prussian War . It was fought about 6 mi west of Metz , where on the previous day , having intercepted the French army 's retreat to the west at the Battle of Mars-La-Tour , the Prussians were now closing in to complete the destruction of the French forces . The combined German forces , under Field Marshal Count Helmuth von Moltke , were the Prussian First and Second Armies of the North German Confederation numbering about 210 infantry battalions , 133 cavalry squadrons , and 732 heavy cannons totaling 188,332 officers and men . The French Army of the Rhine , commanded by Marshal François-Achille Bazaine , numbering about 183 infantry battalions , 104 cavalry squadrons , backed by 520 heavy cannons , totaling 112,800 officers and men , dug in along high ground with their southern left flank at the town of Rozerieulles , and their northern right flank at St. Privat . On 18 August , the battle began when at 08:00 Moltke ordered the First and Second Armies to advance against the French positions . By 12:00 , General Manstein opened up the battle before the village of Amanvillers with artillery from the 25th Infantry Division . But the French had spent the night and early morning digging trenches and rifle pits while placing their artillery and their mitrailleuses in concealed positions . Finally aware of the Prussian advance , the French opened up a massive return fire against the mass of advancing Germans . The battle at first appeared to favour the French with their superior Chassepot rifle . However , the Prussian artillery was superior with the all-steel Krupp breech-loading gun . By 14:30 , General Steinmetz , the commander of the First Army , unilaterally launched his VIII Corps across the Mance Ravine in which the Prussian infantry were soon pinned down by murderous rifle and mitrailleuse fire from the French positions . At 15:00 , the massed guns of the VII and VIII Corps opened fire to support the attack . But by 16:00 , with the attack in danger of stalling , Steinmetz ordered the VII Corps forward , followed by the 1st Cavalry Division . By 16:50 , with the Prussian southern attacks in danger of breaking up , the Prussian 3rd Guards Infantry Brigade of the Second Army opened an attack against the French positions at St. Privat which were commanded by General Canrobert . At 17:15 , the Prussian 4th Guards Infantry Brigade joined the advance followed at 17:45 by the Prussian 1st Guards Infantry Brigade . All of the Prussian Guard attacks were pinned down by lethal French gunfire from the rifle pits and trenches . At 18:15 the Prussian 2nd Guards Infantry Brigade , the last of the 1st Guards Infantry Division , was committed to the attack on St. Privat while Steinmetz committed the last of the reserves of the First Army across the Mance Ravine . By 18:30 , a considerable portion of the VII and VIII Corps disengaged from the fighting and withdrew towards the Prussian positions at Rezonville . With the defeat of the First Army , Prince Frederick Charles ordered a massed artillery attack against Canrobert 's position at St. Privat to prevent the Guards attack from failing too . At 19:00 the 3rd Division of Fransecky 's II Corps of the Second Army advanced across Ravine while the XII Corps cleared out the nearby town of Roncourt and with the survivors of the 1st Guards Infantry Division launched a fresh attack against the ruins of St. Privat . At 20:00 , the arrival of the Prussian 4th Infantry Division of the II Corps and with the Prussian right flank on Mance Ravine , the line stabilised . By then , the Prussians of the 1st Guards Infantry Division and the XII and II Corps captured St. Privat forcing the decimated French forces to withdraw . With the Prussians exhausted from the fighting , the French were now able to mount a counter-attack . General Bourbaki , however , refused to commit the reserves of the French Old Guard to the battle because , by that time , he considered the overall situation a 'defeat ' . By 22:00 , firing largely died down across the battlefield for the night . The next morning , the French Army of the Rhine , rather than resume the battle with an attack of its own against the battle-weary German armies , retreated to Metz where they were besieged and forced to surrender two months later . The casualties were horrible , especially for the attacking Prussian forces . A grand total of 20,163 German troops were killed , wounded or missing in action during the August 18 battle . The French losses were 7,855 killed and wounded along with 4,420 prisoners of war ( half of them

odql_14342--Franco-Prussian_War.txt

In the 1870 'Siege of Metz', the French were besieged by which army?

The President of the United States of America ( POTUS ) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States . The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces . The President of the United States is considered one of the world 's most powerful people , leading the world 's only contemporary superpower . The role includes being the commander-in-chief of the world 's most expensive military with the largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by real and nominal GDP . The office of the president holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad . Article II of the U.S. Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president . The power includes execution of federal law , alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive , diplomatic , regulatory and judicial officers , and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate . The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves , and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances . The president is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is enrolled . The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States . Since the founding of the United States , the power of the president and the federal government has grown substantially . The president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term , and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers , the other being the Vice President of the United States . The Twenty-second Amendment , adopted in 1951 , prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third full term . It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president , or acting president , for more than two years of another person 's term as president . In all , 43 individuals have served 44 presidencies ( counting Cleveland 's two non-consecutive terms separately ) spanning 56 full four-year terms . On January 20 , 2009 , Barack Obama became the 44th and current president . On November 6 , 2012 , he was re-elected and is currently serving the 57th term . The next presidential election is scheduled to take place on November 8 , 2016 ; on January 20 , 2017 , the newly elected president will take office . Origin In 1776 , the Thirteen Colonies , acting through the Second Continental Congress , declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution . The new states , though independent of each other as nation states , recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British . Desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy , Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states . As a central authority , Congress under the Articles was without any legislative power ; it could make its own resolutions , determinations , and regulations , but not any laws , nor any taxes or local commercial regulations enforceable upon citizens . This institutional design reflected the conception of how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion : a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire . Out from under any monarchy , the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives ( e.g. , making war , receiving ambassadors , etc . ) to Congress , while severally lodging the rest within their own respective state governments . Only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1 , 1781 , when Maryland became the final state to ratify them . In 1783 , the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies . With peace at hand , the states each turned toward their own internal affairs . By 1786 , Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak , their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another , witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports , their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates , and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest . Civil and political unrest loomed . Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785 , Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states , set for September 1786 in Annapolis , Maryland , with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms . When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states , the Annapolis delegates called for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles , to be held the next spring in Philadelphia . Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington 's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia . When the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787 , the 12 state delegations in attendance ( Rhode Island did not send delegates ) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments . Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers , elected annually by the legislature to a single term only , sharing power with an executive council , and countered by a strong legislature . New York offered the greatest exception , having a strong , unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term , and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter . It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged . Powers and duties Article I legislative role The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto . The Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law . Once the legislation has been presented , the president has three options : # Sign the legislation ; the bill then becomes law . # Veto the legislation and return it to Congress , expressing any objections ; the bill does not become law , unless each house of Congress votes to override the veto by a two-thirds vote . # Take no action . In this instance , the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation . After 10 days , not counting Sundays , two possible outcomes emerge : # * If Congress is still convened , the bill becomes law . # * If Congress has adjourned , thus preventing the return of the legislation , the bill does not become law . This latter outcome is known as the pocket veto . In 1996 , Congress attempted to enhance the president 's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act . The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill , particularly any new spending , any amount of discretionary spending , or any new limited tax benefit . Congress could then repass that particular item . If the president then vetoed the new legislation , Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means , a two-thirds vote in both houses . In Clinton v. City of New York , , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional . Article II executive powers War and foreign affairs powers Perhaps the most important of all presidential powers is the command of the United States Armed Forces as its commander-in-chief . While the power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress , the president has ultimate responsibility for direction and disposition of the military . The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces ( belonging to the Department of Defense ) is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense , with assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , to the Combatant Commands , as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan ( UCP ) . The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president 's powers regarding the military ; Alexander Hamilton explains this in Federalist No . 69 : Congress , pursuant to the War Powers Resolution , must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days , although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed , rendering it ineffectual . Additionally , Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation . While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war , critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations , including Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 , the Korean War , the Vietnam War , and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1990 . Along with the armed forces , the president also directs U.S. foreign policy . Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense , the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States . The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments , and negotiates treaties with other nations , which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds vote of the Senate . Although not constitutionally provided , presidents also sometimes employ `` executive agreements '' in foreign relations . These agreements frequently regard administrative policy choices germane to executive power ; for example , the extent to which either country presents an armed presence in a given area , how each country will enforce copyright treaties , or how each country will process foreign mail . However , the 20th century witnessed a vast expansion of the use of executive agreements , and critics have challenged the extent of that use as supplanting the treaty process and removing constitutionally prescribed checks and balances over the executive in foreign relations . Supporters counter that the agreements offer a pragmatic solution when the need for swift , secret , and/or concerted action arises . Administrative powers The president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to `` take care that the laws be faithfully executed . '' The executive branch has over four million employees , including members of the military . Presidents make numerous executive branch appointments : an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving . Ambassadors , members of the Cabinet , and other federal officers , are all appointed by a president with the `` advice and consent '' of a majority of the Senate . When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days , the president may make recess appointments . Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate . The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue . Generally , a president may remove purely executive officials at will . However , Congress can curtail and constrain a president 's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute . The president additionally possesses the ability to direct much of the executive branch through executive orders that are grounded in federal law or constitutionally granted executive power . Executive orders are reviewable by federal courts and can be superseded by federal legislation . To manage the growing federal bureaucracy , Presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff , who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States . Within the Executive Office , the President 's innermost layer of aides ( and their assistants ) are located in the White House Office . Juridical powers The president also has the power to nominate federal judges , including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States . However , these nominations do require Senate confirmation . Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance . When nominating judges to U.S. district courts , presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of Senatorial courtesy . Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves , as is often done just before the end of a presidential term , not without controversy . Historically , two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy . The first is executive privilege , which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties . George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay 's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain . While not enshrined in the Constitution , or any other law , Washington 's action created the precedent for the privilege . When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal , the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon , , that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution . When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal , the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones , , that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits . These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid , although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined . Additionally , federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees , but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president . The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security . Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States , when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy . However , the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds , where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege . Before the September 11 attacks , use of the privilege had been rare , but increasing in frequency . Since 2001 , the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation , thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims , as in the Ninth Circuit 's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan , Inc . Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions . Legislative facilitator The Constitution 's Ineligibility Clause prevents the President ( and all other executive officers ) from simultaneously being a member of Congress . Therefore , the president can not directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress . However , the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation , especially if the president 's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress . For example , the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress . The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated , periodic reports to Congress . These reports may be either written or oral , but today are given as the State of the Union address , which often outlines the president 's legislative proposals for the coming year . Additionally , the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made . In the 20th century critics began charging that too many legislative and budgetary powers have slid into the hands of presidents that should belong to Congress . As the head of the executive branch , presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress . One critic charged that presidents could appoint a `` virtual army of 'czars ' – each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House . '' Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it . This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional . Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an `` increasingly swollen executive branch '' and `` the eclipse of Congress . '' According to Article II , Section 3 , Clause 2 of the Constitution , the president may convene either or both houses of Congress . If both houses can not agree on a date of adjournment , the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn . Ceremonial roles As head of state , the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents . William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium , Washington , D.C. , on the Washington Senators ' Opening Day . Every president since Taft , except for Jimmy Carter , threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day , the All-Star Game , or the World Series , usually with much fanfare . The President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization . Other presidential traditions are associated with American holidays . Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children . Beginning in 1947 during the Harry S. Truman administration , every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual national thanksgiving turkey presentation held at the White House . Since 1989 , when the custom of `` pardoning '' the turkey was formalized by George H. W. Bush , the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life . Presidential traditions also involve the president 's role as head of government . Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition . Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president . During a state visit by a foreign head of state , the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn , a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961 . This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening . The modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation 's premier celebrities . Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves . One critic described the presidency as `` propagandized leadership '' which has a `` mesmerizing power surrounding the office . '' Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras . One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed `` in rich detail '' which `` drew on the power of myth '' regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions . As a result , some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents : voters expect a president to `` drive the economy , vanquish enemies , lead the free world , comfort tornado victims , heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees . '' Critics of presidency 's evolution Most of the nation 's Founding Fathers expected the Congress , which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution , to be the dominant branch of government ; they did not expect a strong executive . However , presidential power has shifted over time , which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful , unchecked , unbalanced , and `` monarchist '' in nature . Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards `` undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies . '' She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding `` the many existing uncheckable executive powers – such as executive orders , decrees , memorandums , proclamations , national security directives and legislative signing statements – that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid , interference or consent from Congress . '' Activist Bill Wilson opined that the expanded presidency was `` the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule . '' Selection process Eligibility Article II , Section 1 , Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency : * be a natural-born citizen of the United States ; Foreign-born American citizens who met the age and residency requirements at the time the Constitution was adopted were also eligible for the presidency . However , this allowance has since become obsolete . * be at least thirty-five years old ; * be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years . The Twelfth Amendment precludes anyone ineligible to being the president from becoming the vice president . A person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions : * Under the Twenty-second Amendment , no person can be elected president more than twice . The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president , the former can only be elected president once . Scholars disagree over whether a person precluded by the Twenty-second Amendment to being elected president is also precluded to being vice president . * Under Article I , Section 3 , Clause 7 , upon conviction in impeachment cases , the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal office , including that of president . * Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment , no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution , and later rebelled against the United States , can become president . However , this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress . Campaigns and nomination The modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections , which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions , where the most successful candidate is made the party 's nominee for president . Typically , the party 's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee , and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention . The most common previous profession by U.S. presidents is lawyer . Nominees participate in nationally televised debates , and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees , third party candidates may be invited , such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates . Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views , convince voters and solicit contributions . Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives . Election and oath The president is elected indirectly . A number of electors , collectively known as the Electoral College , officially select the president . On Election Day , voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors . Each state is allocated a number of electors , equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined . Generally , the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state 's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College . The winning slate of electors meet at its state 's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December , about six weeks after the election , to vote . They then send a record of that vote to Congress . The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president—acting in that role 's capacity as President of the Senate—and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress , which was elected at the same time as the president . Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment , the president 's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election . This date , known as Inauguration Day , marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and the vice president . Before executing the powers of the office , a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath : Although not required , presidents have traditionally palmed a Bible while swearing the oath and have added , `` So help me God ! '' to the end of the oath . Further , although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths , presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States . Tenure and term limits The term of office for president and vice president is four years . George Washington , the first president , set an unofficial precedent of serving only two terms , which subsequent presidents followed until 1940 . Before Franklin D. Roosevelt , attempts at a third term were encouraged by supporters of Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt ; neither of these attempts succeeded . In 1940 , Franklin D. Roosevelt declined to seek a third term , but allowed his political party to `` draft '' him as its presidential candidate and was subsequently elected to a third term . In 1941 , the United States entered World War II , leading voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944 . But Roosevelt died only 82 days after taking office for the fourth term on 12 April 1945 . After the war , and in response to Roosevelt being elected to third and fourth terms , the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted . The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice , or once if that person served more than half of another president 's term . Harry S. Truman , president when this amendment was adopted , was exempted from its limitations and briefly sought a third ( a second full ) term before withdrawing from the 1952 election . Since the amendment 's adoption , four presidents have served two full terms : Dwight D. Eisenhower , Ronald Reagan , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush . Barack Obama has been elected to a second term , and will complete his term on 20 January 2017 , if he does not die or resign before that date . Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second term , but were defeated . Richard Nixon was elected to a second term , but resigned before completing it . Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total , having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy 's assassination . However , Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary , surprising many Americans . Gerald Ford sought a full term , after serving out the last two years and five months of Nixon 's second term , but was not elected . Vacancy

sfq_3345--President_of_the_United_States.txt

Who was the third President of the USA?

The Man with the Golden Gun is the soundtrack for the ninth James Bond film of the same name . The theme tune was performed by Lulu , composed by John Barry , and the lyrics to the song were written by Don Black . Alice Cooper claims his song `` The Man With The Golden Gun '' was to be used by the film 's producers until it was dropped for Lulu 's song instead . Cooper 's song appears on his album Muscle of Love . Barry considered the theme tune – the only Bond film title track not to chart as a single in either the U.K. or U.S. – and score to be among the weakest of his contributions to the series : `` It 's the one I hate most ... it just never happened for me . '' Certainly the title song is notable for having suggestive lyrics , and during a TV celebration for the series ' 40th anniversary , Lulu 's performance was introduced with reference to its being the raunchiest of all Bond songs . For the first time , the song 's end theme is not a straight reprise of the opener , as it begins with different lyrics ( subsequent films followed suit with variations in arrangement , ahead of a new practice of using a different song altogether ) . Some Bond music fans consider Lulu 's brassy vocal to be effective in setting the tone for the film 's female characters . The film was also the first to drop the distinctive plucked guitar from the Bond theme heard over the gun barrel sequence - in all subsequent John Barry James Bond scores , this theme would be heard on strings and trumpet . Not present on the album but heard in the film is a brief reprise , for recognition purposes , of the song `` Live and Let Die '' when a character ( Sheriff JW Pepper ) from the previous film reappears . The next three Bond films would wittily feature excerpts from the familiar music of other films , too ( though classics rather than Bond films ) , while On Her Majesty 's Secret Service had included a janitor character whistling the theme from Goldfinger as an in-joke . The popular song `` Mindfields '' by The Prodigy ( released on The Fat of the Land ) features a specific part of `` Hip 's Trip '' . Barry gave the band permission to do so . Track listing Composer , except as noted , is John Barry . # `` The Man with the Golden Gun ( Main Title ) '' ( J. Barry/D . Black ) – Lulu # `` Scaramanga 's Fun House '' # `` Chew Me in Grisly Land '' contains the `` James Bond Theme '' , originally composed for the Dr. No soundtrack # `` The Man with the Golden Gun ( Jazz Instrumental ) '' # `` Getting the Bullet '' # `` Goodnight Goodnight '' # `` Let 's Go Get 'Em '' # `` Hip 's Trip '' # `` Kung Fu Fight '' # `` In Search of Scaramanga 's Island '' # `` Return to Scaramanga 's Fun House '' # `` The Man With the Golden Gun ( End Title ) '' ( J. Barry/D . Black ) – Lulu

dpql_4681--The_Man_with_the_Golden_Gun_(soundtrack).txt

Who performed the theme song to The Man With The Golden Gun?

`` Abracadabra '' is a song by American rock group Steve Miller Band , written by Steve Miller . The song was released as the first single from the 1982 album of the same name the same year ( see 1982 in music ) . The song is said to have been inspired by the American singer Diana Ross with whom Miller had met while performing together on Hullabaloo in the 1960s and is listed at # 70 on Billboard Greatest Songs of all time . The song became a worldwide hit , charting in ten countries and topping the charts in six countries , and has become one of the band 's biggest hits , along with `` The Joker '' and `` Rock'n Me '' . In the U.S. , the song was # 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 for two non-consecutive weeks . It was knocked off the top by Chicago 's `` Hard to Say I 'm Sorry '' , only to return to # 1 two weeks later . A similar occurrence happened in 1976 , when Steve Miller Band 's `` Rock'n Me '' knocked Chicago 's `` If You Leave Me Now '' out of the # 1 spot . The UK single version has never yet appeared on CD . It is 3:33 and is an exclusive edit where the chorus is edited back in at 3:06 and repeats to fade . The non-UK single version of the song appears in several Steve Miller Band compilation albums such as Young Hearts as well as on the Time-Life compilation Sounds of the Eighties : 1980–1982 and on a CD of songs hand-picked by Guy Fieri titled Diners , Drive-Ins and Dives : Road Songs That Rock . Capitol issued an alternative version on a promotional 12 '' single ( Capitol Records # SPRO 9797 ) for radio airplay ; it featured a slightly slower tempo , removal of the second verse and first chorus , and a slightly earlier fade than the LP version . A live version of the song was released on Steve Miller Band Live ! in 1983 . Music Video The video features magicians in a white room performing tricks and other illusions with a female assistant . Since Miller himself was touring Europe at the time and unavailable for the shoot , he appears in the video only in a series of photos , wearing sunglasses or having his eyes covered with a black bar . Chart performance Weekly singles charts Year-end charts End-of-decade charts Single track listings 7 '' 45 RPM ; Side one # '' Abracadabra [ Single version ] '' ( Note : UK 7 '' version is an exclusive edit - see above for details ) ; Side two # '' Baby Wan na Dance '' ( North American release ) # '' Never Say No '' ( European release ) 12 '' Maxi North American release ; Side one # '' Abracadabra '' [ Album version ] # '' Abracadabra '' [ Single version ] ; Side two # '' Macho City '' [ Album version ] European release ; Side one # '' Abracadabra '' [ Album version ] ; Side two # '' Never Say No '' [ Album version ] Popular culture Cover versions of the song have been performed by Sugar Ray on their album 14:59 and by the Mike Chapman Band . A live version by the Belgian band Das Pop appeared on their 2004 DVD-single Love is Fair . The song was also covered by Australian jazz/folk group Flap ! on their self-titled debut album ( 2010 ) . John Parr and Rick Wakeman covered this song , which was released in 2013 on the album Fly Like An Eagle : An All-Star Tribute to Steve Miller Band . In an Alarm für Cobra 11 episode `` Tödlicher Ruhm '' ( Deadly Fame ) Mark Keller and Scooter performed a cover of this song . The song was used repeatedly in the 2013 film The Incredible Burt Wonderstone . The song also featured in an advert for drink brand Robinsons .

odql_15009--Abracadabra_(Steve_Miller_Band_song).txt

"""Abracadabra"" (1982) and ""The Joker"" (1990) were big hits for which group?"

12 Years a Slave is a 2013 period drama film and an adaptation of the 1853 slave narrative memoir Twelve Years a Slave by Solomon Northup , a New York State-born free African-American man who was kidnapped in Washington , D.C. , in 1841 and sold into slavery . Northup worked on plantations in the state of Louisiana for 12 years before his release . The first scholarly edition of Northup 's memoir , co-edited in 1968 by Sue Eakin and Joseph Logsdon , carefully retraced and validated the account and concluded it to be accurate . Other characters in the film were also real people , including Edwin and Mary Epps , and Patsey . The film was directed by Steve McQueen . The screenplay was written by John Ridley . Chiwetel Ejiofor stars as Solomon Northup . Michael Fassbender , Benedict Cumberbatch , Paul Dano , Paul Giamatti , Lupita Nyong ' o , Sarah Paulson , Brad Pitt , and Alfre Woodard are all featured in supporting roles . Principal photography took place in New Orleans , Louisiana , from June 27 to August 13 , 2012 . The locations used were four historic antebellum plantations : Felicity , Bocage , Destrehan , and Magnolia . Of the four , Magnolia is nearest to the actual plantation where Northup was held . 12 Years a Slave received widespread critical acclaim , and was named the best film of 2013 by several media outlets . It proved to be a box office success , earning over $ 187 million on a production budget of $ 22 million . The film won three Academy Awards : Best Picture , Best Supporting Actress for Nyong ' o , and Best Adapted Screenplay for Ridley . The Best Picture win made McQueen the first black producer ever to have received the award and the first black director to have directed a Best Picture winner . The film was awarded the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama , and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts recognized it with the Best Film and the Best Actor award for Ejiofor . Plot In 1841 , Solomon Northup is a free African-American man working as a violinist , living with his wife and two children in Saratoga Springs , New York . Two white men , Brown and Hamilton , offer him short-term employment as a musician if he will travel with them to Washington , D.C . However , once they arrive , the duo drug Northup and conspire to deliver him to a slave pen . Northup is later shipped to New Orleans along with others who have been detained against their will . A slave trader named Freeman gives Northup the identity of `` Platt '' , a runaway slave from Georgia , and sells him and another slave Eliza to plantation owner William Ford . Due to tension between Northup and another plantation worker , Ford sells him to another slave owner named Edwin Epps . In the process , Northup attempts to explain that he is actually a free man , but to no avail . Some time later , an outbreak of cotton worm befalls Epps ' plantation . Unable to work his fields , Epps leases his slaves to a neighboring plantation for the season . While there , Northup gains the favor of the plantation 's owner , Judge Turner , who allows him to play the fiddle at a neighbor 's wedding anniversary celebration , and to keep his earnings . When Northup returns to Epps , he attempts to use the money to pay a white field hand and former overseer , Armsby , to mail a letter to his friends in New York state . Armsby agrees to deliver the letter , and accepts Northup 's saved money in return , but later betrays him to Epps . Northup is narrowly able to convince Epps that Armsby is lying and avoids punishment . Northup begins working on the construction of a gazebo with a Canadian laborer named Samuel Bass . Bass is unsettled by the brutal way that Epps treats his slaves and expresses his opposition to slavery , earning Epps 's enmity . Patsy sneaks off to Mistress Shaw 's house to get some soap to clean herself . Epps calls her a liar and ties her to post to prepare her for a whipping . Epps hands the whip to Northup and forces him to whip Patsy . Northup reluctantly begins to whip her but Epps rips the whip out of Northup 's hands and unleashes a brutal whipping on Patsy . Her back is shredded and her flesh is torn apart . Later Northup confides his kidnapping to Bass . Once again , Northup asks for help in getting a letter to Saratoga Springs . Bass , risking his life , agrees to send it . One day , Northup is called over by the local sheriff , who arrives in a carriage with another man . The sheriff asks Northup a series of questions to confirm his answers match the facts of his life in New York . Northup recognizes the sheriff 's companion as Mr. Parker , a shopkeeper he knew in Saratoga . Parker has come to free him , and the two embrace , though an enraged Epps furiously protests the circumstances and tries to prevent him from leaving . After being enslaved for 12 years , Northup is restored to freedom and returned to his family . As he walks into his home , he sees his wife with their son and daughter and her husband , who present him with his grandson and namesake , Solomon Northup Staunton . The film 's epilogue displays a series of graphics recounting Northup 's unsuccessful suits against Brown , Hamilton and Burch , the 1853 publication of Northup 's slave narrative memoir , Twelve Years a Slave , his role in the abolitionist movement , and the mystery surrounding details of his death and burial . Cast * Chiwetel Ejiofor as Solomon Northup / Platt * Michael Fassbender as Edwin Epps * Lupita Nyong ' o as Patsey * Sarah Paulson as Mary Epps * Paul Dano as John Tibeats * Benedict Cumberbatch as William Ford * Alfre Woodard as Mistress Harriet Shaw * Adepero Oduye as Eliza * Garret Dillahunt as Armsby * Scoot McNairy as Merrill Brown * Taran Killam as Abram Hamilton * Chris Chalk as Clemens Ray * Paul Giamatti as Theophilus Freeman * Brad Pitt as Samuel Bass * Michael K. Williams as Robert * Bill Camp as Ebenezer Radburn * Tom Proctor as Biddee Quvenzhané Wallis and Dwight Henry have small roles as Margaret Northup and Uncle Abram , respectively . Production Development After meeting screenwriter John Ridley at a Creative Artists Agency screening of Hunger in 2008 , director Steve McQueen got in touch with Ridley about his interest in making a film about `` the slave era in America '' with `` a character that was not obvious in terms of their trade in slavery . '' Developing the idea back and forth , the two did not strike a chord until McQueen 's partner , Bianca Stigter , found Solomon Northup 's 1853 memoir Twelve Years a Slave . McQueen later told an interviewer : I read this book , and I was totally stunned . At the same time I was pretty upset with myself that I did n't know this book . I live in Amsterdam where Anne Frank is a national hero , and for me this book read like Anne Frank 's diary but written 97 years before – a firsthand account of slavery . I basically made it my passion to make this book into a film . After a lengthy development process , during which Brad Pitt 's production company Plan B Entertainment backed the project , which eventually helped get some financing from various film studios , the film was officially announced in August 2011 with McQueen to direct and Chiwetel Ejiofor to star as Solomon Northup , a free African-American who was kidnapped and sold into slavery in the Deep South . McQueen compared Ejiofor 's conduct `` of class and dignity '' to that of Sidney Poitier and Harry Belafonte . In October 2011 , Michael Fassbender ( who starred in McQueen 's previous films Hunger and Shame ) joined the cast . In early 2012 , the rest of the roles were cast , and filming was scheduled to begin at the end of June 2012 . To capture the language and dialects of the era and regions in which the film takes place , dialect coach Michael Buster assisted the cast in altering their speech . The language has a literary quality related to the style of writing of the day and the strong influence of the King James Bible . Buster explained : We do n't know what slaves sounded like in the 1840s , so I just used rural samples from Mississippi and Louisiana [ for actors Ejiofor and Fassbender ] . Then for Benedict [ Cumberbatch ] , I found some real upper-class New Orleanians from the '30s . And then I also worked with Lupita Nyong ' o , who is Kenyan but she did her training at Yale . So she really shifted her speech so she could do American speech . After both won Oscars at the 86th Academy Awards , it was reported that McQueen and Ridley had been in an ongoing feud over screenplay credit . McQueen reportedly had asked Ridley for shared credit , which he declined . McQueen appealed to Fox Searchlight , which sided with Ridley . Neither thanked the other during their respective acceptance speeches at the event . Since the event , Ridley has noted his regret for not mentioning McQueen and denied the feud . He spoke favorably of working with McQueen , and explained that his sole screenplay credit was due to the rules of the Writers Guild of America . McQueen has not commented on the alleged feud . Filming With a production budget of , principal photography began in New Orleans , Louisiana , on , 2012 . After seven weeks , filming concluded on , 2012 . As a way to keep down production costs , a bulk of the filming took place around the greater New Orleans area – mostly south of the Red River country in the north of the state , where the historic Northup was enslaved . Among locations used were four historic antebellum plantations : Felicity , Bocage , Destrehan , and Magnolia . Magnolia , a plantation in Schriever , Louisiana , is just a few miles from one of the historic sites where Northup was held . `` To know that we were right there in the place where these things occurred was so powerful and emotional , '' said actor Chiwetel Ejiofor . `` That feeling of dancing with ghosts – it 's palpable . '' Filming also took place at the Columns Hotel and Madame John 's Legacy in the French Quarter of New Orleans . Cinematographer Sean Bobbitt , the film 's primary camera operator , shot 12 Years a Slave on 35 mm film with a 2.35:1 widescreen aspect ratio using both an Arricam LT and ST. `` Particularly for a period piece , film gives the audience a definite sense of period and quality , '' said Bobbitt . `` And because of the story 's epic nature , widescreen clearly made the most sense . Widescreen means a big film , an epic tale – in this case an epic tale of human endurance . '' The filmmakers avoided the desaturated visual style that is typical of a more gritty documentary aesthetic . Deliberately drawing visual comparisons in the filming to the works of Spanish painter Francisco Goya , McQueen explained : When you think about Goya , who painted the most horrendous pictures of violence and torture and so forth , and they 're amazing , exquisite paintings , one of the reasons they 're such wonderful paintings is because what he 's saying is , 'Look – look at this . ' So if you paint it badly or put it in the sort of wrong perspective , you draw more attention to what 's wrong with the image rather than looking at the image . Design To accurately depict the time period of the film , the filmmakers conducted extensive research that included studying artwork from the era . With eight weeks to create the wardrobe , costume designer Patricia Norris collaborated with Western Costume to compile costumes that would illustrate the passage of time while also being historically accurate . Using an earth tone color palette , Norris created nearly 1,000 costumes for the film . `` She [ Norris ] took earth samples from all three of the plantations to match the clothes , '' McQueen said , `` and she had the conversation with Sean [ Bobbitt ] to deal with the character temperature on each plantation , there was a lot of that minute detail . '' The filmmakers also used some pieces of clothing discovered on set that were worn by slaves . Music The musical score to 12 Years a Slave was composed by Hans Zimmer , with original on-screen violin music written and arranged by Nicholas Britell and performed by Tim Fain . The film also features a few pieces of western classical and American folk music such as Franz Schubert 's `` Trio in B-flat , D471 '' and John and Alan Lomax 's arrangement of `` Run , Nigger , Run '' . A soundtrack album , Music from and Inspired by 12 Years a Slave , was released digitally on November 5 and received a physical format release on November 11 , 2013 by Columbia Records . In addition to Zimmer 's score , the album features music inspired by the film by artists such as John Legend , Laura Mvula , Alicia Keys , Chris Cornell , and Alabama Shakes . Legend 's cover of `` Roll , Jordan , Roll '' debuted online three weeks prior to the soundtrack 's release . Historical accuracy African-American history and culture scholar Henry Louis Gates Jr. was a consultant on the film , and researcher David Fiske , co-author of Solomon Northup : The Complete Story of the Author of Twelve Years a Slave , provided some material used to market the film . Nevertheless , news and magazine articles around the time of the film 's release described a scholar alleging some license that Northup could have taken with his book , and liberties that McQueen definitely took with Northup 's original , for dramatic , modernizing , or other reasons . Scott Feinberg wrote in the The Hollywood Reporter about a September 22 New York Times article that `` dredged up and highlighted a 1985 essay by another scholar , James Olney , that questioned the 'literal truth ' of specific incidents in Northup 's account and suggested that David Wilson , the white amanuensis to whom Northup had dictated his story , had taken the liberty of sprucing it up to make it even more effective at rallying public opinion against slavery . '' According to Olney , when abolitionists invited an ex-slave to share his experience in slavery at an antislavery convention , and when they subsequently funded the appearance of that story in print , `` they had certain clear expectations , well understood by themselves and well understood by the ex-slave , too . '' Noah Berlatsky wrote in the The Atlantic about a scene in McQueen 's adaptation . Shortly after Northup 's kidnapping , he is sent on a slave ship . One of the sailors attempts to rape a female slave , but is stopped by a male slave . `` The sailor unhesitatingly stabs and kills [ the male slave ] , '' he wrote , stating that `` this seems unlikely on its face—slaves are valuable , and the sailor is not the owner . And , sure enough , the scene is not in the book . '' Forrest Wickman of Slate wrote of Northup 's book giving a more favorable account of the author 's onetime master , William Ford , than the McQueen film . In Northup 's own words , `` There never was a more kind , noble , candid , Christian man than William Ford , '' adding that Ford 's circumstances `` blinded [ Ford ] to the inherent wrong at the bottom of the system of Slavery . '' The movie , however , according to Wickham , `` frequently undermines Ford . '' McQueen undercuts Christianity itself as well , in an effort to update the ethical lessons from Northup 's story for the 21st century , by holding the institutions of Christianity up to the light for their ability to justify slavery at the time . Northup was a Christian of his time , writing of his former master being `` blinded '' by `` circumstances '' that in retrospect meant a racist acceptance of slavery despite being a Christian , a position untenable to some Christians now and to Christian abolitionists of the 19th century but not contradictory to Northup himself . Valerie Elverton Dixon in The Washington Post characterized the Christianity depicted in the movie as `` broken '' . Emily West , an associate professor of history at the University of Reading who specializes in the history of slavery in the U.S. , said she had `` never seen a film represent slavery so accurately '' . Reviewing the film for History Extra , the website of BBC History Magazine , she said : `` The film starkly and powerfully unveiled the sights and sounds of enslavement – from slaves picking cotton as they sang in the fields , to the crack of the lash down people ’ s backs . We also heard a lot about the ideology behind enslavement . Masters such as William Ford and Edwin Epps , although very different characters , both used an interpretation of Christianity to justify their ownership of slaves . They believed the Bible sanctioned slavery , and that it was their ‘ Christian duty ’ to preach the scriptures to their slaves . '' Release Initial screenings 12 Years a Slave premiered at the Telluride Film Festival on August 30 , 2013 ; it was later screened at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival on September 6 , the New York Film Festival on October 8 , the New Orleans Film Festival on October 10 , and the Philadelphia Film Festival on October 19 . On November 15 , 2011 , Summit Entertainment announced it had secured a deal to distribute 12 Years a Slave to international markets . In April 2012 , a few weeks before principal photography , New Regency Productions agreed to co-finance the film . Because of a distribution pact between 20th Century Fox and New Regency , Fox Searchlight Pictures acquired the film 's United States distribution rights . However , instead of paying for the distribution rights , Fox Searchlight made a deal in which it would share box-office proceeds with the financiers of the independently financed film . 12 Years a Slave was commercially released on , 2013 in the United States for a limited release of 19 theaters , with a wide release in subsequent weeks . The film was initially scheduled to be released in late December 2013 , but `` some exuberant test screenings '' led to the decision to move up the release date . The film was distributed by Entertainment One in the United Kingdom . Marketing Due to both the film 's explicit nature and award contender status , 12 Years a Slaves financial success was being watched closely . Many analysts compared the film 's content to other drama films of a similar vein such as Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) and The Passion of the Christ ( 2004 ) , which became box office successes despite their respective subject matters . `` It may be a tough subject matter , but when handled well ... films that are tough to sit through can still be commercially successful , '' said Phil Contrino of Boxoffice Magazine . Despite its content , the film 's critical success has assisted its domestic distribution by Fox Searchlight that began with a limited released aimed primarily towards art house and African-American patrons . The film 's release was gradually widened in subsequent weeks , similarly to how the studio had successfully done in years prior with films such as Black Swan and The Descendants . International release dates for 12 Years a Slave were largely delayed to early 2014 in order to take advantage of the attention created by awards seasons . During its marketing campaign , 12 Years a Slave received unpaid endorsements by celebrities such as Kanye West and Sean Combs . In a video posted by Revolt , Combs urged viewers to see 12 Years a Slave by stating : `` This movie is very painful but very honest , and is a part of the healing process . I beg all of you to take your kids , everybody to see it . ... You have to see this so you can understand , so you can just start to understand . '' Home media Following its cinematic release in theaters , the Region 1 Code widescreen edition of the film was released on DVD in the United States on March 4 , 2014 . Special features for the DVD include ; a Closed Caption option , The Team - Meet the creative minds assembled by Director Steve McQueen and bring Solomon Northup 's journey to life bonus selection , and The Score - Follow film Composer Hans Zimmer creating his dramatic score feature . In supplemental fashion , a widescreen hi-definition Blu-ray Disc version of the film was also released on the same day . Special features include ; a historical portrait from Director Steve McQueen 's documentary feature , cast and crew interviews , The Team special feature , and The Score selection . An additional viewing option for the film in the media format of Video on demand has been made available as well . Reception Box office 12 Years a Slave earned $ 187.7 million , including $ 56.7 million in the United States . During its opening limited release in the United States , 12 Years a Slave debuted with a weekend total of $ 923,715 on 19 screens for a $ 48,617 per-screen average . The following weekend , the film entered the top ten after expanding to 123 theatres and grossing an additional $ 2.1 million . It continued to improve into its third weekend , grossing $ 4.6 million at 410 locations . The film release was expanded to over 1,100 locations on November 8 , 2013 . In 2014 , 12 Years a Slave was the 10th most-illegally downloaded movie , with 23.653 million such downloads , according to Variety . Critical response 12 Years a Slave received near-universal acclaim by critics and audiences , for its acting ( particularly Ejiofor , Fassbender and Nyong ' o ) , Steve McQueen 's direction , John Ridley 's screenplay , its production values , and its faithfulness to Solomon Northup 's account . Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 96 % of critics gave the film a `` Certified Fresh '' rating , based on 304 reviews with an average score of 9/10 , with the site 's consensus stating , `` It 's far from comfortable viewing , but 12 Years a Slaves unflinchingly brutal look at American slavery is also brilliant—and quite possibly essential—cinema . '' Metacritic , another review aggregator , assigned the film a weighted average score of 97 ( out of 100 ) based on 48 reviews from mainstream critics , considered to be `` universal acclaim '' . It is currently one of the site 's highest-rated films as well as the best reviewed film of 2013 . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an `` A '' grade . Richard Corliss of TIME heralded the film and its director , Steve McQueen , by stating : `` Indeed , McQueen 's film is closer in its storytelling particulars to such 1970s exploitation-exposés of slavery as Mandingo and Goodbye , Uncle Tom . Except that McQueen is not a schlockmeister sensationalist but a remorseless artist . '' Corliss draws parallels with Nazi Germany , saying , `` McQueen shows that racism , aside from its barbarous inhumanity , is insanely inefficient . It can be argued that Nazi Germany lost the war both because it diverted so much manpower to the killing of Jews and because it did not exploit the brilliance of Jewish scientists in building smarter weapons . So the slave owners dilute the energy of their slaves by whipping them for sadistic sport and , as Epps does , waking them at night to dance for his wife 's cruel pleasure . '' Gregory Ellwood of HitFix gave the film an `` A- '' rating , stating , `` 12 Years is a powerful drama driven by McQueen 's bold direction and the finest performance of Chiwetel Ejiofor 's career . '' He continued by praising the performances of Fassbender and Nyong ' o , citing Nyong ' o as `` the film 's breakthrough performance [ that ] may find Nyong ' o making her way to the Dolby Theater next March . '' He also admired the film 's `` gorgeous '' cinematography and the musical score , as `` one of Hans Zimmer 's more moving scores in some time . '' Paul MacInnes of The Guardian scored the film five out of five stars , writing , `` Stark , visceral and unrelenting , 12 Years a Slave is not just a great film but a necessary one . '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised it as `` a new movie landmark of cruelty and transcendence '' and as `` a movie about a life that gets taken away , and that 's why it lets us touch what life is . '' He also commented very positively about Ejiofor 's performance , while further stating , `` 12 Years a Slave lets us stare at the primal sin of America with open eyes , and at moments it is hard to watch , yet it 's a movie of such humanity and grace that at every moment , you feel you 're seeing something essential . It is Chiwetel Ejiofor 's extraordinary performance that holds the movie together , and that allows us to watch it without blinking . He plays Solomon with a powerful inner strength , yet he never soft-pedals the silent nightmare that is Solomon 's daily existence . '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone , gave the film a four-star rating and said : `` you wo n't be able to tuck this powder keg in the corner of your mind and forget it . What we have here is a blistering , brilliant , straight-up classic . '' He later named the film the best movie of 2013 . Manohla Dargis wrote , in her review for The New York Times , `` the genius of 12 Years a Slave is its insistence on banal evil , and on terror , that seeped into souls , bound bodies and reaped an enduring , terrible price . '' The Daily Telegraph 's Tim Robey granted the film a maximum score of five stars , stating that `` it 's the nobility of this remarkable film that pierces the soul , '' while praising Ejiofor and Nyong ' o 's performances . Tina Hassannia of Slant Magazine said that `` using his signature visual composition and deafening sound design , Steve McQueen portrays the harrowing realism of Northup 's experience and the complicated relationships between master and slave , master and master , slave and slave , and so on . '' David Simon , the creator of the TV series The Wire , highly praised the movie , commenting that `` it marks the first time in history that our entertainment industry , albeit with international creative input , has managed to stare directly at slavery and maintain that gaze '' . The film , however , was not without its criticisms . Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice was more critical of the film . While praising Ejiofor 's work , she stated : `` It 's a picture that stays more than a few safe steps away from anything so dangerous as raw feeling

dpql_4389--12_Years_a_Slave_(film).txt

Who directed the 2013 film ‘Twelve Years a Slave’?

Electronics is the science of how to control electric energy , energy in which the electrons have a fundamental role . Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes , transistors , diodes and integrated circuits , and associated passive electrical components and interconnection technologies . Commonly , electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements ; such a circuit is described as an electronic circuit . The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible , and electronics is widely used in information processing , telecommunication , and signal processing . The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible . Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards , electronics packaging technology , and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a regular working system . Electronics is distinct from electrical and electro-mechanical science and technology , which deal with the generation , distribution , switching , storage , and conversion of electrical energy to and from other energy forms using wires , motors , generators , batteries , switches , relays , transformers , resistors , and other passive components . This distinction started around 1906 with the invention by Lee De Forest of the triode , which made electrical amplification of weak radio signals and audio signals possible with a non-mechanical device . Until 1950 this field was called `` radio technology '' because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters , receivers , and vacuum tubes . Today , most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control . The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of solid-state physics , whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems come under electronics engineering . This article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics . Branches of electronics Electronics has branches as follows : # Digital electronics # Analogue electronics # Microelectronics # Circuit design # Integrated circuits # Optoelectronics # Semiconductor devices # Embedded systems Electronic devices and components An electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system used to affect the electrons or their associated fields in a manner consistent with the intended function of the electronic system . Components are generally intended to be connected together , usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board ( PCB ) , to create an electronic circuit with a particular function ( for example an amplifier , radio receiver , or oscillator ) . Components may be packaged singly , or in more complex groups as integrated circuits . Some common electronic components are capacitors , inductors , resistors , diodes , transistors , etc . Components are often categorized as active ( e.g . transistors and thyristors ) or passive ( e.g . resistors , diodes , inductors and capacitors ) . History of electronic components Vacuum tubes ( Thermionic valves ) were one of the earliest electronic components . They were almost solely responsible for the electronics revolution of the first half of the Twentieth Century . They took electronics from parlor tricks and gave us radio , television , phonographs , radar , long distance telephony and much more . They played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s . Since that time , solid state devices have all but completely taken over . Vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers , cathode ray tubes , specialist audio equipment , guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices . In April 1955 the IBM 608 was the first IBM product to use transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes and is believed to be the world 's first all-transistorized calculator to be manufactured for the commercial market . The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors . Thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design . From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic and peripherals . Types of circuits Circuits and components can be divided into two groups : analog and digital . A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types . Analog circuits Most analog electronic appliances , such as radio receivers , are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits . Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits . The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge , especially because a 'circuit ' can be defined as anything from a single component , to systems containing thousands of components . Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers , modulators , etc . Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers , operational amplifiers and oscillators . One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog . These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance . This type of circuit is usually called `` mixed signal '' rather than analog or digital . Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation . An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit . Similarly , an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output . In fact , many digital circuits are actually implemented as variations of analog circuits similar to this example—after all , all aspects of the real physical world are essentially analog , so digital effects are only realized by constraining analog behavior . Digital circuits Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels . Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra , and are the basis of all digital computers . To most engineers , the terms `` digital circuit '' , `` digital system '' and `` logic '' are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits . Most digital circuits use a binary system with two voltage levels labeled `` 0 '' and `` 1 '' . Often logic `` 0 '' will be a lower voltage and referred to as `` Low '' while logic `` 1 '' is referred to as `` High '' . However , some systems use the reverse definition ( `` 0 '' is `` High '' ) or are current based . Quite often the logic designer may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as he sees fit to facilitate his design . The definition of the levels as `` 0 '' or `` 1 '' is arbitrary . Ternary ( with three states ) logic has been studied , and some prototype computers made . Computers , electronic clocks , and programmable logic controllers ( used to control industrial processes ) are constructed of digital circuits . Digital signal processors are another example . Building blocks : * Logic gates * Adders * Flip-flops * Counters * Registers * Multiplexers * Schmitt triggers Highly integrated devices : * Microprocessors * Microcontrollers * Application-specific integrated circuit ( ASIC ) * Digital signal processor ( DSP ) * Field-programmable gate array ( FPGA ) Heat dissipation and thermal management Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability . Heat dissipation is mostly achieved by passive conduction/convection . Means to achieve greater dissipation include heat sinks and fans for air cooling , and other forms of computer cooling such as water cooling . These techniques use convection , conduction , and radiation of heat energy . Noise Electronic noise is defined as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content . Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit . Noise is associated with all electronic circuits . Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated , which can be decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit . Other types of noise , such as shot noise can not be removed as they are due to limitations in physical properties . Electronics theory Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics . To become proficient in electronics it is also necessary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit analysis . Circuit analysis is the study of methods of solving generally linear systems for unknown variables such as the voltage at a certain node or the current through a certain branch of a network . A common analytical tool for this is the SPICE circuit simulator . Also important to electronics is the study and understanding of electromagnetic field theory . Electronics lab Due to the complex nature of electronics theory , laboratory experimentation is an important part of the development of electronic devices . These experiments are used to test or verify the engineer ’ s design and detect errors . Historically , electronics labs have consisted of electronics devices and equipment located in a physical space , although in more recent years the trend has been towards electronics lab simulation software , such as CircuitLogix , Multisim , and PSpice . Computer aided design ( CAD ) Today 's electronics engineers have the ability to design circuits using premanufactured building blocks such as power supplies , semiconductors ( i.e . semiconductor devices , such as transistors ) , and integrated circuits . Electronic design automation software programs include schematic capture programs and printed circuit board design programs . Popular names in the EDA software world are NI Multisim , Cadence ( ORCAD ) , EAGLE PCB and Schematic , Mentor ( PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic ) , Altium ( Protel ) , LabCentre Electronics ( Proteus ) , gEDA , KiCad and many others . Construction methods Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years . For instance , early electronics often used point to point wiring with components attached to wooden breadboards to construct circuits . Cordwood construction and wire wrap were other methods used . Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit boards made of materials such as FR4 , or the cheaper ( and less hard-wearing ) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper ( SRBP , also known as Paxoline/Paxolin ( trade marks ) and FR2 ) - characterised by its brown colour . Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in recent years , especially for products destined to the European Union , with its Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive ( RoHS ) and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive ( WEEE ) , which went into force in July 2006 . Degradation Rasberry crazy ants have been known to consume the insides of electrical wiring , and nest inside of electronics ; they prefer DC to AC currents . This behavior is not well understood by scientists .

qf_2991--Electronics.txt

In electronics, what is a PCB?

Nepotism is favoritism granted to relatives . The term originated with the assignment of nephews to cardinal positions by Catholic popes and bishops . Nepotism can occur in various fields including : politics , entertainment , business , and religion . Origins The term comes from Italian word nepotismo , which is based on Latin root nepos meaning nephew . Since the Middle Ages and until the late 17th century , some Catholic popes and bishops , who had taken vows of chastity , and therefore usually had no legitimate offspring of their own , gave their nephews such positions of preference as were often accorded by fathers to son . Several popes elevated nephews and other relatives to the cardinalate . Often , such appointments were a means of continuing a papal `` dynasty '' . For instance , Pope Callixtus III , head of the Borgia family , made two of his nephews cardinals ; one of them , Rodrigo , later used his position as a cardinal as a stepping stone to the papacy , becoming Pope Alexander VI . Alexander then elevated Alessandro Farnese , his mistress 's brother , to cardinal ; Farnese would later go on to become Pope Paul III . Paul III also engaged in nepotism , appointing , for instance , two nephews , aged 14 and 16 , as cardinals . The practice was finally ended when Pope Innocent XII issued the bull Romanum decet Pontificem , in 1692 . The papal bull prohibited popes in all times from bestowing estates , offices , or revenues on any relative , with the exception that one qualified relative ( at most ) could be made a cardinal . Types Political Nepotism is a common accusation in politics when the relative of a powerful figure ascends to similar power seemingly without appropriate qualifications . The British English expression `` Bob 's your uncle '' is thought to have originated when Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil , 3rd Marquess of Salisbury , promoted his nephew , Arthur Balfour , to the esteemed post of Chief Secretary for Ireland , which was widely seen as an act of nepotism . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id K0zrsHO27-wC & pgPA72 & lpg PA72 From Aristotelian to Reaganomics : A Dictionary of Eponyms With Biographies in the Social Science ] , by R. C. S. Trahair , Greenwood Publishing Group , 1994 , page 72 . Retrieved online from Google Books , Jul 30 , 2012 . Organizational Nepotism can also occur within organizations , when a person is employed due to their familial ties . It is generally seen as unethical , both on the part of the employer and employee . By country Australia Anna Bligh , who won the 2009 Queensland State election , has been accused of nepotism by giving her husband Greg Withers a position as the Office of Climate Change head . Shortly after his appointment as the Anglican Archbishop of Sydney in 2001 , Peter Jensen was accused , in an Australian Broadcasting Corporation interview , of nepotism after nominating his brother Phillip Jensen as Dean of Sydney and appointing his wife Christine Jensen to an official position in the Sydney diocese . Belgium Over the past decade , criticism has been growing over the creation of political dynasties in Belgium , in which all of the traditional political parties have been involved . This phenomenon has been explained by the fact that prominent party members control the ranking of candidates on party lists for elections and a candidate 's place on a list determines whether or not he or she is elected . Another justification for the phenomenon is the importance of name recognition for collecting votes . Claims of nepotism have been made against Bruno Tobback , the son of senator and former minister Louis Tobback , a member of the Flemish socialists , became the Belgian federal government 's minister for the pensions and environment at 35 in 2005 . Alexander De Croo , the son of former speaker of the Belgian parliament Herman De Croo , ran for the leadership of his father 's party Open VLD at age 33 . Finally there is the example of Maya Detiège , the daughter of former mayor of the city of Antwerp Leona Detiège , who herself is the daughter of the former mayor of Antwerp Frans Detiège . Cambodia Prime Minister Hun Sen and senior members of Parliament , are also known for their hand in getting family members into government positions . In the 2013 Cambodian parliamentary elections , at least eight candidates standing in the upcoming July election are sons of high-ranking Cambodian People ’ s Party officials . All ruling party sons lost , but were appointed into high government positions . China For the past 3,000 years , nepotism has been common in China 's clan and extended family based culture . Confucius wrote about the importance of balancing `` filial piety with merit '' . The clan-based feudal system collapsed during Confucius ' lifetime , yet nepotism has continued through the modern age . For instance , Zhang Hui , was believed to have his career `` expedited '' through the intervention of his uncle , Li Jianguo , Vice Chairman and Secretary General of the National People ’ s Congress . Hui was made the youngest member and secretary of Jining 's Municipal Standing Committee at the age of 32 . Cuba After Fidel Castro left power in 2008 due to his intestinal problems and recurrent brain ischemias , his brother Raúl Castro was selected to succeed Fidel as the President of the Council of the State of Cuba . France In October 2009 , Jean Sarkozy , son of then President of the French Republic Nicolas Sarkozy , was poised to become EPAD 's director despite lacking a diploma and professional experience . He was voted regional councillor of Neuilly-sur-Seine in 2008 . Pierre Sarkozy , first son of then President Nicolas Sarkozy , asked [ http : //fr.wikipedia.org/SCPP SCPP ] for financial help in September 2009 of around €10000 towards an €80000 artistic project . Because he was not a SCPP member , the request was automatically rejected . Sarkozy then went to the Élysée which led to an Élysée counsel contacting the SCPP , and SCPP president Marc Guez assuring the issue would soon be favorably resolved . According to Abeille Music president and SCPP member Yves Riesel , however , this would not happen as SCPP 's financial help has been restricted to members only for months . India Corruption goes hand in hand with nepotism in India . It goes on in government and private jobs both . Nepotism is common in politics , business and in the movie industry . It goes on even in religious circles , arts , industry , and other types of organizations . Many members of parliament and the Legislative Assembly have a generations-long legacy of nepotic allocation of constituencies to their relatives . The Bajaj family is related to the Birla family which itself is related to the Biyani family by marriage . The Kapoor families , and many other Indian movie actors have brought their children into the movie industry with their endorsements . Moreover , dynasty in politics remains . Rahul Gandhi , Vice-President of the Indian National Congress party , is a descendent of Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi & Rajiv Gandhi . Cricket is also affected with nepotism in the form of Stuart Binny and Rohan Gavaskar . Pakistan Nepotism has a long history in Indian subcontinent , including Pakistan , where it has been the cause of much controversy . The Bhutto family have long been targets of allegations of nepotism . Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto , a Prime Minister of Pakistan was executed by General Zia-ul-Haq . After ten years of dictatorship under Zia , Pakistan returned to democracy under Bhutto 's daughter , Benazir Bhutto . After her assassination , her husband Asif Ali Zardari took the office of prime minister . Their son Bilawal Bhutto Zardari is also an active politician and a possible future candidate for prime minister . As of August 2014 , politicians Imran Khan and Dr. Tahirul Qadri are leading mass rallies calling for the end of `` monarchy '' in Pakistan , triggered by the fact that the Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif is the brother of the Chief Minister Shahbaz Sharif of Pakistan 's largest province Punjab . Nepotism is currently at a peak , with the current Prime Ministry having more than 20 family members in government and higher posts . Romania Romanian Communist dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu 's family members `` dominated '' the country for decades . Elena Băsescu , the daughter of President Traian Băsescu , was elected in 2009 to the European Parliament , despite the fact that she had no significant professional or political experience . Singapore Singapore 's government has been the target of numerous charges of nepotism , with several members of the Prime Minister 's family holding high posts . The family members dispute the charges as they arise . Spain Juan Antonio Samaranch Salisachs , son of Juan Antonio Samaranch , president of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) from 1980 to 2001 , has been a member of the International Olympic Committee since 2001 , while Salisachs sister , Maria Teresa Samaranch Salisachs , has been president of the Spanish Federation of Sports on Ice since 2005 .. Nepotism occurred in Spanish Colonial America when offices were given to family members . Sri Lanka Former President of Sri Lanka , Mahinda Rajapaksa , has been accused of nepotism , appointing three brothers to run important ministries and giving out other political positions to relatives , regardless of their merit . During his presidency , the Rajapaksa family held the ministries of finance , defence , ports and aviation , and highways and road development . The president 's brother , Gotabhaya Rajapaksa , was given the post of Defence Secretary . He also controlled the armed forces , the police and the Coast Guard , and was responsible for immigration and emigration . Rajapaksa appointed his brother Basil Rajapaksa as minister of Economic Development . Together , the Rajapaksa brothers controlled over 70 % of Sri Lanka 's public budget . Mahinda Rajapaksa 's eldest brother , Chamal Rajapaksa , was appointed as the Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka , and has held many other posts before , while his eldest son , Namal Rajapaksa , is also a member of the parliament and holds undisclosed portfolios . Others include : his nephew , Shashindra Rajapaksa , who is the former Chief minister of Uva ; one of his cousins , former Sri Lankan ambassador to the United States , Jaliya Wickramasuriya ; and another cousin , Udayanga Weeratunga , who is the former ambassador to Russia . Dozens of nephews , nieces , cousins , and in-laws have also been appointed as heads of banks , boards , and corporations . Venezuela Nepotism is known to be practiced by President of the Venezuela National Assembly , Cilia Flores . Nine positions in the National Assembly were filled by Flores ' family members , including a mother-in-law , aunt , 3 siblings , a cousin and her mother , and 2 nephews . United Kingdom In February 2010 , Sir Christopher Kelly , chairman of the Committee on Standards in Public Life , said that more than 200 MPs used Parliamentary allowances to employ their own relatives in a variety of office roles . He suggested that the practice should be banned . In 2005 , Councillor Ann Reid of York arranged for all nine sets of traffic lights on her daughter Hannah 's wedding route through York to be switched to green for the five-car convoy . As a result , the wedding party took only 10 minutes to pass through the city . North Yorkshire Police 's Chief Constable Grahame Maxwell was disciplined by the IPCC in 2011 , but refused to resign , after admitting that he assisted a relative through the first stages of a recruitment process . Many Northern Irish politicians employ family members . In 2008 , 19 elected politicians of the Democratic Unionist Party ( DUP ) directly employed family members and relatives constituted 27 of its 136 staff . United States Around 30 family members or relatives of President Ulysses S. Grant prospered financially in some way from either government appointments or employment . John F. Kennedy made his brother-in-law , Sargent Shriver , the first director of the Peace Corps and his brother , Robert F. Kennedy , Attorney General . In December 2012 , a report from Washington Post , indicate various nepotism practices from D.C Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority ( MWAA ) , including one family with five members working for the MWAA . One of the reasons given by the associate general counsel to defend the alleged nepotism was “ if [ the employees are ] qualified and competed for [ the positions ] on their own , I don ’ t see a problem with relatives working in the same organization. ” The inspector general of the Transportation Department and Congress pressured the Authority to resolve practices of nepotism . Authority employees are no longer allowed to directly or indirectly influence hiring or promotion of relatives , as documented in their ethics policy . Nepotism is also practiced in the NBA , as Philadelphia 76ers chairman of basketball operations Jerry Colangelo named his son Bryan Colangelo his general manager without a thorough search for the position . Zimbabwe President Robert Mugabe is reported to be preparing his wife Grace Mugabe to be the next president of Zimbabwe once he steps down . Vice President Joice Mujuru was previously considered to be the favored successor to Mugabe . In entertainment Outside of national politics , accusations of `` nepotism '' are made in instances of prima facie favoritism to relatives , in such cases as : * Peaches Geldof 's role as magazine editor in an MTV reality show – produced by a company owned by her father Bob Geldof . * Tori Spelling 's breakout role on Beverly Hills 90210 as a result of her father Aaron Spelling 's involvement with the show . * Hollywood 's Coppola family includes many distinguished filmmakers and actors . The careers of Sofia Coppola , Nicolas Cage , and Jason Schwartzman have been attributed to aid by director Francis Ford Coppola , who cast his daughter Sofia in The Godfather Part III . Cage changed his last name in order to distance himself from such charges . [ http : //www.imdb.com/name/nm0000115/bio Nicolas Cage - imdb biography ] In employment Nepotism at work can mean increased opportunity at a job , attaining the job or being paid more than other similarly situated people . Arguments are made both for and against employment granted due to a family connection , which is most common in small , family run businesses . On one hand , nepotism can provide stability and continuity . Critics cite studies that demonstrate decreased morale and commitment from non-related employees , and a generally negative attitude towards superior positions filled through nepotism . An article from Forbes magazine stated `` there is no ladder to climb when the top rung is reserved for people with a certain name . '' Some businesses forbid nepotism as an ethical matter , considering it too troublesome and disruptive . Types of partiality Nepotism refers to partiality to family whereas cronyism refers to partiality to an associate or friend . Favoritism , the broadest of the terms , refers to partiality based upon being part of a favored group , rather than job performance .

tb_205--Nepotism.txt

The medieval practice of appointing a cardinal who was a nephew of a pope gives us which English word that means bestowing favors to relatives/friends?

Formula One ( also Formula 1 or F1 ) is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile ( FIA ) . The FIA Formula One World Championship has been the premier form of racing since the inaugural season in 1950 , although other Formula One races were regularly held until 1983 . The `` formula '' , designated in the name , refers to a set of rules , to which all participants ' cars must conform . The F1 season consists of a series of races , known as Grands Prix ( from French , meaning grand prizes ) , held worldwide on purpose-built F1 circuits and public roads . The results of each race are evaluated using a points system to determine two annual World Championships , one for drivers , one for constructors . The racing drivers are required to be holders of valid Super Licences , the highest class of racing licence issued by the FIA . The races are required to be held on tracks graded 1 ( formerly A ) , the highest grade a track can receive by the FIA . Most events are held in rural locations on purpose-built tracks , but there are several events in city centres throughout the world , with the Monaco Grand Prix being the most obvious and famous example . Formula One cars are the fastest road course racing cars in the world , owing to very high cornering speeds achieved through the generation of large amounts of aerodynamic downforce . Formula One cars race at speeds of up to approximately 380 km/h with engines currently limited in performance to a maximum of 15,000 RPM . The cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of five g in corners . The performance of the cars is very dependent on electronics - although traction control and other driving aids have been banned since 2008 - and on aerodynamics , suspension , and tyres . The formula has radically evolved and changed through the history of the sport . While Europe is the sport 's traditional base , and hosts about half of each year 's races , the sport 's scope has expanded significantly and an increasing number of Grands Prix are held on other continents . F1 had a total global television audience of 425 million people during the course of the 2014 season . Grand Prix racing began in 1906 and became the most popular type internationally in the second half of the twentieth century . The Formula One Group is the legal holder of the commercial rights . With the cost of designing and building mid-tier cars being of the order of $ 120 million , Formula One 's economic effect and creation of jobs is significant , and its financial and political battles are widely reported . Its high profile and popularity have created a major merchandising environment , which has resulted in great investments from sponsors and budgets in the hundreds of millions for the constructors . Since 2000 the sport 's spiraling expenditures and the distribution of prize money which favors established top teams have forced complaints from smaller teams and led several teams to bankruptcy . History The Formula One series originated with the European Grand Prix Motor Racing ( q.v . for pre-1947 history ) of the 1920s and 1930s . The formula is a set of rules which all participants ' cars must meet . Formula One was a new formula agreed upon after World War II during 1946 , with the first non-championship races being held that year . A number of Grand Prix racing organisations had laid out rules for a world championship before the war , but due to the suspension of racing during the conflict , the World Drivers ' Championship was not formalised until 1947 . The first world championship race was held at Silverstone , United Kingdom in 1950 . A championship for constructors followed in 1958 . National championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s . Non-championship Formula One events were held for many years , but due to the increasing cost of competition , the last of these occurred in 1983 . Return of racing The first World Championship for Drivers was won by Italian Giuseppe Farina in his Alfa Romeo in 1950 , barely defeating his Argentine teammate Juan Manuel Fangio . However , Fangio won the title in 1951 , 1954 , 1955 , 1956 , and 1957 ( His record of five World Championship titles stood for 45 years until German driver Michael Schumacher took his sixth title in 2003 ) , his streak interrupted ( after an injury ) by two-time champion Alberto Ascari of Ferrari . Although the UK 's Stirling Moss was able to compete regularly , he was never able to win the world championship , and is now widely considered to be the greatest driver never to have won the title . Fangio , however , is remembered for dominating Formula One 's first decade and has long been considered the `` Grand Master '' of Formula One . This period featured teams managed by road car manufacturers Alfa Romeo , Ferrari , Mercedes-Benz , and Maserati ; all of whom had competed before the war . The first seasons were run using pre-war cars like Alfa 's 158 . They were front-engined , with narrow tyres and 1.5-litre supercharged or 4.5-litre normally aspirated engines . The 1952 and 1953 world championships were run to Formula Two regulations , for smaller , less powerful cars , due to concerns over the paucity of Formula One cars available . When a new Formula One , for engines limited to 2.5 litres , was reinstated to the world championship for 1954 , Mercedes-Benz introduced the advanced W196 , which featured innovations such as desmodromic valves and fuel injection as well as enclosed streamlined bodywork . Mercedes drivers won the championship for two years , before the team withdrew from all motorsport in the wake of the 1955 Le Mans disaster . The Garagistes The first major technological development , Bugatti 's re-introduction of mid-engined cars ( following Ferdinand Porsche 's pioneering Auto Unions of the 1930s ) , occurred with the Type 251 , which was unsuccessful . Australian Jack Brabham , world champion during 1959 , 1960 , and 1966 , soon proved the mid-engined design 's superiority . By 1961 , all regular competitors had switched to mid-engined cars . The Ferguson P99 , a four-wheel drive design , was the last front-engined F1 car to enter a world championship race . It was entered in the 1961 British Grand Prix , the only front-engined car to compete that year . The first British World Champion was Mike Hawthorn , who drove a Ferrari to the title during the 1958 season . However , when Colin Chapman entered F1 as a chassis designer and later founder of Team Lotus , British racing green came to dominate the field for the next decade . Including Brabham , Jim Clark , Jackie Stewart , John Surtees , Graham Hill , and Denny Hulme , British teams and Commonwealth drivers won twelve world championships between 1962 and 1973 . During 1962 , Lotus introduced a car with an aluminium-sheet monocoque chassis instead of the traditional space-frame design . This proved to be the greatest technological breakthrough since the introduction of mid-engined cars . During 1968 , Lotus painted Imperial Tobacco livery on their cars , thus introducing sponsorship to the sport . Aerodynamic downforce slowly gained importance in car design from the appearance of aerofoils during the late 1960s . During the late 1970s , Lotus introduced ground-effect aerodynamics ( previously used on Jim Hall 's Chaparral 2J during 1970 ) that provided enormous downforce and greatly increased cornering speeds . So great were the aerodynamic forces pressing the cars to the track ( up to five times the car 's weight ) , extremely stiff springs were needed to maintain a constant ride height , leaving the suspension virtually solid , depending entirely on the tyres for any small amount of cushioning of the car and driver from irregularities of the road surface . Big business Beginning in the 1970s , Bernie Ecclestone rearranged the management of Formula One 's commercial rights ; he is widely credited with transforming the sport into the multibillion-dollar business it now is . When Ecclestone bought the Brabham team during 1971 he gained a seat on the Formula One Constructors ' Association and during 1978 he became its president . Previously , the circuit owners controlled the income of the teams and negotiated with each individually , however Ecclestone persuaded the teams to `` hunt as a pack '' through FOCA . He offered Formula One to circuit owners as a package which they could take or leave . In return for the package almost all that was required was to surrender trackside advertising . The formation of the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) during 1979 set off the FISA–FOCA controversy , during which FISA and its president Jean-Marie Balestre disputed repeatedly with FOCA over television revenues and technical regulations . The Guardian said of FOCA that Ecclestone and Max Mosley `` used it to wage a guerrilla war with a very long-term aim in view '' . FOCA threatened to establish a rival series , boycotted a Grand Prix and FISA withdrew its sanction from races . The result was the 1981 Concorde Agreement , which guaranteed technical stability , as teams were to be given reasonable notice of new regulations . Although FISA asserted its right to the TV revenues , it handed the administration of those rights to FOCA . FISA imposed a ban on ground-effect aerodynamics during 1983 . By then , however , turbocharged engines , which Renault had pioneered in 1977 , were producing over 700 bhp and were essential to be competitive . By 1986 , a BMW turbocharged engine achieved a flash reading of 5.5 bar pressure , estimated to be over 1300 bhp in qualifying for the Italian Grand Prix . The next year power in race trim reached around 1100 bhp , with boost pressure limited to only 4.0 bar . These cars were the most powerful open-wheel circuit racing cars ever . To reduce engine power output and thus speeds , the FIA limited fuel tank capacity in 1984 and boost pressures in 1988 before banning turbocharged engines completely in 1989 . The development of electronic driver aids began during the 1980s . Lotus began to develop a system of active suspension which first appeared during 1982 on the 91 . By 1987 , this system had been perfected and was driven to victory by Ayrton Senna in the Monaco Grand Prix that year . In the early 1990s other teams followed suit and semi-automatic gearboxes and traction control were a natural progression . The FIA , due to complaints that technology was determining the outcome of races more than driver skill , banned many such aids for 1994 . This resulted in cars that were previously dependent on electronic aids becoming very `` twitchy '' and difficult to drive ( particularly the Williams FW16 ) . Many observers felt the ban on driver aids was in name only as they `` proved difficult to police effectively '' . The teams signed a second Concorde Agreement during 1992 and a third in 1997 , which expired on the last day of 2007 . On the track , the McLaren and Williams teams dominated the 1980s and 1990s , with Brabham also being competitive during the early part of the 1980s , winning two Drivers ' Championships with Nelson Piquet . Powered by Porsche , Honda , and Mercedes-Benz , McLaren won sixteen championships ( seven constructors ' and nine drivers ' ) in that period , while Williams used engines from Ford , Honda , and Renault to also win sixteen titles ( nine constructors ' and seven drivers ' ) . The rivalry between racers Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost became F1 's central focus during 1988 , and continued until Prost retired at the end of 1993 . Senna died at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix after crashing into a wall on the exit of the notorious curve Tamburello , having taken over Prost 's lead drive at Williams that year . The FIA worked to improve the sport 's safety standards since that weekend , during which Roland Ratzenberger also lost his life in an accident during Saturday qualifying . No driver had died of injuries sustained on the track at the wheel of a Formula One car for 20 years , until the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix where Jules Bianchi collided with a recovery vehicle after aquaplaning off the circuit . Since 1994 , three track marshals have lost their lives , one at the 2000 Italian Grand Prix , the second at the 2001 Australian Grand Prix and the third at the 2013 Canadian Grand Prix . Since the deaths of Senna and Ratzenberger , the FIA has used safety as a reason to impose rule changes which otherwise , under the Concorde Agreement , would have had to be agreed upon by all the teams — most notably the changes introduced for 1998 . This so-called 'narrow track ' era resulted in cars with smaller rear tyres , a narrower track overall , and the introduction of grooved tyres to reduce mechanical grip . There were to be four grooves on the front ( three in the first year ) and rear that ran through the entire circumference of the tyre . The objective was to reduce cornering speeds and to produce racing similar to rainy conditions by enforcing a smaller contact patch between tyre and track . This , according to the FIA , was to promote driver skill and provide a better spectacle . Results have been mixed as the lack of mechanical grip has resulted in the more ingenious designers clawing back the deficit with aerodynamic grip — pushing more force onto the tyres through wings and aerodynamic devices which in turn has resulted in less overtaking as these devices tend to make the wake behind the car 'dirty ' ( turbulent ) , preventing other cars from following closely due to their dependence on 'clean ' air to make the car stick to the track . The grooved tyres also had the unfortunate side effect of initially being of a harder compound to be able to hold the grooved tread blocks , which resulted in spectacular accidents in times of aerodynamic grip failure as the harder compound could not grip the track as well . Drivers from McLaren , Williams , Renault ( formerly Benetton ) , and Ferrari , dubbed the `` Big Four '' , won every World Championship from 1984 to 2008 and the teams themselves won every Constructors ' Championship from 1979 to 2008 . Due to the technological advances of the 1990s , the cost of competing in Formula One increased dramatically . This increased financial burdens , combined with the dominance of four teams ( largely funded by big car manufacturers such as Mercedes-Benz ) , caused the poorer independent teams to struggle not only to remain competitive , but to stay in business , and forced several teams to withdraw . Since 1990 , twenty-eight teams have withdrawn from Formula One . This has prompted former Jordan owner Eddie Jordan to say that the days of competitive privateers are over . Manufacturers ' return Michael Schumacher and Ferrari won five consecutive Drivers ' Championships ( 2000–2004 ) and six consecutive constructors ' championships ( 1999–2004 ) . Schumacher set many new records , including those for Grand Prix wins ( 91 ) , wins in a season ( thirteen of eighteen ) , and most Drivers ' Championships ( seven ) . Schumacher 's championship streak ended on 25 September 2005 when Renault driver Fernando Alonso became Formula One 's youngest champion at that time . During 2006 , Renault and Alonso won both titles again . Schumacher retired at the end of 2006 after sixteen years in Formula One , but came out of retirement for the 2010 season , racing for the newly formed Mercedes works team for three seasons . During this period , the championship rules were changed frequently by the FIA with the intention of improving the on-track action and cutting costs . Team orders , legal since the championship started during 1950 , were banned during 2002 after several incidents in which teams openly manipulated race results , generating negative publicity , most famously by Ferrari at the 2002 Austrian Grand Prix . Other changes included the qualifying format , the points scoring system , the technical regulations , and rules specifying how long engines and tyres must last . A `` tyre war '' between suppliers Michelin and Bridgestone saw lap times fall , although at the 2005 United States Grand Prix at Indianapolis , seven out of ten teams did not race when their Michelin tyres were deemed unsafe for use , leading to Bridgestone becoming the sole tyre supplier to Formula One for the 2007 season . During 2006 , Max Mosley outlined a `` green '' future for Formula One , in which efficient use of energy would become an important factor . Since 1983 , Formula One had been dominated by specialist race teams like Williams , McLaren , and Benetton , using engines supplied by large car manufacturers like Mercedes-Benz , Honda , Renault , and Ford . Starting in 2000 , with Ford 's creation of the largely unsuccessful Jaguar team , new manufacturer-owned teams entered Formula One for the first time since the departure of Alfa Romeo and Renault at the end of 1985 . By 2006 , the manufacturer teams–Renault , BMW , Toyota , Honda , and Ferrari–dominated the championship , taking five of the first six places in the constructors ' championship . The sole exception was McLaren , which at the time was part-owned by Mercedes Benz . Through the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association ( GPMA ) , they negotiated a larger share of Formula One 's commercial profit and a greater say in the running of the sport . Manufacturers ' decline and return of the privateers In 2008 and 2009 , Honda , BMW , and Toyota all withdrew from Formula One racing within the space of a year , blaming the economic recession . This resulted in the end of manufacturer dominance within the sport . The Honda F1 team went through a management buyout to become Brawn GP with the notable F1 designer Ross Brawn and Nick Fry running and owning the majority of the organisation . Brawn GP went through a painful size reduction , laying off hundreds of employees , but eventually won the year 's world championships with Jenson Button and Rubens Barrichello . BMW F1 was bought out by the original founder of the team , Peter Sauber . The Lotus F1 Team are another , formerly manufacturer-owned team that has reverted to `` privateer '' ownership , together with the buy-out of the Renault F1 Team by Genii Capital investors in recent years . A link with their previous owners still survived however , with their car continuing to be powered by a Renault Power Unit until 2014 . McLaren also announced that it was to reacquire the shares in its team from Mercedes Benz ( McLaren 's partnership with Mercedes was reported to have started to sour with the McLaren Mercedes SLR road car project and tough F1 championships which included McLaren being found guilty of spying on Ferrari ) . Hence , during the 2010 season , Mercedes Benz re-entered the sport as a manufacturer after its purchase of Brawn GP , and split with McLaren after 15 seasons with the team . This leaves Mercedes , McLaren , and Ferrari as the only car manufacturers in the sport , although both McLaren and Ferrari began as racing teams rather than manufacturers . AT & T Williams confirmed towards the end of 2009 their new engine deal with Cosworth , who also supplied the wave of new teams Virgin Racing , Hispania Racing F1 , and the newly formed Lotus Racing team . The exit of car manufacturers has also paved the way for teams representing their countries , with some having the funding by their respective national governments ( such as Lotus being funded by Malaysia , Lotus Cars being owned by Proton , a Malaysian manufacturer , and Lotus Racing being run by Tony Fernandes , a Malaysian business man known for his Asian low-cost airline ) . Williams later rejoined with Renault in 2012 , rekindling a partnership that dates back to the early to mid-1990s . However , the partnership was short lived and as of the 2014 F1 season , Williams competes with the Mercedes Power Unit . A rule shake-up in 2014 meant Mercedes emerged as the dominant force , with Lewis Hamilton winning the championship closely followed by his main rival and team-mate , Nico Rosberg , with the team winning 16 out of the 19 races that season ( all other victories coming from Daniel Ricciardo of Red Bull ) . 2014 also saw a financial crisis which resulted in the backmarker Marussia and Caterham teams being put into administration , alongside the uncertain futures of Force India and Sauber . Marussia returned under the Manor name in 2015 , a season in which Ferrari were the only challengers to Mercedes , with Vettel taking victory in the three Grands Prix Mercedes did not win . The 2016 season began in dominant fashion for Nico Rosberg , winning the first 4 Grands Prix . His charge was halted by Max Verstappen , who took his maiden win in Spain in his debut race for Red Bull . After his charge halting , the reigning champion Lewis Hamilton decreased the point gap between them to only one point . Political disputes FISA–FOCA war The battle for control of Formula One was contested between the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , at the time an autonomous subcommittee of the FIA , and FOCA ( the Formula One Constructors ' Association ) . The beginnings of the dispute are numerous , and many of the underlying reasons may be lost in history . The teams ( excepting Ferrari and the other major manufacturers – Renault and Alfa Romeo in particular ) were of the opinion that their rights and ability to compete against the larger and better funded teams were being negatively affected by a perceived bias on the part of the controlling organisation ( FISA ) toward the major manufacturers . In addition , the battle revolved around the commercial aspects of the sport ( the FOCA teams were unhappy with the disbursement of proceeds from the races ) and the technical regulations which , in FOCA 's opinion , tended to be malleable according to the nature of the transgressor more than the nature of the transgression . The war culminated in a FOCA boycott of the 1982 San Marino Grand Prix months later . In theory , all FOCA teams were supposed to boycott the Grand Prix as a sign of solidarity and complaint at the handling of the regulations and financial compensation ( and extreme opposition to the accession of Balestre to the position of FISA president : both Colin Chapman of Lotus and Frank Williams of Williams stated clearly that they would not continue in Formula One with Balestre as its governor ) . In practice , several of the FOCA teams backed out of the boycott , citing `` sponsor obligations '' . Notable among these were the Tyrrell and Toleman teams . FIA–FOTA dispute During the 2009 season of Formula One , the sport was gripped in a governance crisis . The FIA President Max Mosley proposed numerous cost cutting measures for the following season , including an optional budget cap for the teams ; teams electing to take the budget cap would be granted greater technical freedom , adjustable front and rear wings and an engine not subject to a rev limiter . The Formula One Teams Association ( FOTA ) believed that allowing some teams to have such technical freedom would have created a 'two-tier ' championship , and thus requested urgent talks with the FIA . However , talks broke down and FOTA teams announced , with the exception of Williams and Force India , that 'they had no choice ' but to form a breakaway championship series . On 24 June , an agreement was reached between Formula One 's governing body and the teams to prevent a breakaway series . It was agreed teams must cut spending to the level of the early 1990s within two years ; exact figures were not specified , and Max Mosley agreed he would not stand for re-election to the FIA presidency in October . Following further disagreements after Max Mosley suggested he would stand for re-election , FOTA made it clear that breakaway plans were still being pursued . On 8 July , FOTA issued a press release stating they had been informed they were not entered for the 2010 season , and an FIA press release said the FOTA representatives had walked out of the meeting . On 1 August , it was announced FIA and FOTA had signed a new Concorde Agreement , bringing an end to the crisis and securing the sport 's future until 2012 . Outside the World Championship The terms `` Formula One race '' and `` World Championship race '' are effectively synonymous ; since 1984 , every Formula One race has counted towards an official FIA World Championship , and every World Championship race has been held to Formula One regulations . In the earlier history of Formula One , many races took place outside the world championship , and local championships run to Formula One regulations also occurred . These events often took place on circuits that were not suitable for the World Championship , and featured local cars and drivers as well as those competing in the Championship . European non-championship racing In the early years of Formula One , before the world championship was established , there were around twenty races held from late Spring to early Autumn in Europe , although not all of these were considered significant . Most competitive cars came from Italy , particularly Alfa Romeo . After the start of the world championship , these non-championship races continued . In the 1950s and 1960s , there were many Formula One races which did not count for the World Championship ; in a total of twenty-two Formula One races were held , of which only six counted towards the World Championship . In 1952 and 1953 , when the world championship was run for Formula Two cars , non-championship events were the only Formula One races that took place . Some races , particularly in the UK , including the Race of Champions , Oulton Park International Gold Cup and the International Trophy , were attended by the majority of the world championship contenders . Other smaller events were regularly held in locations not part of the championship , such as the Syracuse and Danish Grands Prix , although these only attracted a small amount of the championship teams and relied on private entries and lower Formula cars to make up the grid . These became less common through the 1970s and 1983 saw the last non-championship Formula One race ; the 1983 Race of Champions at Brands Hatch , won by reigning World Champion Keke Rosberg in a Williams-Cosworth in a close fight with American Danny Sullivan . South African Formula One championship South Africa 's flourishing domestic Formula One championship ran from 1960 through to 1975 . The frontrunning cars in the series were recently retired from the world championship although there was also a healthy selection of locally built or modified machines . Frontrunning drivers from the series usually contested their local World Championship Grand Prix , as well as occasional European events , although they had little success at that level . British Formula One Series The DFV helped make the UK domestic Formula One series possible between 1978 and 1980 . As in South Africa a decade before , second hand cars from manufacturers like Lotus and Fittipaldi Automotive were the order of the day , although some , such as the March 781 , were built specifically for the series . In 1980 , the series saw South African Desiré Wilson become the only woman to win a Formula One race when she triumphed at Brands Hatch in a Wolf WR3 . Racing and strategy A Formula

tb_2329--Formula_One.txt

Statistically the greatest driver of Formula One, Michael Schumacher won his seven championships with which two companies?

SS Ancon was an American cargo and passenger ship that became the first ship to officially transit the Panama Canal in 1914 . The ship was built as Shawmut for the Boston Steamship Company by the Maryland Steel Company , Sparrows Point , Maryland and put into Pacific service operating out of Puget Sound ports for Japan , China and the Philippine Islands . Shawmut and sister ship Tremont were two of the largest United States commercial ships in service at the time and the company eventually found them too expensive to operate . Shawmut and Tremont were acquired by the United States Government through the agency of the The Panama Railroad Company 's Panama Railroad Steamship Line , whose assets were entirely owned by the government and critical to construction of the canal , to serve between New York and the Atlantic terminus during canal construction . Both ships were renamed for features of the canal ; Shawmut for the Pacific side terminus Ancon and Tremont as for the Canal 's Atlantic port . Though not the first vessel to make a complete transit , Ancon made the first official and ceremonial transit with a delegation of some two hundred dignitaries aboard . After the end of World War I the ship saw very brief service from 28 March to 25 July 1919 as a commissioned United States Ship , USS Ancon ( ID-1467 ) , making two round trip voyages from the New York Port of Embarkation to France returning troops home . Ancon was returned to Panama Canal service and was in service with the canal until 1939 when the ship was sold to private parties known as the Permanente Steamship Company and renamed Permanente . Construction and design The steamer was constructed by Maryland Steel , Sparrows Point , Maryland for the Boston Steamship Line as the SS Shawmut launched December 1901 and completed in 1902 . The launch date is given as `` today '' in a piece in the New York Times datelined December 21 , 1901 and published on 22 December while the journal Marine Engineering gives the date as 23 December.The New York Times published 22 December 1901 release gives the launch `` today '' in a piece datelined 21 December . The Marine Engineering January 1902 issue gives the date of 23 December 1901 . A `` data card '' the journal Marine Engineering published with some major ship articles for retention by readers states `` Launched January 1902 '' with ship 's characteristics but the card was probably prepared early for publication in the January issue . The journal 's articles for January publication , perhaps based on scheduled times , were probably being prepared about the time of launch with the daily newspaper 's article likely more current . Commercial service Shawmut was put into service by the Boston Steamship Company in association with the Northern Pacific and Great Northern Railways acting as booking agents with monthly passenger and freight sailings from Puget Sound ports of Tacoma and Seattle , Washington and Victoria , British Columbia to Yokohama , Kobe and Moji , Japan ; Shanghai and Hong Kong , China and Manila , Philippines . Shawmut 's maiden voyage led to questions about whether such large ships could be profitable with specific questions concerning even larger ships being built by James J. Hill for trans Pacific trade . The ship had arrived in Seattle to begin loading for the voyage on 22 July 1902 sailing for Tacoma on 25 July to load cargo , largely of lumber that had to be transshipped due to the fact the ship was too large to enter the lumber port , and took until 22 August to fully load cargo from scattered origins . She sailed on 22 August with a stop at Seattle before proceeding to sea that night and reached Yokohama 12 September unloading a small consignment . The lumber was destined for Shanghai , but the ship was too large to reach the docks on arrival 20 September and had to unload by lighter taking until 13 October before departure for Hong Kong . On reaching Hong Kong 18 October where there was little cargo to load and only a small amount to carry on to Manila upon departure 8 November . By 22 November Shawmut was in Yokohama for a final stop before departure for Seattle on 23 November where she arrived 8 December , 139 days for the voyage . The ship had carried a then record breaking 13,000 tons of cargo , but returned with only about 2,500 tons and an estimated deficit of over $ 21,000 for the trip . There was speculation that Hill had used a Boston company to `` experiment '' on using large ships for the trade before committing his vessels . The ship had arrived in Yokohama early in the Russo-Japanese War reporting Japanese torpedo boats hundreds of miles at see investigating all ships . She departed Yokohama with Jewish businessmen from the Russian port of Vladivostok who had been suddenly ordered out by Russian authorities and escaped through Korea where Japanese authorities had detained them before bringing them to Yokohama where they boarded Shawmut which had reached Seattle in late March . The ship was also under close surveillance by Japanese `` special service agents '' who even kept a guard at one passenger 's door . Among the passengers bound for Seattle were 235 Filipinos on the way to the St. Louis World 's Fair along with material for the Filipino and Japanese villages at the fair . Shawmut sailed for Japan again on 16 July 1904 with 15,000 tons of cargo that included 900,000 pounds of canned beef destined for Kobe , Japan and was at sea when a cable from London instructed marine insurance agents to not accept risks on ships or cargoes for Japan for fear of seizure by belligerents . Shawmut had grounded off the coast of China in the fall of 1904 due to weather suffering loss of her rudder , propellers and suffering a double fracture to her stern frame and `` spectacle '' supports for her propellers but , after repair in an overseas dry dock , managed a return to home waters and one round trip before making permanent repairs . The replacement stern frame and propeller supports were built by the ship 's original builder and sent to Seattle to meet the ship there in January 1905 for the permanent repair . Moran Brothers ' Company of Seattle proposed to do the repairs using the only dry dock of sufficient size , the naval dry dock at Bremerton , but the Navy 's charges were `` exorbitant '' and Moran devised a means of using their small floating dry dock to do the repairs by only lifting the stern of Shawmut using a cofferdam to seal and de-water the work space . By 1907 predictions of economic trouble had become fact with Shawmut and Tremont withdrawn from Pacific service and replaced in the Philippine trade by the British firm of Andrew Weir and Company . The consequence , in the words of His Majesty 's consul in Manila in his report for 1907 , was that `` the American flag disappears from the Pacific trade with the single exception of the Northern Pacific Steamship Company 's passenger-freighter Minnesota . `` The referenced would be the 20,602 ton ship of 1904 , a predecessor of Northern Pacific 's and sister of , that was built by Eastern Shipbuilding Company , New London , Connecticut and sold for scrap in 1923 . By October 1908 the annual meeting of the Boston Steamship Company was reported to be postponed pending news of the sale of both Shawmut and Tremont because the company stated they could not be operated without a subsidy . The Panama Canal service In 1909 the ship was purchased by the Panama Canal . The ship was renamed for the Panama Canal 's Pacific side terminus at Ancon . Both Ancon and her sister ship Cristobal operated under The Panama Railroad Company 's Panama Railroad Steamship Line . Both ships played a crucial role in building the canal , bringing workers and supplies , notably massive amounts of cement , from New York to Panama for the construction project . On 15 August 1914 Ancon made the first official transit of the canal as part the canal 's opening ceremonies . ( Her sister ship Cristobal had made the first unofficial transit on 3 August , delivering a load of cement , while an old French crane boat Alexandre La Valley had crossed the canal from the Atlantic in stages during construction , finally reaching the Pacific on 7 January . ) Five days after the end of World War I , on 16 November 1918 , Ancon was acquired at New Orleans by the United States Navy from the Department of War ( Army ) and commissioned on 28 March 1919 under the command of Lt. Comdr . Milan L. Pittman , USNRF as the troop transport USS Ancon ( ID-1467 ) . The ship was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet 's Cruiser and Transport Force making two round-trip voyages from the United States to France returning troops home . On completion of the second voyage Ancon was decommissioned at New York City on 25 July 1919 and returned to the War Department . The Panama Railroad Company replaced SS Ancon in 1938 with a larger steam turbine cargo liner named Ancon which later saw considerable action as the Navy command and communications ship in World War II . The old Ancon remained in Panama Canal service as Ex Ancon until sold private . Footnotes

dpql_3002--SS_Ancon_(1901).txt

On August 15th 1914, the SS Ancon became the first ship to officially do what?

An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element . Every solid , liquid , gas , and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms . Atoms are very small ; typical sizes are around 100 pm ( a ten-billionth of a meter , in the short scale ) . However , atoms do not have well-defined boundaries , and there are different ways to define their size that give different but close values . Atoms are small enough that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics - as if they were billiard balls , for example - gives noticeably incorrect predictions due to quantum effects . Through the development of physics , atomic models have incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict the behavior . Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus . The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons . Protons and neutrons are called nucleons . More than 99.94 % of an atom 's mass is in the nucleus . The protons have a positive electric charge , the electrons have a negative electric charge , and the neutrons have no electric charge . If the number of protons and electrons are equal , that atom is electrically neutral . If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons , then it has an overall negative or positive charge , respectively , and it is called an ion . The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by this electromagnetic force . The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by a different force , the nuclear force , which is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling the positively charged protons from one another . Under certain circumstances the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force , and nucleons can be ejected from the nucleus , leaving behind a different element : nuclear decay resulting in nuclear transmutation . The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs : for example , all copper atoms contain 29 protons . The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element . The number of electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom . Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules . The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature , and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry . History of atomic theory Atoms in philosophy The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old idea , appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India . The word `` atom '' was coined by ancient Greek philosophers . However , these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation . As a result , their views on what atoms look like and how they behave were incorrect . They also could not convince everybody , so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter . It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists , when the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that only the concept of atoms could explain . First evidence-based theory In the early 1800s , John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers ( the law of multiple proportions ) . For instance , there are two types of tin oxide : one is 88.1 % tin and 11.9 % oxygen and the other is 78.7 % tin and 21.3 % oxygen ( tin ( II ) oxide and tin dioxide respectively ) . This means that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen . 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2 , a ratio of small whole numbers . This common pattern in chemistry suggested to Dalton that elements react in whole number multiples of discrete units—in other words , atoms . In the case of tin oxides , one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms . Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbs different gases in different proportions . For example , he found that water absorbs carbon dioxide far better than it absorbs nitrogen.Dalton , John . `` [ http : //web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/dalton52.html On the Absorption of Gases by Water and Other Liquids ] '' , in Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester . 1803 . Retrieved on August 29 , 2007 . Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences between the masses and configurations of the gases ' respective particles , and carbon dioxide molecules ( CO2 ) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules ( N2 ) . Brownian motion In 1827 , botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically , a phenomenon that became known as `` Brownian motion '' . This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about . In 1905 Albert Einstein proved the reality of these molecules and their motions by producing the first Statistical physics analysis of Brownian motion . French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein 's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms , thereby conclusively verifying Dalton 's atomic theory . Discovery of the electron The physicist J. J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays , showing they were made of particles , but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom , hydrogen . Therefore , they were not atoms , but a new particle , the first subatomic particle to be discovered , which he originally called `` corpuscle '' but was later named electron , after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874 . He also showed they were identical to particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials . It was quickly recognized that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires , and carry the negative electric charge within atoms . Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work . Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are the indivisible , ultimate particles of matter . Thomson also incorrectly postulated that the low mass , negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the atom in a uniform sea of positive charge . This became known as the plum pudding model . Discovery of the nucleus In 1909 , Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden , under the direction of Ernest Rutherford , bombarded a metal foil with alpha particles to observe how they scattered . They expected all the alpha particles to pass straight through with little deflection , because Thomson 's model said that the charges in the atom are so diffuse that their electric fields could not affect the alpha particles much . However , Geiger and Marsden spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90° , which was supposed to be impossible according to Thomson 's model . To explain this , Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom . Discovery of isotopes While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay , in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table . The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that belong to the same element . J.J. Thomson created a technique for separating atom types through his work on ionized gases , which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes . Bohr model In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits , and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon . This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable ( given that normally , charges in acceleration , including circular motion , lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation , see synchrotron radiation ) and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra . Later in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of Niels Bohr 's theory . These results refined Ernest Rutherford 's and Antonius Van den Broek 's model , which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its ( atomic ) number in the periodic table . Until these experiments , atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity . That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today . Chemical bonding explained Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained , by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916 , as the interactions between their constituent electrons . As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law , in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner . Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus . Further developments in quantum physics The Stern–Gerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of the atom . When a beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially shaped magnetic field , the beam was split based on the direction of an atom 's angular momentum , or spin . As this direction is random , the beam could be expected to spread into a line . Instead , the beam was split into two parts , depending on whether the atomic spin was oriented up or down . In 1924 , Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles behave to an extent like waves . In 1926 , Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms rather than point particles . A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time ; this became known as the uncertainty principle , formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1926 . In this concept , for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum , and vice versa . This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not , such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen . Thus , the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed . Discovery of the neutron The development of the mass spectrometer allowed the mass of atoms to be measured with increased accuracy . The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions , and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atom 's mass to its charge . The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to show that isotopes had different masses . The atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts , called the whole number rule . The explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron , an uncharged particle with a mass similar to the proton , by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932 . Isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons , but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus . Fission , high-energy physics and condensed matter In 1938 , the German chemist Otto Hahn , a student of Rutherford , directed neutrons onto uranium atoms expecting to get transuranium elements . Instead , his chemical experiments showed barium as a product . A year later , Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch verified that Hahn 's result were the first experimental nuclear fission . In 1944 , Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry . Despite Hahn 's efforts , the contributions of Meitner and Frisch were not recognized . In the 1950s , the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies . Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons , or composites of smaller particles called quarks . The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions . Structure Subatomic particles Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that can not be cut into smaller particles , in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles . The constituent particles of an atom are the electron , the proton and the neutron ; all three are fermions . However , the hydrogen-1 atom has no neutrons and the hydron ion has no electrons . The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at , with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques . It is the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured . Under ordinary conditions , electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges . If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number , then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole ; a charged atom is called an ion . Electrons have been known since the late 19th century , mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson ; see history of subatomic physics for details . Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron , at . The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number . Ernest Rutherford ( 1919 ) observed that nitrogen under alpha-particle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei . By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton . Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the mass of the electron , or , the heaviest of the three constituent particles , but it can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy . Neutrons and protons ( collectively known as nucleons ) have comparable dimensions—on the order of —although the 'surface ' of these particles is not sharply defined . The neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick . In the Standard Model of physics , electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure . However , both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks . There are two types of quarks in atoms , each having a fractional electric charge . Protons are composed of two up quarks ( each with charge + ) and one down quark ( with a charge of − ) . Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks . This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles . The quarks are held together by the strong interaction ( or strong force ) , which is mediated by gluons . The protons and neutrons , in turn , are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force , which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range-properties ( see the article on the nuclear force for more ) . The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons , which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces . Nucleus All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus , and are collectively called nucleons . The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to 1.07 fm , where A is the total number of nucleons . This is much smaller than the radius of the atom , which is on the order of 105 fm . The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force . At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other . Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons , called the atomic number . Within a single element , the number of neutrons may vary , determining the isotope of that element . The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide . The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus , with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay . The proton , the electron , and the neutron are classified as fermions . Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle which prohibits identical fermions , such as multiple protons , from occupying the same quantum state at the same time . Thus , every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other protons , and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud . However , a proton and a neutron are allowed to occupy the same quantum state . For atoms with low atomic numbers , a nucleus that has more neutrons than protons tends to drop to a lower energy state through radioactive decay so that the neutron–proton ratio is closer to one . However , as the atomic number increases , a higher proportion of neutrons is required to offset the mutual repulsion of the protons . Thus , there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number Z 20 ( calcium ) and as Z increases , the neutron–proton ratio of stable isotopes increases . The stable isotope with the highest proton–neutron ratio is lead-208 ( about 1.5 ) . The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified , although this can require very high energies because of the strong force . Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus , such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei . For example , at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single nucleus . Nuclear fission is the opposite process , causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay . The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons . If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus , the atom changes to a different chemical element . If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles , then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy ( such as a gamma ray , or the kinetic energy of a beta particle ) , as described by Albert Einstein 's mass–energy equivalence formula , E = mc2 , where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light . This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus , and it is the non-recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate . The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel—a total nucleon number of about 60—is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together . It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction . For heavier nuclei , the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease . That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26 , and atomic masses higher than about 60 , is an endothermic process . These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star . Electron cloud The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force . This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus , which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape . The closer an electron is to the nucleus , the greater the attractive force . Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations . Electrons , like other particles , have properties of both a particle and a wave . The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus . This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital , a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured . Only a discrete ( or quantized ) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus , as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form . Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures , and differ from each other in size , shape and orientation . Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron . The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state . Likewise , through spontaneous emission , an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon . These characteristic energy values , defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states , are responsible for atomic spectral lines . The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the electron binding energy—is far less than the binding energy of nucleons . For example , it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom , compared to 2.23 million eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus . Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons . Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions . Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms . By this mechanism , atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals . Properties Nuclear properties By definition , any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element . Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element . For example , all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton , but isotopes exist with no neutrons ( hydrogen-1 , by far the most common form , also called protium ) , one neutron ( deuterium ) , two neutrons ( tritium ) and more than two neutrons . The known elements form a set of atomic numbers , from the single proton element hydrogen up to the 118-proton element ununoctium . All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive . About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth , of which 254 ( about 75 % ) have not been observed to decay , and are referred to as `` stable isotopes '' . However , only 90 of these nuclides are stable to all decay , even in theory . Another 164 ( bringing the total to 254 ) have not been observed to decay , even though in theory it is energetically possible . These are also formally classified as `` stable '' . An additional 34 radioactive nuclides have half-lives longer than 80 million years , and are long-lived enough to be present from the birth of the solar system . This collection of 288 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides . Finally , an additional 51 short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally , as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay ( such as radium from uranium ) , or else as products of natural energetic processes on Earth , such as cosmic ray bombardment ( for example , carbon-14 ) .For more recent updates see [ http : //www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart Interactive Chart of Nuclides ( Brookhaven National Laboratory ) ] . For 80 of the chemical elements , at least one stable isotope exists . As a rule , there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements , the average being 3.2 stable isotopes per element . Twenty-six elements have only a single stable isotope , while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten , for the element tin . Elements 43 , 61 , and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes.CRC Handbook ( 2002 ) . Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons , and also by the presence of certain `` magic numbers '' of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells . These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus ; filled shells , such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin , confers unusual stability on the nuclide . Of the 254 known stable nuclides , only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons : hydrogen-2 ( deuterium ) , lithium-6 , boron-10 and nitrogen-14 . Also , only four naturally occurring , radioactive odd–odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years : potassium-40 , vanadium-50 , lanthanum-138 and tantalum-180m . Most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay , because the decay products are even–even , and are therefore more strongly bound , due to nuclear pairing effects . Mass The large majority of an atom 's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up . The total number of these particles ( called `` nucleons '' ) in a given atom is called the mass number . It is a positive integer and dimensionless ( instead of having dimension of mass ) , because it expresses a count . An example of use of a mass number is `` carbon-12 , '' which has 12 nucleons ( six protons and six neutrons ) . The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit ( u ) , also called dalton ( Da ) . This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12 , which is approximately . Hydrogen-1 ( the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass ) has an atomic weight of 1.007825 u . The value of this number is called the atomic mass . A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal ( within 1 % ) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit ( for example the mass of a nitrogen-14 is roughly 14 u ) . However , this number will not be exactly an integer except in the case of carbon-12 ( see below ) . The heaviest stable atom is lead-208 , with a mass of . As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly , chemists instead use the unit of moles . One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms ( about Avogadro constant| ) . This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u , a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram . Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit , each carbon-12 atom

qw_829--Atom.txt

Which German-born chemist split the uranium atom in 1939 and won the Nobel prize in 1944?

Sir Derek Jules Gaspard Ulric Niven van den Bogaerde , known as Dirk Bogarde ( 28 March 1921 – 8 May 1999 ) , was an English actor and writer . Initially a matinée idol in films such as Doctor in the House ( 1954 ) for the Rank Organisation , he later acted in art-house films . In a second career , he wrote seven best-selling volumes of memoirs , six novels and a volume of collected journalism , mainly from articles in The Daily Telegraph . Bogarde came to prominence in films including The Blue Lamp in the early 1950s , before starring in the successful Doctor film series ( 1954–63 ) . He twice won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role ; for The Servant ( 1963 ) and Darling ( 1965 ) . His other notable film roles included Victim ( 1961 ) , Accident ( 1967 ) , The Damned ( 1969 ) , Death in Venice ( 1971 ) , The Night Porter ( 1974 ) , A Bridge Too Far ( 1977 ) and Despair ( 1978 ) . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters in 1990 and a Knight Bachelor in 1992 . Early years Bogarde was the elder of two sons born to Ulric van den Bogaerde ( 1892–1972 ) and Margaret Niven ( 1898–1980 ) . He had a younger sister , Elizabeth . Ulric was born in Perry Barr , Birmingham , of Flemish ancestry . He was Art Editor of The Times . Margaret Niven was Scottish , from Glasgow and was a former actress . Dirk Bogarde was born in a nursing home at 12 Hemstal Road , Coldstream 2004 , p. 24 . West Hampstead , London . He was baptised on 30 October 1921 at St. Mary 's Church , Kilburn . His brother , Gareth Ulric Van Den Bogaerde , was born in July 1933 , in Hendon . Conditions in the family home in North London became cramped and Bogarde was moved to Glasgow to stay with relatives of his mother . He stayed there for over three years , returning at the end of 1937 . Education He attended University College School , and the former Allan Glen 's School in Glasgow ( a time he described in his autobiography as unhappy , although others have disputed his account ) . He later studied at the Chelsea College of Art and Design . He began his acting career on stage in 1939 , shortly before the start of the Second World War . War service Bogarde served in the Second World War , being commissioned into the Queen 's Royal Regiment in 1943 . He reached the rank of captain and served in both the European and Pacific theatres , principally as an intelligence officer . Taylor Downing 's book `` Spies in the Sky '' tells of his work with a specialist unit interpreting aerial photo-reconnaissance information , before moving to Normandy with Canadian forces . Bogarde claimed to have been one of the first Allied officers in April 1945 to reach the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in Germany , an experience that had the most profound effect on him and about which he found it difficult to speak for many years afterward . The horror and revulsion at the cruelty and inhumanity that he claimed to have witnessed still left him with a deep-seated hostility towards Germany ; in the late-1980s he wrote that he would disembark from a lift rather than ride with a German of his generation . Nevertheless , three of his more memorable film roles were as Germans , one of them as a former SS officer in The Night Porter ( 1974 ) . Bogarde was most vocal , towards the end of his life , on voluntary euthanasia , of which he became a staunch proponent after witnessing the protracted death of his lifelong partner and manager Anthony Forwood ( the former husband of actress Glynis Johns ) in 1988 . He gave an interview to John Hofsess , London executive director of the Voluntary Euthanasia Society : My views were formulated as a 24-year-old officer in Normandy ... On one occasion the jeep ahead hit a mine ... Next thing I knew , there was this chap in the long grass beside me . A bloody bundle , shrapnel-ripped , legless , one arm only . The one arm reached out to me , white eyeballs wide , unseeing , in the bloody mask that had been a face . A gurgling voice said , `` Help . Kill me . '' With shaking hands I reached for my small pouch to load my revolver ... I had to look for my bullets—by which time somebody else had already taken care of him . I heard the shot . I still remember that gurgling sound . A voice pleading for death .... During the war I saw more wounded men being `` taken care of '' than I saw being rescued . Because sometimes you were too far from a dressing station , sometimes you could n't get them out . And they were pumping blood or whatever ; they were in such a wreck , the only thing to do was to shoot them . And they were , so do n't think they were n't . That hardens you : You get used to the fact that it can happen . And that it is the only sensible thing to do . Career His London West End theatre-acting debut was in 1939 , with the stage name `` Derek Bogaerde '' , in J . B. Priestley 's play Cornelius . After the war , Bogarde 's agent renamed him `` Dirk Bogarde '' and he was handsome enough to begin a career as a film actor . He was contracted to the Rank Organisation under the wing of the prolific independent film producer Betty Box , who produced most of his early films and was instrumental in creating his matinée idol image.Morley 1999 , pp . 8–9 . Stardom During the 1950s , Bogarde came to prominence playing a hoodlum who shoots and kills a police constable in The Blue Lamp ( 1950 ) , co-starring Jack Warner and Bernard Lee ; a handsome artist who comes to the rescue of Jean Simmons during the World 's Fair in Paris in So Long at the Fair , a film noir thriller ; an accidental murderer who befriends a young boy played by Jon Whiteley in Hunted ( a.k.a . The Stranger in Between ) ( 1952 ) ; in Appointment in London ( 1953 ) as a young wing commander in Bomber Command who , against orders , opts to fly his 90th mission with his men in a major air offensive against the Germans ; an unjustly imprisoned man who regains hope in clearing his name when he learns his sweetheart , Mai Zetterling , is still alive in Desperate Moment ( 1953 ) . In Doctor in the House ( 1954 ) , Bogarde starred as a medical student in a film that made him one of the most popular British stars of the 1950s . The film co-starred Kenneth More and Donald Sinden , with James Robertson Justice as their crabby mentor . The first film was initiated by Betty Box , who picked up a copy of the book at Crewe during a long rail journey , and saw its possibility as a film . But Box and Ralph Thomas had a job convincing Rank executives that people would go to a film about doctors , and that Bogarde , who up to then had played spivs and Second World War heroes , had sex appeal and could play light comedy . They got a low budget , and were only allowed to use available Rank contract artists . The film was the first of a very successful series ( Doctor ) . In The Sleeping Tiger ( 1954 ) , Bogarde played a neurotic criminal with co-star Alexis Smith . It was Bogarde 's first film for American expatriate director Joseph Losey . He did his second Doctor film , Doctor at Sea ( 1955 ) , co-starring Brigitte Bardot in one of her first film roles ; as a returning colonial who fights the Mau-Mau with Virginia McKenna and Donald Sinden in Simba ( 1955 ) ; Cast a Dark Shadow ( 1955 ) , as a man who marries women for money and then murders them ; The Spanish Gardener ( 1956 ) , co-starring Michael Hordern , Jon Whiteley , and Cyril Cusack ; Doctor at Large ( 1957 ) , again with Donald Sinden , another entry in the Doctor film series , co-starring later Bond-girl Shirley Eaton ; the Powell and Pressburger production Ill Met by Moonlight ( 1957 ) co-starring Marius Goring as the German General Kreipe , kidnapped on Crete by Patrick `` Paddy '' Leigh Fermor ( Bogarde ) and W. Stanley Moss ( David Oxley ) and a fellow band of Cretan resistance fighters based on W. Stanley Moss ' real-life account , ( Ill Met by Moonlight ) , of the Second World War abduction ; A Tale of Two Cities ( 1958 ) , a faithful retelling of Charles Dickens ' classic ; as a flight lieutenant in the Far East who falls in love with a beautiful Japanese teacher Yoko Tani in The Wind Can not Read ( 1958 ) ; The Doctor 's Dilemma ( 1959 ) , based on a play by George Bernard Shaw and co-starring Leslie Caron and Robert Morley ; and Libel ( 1959 ) , playing three separate roles and co-starring Olivia de Havilland . Later roles After leaving the Rank Organisation in the early 1960s , Bogarde abandoned his heartthrob image for more challenging parts . He starred in the film Victim ( 1961 ) , playing a London barrister who fights the blackmailers of a young man with whom he has had a deeply emotional and loving relationship . The young man commits suicide after being arrested for embezzlement , rather than ruin his beloved 's career . In exposing the ring of extortionists , Bogarde 's character risks his reputation and marriage in order to see that justice is done . Victim was the first mainstream British film to portray the humiliation gay people were exposed to via discriminatory law , and as a victimized minority ; consequently it had some effect upon a contemporary Sexual Offences Act 1967 change in English punitive prosecution of consensual same-sex affectional expression . Other later roles included decadent valet Hugo Barrett in The Servant ( 1963 ) , which garnered him a BAFTA Award , directed by Joseph Losey and written by Harold Pinter ; The Mind Benders ( 1963 ) , a film ahead of its times in which Bogarde plays an Oxford professor conducting sensory deprivation experiments at Oxford University ( precursor to Altered States ( 1980 ) ) ; the anti-war film King & Country ( 1964 ) , directed by Joseph Losey , in which he played an army officer at a court martial , reluctantly defending deserter Tom Courtenay ; a television broadcaster-writer Robert Gold in Darling ( 1965 ) , for which Bogarde won a second BAFTA Award , directed by John Schlesinger ; Stephen , a bored Oxford University professor , in Losey 's Accident , ( 1967 ) also written by Pinter ; Our Mother 's House ( 1967 ) , an off-beat film-noir and British entry at the Venice Film Festival , directed by Jack Clayton , in which Bogarde plays a ne'er-do-well father who descends upon `` his '' seven children on the death of their mother ; German industrialist Frederick Bruckmann in Luchino Visconti 's La Caduta degli dei , The Damned ( 1969 ) co-starring Ingrid Thulin ; as ex-Nazi , Max Aldorfer , in the chilling and controversial Il Portiere di notte ( a.k.a . The Night Porter ) ( 1974 ) , co-starring Charlotte Rampling , directed by Liliana Cavani ; and most notably , as Gustav von Aschenbach in Morte a Venezia , Death in Venice ( 1971 ) , also directed by Visconti ; as Claude , the lawyer son of a dying , drunken writer ( John Gielgud ) in the well-received , multi-dimensional French film Providence ( 1977 ) , directed by Alain Resnais ; as industrialist Hermann Hermann who descends into madness in Despair ( 1978 ) directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder ; and as Daddy in Bertrand Tavernier 's Daddy Nostalgie , ( a.k.a.These Foolish Things ) ( 1991 ) , co-starring Jane Birkin as his daughter , Bogarde 's final film role . In some of his other roles during the 1960s and 1970s , Bogarde played opposite renowned stars , yet several of the films were of uneven quality , due to demands or limitations set by the studio or their scripts : The Angel Wore Red ( 1960 ) , playing an unfrocked priest who falls in love with cabaret entertainer Ava Gardner during the Spanish Civil War ; Song Without End ( 1960 ) , as Hungarian composer and virtuoso pianist Franz Liszt , a flawed film made under the initial direction of Charles Vidor ( who died during shooting ) , and completed by Bogarde 's friend George Cukor , the actor 's only disappointing foray into Hollywood ; the campy The Singer Not the Song ( 1961 ) , as a Mexican bandit co-starring John Mills as a priest ; H.M.S . Defiant ( a.k.a . Damn the Defiant ! ) ( 1962 ) , playing sadistic Lieutenant Scott-Padget , co-starring Sir Alec Guinness ; I Could Go On Singing ( 1963 ) , co-starring Judy Garland in her final screen role ; Hot Enough for June , ( a.k.a . `` Agent 8¾ '' ) ( 1964 ) , a James Bond-type spy spoof co-starring Robert Morley ; Modesty Blaise ( 1966 ) , a campy spy send-up playing archvillain Gabriel opposite Monica Vitti and Terence Stamp and directed by Joseph Losey ; The Fixer ( 1968 ) , based on Bernard Malamud 's novel , co-starring Alan Bates ; Sebastian ( 1968 ) , as Sebastian , a mathematician working on code decryption , who falls in love with Susannah York , a decrypter in the all-female decoding office he heads for British Intelligence , also co-starring Sir John Gielgud , and Lilli Palmer , co-produced by Michael Powell ; Oh ! What a Lovely War ( 1969 ) , co-starring Sir John Gielgud and Sir Laurence Olivier and directed by Richard Attenborough ; Justine ( 1969 ) , directed by George Cukor ; Le Serpent ( 1973 ) , co-starring Henry Fonda and Yul Brynner ; A Bridge Too Far ( 1977 ) , in a controversial performance as Lieutenant General Frederick `` Boy '' Browning , also starring Sean Connery and an all-star cast and again directed by Richard Attenborough . Bogarde claimed he had known General Browning from his time on Field Marshal Montgomery 's staff during the war and took issue with the largely negative portrayal of the General that he played in the 1977 film A Bridge Too Far . General `` Boy '' Browning 's widow , the author Daphne du Maurier , ferociously attacked his characterisation and `` the resultant establishment fallout , much of it homophobic , wrongly convinced [ Bogarde ] that the newly ennobled Sir Richard [ Attenborough ] had deliberately contrived to scupper his own chance of a knighthood . '' In 1977 , Bogarde embarked on his second career as an author . Starting with a first volume A Postillion Struck by Lightning ( an allusion to the phrase My postillion has been struck by lightning ) , he wrote a series of 15 best-selling memoirs , novels , essays , reviews , poetry and collected journalism . As a writer Bogarde displayed a witty , elegant , highly literate and thoughtful style . Missed roles While under contract with the Rank Organisation , Bogarde was set to play the role of T.E . Lawrence in a proposed film Lawrence to be directed by Anthony Asquith . On the eve of production , after one year of preparation by Bogarde and Asquith , the film was scrapped without full explanation to the dismay of Bogarde and Asquith . The abrupt scrapping of Lawrence , a role long researched and keenly anticipated by Bogarde , was among his greatest screen disappointments . Bogarde was also reportedly considered for the title role in MGM 's Doctor Zhivago ( 1965 ) . Earlier , he declined Louis Jourdan 's role as Gaston in MGM 's Gigi ( 1958 ) . In 1961 , Bogarde was offered the chance to play Hamlet at the recently founded Chichester Festival Theatre by artistic director Sir Laurence Olivier , but had to decline due to film commitments . Bogarde later said that he regretted declining Olivier 's offer and with it the chance to `` really learn my craft . '' Personal life For many years he shared his homes , first in Amersham , Buckinghamshire , then in France , with his partner Anthony Forwood , who was the former husband of actress Glynis Johns and the father of their only child , actor Gareth Forwood . Bogarde repeatedly denied that their relationship was anything but platonic . Such denials were understandable , mainly because male homosexual acts were criminal during most of his career , and could lead to prosecution and imprisonment . Rank Studio contracts included morality clauses , which provided for termination of the contract in the event of 'immoral ' conduct on the part of the actor . This would have included same-sex relationships , thus potentially putting the actor 's career in jeopardy . It is possible that Bogarde 's refusal to enter into a marriage of convenience was a major reason for his failure to become a star in Hollywood , together with the critical and commercial failure of Song Without End . His friend Helena Bonham Carter believed Bogarde would not have been able to come out during later life , since this might have demonstrated that he had been forced to camouflage his sexual orientation during his film career . The actor John Fraser , however , said that `` Dirk 's life with Forwood had been so respectable , their love for each other so profound and so enduring , it would have been a glorious day for the pursuit of understanding and the promotion of tolerance if he had screwed up the courage ... '' Death Bogarde suffered a minor stroke in November 1987 , at a time when his partner , Anthony Forwood , was dying of liver cancer and Parkinson 's disease . In September 1996 , he underwent angioplasty to unblock arteries leading to his heart and suffered a massive stroke following the operation . Bogarde was paralysed on one side of his body , which affected his speech and left him in a wheelchair . He managed , however , to complete a final volume of his autobiography , which covered the stroke and its effects as well as an edition of his collected journalism , mainly for the Daily Telegraph . He spent some time the day before he died with his friend Lauren Bacall . Bogarde died at home in London from a heart attack on 8 May 1999 , age 78 . His ashes were scattered at his former estate in Grasse , Southern France . Honours and awards Bogarde was nominated five times as Best Actor by BAFTA , winning twice , for The Servant in 1963 , and for Darling in 1965 . He also received the London Film Critics Circle Lifetime Award in 1991 . He made a total of 63 films between 1939 and 1991 . In 1983 , he received a Special Award for service to the Cinema at the Cannes Festival . Awarded the British Film Institute Fellowship in 1987 , the following year in 1988 , Bogarde was honoured with the first BAFTA Tribute Award for an outstanding contribution to cinema in 1988 . Bogarde was honoured as a Knight Bachelor in the United Kingdom in 1992 , awarded the Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government in 1990 , an honorary Doctorate of Literature on 4 July 1985 by St. Andrews University in Scotland and an honorary Doctorate of Letters in 1993 by the University of Sussex in England . In 1984 , Bogarde served as president of the jury at the Cannes Film Festival . He was the first British person to serve in this capacity . Filmography Titles preceded by an asterisk ( * ) are films made for television . British box office ranking For several years British film exhibitors voted Bogarde one of the most popular local stars at the box office : * 1953 - 5th * 1954 - 2nd ( 9th most popular international star ) * 1955 - 1st ( also most popular international star ) * 1956 - 3rd * 1957 - 1st ( also most popular international star ) * 1958 - 2nd ( also 2nd most popular international star ) * 1959 - 5th * 1960 - 9th most popular international star * 1961 - 8th most popular international star * 1963 - 9th most popular international star Other works Autobiographies and memoirs * A Postillion Struck by Lightning , 1977 * Snakes and Ladders , 1978 * An Orderly Man , 1983 * Backcloth , 1986 * A Particular Friendship , 1989 * Great Meadow , 1992 * A Short Walk from Harrods , 1993 * Cleared for Take-Off , 1995 * For the Time Being : Collected Journalism , 1998 * Dirk Bogarde : The Complete Autobiography ( contains the first four autobiographies only ) Novels * A Gentle Occupation , 1980 * Voices in the Garden , 1981 * West of Sunset , 1984 * Jericho , 1991 * A Period of Adjustment , 1994 * Closing Ranks , 1997 Discography * Lyrics for Lovers ( London Records , 1960 )

sfq_133--Dirk_Bogarde.txt

"Which country is the setting for the 1957 film, ""Ill Met By Moonlight"", starring Dirk Bogarde?"

Ballet is a type of performance dance that originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th century and later developed into a concert dance form in France and Russia . It has since become a widespread , highly technical form of dance with its own vocabulary based on French terminology . It has been globally influential and has defined the foundational techniques used in many other dance genres . Becoming a ballet dancer requires years of training . Ballet has been taught in various schools around the world , which have historically incorporated their own cultures to evolve the art . Ballet may also refer to a ballet dance work , which consists of the choreography and music for a ballet production . A well-known example of this is The Nutcracker , a two-act ballet that was originally choreographed by Marius Petipa and Lev Ivanov with a music score by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky . Ballets are choreographed and performed by trained artists . Traditional classical ballets usually are performed with classical music accompaniment and use elaborate costumes and staging , whereas modern ballets , such as the neoclassical works of American choreographer George Balanchine , often are performed in simple costumes ( e.g. , leotards and tights ) and without the use of elaborate sets or scenery . Etymology Ballet is a French word which had its origin in Italian balletto , a diminutive of ballo ( dance ) which comes from Latin ballo , ballare , meaning `` to dance '' , which in turn comes from the Greek `` βαλλίζω '' ( ballizo ) , `` to dance , to jump about '' . The word came into English usage from the French around 1630 . History Ballet originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th and 16th centuries before being spread from Italy to France by an Italian aristocrat , Catherine de ' Medici , who became Queen of France . In France , ballet developed even further under her aristocratic influence . The dancers in these early court ballets were mostly noble amateurs . Ballets in this period were lengthy and elaborate and often served a political purpose . Ornamented costumes were meant to impress viewers and restricted performers ' freedom of movement . The ballets were performed in large chambers with viewers on three sides . The implementation of the proscenium arch from 1618 on distanced performers from audience members , who could then better view and appreciate the technical feats of the professional dancers in the productions . French court ballet reached its height under the reign of King Louis XIV . Known as the Sun King , Louis symbolized the brilliance of France . In 1661 Louis founded the Académie Royale de Danse ( Royal Dance Academy ) to establish standards and certify dance instructors . In 1672 , Louis XIV made Jean-Baptiste Lully the director of the Académie Royale de Musique ( Paris Opera ) from which the first professional ballet company , the Paris Opera Ballet , arose . Lully is considered the most important composer of music for ballets de cour and instrumental to the development of the form . Ballet went into decline in France after 1830 , though it continued to develop in Denmark , Italy , and Russia . The arrival in Europe on the eve of First World War of the Ballets Russes of Sergei Diaghilev , revived interest in the ballet and started the modern era . The Russian choreographer Michel Fokine challenged tradition and called for reforms that reinvigorated ballet as an art form . In the 20th century , ballet had a strong influence on other dance genres , and subgenres of ballet have also evolved . In the United States , choreographer George Balanchine developed what is now known as neoclassical ballet . Other developments include contemporary ballet and post-structural ballet . Also in the twentieth century , ballet took a turn dividing it from classical ballet to the introduction of modern dance , leading to modernist movements in several countries . Famous dancers of the 20th century include Mikhail Baryshnikov , Suzanne Farrell , Gelsey Kirkland , Natalia Makarova , and Arthur Mitchell . Styles Stylistic variations have emerged and evolved since the Italian Renaissance . Early , classical variations are primarily associated with geographic origin . Examples of this are Russian ballet , French ballet , and Italian ballet . Later variations , such as contemporary ballet and neoclassical ballet , incorporate both classical ballet and non-traditional technique and movement . Perhaps the most widely known and performed ballet style is late Romantic ballet ( or Ballet blanc ) , a classical style that focuses on female dancers ( ballerinas ) and features pointe work , flowing and precise movements , and often presents the female dancers in traditional , short white tutus . Romantic ballet Romantic ballet is defined by an era during the early to mid 19th century ( the romantic era ) in which ballets featured themes that emphasized intense emotion as a source of aesthetic experience . The plots of many romantic ballets revolved around spirit women ( sylphs , wilis , and ghosts ) who enslaved the hearts and senses of mortal men . The 1827 ballet La Sylphide is widely considered to be the first , and the 1870 ballet Coppélia is considered to be the last work of romantic ballet . Famous ballet dancers of the Romantic era include Marie Taglioni and Fanny Elssler . Classical ballet Classical ballet is based on traditional ballet technique and vocabulary . There are different styles of classical ballet that are related to their areas of origin , such as French ballet , Italian ballet and Russian ballet . Several of the classical ballet styles are associated with specific training methods , which are typically named after their creators . For example , the Cecchetti method is named after its creator , Italian dancer Enrico Cecchetti and the Vaganova method is named after Russian ballerina Agrippina Vaganova . The Royal Academy of Dance method is a ballet technique and training system that was founded by a diverse group of ballet dancers . They merged their respective dance methods ( Italian , French , Danish and Russian ) to create a new style of ballet that is unique to the organisation and is recognized internationally as the English style of ballet . Some examples of classical ballet productions are : Swan Lake , The Nutcracker , and Sleeping Beauty . Neoclassical ballet Neoclassical ballet is a style that utilizes classical ballet technique and vocabulary , but deviates from classical ballet in its use of the abstract . In Neo-Classical Ballet , there often is no clear plot , costumes or scenery . Music choice can be diverse and will often include music that is also Neo-Classical ( e.g . Stravinsky , Webern ) . Neo-Classical ballet opens up the use of space to multiple possibilities , as the elimination of the necessity of formalities and story telling allows far more possibilities for architecture and design in choreography . Tim Scholl , author of From Petipa to Balanchine , considers George Balanchine 's Apollo in 1928 to be the first neoclassical ballet . Apollo represented a return to form in response to Sergei Diaghilev 's abstract ballets . Balanchine worked with modern dance choreographer Martha Graham , expanding his exposure to modern techniques and ideas , and he brought modern dancers into his company ( New York City Ballet ) such as Paul Taylor , who in 1959 performed in Balanchine 's Episodes . While Balanchine is widely considered the face of Neo-Classical Ballet , there were others who made significant contributions to the development of the style . Fredrick Ashton ’ s Symphonic Dances ( 1946 ) is a seminal work for the choreographer , and is a work staged in white tunics , abstract and minimal set design with no discernable plot . Set to César Franck ’ s score of the same title , it is a pure-dance interpretation of the score in a manner that exemplifies the Ashton style . Another form , Modern Ballet , also emerged as an offshoot of neo-classicism . Among the innovators in this form were Glen Tetley , Robert Joffrey and Gerald Arpino . While difficult to parse modern ballet from neo-classicism , the work of these choreographers favored a greater athleticism that departed from the delicacy of ballet . The physicality was more daring , with mood , subject matter and music more intense . An example of this would be Joffrey 's Astarte ( 1967 ) , which featured a rock score and sexual overtones in the choreography . Contemporary ballet Contemporary ballet is a form of dance that opens up the doors for any style to influence a work made utilizing ballet technique . Contemporary ballet can take on a wide variety of aesthetics , incorporating pedestrian , modern , jazz , or ethnic forms , so long as the roots of classical ballet are apparent . It allows for open-ended exploration and experimentation , but a good way to determine if a work is contemporary ballet , as opposed to contemporary dance , is to ask the question , is ballet training needed to perform this as it was intended ? . Again , it can sometimes be difficult to parse this form from neo-classical or modern ballet . Some prime examples of this would be Twyla Tharp ’ s Deuce Coupe ( 1973 ) for the Joffrey Ballet . In this ballet , Tharp juxtaposed a ballerina clad in white who makes her way through the lexicon of ballet steps , while dancers clad in street clothes , sometimes in pointe shoes , socks or sneakers , dance in wide range of styles to the music of the Beach Boys . In the 1980s William Forsythe made substantial innovations in contemporary ballet with a range of works , including In the Middle Somewhat Elevated ( 1987 ) . This work featured a robust athleticism and electric score . Forsythe took classical ballet vocabulary and exaggerated it , making the dancers move bigger , faster and in more directions than before . Many contemporary ballet concepts come from the ideas and innovations of 20th-century modern dance , including floor work and turn-in of the legs . This ballet style is often performed barefoot . Contemporary ballets may include mime and acting , and are usually set to music ( typically orchestral but occasionally vocal ) . George Balanchine , the founding director of the New York City Ballet , is considered to have been a pioneer of contemporary ballet because of his pioneering development of neoclassical ballet . Another early contemporary ballet choreographer , Twyla Tharp , choreographed Push Comes To Shove for the American Ballet Theatre in 1976 , and in 1986 created In The Upper Room for her own company . Both of these pieces were considered innovative for their melding of distinctly modern movements with the use of pointe shoes and classically trained dancers . Today there are many contemporary ballet companies and choreographers . These include Alonzo King and his company LINES Ballet ; Matthew Bourne and his company New Adventures ; Complexions Contemporary Ballet ; Nacho Duato and his Compañia Nacional de Danza ; William Forsythe and The Forsythe Company ; and Jiří Kylián of the Nederlands Dans Theater . Traditionally `` classical '' companies , such as the Mariinsky ( Kirov ) Ballet and the Paris Opera Ballet , also regularly perform contemporary works . The term ballet has evolved to include all forms associated with it . Someone training as a ballet dancer will now be expected to perform neo-classical , modern and contemporary work . A ballet dancer is expected to be able to be stately and regal for classical work , free and lyrical in neo-classical work , and unassuming , harsh or pedestrian for modern and contemporary work . The art form has grown vertically and horizontally and can sometimes be blurred with other dance forms , however the foundational elements of ballet technique will always be apparent .

bb_5317--Ballet.txt

Name Tchaikovsky's famous ballet which begins on Christmas Eve?

London is the capital and most populous city of England , Great Britain , and the United Kingdom . On the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain , London has been a major settlement for two millennia . It was founded by the Romans , who named it Londinium . London 's ancient core , the City of London , largely retains its medieval boundaries . Since at least the 19th century , `` London '' has also referred to the metropolis around this core , which now forms the county of Greater London See also : Independent city § National capitals . governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly , The London Mayor is not to be confused with the Lord Mayor of London who heads the City of London Corporation , which administers the City of London . historically split between Middlesex , Essex , Surrey , Kent , and Hertfordshire . London is a leading global city , in the arts , commerce , education , entertainment , fashion , finance , healthcare , media , professional services , research and development , tourism , and transport . It is one of the world 's leading financial centres and has the fifth-or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world.Rankings of cities by metropolitan area GDP can vary as a result of differences in the definition of the boundaries and population sizes of the areas compared , exchange rate fluctuations and the method used to calculate output . London and Paris are of broadly similar size in terms of total economic output which can result in third party sources varying as to which is defined as having the fifth- and sixth-largest city GDP in the world . A report by the McKinsey Global Institute published in 2012 estimated that London had a city GDP of US $ 751.8 billion in 2010 , compared to US $ 764.2 billion for Paris , making them respectively the sixth- and fifth-largest in the world . A report by PricewaterhouseCoopers published in November 2009 estimated that London had a city GDP measured in purchasing power parity of US $ 565 billion in 2008 , compared to US $ 564 billion for Paris , making them respectively the fifth- and sixth-largest in the world . The McKinsey Global Institute study used a metropolitan area with a population of 14.9 million for London compared to 11.8 million for Paris , whilst the PricewaterhouseCoopers study used a metropolitan area with a population of 8.59 million for London compared to 9.92 million for Paris . London is a world cultural capital . It is the world 's most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the world 's largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic . London is one of the world 's leading investment destinations , hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city . London 's universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe , and a 2014 report placed it first in the world university rankings . According to the report London also ranks first in the world in software , multimedia development and design , and shares first position in technology readiness . In 2012 , London became the first city to host the modern Summer Olympic Games three times . London has a diverse range of peoples and cultures , and more than 300 languages are spoken within Greater London . Its estimated mid-2015 population was 8,673,713 , the largest of any city in the European Union , and accounting for 12.5 per cent of the UK population . London 's urban area is the second most populous in the EU , after Paris , with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census . The city 's metropolitan area is one of the most populous in Europe with 13,879,757 inhabitants , while the Greater London Authority states the population of the city-region ( covering a large part of the south east ) as 22.7 million . London was the world 's most populous city from around 1831 to 1925 . London contains four World Heritage Sites : the Tower of London ; Kew Gardens ; the site comprising the Palace of Westminster , Westminster Abbey , and St Margaret 's Church ; and the historic settlement of Greenwich ( in which the Royal Observatory , Greenwich marks the Prime Meridian , 0° longitude , and GMT ) . Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace , the London Eye , Piccadilly Circus , St Paul 's Cathedral , Tower Bridge , Trafalgar Square , and The Shard . London is home to numerous museums , galleries , libraries , sporting events and other cultural institutions , including the British Museum , National Gallery , Natural History Museum , Tate Modern , British Library and West End theatres . The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world . History Toponymy The etymology of London is uncertain . It is an ancient name , found in sources from the 2nd century . It is recorded 121 as Londinium , which points to Romano-British origin , and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city from AD65/70-80 include the word Londinio ( `` in London '' ) . The earliest attempted explanation , now disregarded , is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae . This had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud , who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud . From 1898 , it was commonly accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called * Londinos ; this explanation has since been rejected . Richard Coates put forward an explanation in 1998 that it is derived from the pre-Celtic Old European * ( p ) lowonida , meaning 'river too wide to ford ' , and suggested that this was a name given to the part of the River Thames which flows through London ; from this , the settlement gained the Celtic form of its name , * Lowonidonjon ; this requires quite a serious amendment however . The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain , which should demand a form * ( h ) lōndinion ( as opposed to * londīnion ) , from earlier * loundiniom . The possibility can not be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date , and thus can not be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name . Until 1889 , the name `` London '' officially applied only to the City of London , but since then it has also referred to the County of London and now Greater London . Prehistory Two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area . In 1999 , the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the foreshore north of Vauxhall Bridge . This bridge either crossed the Thames , or went to a now lost island in the river . Dendrology dated the timbers to 1500 BC . In 2010 the foundations of a large timber structure , dated to 4500 BC , were found on the Thames foreshore , south of Vauxhall Bridge . The function of the mesolithic structure is not known . Both structures are on South Bank , at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the River Thames . Roman London Although there is evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area , the first major settlement was founded by the Romans after the invasion of 43 AD . This lasted only until around 61 , when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it , burning it to the ground . The next , heavily planned , incarnation of Londinium prospered , and it superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in 100 . At its height in the 2nd century , Roman London had a population of around 60,000 . Anglo-Saxon London ( and Viking period ) With the collapse of Roman rule in the early 5th century , London ceased to be a capital and the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned , although Roman civilisation continued in the St Martin-in-the-Fields area until around 450 . From around 500 , an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed in the same area , slightly to the west of the old Roman city . By about 680 , it had revived sufficiently to become a major port , although there is little evidence of large-scale production of goods . From the 820s the town declined because of repeated Viking invasions . There are three recorded Viking assaults on London ; two of which were successful in 851 and 886 AD , although they were defeated during the attack of 994 AD . The Vikings established Danelaw over much of the eastern and northern part of England with its boundary roughly stretching from London to Chester . It was an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions which was formally agreed to by the Danish warlord , Guthrum and west-Saxon king , Alfred the Great in 886 AD . The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that London was `` refounded '' by Alfred the Great in 886 . Archaeological research shows that this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls . London then grew slowly until about 950 , after which activity increased dramatically . By the 11th century , London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England . Westminster Abbey , rebuilt in the Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor , was one of the grandest churches in Europe . Winchester had previously been the capital of Anglo-Saxon England , but from this time on , London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war . In the view of Frank Stenton : `` It had the resources , and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to a national capital . '' Middle Ages Following his victory in the Battle of Hastings , William , Duke of Normandy , was crowned King of England in the newly finished Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066 . William constructed the Tower of London , the first of the many Norman castles in England to be rebuilt in stone , in the southeastern corner of the city , to intimidate the native inhabitants . In 1097 , William II began the building of Westminster Hall , close by the abbey of the same name . The hall became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster . In the 12th century , the institutions of central government , which had hitherto accompanied the royal English court as it moved around the country , grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed in one place . In most cases this was Westminster , although the royal treasury , having been moved from Winchester , came to rest in the Tower . While the City of Westminster developed into a true capital in governmental terms , its distinct neighbour , the City of London , remained England 's largest city and principal commercial centre , and it flourished under its own unique administration , the Corporation of London . In 1100 , its population was around 18,000 ; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000 . Disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid-14th century , when London lost nearly a third of its population . London was the focus of the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 . Early modern During the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism , much of London passing from church to private ownership.Pevsner , Nikolaus . London I : The Cities of London and Westminster rev . edition , 1962 . Introduction p. 48 . The traffic in woollen cloths shipped undyed and undressed from London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries , where it was considered indispensable . But the tentacles of English maritime enterprise hardly extended beyond the seas of north-west Europe . The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean Sea normally lay through Antwerp and over the Alps ; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan . Upon the re-opening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 , there ensued a strong outburst of commercial activity . The Royal Exchange was founded . Mercantilism grew , and monopoly trading companies such as the East India Company were established , with trade expanding to the New World . London became the principal North Sea port , with migrants arriving from England and abroad . The population rose from an estimated 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605 . In the 16th century William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London at a time of hostility to the development of the theatre . By the end of the Tudor period in 1603 , London was still very compact . There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster , through the Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605 . During the English Civil War the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause . After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642 culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green , London was surrounded by defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication . The lines were built by an up to 20,000 people , and were completed in under two months . The fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647 , and they were levelled by Parliament the same year . London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century , culminating in the Great Plague of 1665–1666 , which killed up to 100,000 people , or a fifth of the population . The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings . Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by Robert Hooke as Surveyor of London.The curious life of Robert Hooke , the man who measured London by Lisa Jardine In 1708 Christopher Wren 's masterpiece , St Paul 's Cathedral was completed . During the Georgian era , new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west ; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London . In the east , the Port of London expanded downstream . In 1762 , George III acquired Buckingham House and it was enlarged over the next 75 years . During the 18th century , London was dogged by crime , and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force . In total , more than 200 offences were punishable by death , including petty theft . Most children born in the city died before reaching their third birthday . The coffeehouse became a popular place to debate ideas , with growing literacy and the development of the printing press making news widely available ; and Fleet Street became the centre of the British press . According to Samuel Johnson : Late modern and contemporary London was the world 's largest city from about 1831 to 1925 . London 's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics , claiming 14,000 lives in 1848 , and 6,000 in 1866 . Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world 's first local urban rail network . The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some of the surrounding counties ; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of those areas of the counties surrounding the capital . London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War , and during the Second World War , the Blitz and other bombings by the German Luftwaffe killed over 30,000 Londoners , destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city . Immediately after the war , the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium , at a time when London had barely recovered from the war . In 1951 , the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank . The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956 , which ended the `` pea soup fogs '' for which London had been notorious . From the 1940s onwards , London became home to a large number of immigrants , largely from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica , India , Bangladesh and Pakistan , making London one of the most diverse cities in Europe . Primarily starting in the mid-1960s , London became a centre for the worldwide youth culture , exemplified by the Swinging London subculture associated with the King 's Road , Chelsea and Carnaby Street . The role of trendsetter was revived during the punk era . In 1965 London 's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created . During The Troubles in Northern Ireland , London was subjected to bombing attacks by the Provisional IRA . Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot . Greater London 's population declined steadily in the decades after the Second World War , from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s . The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury , with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration , including the Canary Wharf development . This was borne out of London 's ever-increasing role as a major international financial centre during the 1980s . The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea . The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986 , which left London as the only large metropolis in the world without a central administration . In 2000 , London-wide government was restored , with the creation of the Greater London Authority . To celebrate the start of the 21st century , the Millennium Dome , London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed . On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics , making London the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times . On 7 July 2005 , three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks . In January 2015 , Greater London 's population was estimated to be 8.63 million , the highest level since 1939 . During the Brexit referendum in 2016 , UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union , but London voted to remain in the EU . This led to over a hundred thousands of Londoners petitioning Mayor Sadiq Khan to declare London 's independence from the UK and rejoin the EU . Supporters cite London 's status as a `` world city '' and its demographic and economic differences from the rest of the United Kingdom , and argue that it should become a city-state based on the model of Singapore , while remaining an EU member state . Government Local government The administration of London is formed of two tiers—a city-wide , strategic tier and a local tier . City-wide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority ( GLA ) , while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities . The GLA consists of two elected components ; the Mayor of London , who has executive powers , and the London Assembly , which scrutinises the mayor 's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor 's budget proposals each year . The headquarters of the GLA is City Hall , Southwark ; the mayor is Sadiq Khan . The mayor 's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan , which was most recently revised in 2011 . The local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation . They are responsible for most local services , such as local planning , schools , social services , local roads and refuse collection . Certain functions , such as waste management , are provided through joint arrangements . In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion ( £14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA ) . The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London . It is run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority and is the third largest fire service in the world . National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service ( LAS ) NHS Trust , the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world . The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required . Her Majesty 's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames , which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington Lock to the sea . National government London is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom . Many government departments are based close to the Palace of Westminster , particularly along Whitehall , including the Prime Minister 's residence at 10 Downing Street . The British Parliament is often referred to as the `` Mother of Parliaments '' ( although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself by John Bright ) because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems . There are 73 Members of Parliament ( MPs ) from London , who correspond to local parliamentary constituencies in the national Parliament . As of May 2015 , 45 are from the Labour Party , 27 are Conservatives , and one is a Liberal Democrat . Policing and crime Policing in Greater London , with the exception of the City of London , is provided by the Metropolitan Police Service , overseen by the Mayor through the Mayor 's Office for Policing and Crime ( MOPAC ) . The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police . The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail , London Underground , Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services . A fourth police force in London , the Ministry of Defence Police , do not generally become involved with policing the general public . Crime rates vary widely by area , ranging from parts with serious issues to parts considered very safe . Today crime figures are made available nationally at Local Authority and Ward level . In 2015 there were 118 homicides , a 25.5 % increase over 2014 . The Metropolitan Police have made detailed crime figures , broken down by category at borough and ward level , available on their website since 2000 . Geography Scope London , also referred to as Greater London , is one of 9 regions of England and the top-level subdivision covering most of the city 's metropolis.London is not a city in the sense that the word applies in the United Kingdom , that of having city status granted by the Crown . The small ancient City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement , but as its urban area grew , the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with its suburbs , causing `` London '' to be defined in a number ways for different purposes . Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town , within which 'LONDON ' forms part of postal addresses . The London telephone area code ( 020 ) covers a larger area , similar in size to Greater London , although some outer districts are omitted and some places just outside are included . The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places . Outward urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt , although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places , resulting in a separately defined Greater London Urban Area . Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt . Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London . The city is split by the River Thames into North and South , with an informal central London area in its interior . The coordinates of the nominal centre of London , traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall , are approximately . However the actual Geographical centre of London is in the London Borough of Lambeth , just 0.1 miles to the northeast of Lambeth North tube station . Status Within London , both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies . The area of Greater London has incorporated areas that were once part of the historic counties of Middlesex , Kent , Surrey , Essex and Hertfordshire . London 's status as the capital of England , and later the United Kingdom , has never been granted or confirmed officially—by statute or in written form . Its position was formed through constitutional convention , making its status as de facto capital a part of the UK 's unwritten constitution . The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court , and thus the political capital of the nation . More recently , Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as London . Topography Greater London encompasses a total area of 1583 km2 , an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 4542 PD/km2 . The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration , comprises a total area of 8382 km2 has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 1510 PD/km2 . Modern London stands on the Thames , its primary geographical feature , a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east . The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill , Addington Hills , and Primrose Hill . The Thames was once a much broader , shallower river with extensive marshlands ; at high tide , its shores reached five times their present width . Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked , and many of its London tributaries now flow underground . The Thames is a tidal river , and London is vulnerable to flooding . The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow 'tilting ' of Britain ( up in the north and down in the south ) caused by post-glacial rebound . In 1974 , a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat . While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2070 , concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed . Climate London has a temperate oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb ) , similar to all of southern Britain . Despite its reputation as being a rainy city , London receives less precipitation ( 601 mm in a year ) , than Rome , Bordeaux , Toulouse , Naples , Sydney and New York , however , there are many more days with light rain . Temperature extremes for all sites in the London area range from at Kew during August 2003 down to at Northolt during January 1962 . Winters are generally cool and damp with little temperature variation and frequent overcast skies . Daytime highs range from 8 °C , while overnight lows are near . Snowfall occurs occasionally and can cause travel disruption when this happens . Snowfall is more common in Outer London . Spring and autumn are mixed seasons and can be both cool and overcast and pleasantly mild . As a large city , London has a considerable urban heat island effect , making the centre of London at times 5 C-change warmer than the suburbs and outskirts . The effect of this can be seen below when comparing London Heathrow

qb_7658--London.txt

What was the name of the boutique run by Malcolm McLaren and Vivienne Westwood at 430 King’s Road, London, between 1974 and 1976?

Sherlock Holmes is a fictional private detective created by British author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle . Known as a `` consulting detective '' in the stories , Holmes is known for a proficiency with observation , forensic science , and logical reasoning that borders on the fantastic , which he employs when investigating cases for a wide variety of clients , including Scotland Yard . First appearing in print in 1887 ( in A Study in Scarlet ) , the character 's popularity became widespread with the first series of short stories in The Strand Magazine , beginning with `` A Scandal in Bohemia '' in 1891 ; additional tales appeared from then to 1927 , eventually totalling four novels and 56 short stories . All but one are set in the Victorian or Edwardian periods , taking place between about 1880 to 1914 . Most are narrated by the character of Holmes 's friend and biographer Dr. Watson , who usually accompanies Holmes during his investigations and often shares quarters with him at the address of 221B Baker Street , London , where many of the stories begin . Though not the first fictional detective , Sherlock Holmes is arguably the most well-known , with Guinness World Records listing him as the `` most portrayed movie character '' in history . Holmes 's popularity and fame are such that many have believed him to be not a fictional character but a real individual ; numerous literary and fan societies have been founded that pretend to operate on this principle . The stories and character have had a profound and lasting effect on mystery writing and popular culture as a whole , with both the original tales as well as thousands written by authors other than Conan Doyle being adapted into stage and radio plays , television , films , video games , and other media for over one hundred years . Inspiration for the character Edgar Allan Poe 's C. Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the first detective in fiction and served as the prototype for many that were created later , including Holmes . Conan Doyle once wrote , `` Each [ of Poe 's detective stories ] is a root from which a whole literature has developed ... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it ? '' Conan Doyle repeatedly said that Holmes was inspired by the real-life figure of Joseph Bell , a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh , whom Doyle met in 1877 and had worked for as a clerk . Like Holmes , Bell was noted for drawing broad conclusions from minute observations . However , he later wrote to Doyle : `` You are yourself Sherlock Holmes and well you know it '' . Sir Henry Littlejohn , Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School , is also cited as an inspiration for Holmes . Littlejohn , who was also Police Surgeon and Medical Officer of Health in Edinburgh , provided Doyle with a link between medical investigation and the detection of crime . Other inspirations have been considered . One is thought to be Francis `` Tanky '' Smith , a policeman and master of disguise who went on to become Leicester 's first private detective . Another might be Maximilien Heller , by French author Henry Cauvain . It is not known if Conan Doyle read Maximilien Heller , but in this 1871 novel ( sixteen years before the first adventure of Sherlock Holmes ) , Henry Cauvain imagined a depressed , anti-social , polymath , cat-loving , and opium-smoking Paris-based detective . Fictional character biography Family & early life Details about Sherlock Holmes 's life , except for the adventures in the books , are scarce in Conan Doyle 's original stories . Nevertheless , mentions of his early life and extended family paint a loose biographical picture of the detective . An estimate of Holmes 's age in `` His Last Bow '' places his year of birth at 1854 ; the story , set in August 1914 , describes him as sixty years of age . His parents are not mentioned in the stories , although Holmes mentions that his `` ancestors '' were `` country squires '' . In `` The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter '' , he claims that his grandmother was sister to the French artist Vernet , without further clarifying whether this was Claude Joseph , Carle , or Horace Vernet . Holmes 's brother Mycroft , seven years his senior , is a government official who appears in `` The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter '' , `` The Final Problem '' , and `` The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans '' and is mentioned in `` The Adventure of the Empty House '' . Mycroft has a unique civil service position as a kind of human database for all aspects of government policy . He lacks Sherlock 's interest in physical investigation , however , preferring to spend his time at the Diogenes Club . Holmes says that he first developed his methods of deduction as an undergraduate ; his earliest cases , which he pursued as an amateur , came from fellow university students . A meeting with a classmate 's father led him to adopt detection as a profession , and he spent six years after university as a consultant before financial difficulties led him to accept John H. Watson as a fellow lodger ( when the first published story , `` A Study in Scarlet '' , begins ) . Beginning in 1881 Holmes has lodgings at 221B Baker Street , London , an apartment at the upper end of the street , up seventeen steps . Until Watson 's arrival Holmes worked alone , only occasionally employing agents from the city 's underclass ; these agents included a host of informants , and a group of street children he called `` the Baker Street Irregulars '' . The Irregulars appear in three stories : A Study in Scarlet , The Sign of the Four and `` The Adventure of the Crooked Man '' . Life with Watson Holmes worked as a detective for twenty-three years , with physician John Watson assisting him for seventeen . They were roommates before Watson 's 1887 marriage and again after his wife 's death . Their residence is maintained by their landlady , Mrs. Hudson . Most of the stories are frame narratives , written from Watson 's point of view as summaries of the detective 's most interesting cases . Holmes frequently calls Watson 's writing sensational and populist , suggesting that it fails to accurately and objectively report the `` science '' of his craft : Nevertheless , Holmes 's friendship with Watson is his most significant relationship . When Watson is injured by a bullet , although the wound turns out to be `` quite superficial '' , Watson is moved by Holmes 's reaction : The Great Hiatus Conan Doyle wrote the first set of stories over the course of a decade . Wishing to devote more time to his historical novels , he killed off Holmes in a final battle with the criminal mastermind Professor James Moriarty in `` The Final Problem '' ( published 1893 , but set in 1891 ) . After resisting public pressure for eight years , the author wrote The Hound of the Baskervilles ( which appeared in 1901 , with an implicit setting before Holmes 's death ; some theorise that it occurs after `` The Return '' , with Watson planting clues to an earlier date ) . In 1903 Conan Doyle wrote `` The Adventure of the Empty House '' , set in 1894 ; Holmes reappears , explaining to a stunned Watson that he had faked his death in `` The Final Problem '' to fool his enemies . `` The Adventure of the Empty House '' marks the beginning of the second set of stories , which Conan Doyle wrote until 1927 . Holmes aficionados refer to the period from 1891 to 1894—between his disappearance and presumed death in `` The Final Problem '' and his reappearance in `` The Adventure of the Empty House '' —as the Great Hiatus ( though 1908 's `` The Adventure of Wisteria Lodge '' is described as taking place in 1892 due to an error on Conan Doyle 's part ) . The earliest known use of this expression is in the article `` Sherlock Holmes and the Great Hiatus '' by Edgar W. Smith , published in the July 1946 issue of The Baker Street Journal . Retirement In `` His Last Bow '' , Holmes has retired to a small farm on the Sussex Downs and taken up beekeeping as his primary occupation . The move is not dated precisely , but can be presumed to predate 1904 ( since it is referred to retrospectively in `` The Second Stain '' , first published that year ) . The story features Holmes and Watson coming out of retirement to aid the war effort . Only one other adventure , `` The Adventure of the Lion 's Mane '' ( narrated by Holmes ) , takes place during the detective 's retirement . Personality and habits Watson describes Holmes as `` bohemian '' in his habits and lifestyle . Described by Watson in The Hound of the Baskervilles as having a `` cat-like '' love of personal cleanliness , Holmes is an eccentric with no regard for contemporary standards of tidiness or good order . In `` The Adventure of the Musgrave Ritual '' , Watson says : In many of the stories , Holmes dives into an apparent mess to find an item most relevant to a mystery . The detective starves himself at times of intense intellectual activity , such as during `` The Adventure of the Norwood Builder '' —wherein , according to Watson : Although his chronicler does not consider Holmes 's habitual use of a pipe ( or his less frequent use of cigarettes and cigars ) a vice per se , Watson—a physician—occasionally criticises the detective for creating a `` poisonous atmosphere '' of tobacco smoke . Holmes acknowledges Watson 's disapproval in `` The Adventure of the Devil 's Foot '' : `` I think , Watson , that I shall resume that course of tobacco-poisoning which you have so often and so justly condemned '' . His companion condones the detective 's willingness to bend the truth ( or break the law ) on behalf of a client—lying to the police , concealing evidence or breaking into houses—when he feels it morally justifiable , but condemns Holmes ' manipulation of innocent people in `` The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton '' . Holmes derives pleasure from baffling police inspectors with his deductions , and has supreme confidence—bordering on arrogance—in his intellectual abilities . While the detective does not actively seek fame and is usually content to let the police take public credit for his work , Holmes is pleased when his skills are recognised , and responds to flattery . Police outside London ask Holmes for assistance if he is nearby , even during a vacation . Watson 's stories and newspaper articles reveal Holmes 's role in the cases , and he becomes well known as a detective ; many clients ask for his help instead of ( or in addition to ) that of the police . Government officials and royalty are among those he serves . A Prime Minister and the King of Bohemia visit 221B Baker Street to request Holmes 's assistance ; the government of France awards him its Legion of Honour for solving a case ; Holmes declines a knighthood `` for services which may perhaps some day be described '' ; the King of Scandinavia is a client ; and he aids the Vatican at least twice . The detective acts on behalf of the British government in matters of national security several times . As shooting practice during a period of boredom , Holmes decorates the wall of his Baker Street lodgings with a `` patriotic '' VR ( Victoria Regina ) in `` bullet-pocks '' from his revolver . Although the detective is usually dispassionate and cold , during an investigation he is animated and excitable . He has a flair for showmanship , preparing elaborate traps to capture and expose a culprit ( often to impress observers ) . Except for that of Watson , Holmes avoids casual company ; when Watson proposes visiting a friend 's home for rest , Holmes only agrees after learning that `` the establishment was a bachelor one , and that he would be allowed the fullest freedom '' . In `` The Adventure of the Gloria Scott '' he tells the doctor that during two years at college he made only one friend , Victor Trevor : `` I was never a very sociable fellow , Watson , always rather fond of moping in my rooms and working out my own little methods of thought , so that I never mixed much with the men of my year ; ... my line of study was quite distinct from that of the other fellows , so that we had no points of contact at all '' . The detective is similarly described by Stamford in A Study in Scarlet . Holmes relaxes with music in `` The Red-Headed League '' , taking the evening off from a case to listen to Pablo de Sarasate play violin . His enjoyment of vocal music , particularly Wagner 's , is evident in `` The Adventure of the Red Circle '' . Drug use Holmes occasionally uses addictive drugs , especially in the absence of stimulating cases . He uses cocaine , which he injects in a seven-percent solution with a syringe kept in a Morocco leather case . Although Holmes also dabbles in morphine , he expresses strong disapproval when he visits an opium den ; both drugs were legal in late-19th-century England . Watson and Holmes use tobacco , smoking cigarettes , cigars , and pipes , and the detective is an expert at identifying tobacco-ash residue . As a physician Watson strongly disapproves of his friend 's cocaine habit , describing it as the detective 's `` only vice '' , and concerned about its effect on Holmes 's mental health and intellect . In `` The Adventure of the Missing Three-Quarter '' Watson says that although he has `` weaned '' Holmes from drugs , he remains an addict whose habit is `` not dead , but merely sleeping '' . Finances During his career , Holmes works for the most powerful monarchs and governments of Europe ( including his own ) , wealthy aristocrats and industrialists , and impoverished pawnbrokers and governesses . Although when the stories begin Holmes initially needed Watson to share the rent for their residence at 221B Baker Street , by the time of `` The Final Problem '' , he says that his services to the government of France and the royal house of Scandinavia had left him with enough money to retire comfortably . The detective is known to charge clients for his expenses and claim any reward offered for a problem 's solution ; in `` The Adventure of the Speckled Band '' he says that Helen Stoner may pay any expenses he incurs , and asks the bank in `` The Red-Headed League '' to reimburse him for money spent solving the case . Holmes has his wealthy banker client in `` The Adventure of the Beryl Coronet '' pay the costs of recovering the stolen gems , and claims the reward posted for their recovery . In `` The Problem of Thor Bridge '' the detective says , `` My professional charges are upon a fixed scale . I do not vary them , save when I remit [ omit ] them altogether '' . In this context a client is offering to double his fee , and it is implied that wealthy clients habitually pay Holmes more than his standard fee . The detective tells Watson , in `` A Case of Identity '' , about a gold snuff box received from the King of Bohemia after `` A Scandal in Bohemia '' and about a valuable ring given to him by the Dutch royal family ; in `` The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans '' , he receives an emerald tie pin from Queen Victoria . In `` The Adventure of the Priory School '' Holmes rubs his hands with glee when the Duke of Holdernesse mentions his ₤6,000 fee , the amount of which surprises even Watson ( at a time where annual expenses for a rising young professional were in the area of ₤500 ) . However , in `` The Adventure of Black Peter '' Watson notes that Holmes would refuse to help even the wealthy and powerful if their cases did not interest him . Attitudes towards women As Doyle wrote to Joseph Bell , `` Holmes is as inhuman as a Babbage 's calculating machine and just about as likely to fall in love '' . Holmes says in The Valley of Fear , `` I am not a whole-souled admirer of womankind '' , and in `` The Adventure of the Second Stain '' finds `` the motives of women ... inscrutable .... How can you build on such quicksand ? Their most trivial actions may mean volumes ... their most extraordinary conduct may depend upon a hairpin or a curling tongs '' . In The Sign of the Four he says , `` I would not tell them too much . Women are never to be entirely trusted—not the best of them '' . Watson calls him `` an automaton , a calculating machine '' , and the detective replies : `` It is of the first importance not to allow your judgement to be biased by personal qualities . A client is to me a mere unit—a factor in a problem . The emotional qualities are antagonistic to clear reasoning . I assure you that the most winning woman I ever knew was hanged for poisoning three little children for their insurance-money '' . At the end of The Sign of Four Watson reveals to Holmes that `` Miss Morstan has done me the honour to accept me as a husband in prospective . '' He gave a most dismal groan . ' I feared as much , ' said he . ' I really can not congratulate you . ' I was a little hurt . 'Have you any reason to be dissatisfied with my choice ? ' I asked . 'Not at all . I think she is one of the most charming young ladies I ever met , and might have been most useful in such work as we have been doing . She had a decided genius that way ; [ ... ] But love is an emotional thing , and whatever is emotional is opposed to that true cold reason which I place above all things . I should never marry myself , lest I bias my judgement . ' ( The Complete Illustrated Sherlock Holmes , Omega Books Ltd. , 1986 , ISBN 1-85007-055-5 , p. 92 ) Watson says in `` The Adventure of the Copper Beeches '' that the detective inevitably `` manifested no further interest in the client when once she had ceased to be the centre of one of his problems '' . In `` The Lion 's Mane '' , Holmes writes , `` Women have seldom been an attraction to me , for my brain has always governed my heart , '' indicating that he has been attracted to women on occasion , but has not been interested in pursuing relationships with them . Ultimately , however , in `` The Adventure of the Devil 's Foot '' he claims outright that `` I have never loved ... '' . Despite his overall attitude , Holmes is adept at effortlessly putting his clients at ease , and Watson says that although the detective has an `` aversion to women '' , he has `` a peculiarly ingratiating way with [ them ] '' . Watson notes in `` The Adventure of the Dying Detective '' that Mrs. Hudson is fond of Holmes because of his `` remarkable gentleness and courtesy in his dealings with women . He disliked and distrusted the sex , but he was always a chivalrous opponent '' . In `` The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton , '' the detective easily manages to become engaged under false pretenses in order to obtain information about a case , but also abandons the woman once he has the information he requires . Irene Adler Irene Adler is a retired American opera singer and actress who appears in `` A Scandal in Bohemia '' . Although this is her only appearance in the canon , she is one of the most notable female characters in the stories : the only woman who has ever challenged Holmes intellectually , and one of only a handful of people who ever bested him in a battle of wits . For this reason , Adler is the frequent subject of pastiche writing . The beginning of the story describes the high regard in which Holmes holds her : Five years before the story 's events , Adler had a brief liaison with Crown Prince of Bohemia Wilhelm von Ormstein while she was prima donna of the Imperial Opera of Warsaw . Recently engaged to the daughter of the King of Scandinavia and fearful that , if his fiancée 's family learned of this impropriety , their marriage would be called off , Ormstein hires Holmes to regain a photograph of Adler and himself . Adler slips away before Holmes can succeed , leaving only a photograph of herself ( alone ) and a note to Holmes that she will not blackmail Ormstein . Her memory is kept alive by the photograph of Adler that Holmes received for his part in the case . Knowledge and skills In the first novel , A Study in Scarlet , Holmes ' background is presented . In early 1881 he is a chemistry student with a number of eccentric interests , almost all of which make him adept at solving crimes . Shortly after meeting Holmes , Watson assesses the detective 's abilities : Subsequent stories reveal that Watson 's early assessment was incomplete in places and inaccurate in others . At the end of A Study in Scarlet Holmes demonstrates a knowledge of Latin . Despite Holmes 's supposed ignorance of politics , in `` A Scandal in Bohemia '' he immediately recognises the true identity of `` Count von Kramm '' . His speech is peppered with references to the Bible , Shakespeare , and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , and the detective quotes a letter from Gustave Flaubert to George Sand in the original French . At the end of `` A Case of Identity '' , Holmes quotes Hafez . In The Hound of the Baskervilles , the detective recognises works by Martin Knoller and Joshua Reynolds : `` Excuse the admiration of a connoisseur .... Watson wo n't allow that I know anything of art , but that is mere jealousy , since our views upon the subject differ '' . In `` The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans '' Watson says that in November 1895 `` Holmes lost himself in a monograph which he had undertaken upon the Polyphonic Motets of Lassus '' , considered `` the last word '' on the subject . Holmes is also a cryptanalyst , telling Watson in `` The Adventure of the Dancing Men '' : `` I am fairly familiar with all forms of secret writing , and am myself the author of a trifling monograph upon the subject , in which I analyse one hundred and sixty separate ciphers '' . In A Study in Scarlet Holmes claims to be unaware that the earth revolves around the sun , since such information is irrelevant to his work ; after hearing that fact from Watson , he says he will immediately try to forget it . The detective believes that the mind has a finite capacity for information storage , and learning useless things reduces one 's ability to learn useful things . The later stories move away from this notion : in the second chapter of The Valley of Fear he says , `` All knowledge comes useful to the detective '' , and near the end of `` The Adventure of the Lion 's Mane '' the detective calls himself `` an omnivorous reader with a strangely retentive memory for trifles '' . The detective is particularly skilled in the analysis of physical evidence , including latent prints ( such as footprints , hoof prints , and bicycle tracks ) to identify actions at a crime scene ( `` A Study in Scarlet '' , `` The Adventure of Silver Blaze '' , `` The Adventure of the Priory School '' , The Hound of the Baskervilles , `` The Boscombe Valley Mystery '' ) ; using tobacco ashes and cigarette butts to identify criminals ( `` The Adventure of the Resident Patient '' , The Hound of the Baskervilles ) ; comparing typewritten letters to expose a fraud ( `` A Case of Identity '' ) ; using gunpowder residue to expose two murderers ( `` The Adventure of the Reigate Squire '' ) ; comparing bullets from two crime scenes ( `` The Adventure of the Empty House '' ) ; analyzing small pieces of human remains to expose two murders ( `` The Adventure of the Cardboard Box '' ) , and an early use of fingerprints ( `` The Norwood Builder '' ) . Holmes demonstrates a knowledge of psychology in `` A Scandal in Bohemia '' , luring Irene Adler into betraying where she hid a photograph based on the premise that an unmarried woman will save her most valued possession from a fire . Another example is in `` The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle '' , where Holmes obtains information from a salesman with a wager : `` When you see a man with whiskers of that cut and the 'Pink 'un ' protruding out of his pocket , you can always draw him by a bet .... I daresay that if I had put 100 pounds down in front of him , that man would not have given me such complete information as was drawn from him by the idea that he was doing me on a wager '' . Holmesian deduction Holmes 's primary intellectual detection method is abductive reasoning . Holmesian deduction consists primarily of observation-based inferences , such as his study of cigar ashes . `` From a drop of water '' , he writes , `` a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a Niagara without having seen or heard of one or the other '' . In `` A Scandal in Bohemia '' , Holmes deduces that Watson had gotten wet lately and had `` a most clumsy and careless servant girl '' . When Watson asks how Holmes knows this , the detective answers : In the first Holmes story , A Study in Scarlet , Dr. Watson compares Holmes to C. Auguste Dupin , Edgar Allan Poe 's fictional detective , who employed a similar methodology . To this Holmes replies : `` No doubt you think you are complimenting me ... In my opinion , Dupin was a very inferior fellow ... He had some analytical genius , no doubt ; but he was by no means such a phenomenon as Poe appears to imagine '' . Alluding to an episode in `` The Murders in the Rue Morgue '' , where Dupin deduces what his friend is thinking despite their having walked together in silence for a quarter of an hour , Holmes remarks : `` That trick of his breaking in on his friend 's thoughts with an apropos remark ... is really very showy and superficial '' . Nevertheless , Holmes later performs the same 'trick ' on Watson in `` The Adventure of the Cardboard Box '' . Deductive reasoning allows Holmes to learn a stranger 's occupation , such as the retired Marine sergeant in A Study in Scarlet ; the ship's-carpenter-turned-pawnbroker in `` The Red-Headed League '' , and the billiard-marker and retired artillery non-commissioned officer in `` The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter '' . By studying inanimate objects , he makes deductions about their owners ( Watson 's pocket watch in The Sign of the Four and a hat , pipe , and walking

dpql_5058--Sherlock_Holmes.txt

In the Sherlock Holmes stories who was Moriarty’s second in command?

Marine mammals are aquatic mammals that rely on the ocean and other marine ecosystems for their existence . They include animals such as seals , whales , manatees , sea otters and polar bears . They do not represent a distinct biological grouping , but are instead unified by their reliance on the aquatic environment for feeding . The level of dependence on the aquatic environment varies considerably between species . For example , cetaceans are completely dependent on the marine environment for all stages of their life , whereas seals feed in the ocean but breed on land , and polar bears can live comfortably on land . Marine mammal adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle vary considerably between species . Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate ocean dwellers . Pinnipeds are semiaquatic ; they spend the majority of their time in the water , but need to return to land for important activities such as mating , breeding and molting . In contrast , both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living . Likewise , their diet ranges considerably as well ; some may eat zooplankton , others may eat small fish , and a few may eat other mammals . While the number of marine mammals is small compared to those found on land , their roles in various ecosystems are large . They play important roles in maintaining marine ecosystems , especially through regulation of prey populations . Their role in maintaining ecosystems makes them of particular concern considering 23 % of marine mammal species are currently threatened . Marine mammals were first hunted by aboriginal peoples for food and other resources . They were also the target for commercial industry , leading to a sharp decline in all populations of exploited species , such as whales and seals . Commercial hunting lead to the extinction of Steller 's sea cow and the Caribbean monk seal . After commercial hunting ended , some species , such as the gray whale and northern elephant seal , have rebounded in numbers ; conversely , other species , such as the North Atlantic right whale , are critically endangered . Other than hunting , marine mammals can be killed as bycatch from fisheries , where they become entangled in fixed netting and drown or starve . Increased ocean traffic causes collisions between fast ocean vessels and large marine mammals . Habitat degradation also threatens marine mammals and their ability to find and catch food . Noise pollution , for example , may adversely affect echolocating mammals , and the ongoing effects of global warming degrades arctic environments . Taxonomy Marine mammals form a diverse group of 129 species that rely on the ocean for their existence . They do not represent a distinct biological grouping , but rather are unified by their reliance on the aquatic environment for feeding . The level of dependence on the aquatic environment for existence varies considerably with species . For example , dolphins and whales are completely dependent on the marine environment for all stages of their life , seals feed in the ocean but breed on land , and rhinoceroses can feed on land and in water . Twenty three percent of marine mammal species are threatened . Classification of extant species * Order Cetartiodactyla * * Suborder Whippomorpha * * * Family Balaenidae ( right and bowhead whales ) , two genera and four species * * * Family Cetotheriidae ( pygmy right whale ) , one species * * * Family Balaenopteridae ( rorquals ) , two genera and eight species * * * Family Eschrichtiidae ( gray whale ) , one species * * * Family Physeteridae ( sperm whale ) , one species * * * Family Kogiidae ( pygmy and dwarf sperm whales ) , one genus and two species * * * Family Monodontidae ( narwhal and beluga ) , two genera and two species * * * Family Ziphiidae ( beaked whales ) , six genera and 21 species * * * Family Delphinidae ( oceanic dolphins ) , 17 genera and 38 species * * * Family Phocoenidae ( porpoises ) , two genera and seven species * * * Family Platanistidae ( South Asia river dolphin ) , one species * * * Family Iniidae ( boto ) 1 species * Order Sirenia ( sea cows ) * * Suborder Cynodontia * * * Family Trichechidae ( manatees ) , one genus and three species * * * Family Dugongidae ( dugongs ) , one species * Order Carnivora ( carnivores ) : * * Suborder Caniformia * * * Family Mustelidae , two species * * * Family Ursidae ( bears ) , one species * * Suborder Pinnipedia ( sealions , walruses , seals ) * * * Family Otariidae ( eared seals and sea lions ) , seven genera and 15 species * * * Family Odobenidae ( walrus ) , one species * * * Family Phocidae ( true seals ) , 14 genera and 18 species Evolution Mammals have returned to the water in many separate evolutionary lineages , namely : Cetacea , Sirenia , Desmostylia , Pinnipedia , Kolponomos ( marine bear ) , Thalassocnus ( aquatic sloth ) , and Enhydra lutris ( sea otter ) ; the eutriconodonts Ichthyoconodon and Dyskritodon might have also been marine in habits . Five of these lineages are extinct ( Desmostylia ; Kolponomos ; Thalassocnus , Dyskritodon , Ichthyoconodon ) . Despite the diversity in morphology seen between groups , improving foraging efficiency has been the main driver in the evolution in these lineages . Today , fully aquatic marine mammals belong to one of two orders : Cetartiodactyla or Sirenia Based on molecular and morphological research , the cetaceans genetically and morphologically fall firmly within the Artiodactyla ( even-toed ungulates ) . The term Cetartiodactyla reflects the idea that whales evolved within the ungulates . The term was coined by merging the name for the two orders , Cetacea and Artiodactyla , into a single word . Under this definition , the closest living land relative of the whales and dolphins is thought to be the hippopotamuses . Use of the order Cetartiodactyla , instead of Cetacea with parvorders Odontoceti and Mysticeti , is favored by most evolutionary mammalogists working with molecular data and is supported the IUCN Cetacean Specialist Group and by Taxonomy Committee of the Society for Marine Mammalogy , the largest international association of marine mammal scientists in the world . Some others , including many marine mammalogists and paleontologists , favor retention of order Cetacea with the two suborders in the interest of taxonomic stability . Fossil evidence indicates the sea otter ( Enhydra ) lineage became isolated in the North Pacific approximately 2 Mya , giving rise to the now-extinct Enhydra macrodonta and the modern sea otter , Enhydra lutris . The sea otter evolved initially in northern Hokkaidō and Russia , and then spread east to the Aleutian Islands , mainland Alaska , and down the North American coast . In comparison to cetaceans , sirenians , and pinnipeds , which entered the water approximately 50 , 40 , and 20 Mya , respectively , the sea otter is a relative newcomer to marine life . In some respects , though , the sea otter is more fully adapted to water than pinnipeds , which must haul out on land or ice to give birth . The first appearance of sirenians in the fossil record was during the early Eocene , and by the late Eocene , sirenians had significantly diversified . Inhabitants of rivers , estuaries , and nearshore marine waters , they were able to spread rapidly . The most primitive sirenian , Prorastomus , was found in Jamaica , unlike other marine mammals which originated from the Old World ( such as cetaceans ) . The first known quadrupedal sirenian was Pezosiren from the early Eocene . The earliest known sea cows , of the families Prorastomidae and Protosirenidae , are both confined to the Eocene , and were pig-sized , four-legged , amphibious creatures . The first members of Dugongidae appeared by the end of the Eocene . At this point , sea cows were fully aquatic . Adaptations Marine mammals have a number of physiological and anatomical features to overcome the unique challenges associated with aquatic living . Some of these features are very species specific . Marine mammals have developed a number of features for efficient locomotion such as torpedo shaped bodies to reduce drag ; modified limbs for propulsion and steering ; tail flukes and dorsal fins for propulsion and balance . Marine mammals are adept at thermoregulation using dense fur or blubber to reduce heat loss ; as well as circulatory adjustments to conserve their body temperature ( counter-current heat exchangers ) ; torpedo shaped bodies , reduced appendages , and large size to prevent heat loss . Marine mammals are able to dive for long periods of time . Both pinnipeds and cetaceans have large and complex blood vessel systems which serve to store oxygen to support deep diving . Other important reservoirs include muscles , blood , and the spleen which all have the capacity to hold a high concentration of oxygen . Other features include bradycardia ( reduced heart rate ) , and vasoconstriction ( shunts most of the oxygen to vital organs such as the brain and heart ) also assist with extended diving and oxygen deprivation . If oxygen is depleted , marine mammals can access substantial reservoirs of glycogen that support anaerobic glycolysis of the cells involved during conditions of systemic hypoxia associated with prolonged submersion . Sound travels differently through water therefore marine mammals have developed a number of ways to ensure effective communication , prey capture , and predator detection . The most notable adaptation is the development of echolocation in whales and dolphins . Marine mammals have evolved a number features for feeding , which are mainly seen in their dentition . For example , the cheek teeth of pinniped and odontocetes are designed specifically to capture fish and squid . In contrast , baleen whales have evolved baleen plates to filter feed plankton and small fish from the water . Polar bears , otters , and fur seals have fur , one of the defining mammalian features , that is long , oily , and waterproof in order to trap air to provide insulation . In contrast , other marine mammals – such as whales , dolphins , porpoises , manatees , dugongs , and walruses – have lost long fur in favor of a thick , dense epidermis and a thickened fat layer ( blubber ) in response to hydrodynamic requirements . Wading and bottom-feeding animals ( such as manatee ) need to be heavier than water in order to keep contact with the floor or to stay submerged . Surface-living animals ( such as sea otters ) need the opposite , and free-swimming animals living in open waters ( such as dolphins ) need to be neutrally buoyant in order to be able to swim up and down the water column . Typically , thick and dense bone is found in bottom feeders and low bone density is associated with mammals living in deep water . Some marine mammals have retained four weight-bearing limbs ( such as polar bears and otters ) and can walk on land like fully terrestrial animals . Distribution and habitat Marine mammals are widely distributed throughout the globe , but their distribution is patchy and coincides with the productivity of the oceans . Species richness peaks at around 40° latitude , both north and south . This corresponds to the highest levels of primary production around North and South America , Africa , Asia and Australia . Total species range is highly variable for marine mammal species . On average most marine mammals have ranges which are equivalent or smaller than one-fifth of the Indian Ocean . The variation observed in range size is a result of the different ecological requirements of each species and their ability to cope with a broad range of environmental conditions . There is a high degree of overlap between marine mammal species richness and areas of human impact on the environment which is of concern . Most marine mammals , such as seals and sea otters , inhabit the coast . Seals , however , also use a number of terrestrial habitats , both continental and island . In temperate and tropical areas , they haul-out on to sandy and pebble beaches , rocky shores , shoals , mud flats , tide pools and in sea caves . Some species also rest on man-made structures , like piers , jetties , buoys and oil platforms . Seals may move further inland and rest in sand dunes or vegetation , and may even climb cliffs . Most cetaceans live in the open ocean , and species like the sperm whale may dive to depths of in search of food . Sirenians live in shallow coastal waters , usually living 30 ft below sea level . However , they have been known to dive to to forage deep-water seagrasses . Sea otters live in protected areas , such as rocky shores , kelp forests , and barrier reefs , although they may reside among drift ice or in sandy , muddy , or silty areas . Ecology Diet All cetaceans are carnivorous and predatory . Toothed whales mostly feed on fish and cephalopods , followed by crustaceans and bivalves . Some may forage with other kinds of animals , such as other species of whales or certain species of pinnipeds . One common feeding method is herding , where a pod squeezes a school of fish into a small volume , known as a bait ball . Individual members then take turns plowing through the ball , feeding on the stunned fish . Coralling is a method where dolphins chase fish into shallow water to catch them more easily . Killer whales and bottlenose dolphins have also been known to drive their prey onto a beach to feed on it . Other whales with a blunt snout and reduced dentition rely on suction feeding . Baleen whales use their baleen plates to sieve plankton , among others , out of the water ; there are two types of methods : lunge-feeding and gulp-feeding . Lunge-feeders expand the volume of their jaw to a volume bigger than the original volume of the whale itself by inflating their mouth . This causes grooves on their throat to expand , increasing the amount of water the mouth can store . They ram a baitball at high speeds in order to feed , but this is only energy-effective when used against a large baitball . Gulp-feeders swim with an open mouth , filling it with water and prey . Prey must occur in sufficient numbers to trigger the whale 's interest , be within a certain size range so that the baleen plates can filter it , and be slow enough so that it can not escape . Otters are the only marine animal capable of lifting and turning over rocks , which it often does with its front paws when searching for prey . The sea otter may pluck snails and other organisms from kelp and dig deep into underwater mud for clams . It is the only marine mammal that catches fish with its forepaws rather than with its teeth.Nickerson , p. 21 Under each foreleg , the sea otter has a loose pouch of skin that extends across the chest which they use to store collected food to bring to the surface . This pouch also holds a rock that is used to break open shellfish and clams . There , the sea otter eats while floating on its back , using its forepaws to tear food apart and bring it to its mouth . The marine otter mainly feeds on crustaceans and fish . Pinnipeds mostly feed on fish and cephalopods , followed by crustaceans and bivalves , and then zooplankton and warm-blooded prey ( like sea birds ) . Most species are generalist feeders , but a few are specialists . They typical when hunt non-schooling fish , slow-moving or immobile invertebrates or endothermic prey in groups . Solitary foraging species usually exploit coastal waters , bays and rivers . When large schools of fish or squid are available , pinnipeds hunt cooperatively in large groups , locating and herding their prey . Some species , such as California and South American sea lions , may forage with cetaceans and sea birds . The polar bear is the most carnivorous bear , and its diet primarily consists of ringed ( Pusa hispida ) and bearded seals ( Erignathus barbatus ) . Polar bears hunt primarily at the interface between ice , water , and air ; they only rarely catch seals on land or in open water . The polar bear 's most common hunting method is still-hunting : The bear locates a seal breathing hole using its sense of smell , and crouches nearby for a seal to appear . When the seal exhales , the bear smells its breath , reaches into the hole with a forepaw , and drags it out onto the ice . The polar bear also hunts by stalking seals resting on the ice . Upon spotting a seal , it walks to within 100 yd , and then crouches . If the seal does not notice , the bear creeps to within 30 to of the seal and then suddenly rushes to attack . A third hunting method is to raid the birth lairs that female seals create in the snow . They may also feed on fish . Sirenians are referred to as `` sea cows '' because their diet consists mainly of sea-grass . When eating they ingest the whole plant , including the roots , although when this is impossible they will feed on just the leaves . A wide variety of seagrass has been found in dugong stomach contents , and evidence exists they will eat algae when seagrass is scarce . Keystone species Sea otters are a classic example of a keystone species ; their presence affects the ecosystem more profoundly than their size and numbers would suggest . They keep the population of certain benthic ( sea floor ) herbivores , particularly sea urchins , in check . Sea urchins graze on the lower stems of kelp , causing the kelp to drift away and die . Loss of the habitat and nutrients provided by kelp forests leads to profound cascade effects on the marine ecosystem . North Pacific areas that do not have sea otters often turn into urchin barrens , with abundant sea urchins and no kelp forest . Reintroduction of sea otters to British Columbia has led to a dramatic improvement in the health of coastal ecosystems , and similar changes have been observed as sea otter populations recovered in the Aleutian and Commander Islands and the Big Sur coast of California However , some kelp forest ecosystems in California have also thrived without sea otters , with sea urchin populations apparently controlled by other factors . The role of sea otters in maintaining kelp forests has been observed to be more important in areas of open coast than in more protected bays and estuaries.VanBlaricom , p. 33 An apex predator , the animal at the top of the food chain , affects prey population dynamics and defense tactics ( such as camoflauge ) . The polar bear is the apex predator within its range . Several animal species , particularly Arctic foxes ( Vulpes lagopus ) and glaucous gulls ( Larus hyperboreus ) , routinely scavenge polar bear kills . The relationship between ringed seals and polar bears is so close that the abundance of ringed seals in some areas appears to regulate the density of polar bears , while polar bear predation in turn regulates density and reproductive success of ringed seals . The evolutionary pressure of polar bear predation on seals probably accounts for some significant differences between Arctic and Antarctic seals . Compared to the Antarctic , where there is no major surface predator , Arctic seals use more breathing holes per individual , appear more restless when hauled out on the ice , and rarely defecate on the ice . The fur of Arctic pups is white , presumably to provide camouflage from predators , whereas Antarctic pups all have dark fur . Whale pump A 2010 study considered whales to be a positive influence to the productivity of ocean fisheries , in what has been termed a `` whale pump '' . Whales carry nutrients such as nitrogen from the depths back to the surface . This functions as an upward biological pump , reversing an earlier presumption that whales accelerate the loss of nutrients to the bottom . This nitrogen input in the Gulf of Maine is `` more than the input of all rivers combined '' emptying into the gulf , some each year . Whales defecate at the ocean 's surface ; their excrement is important for fisheries because it is rich in iron and nitrogen . The whale faeces are liquid and instead of sinking , they stay at the surface where phytoplankton feed off it . Upon death , whale carcasses fall to the deep ocean and provide a substantial habitat for marine life . Evidence of whale falls in present-day and fossil records shows that deep sea whale falls support a rich assemblage of creatures , with a global diversity of 407 species , comparable to other neritic biodiversity hotspots , such as cold seeps and hydrothermal vents . Deterioration of whale carcasses happens though a series of three stages . Initially , moving organisms such as sharks and hagfish , scavenge the soft tissues at a rapid rate over a period of months , and as long as two years . This is followed by the colonization of bones and surrounding sediments ( which contain organic matter ) by enrichment opportunists , such as crustaceans and polychaetes , throughout a period of years . Finally , sulfophilic bacteria reduce the bones releasing hydrogen sulphide enabling the growth of chemoautotrophic organisms , which in turn , support other organisms such as mussels , clams , limpets , and sea snails . This stage may last for decades and supports a rich assemblage of species , averaging 185 species per site . Interactions with humans Threats Exploitation Marine mammals were hunted by coastal aboriginal humans historically for food and other resources . These subsistence hunts still occur in Canada , Greenland , Indonesia , Russia , the United States , and several nations in the Caribbean . The effects of these are only localized , as hunting efforts were on a relatively small scale . Commercial hunting took this to a much greater scale and marine mammals were heavily exploited . This led to the extinction of the Steller 's sea cow and the Caribbean monk seal . Today , populations of species that were historically hunted , such as blue whales ( Balaenoptera musculus ) , and the North Pacific right whale ( Eubalaena japonica ) , are much lower compared to their pre-whaling levels . Because whales generally have slow growth rates , are slow to reach sexual maturity , and have a low reproductive output , population recovery has been very slow . A number of whales are still subject to direct hunting , despite the 1986 moratorium ban on whaling set under the terms of the International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) . There are only two nations remaining which sanction commercial whaling : Norway , where several hundred common minke whales are harvested each year ; and Iceland , where quotas of 150 fin whales and 100 minke whales per year are set . Japan also harvests several hundred Antarctic and North Pacific minke whales each year for scientific research ( in accordance with the moratorium ) . However , the illegal trade of whale and dolphin meat is a significant market in some countries . The most profitable furs in the fur trade were those of sea otters , especially the northern sea otter which inhabited the coastal waters between the Columbia River to the south and Cook Inlet to the north . The fur of the Californian southern sea otter was less highly prized and thus less profitable . After the northern sea otter was hunted to local extinction , maritime fur traders shifted to California until the southern sea otter was likewise nearly extinct . The British and American maritime fur traders took their furs to the Chinese port of Guangzhou ( Canton ) , where they worked within the established Canton System . Furs from Russian America were mostly sold to China via the Mongolian trading town of Kyakhta , which had been opened to Russian trade by the 1727 Treaty of Kyakhta . Commercial sealing was historically just as important as the whaling industry . Exploited species included harp seals , hooded seals , Caspian seals , elephant seals , walruses and all species of fur seal . The scale of seal harvesting decreased substantially after the 1960s , after the Canadian government reduced the length of the hunting season and implemented measures to protect adult females . Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers ; for example , Antarctic fur seals may be as numerous as they were prior to harvesting . The northern elephant seal was hunted to near extinction in the late 19th century , with only a small population remaining on Guadalupe Island . It has since recolonized much of its historic range , but has a population bottleneck . Conversely , the Mediterranean monk seal was extirpated from much of its former range , which stretched from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea and northwest Africa , and only remains in the northeastern Mediterranean and some parts of northwest Africa . Ocean traffic and fisheries By-catch is the incidental capture of non-target species in fisheries . Fixed and drift gill nets cause the highest mortality levels for both cetaceans and pinnipeds , however , entanglements in long lines , mid-water trawls , and both trap and pot lines are also common . Tuna seines are particularly problematic for entanglement by dolphins . By-catch affects all cetaceans , both small and big , in all habitat types . However , smaller cetaceans and pinnipeds are most vulnerable as their size means that escape once they are entangled is highly unlikely and they frequently drown . While larger cetaceans are capable of dragging nets with them , the nets sometimes remain tightly attached to the individual and can impede the animal from feeding sometimes leading to starvation . Abandoned or lost nets and lines cause mortality through ingestion or entanglement . Marine mammals also get entangled in aquaculture nets , however , these are rare events and not prevalent enough to impact populations . Vessel strikes cause death for a number of marine mammals , especially whales . In particular , fast commercial vessels such as container ships can cause major injuries or death when they collide with marine mammals . Collisions occur both with large commercial vessels and recreational boats and cause injury to whales or smaller cetaceans . The critically endangered North Atlantic right whale is particularly affected by vessel strikes . Tourism boats designed for whale and dolphin watching can also negatively impact on marine mammals by interfering with their natural behavior . The fishery industry not only threatens marine mammals through by-catch , but also through competition for food . Large scale fisheries have led to the depletion of fish stocks that are important prey species for marine mammals . Pinnipeds have been especially affected by the direct loss of food supplies and in some cases the harvesting of fish has led to food shortages or dietary deficiencies , starvation of young , and reduced recruitment into the population . As the fish stocks have been depleted , the competition between marine mammals and fisheries has sometimes led to conflict . Large-scale culling of populations of marine mammals by commercial fishers has been initiated in a number of areas in order to protect fish stocks for human consumption . Shellfish aquaculture takes up space so in effect creates competition for space . However , there is little direct competition for aquaculture shellfish harvest . On the other hand , marine mammals regularly take finfish from farms , which creates significant problems for marine farmers . While there are usually legal mechanisms designed to deter marine mammals , such as anti-predator nets or harassment devices , individuals are often illegally shot . Habitat loss and

sfq_9579--Marine_mammal.txt

Which is the smallest marine mammal?

Formula One ( also Formula 1 or F1 ) is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile ( FIA ) . The FIA Formula One World Championship has been the premier form of racing since the inaugural season in 1950 , although other Formula One races were regularly held until 1983 . The `` formula '' , designated in the name , refers to a set of rules , to which all participants ' cars must conform . The F1 season consists of a series of races , known as Grands Prix ( from French , meaning grand prizes ) , held worldwide on purpose-built F1 circuits and public roads . The results of each race are evaluated using a points system to determine two annual World Championships , one for drivers , one for constructors . The racing drivers are required to be holders of valid Super Licences , the highest class of racing licence issued by the FIA . The races are required to be held on tracks graded 1 ( formerly A ) , the highest grade a track can receive by the FIA . Most events are held in rural locations on purpose-built tracks , but there are several events in city centres throughout the world , with the Monaco Grand Prix being the most obvious and famous example . Formula One cars are the fastest road course racing cars in the world , owing to very high cornering speeds achieved through the generation of large amounts of aerodynamic downforce . Formula One cars race at speeds of up to approximately 380 km/h with engines currently limited in performance to a maximum of 15,000 RPM . The cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of five g in corners . The performance of the cars is very dependent on electronics - although traction control and other driving aids have been banned since 2008 - and on aerodynamics , suspension , and tyres . The formula has radically evolved and changed through the history of the sport . While Europe is the sport 's traditional base , and hosts about half of each year 's races , the sport 's scope has expanded significantly and an increasing number of Grands Prix are held on other continents . F1 had a total global television audience of 425 million people during the course of the 2014 season . Grand Prix racing began in 1906 and became the most popular type internationally in the second half of the twentieth century . The Formula One Group is the legal holder of the commercial rights . With the cost of designing and building mid-tier cars being of the order of $ 120 million , Formula One 's economic effect and creation of jobs is significant , and its financial and political battles are widely reported . Its high profile and popularity have created a major merchandising environment , which has resulted in great investments from sponsors and budgets in the hundreds of millions for the constructors . Since 2000 the sport 's spiraling expenditures and the distribution of prize money which favors established top teams have forced complaints from smaller teams and led several teams to bankruptcy . History The Formula One series originated with the European Grand Prix Motor Racing ( q.v . for pre-1947 history ) of the 1920s and 1930s . The formula is a set of rules which all participants ' cars must meet . Formula One was a new formula agreed upon after World War II during 1946 , with the first non-championship races being held that year . A number of Grand Prix racing organisations had laid out rules for a world championship before the war , but due to the suspension of racing during the conflict , the World Drivers ' Championship was not formalised until 1947 . The first world championship race was held at Silverstone , United Kingdom in 1950 . A championship for constructors followed in 1958 . National championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s . Non-championship Formula One events were held for many years , but due to the increasing cost of competition , the last of these occurred in 1983 . Return of racing The first World Championship for Drivers was won by Italian Giuseppe Farina in his Alfa Romeo in 1950 , barely defeating his Argentine teammate Juan Manuel Fangio . However , Fangio won the title in 1951 , 1954 , 1955 , 1956 , and 1957 ( His record of five World Championship titles stood for 45 years until German driver Michael Schumacher took his sixth title in 2003 ) , his streak interrupted ( after an injury ) by two-time champion Alberto Ascari of Ferrari . Although the UK 's Stirling Moss was able to compete regularly , he was never able to win the world championship , and is now widely considered to be the greatest driver never to have won the title . Fangio , however , is remembered for dominating Formula One 's first decade and has long been considered the `` Grand Master '' of Formula One . This period featured teams managed by road car manufacturers Alfa Romeo , Ferrari , Mercedes-Benz , and Maserati ; all of whom had competed before the war . The first seasons were run using pre-war cars like Alfa 's 158 . They were front-engined , with narrow tyres and 1.5-litre supercharged or 4.5-litre normally aspirated engines . The 1952 and 1953 world championships were run to Formula Two regulations , for smaller , less powerful cars , due to concerns over the paucity of Formula One cars available . When a new Formula One , for engines limited to 2.5 litres , was reinstated to the world championship for 1954 , Mercedes-Benz introduced the advanced W196 , which featured innovations such as desmodromic valves and fuel injection as well as enclosed streamlined bodywork . Mercedes drivers won the championship for two years , before the team withdrew from all motorsport in the wake of the 1955 Le Mans disaster . The Garagistes The first major technological development , Bugatti 's re-introduction of mid-engined cars ( following Ferdinand Porsche 's pioneering Auto Unions of the 1930s ) , occurred with the Type 251 , which was unsuccessful . Australian Jack Brabham , world champion during 1959 , 1960 , and 1966 , soon proved the mid-engined design 's superiority . By 1961 , all regular competitors had switched to mid-engined cars . The Ferguson P99 , a four-wheel drive design , was the last front-engined F1 car to enter a world championship race . It was entered in the 1961 British Grand Prix , the only front-engined car to compete that year . The first British World Champion was Mike Hawthorn , who drove a Ferrari to the title during the 1958 season . However , when Colin Chapman entered F1 as a chassis designer and later founder of Team Lotus , British racing green came to dominate the field for the next decade . Including Brabham , Jim Clark , Jackie Stewart , John Surtees , Graham Hill , and Denny Hulme , British teams and Commonwealth drivers won twelve world championships between 1962 and 1973 . During 1962 , Lotus introduced a car with an aluminium-sheet monocoque chassis instead of the traditional space-frame design . This proved to be the greatest technological breakthrough since the introduction of mid-engined cars . During 1968 , Lotus painted Imperial Tobacco livery on their cars , thus introducing sponsorship to the sport . Aerodynamic downforce slowly gained importance in car design from the appearance of aerofoils during the late 1960s . During the late 1970s , Lotus introduced ground-effect aerodynamics ( previously used on Jim Hall 's Chaparral 2J during 1970 ) that provided enormous downforce and greatly increased cornering speeds . So great were the aerodynamic forces pressing the cars to the track ( up to five times the car 's weight ) , extremely stiff springs were needed to maintain a constant ride height , leaving the suspension virtually solid , depending entirely on the tyres for any small amount of cushioning of the car and driver from irregularities of the road surface . Big business Beginning in the 1970s , Bernie Ecclestone rearranged the management of Formula One 's commercial rights ; he is widely credited with transforming the sport into the multibillion-dollar business it now is . When Ecclestone bought the Brabham team during 1971 he gained a seat on the Formula One Constructors ' Association and during 1978 he became its president . Previously , the circuit owners controlled the income of the teams and negotiated with each individually , however Ecclestone persuaded the teams to `` hunt as a pack '' through FOCA . He offered Formula One to circuit owners as a package which they could take or leave . In return for the package almost all that was required was to surrender trackside advertising . The formation of the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) during 1979 set off the FISA–FOCA controversy , during which FISA and its president Jean-Marie Balestre disputed repeatedly with FOCA over television revenues and technical regulations . The Guardian said of FOCA that Ecclestone and Max Mosley `` used it to wage a guerrilla war with a very long-term aim in view '' . FOCA threatened to establish a rival series , boycotted a Grand Prix and FISA withdrew its sanction from races . The result was the 1981 Concorde Agreement , which guaranteed technical stability , as teams were to be given reasonable notice of new regulations . Although FISA asserted its right to the TV revenues , it handed the administration of those rights to FOCA . FISA imposed a ban on ground-effect aerodynamics during 1983 . By then , however , turbocharged engines , which Renault had pioneered in 1977 , were producing over 700 bhp and were essential to be competitive . By 1986 , a BMW turbocharged engine achieved a flash reading of 5.5 bar pressure , estimated to be over 1300 bhp in qualifying for the Italian Grand Prix . The next year power in race trim reached around 1100 bhp , with boost pressure limited to only 4.0 bar . These cars were the most powerful open-wheel circuit racing cars ever . To reduce engine power output and thus speeds , the FIA limited fuel tank capacity in 1984 and boost pressures in 1988 before banning turbocharged engines completely in 1989 . The development of electronic driver aids began during the 1980s . Lotus began to develop a system of active suspension which first appeared during 1982 on the 91 . By 1987 , this system had been perfected and was driven to victory by Ayrton Senna in the Monaco Grand Prix that year . In the early 1990s other teams followed suit and semi-automatic gearboxes and traction control were a natural progression . The FIA , due to complaints that technology was determining the outcome of races more than driver skill , banned many such aids for 1994 . This resulted in cars that were previously dependent on electronic aids becoming very `` twitchy '' and difficult to drive ( particularly the Williams FW16 ) . Many observers felt the ban on driver aids was in name only as they `` proved difficult to police effectively '' . The teams signed a second Concorde Agreement during 1992 and a third in 1997 , which expired on the last day of 2007 . On the track , the McLaren and Williams teams dominated the 1980s and 1990s , with Brabham also being competitive during the early part of the 1980s , winning two Drivers ' Championships with Nelson Piquet . Powered by Porsche , Honda , and Mercedes-Benz , McLaren won sixteen championships ( seven constructors ' and nine drivers ' ) in that period , while Williams used engines from Ford , Honda , and Renault to also win sixteen titles ( nine constructors ' and seven drivers ' ) . The rivalry between racers Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost became F1 's central focus during 1988 , and continued until Prost retired at the end of 1993 . Senna died at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix after crashing into a wall on the exit of the notorious curve Tamburello , having taken over Prost 's lead drive at Williams that year . The FIA worked to improve the sport 's safety standards since that weekend , during which Roland Ratzenberger also lost his life in an accident during Saturday qualifying . No driver had died of injuries sustained on the track at the wheel of a Formula One car for 20 years , until the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix where Jules Bianchi collided with a recovery vehicle after aquaplaning off the circuit . Since 1994 , three track marshals have lost their lives , one at the 2000 Italian Grand Prix , the second at the 2001 Australian Grand Prix and the third at the 2013 Canadian Grand Prix . Since the deaths of Senna and Ratzenberger , the FIA has used safety as a reason to impose rule changes which otherwise , under the Concorde Agreement , would have had to be agreed upon by all the teams — most notably the changes introduced for 1998 . This so-called 'narrow track ' era resulted in cars with smaller rear tyres , a narrower track overall , and the introduction of grooved tyres to reduce mechanical grip . There were to be four grooves on the front ( three in the first year ) and rear that ran through the entire circumference of the tyre . The objective was to reduce cornering speeds and to produce racing similar to rainy conditions by enforcing a smaller contact patch between tyre and track . This , according to the FIA , was to promote driver skill and provide a better spectacle . Results have been mixed as the lack of mechanical grip has resulted in the more ingenious designers clawing back the deficit with aerodynamic grip — pushing more force onto the tyres through wings and aerodynamic devices which in turn has resulted in less overtaking as these devices tend to make the wake behind the car 'dirty ' ( turbulent ) , preventing other cars from following closely due to their dependence on 'clean ' air to make the car stick to the track . The grooved tyres also had the unfortunate side effect of initially being of a harder compound to be able to hold the grooved tread blocks , which resulted in spectacular accidents in times of aerodynamic grip failure as the harder compound could not grip the track as well . Drivers from McLaren , Williams , Renault ( formerly Benetton ) , and Ferrari , dubbed the `` Big Four '' , won every World Championship from 1984 to 2008 and the teams themselves won every Constructors ' Championship from 1979 to 2008 . Due to the technological advances of the 1990s , the cost of competing in Formula One increased dramatically . This increased financial burdens , combined with the dominance of four teams ( largely funded by big car manufacturers such as Mercedes-Benz ) , caused the poorer independent teams to struggle not only to remain competitive , but to stay in business , and forced several teams to withdraw . Since 1990 , twenty-eight teams have withdrawn from Formula One . This has prompted former Jordan owner Eddie Jordan to say that the days of competitive privateers are over . Manufacturers ' return Michael Schumacher and Ferrari won five consecutive Drivers ' Championships ( 2000–2004 ) and six consecutive constructors ' championships ( 1999–2004 ) . Schumacher set many new records , including those for Grand Prix wins ( 91 ) , wins in a season ( thirteen of eighteen ) , and most Drivers ' Championships ( seven ) . Schumacher 's championship streak ended on 25 September 2005 when Renault driver Fernando Alonso became Formula One 's youngest champion at that time . During 2006 , Renault and Alonso won both titles again . Schumacher retired at the end of 2006 after sixteen years in Formula One , but came out of retirement for the 2010 season , racing for the newly formed Mercedes works team for three seasons . During this period , the championship rules were changed frequently by the FIA with the intention of improving the on-track action and cutting costs . Team orders , legal since the championship started during 1950 , were banned during 2002 after several incidents in which teams openly manipulated race results , generating negative publicity , most famously by Ferrari at the 2002 Austrian Grand Prix . Other changes included the qualifying format , the points scoring system , the technical regulations , and rules specifying how long engines and tyres must last . A `` tyre war '' between suppliers Michelin and Bridgestone saw lap times fall , although at the 2005 United States Grand Prix at Indianapolis , seven out of ten teams did not race when their Michelin tyres were deemed unsafe for use , leading to Bridgestone becoming the sole tyre supplier to Formula One for the 2007 season . During 2006 , Max Mosley outlined a `` green '' future for Formula One , in which efficient use of energy would become an important factor . Since 1983 , Formula One had been dominated by specialist race teams like Williams , McLaren , and Benetton , using engines supplied by large car manufacturers like Mercedes-Benz , Honda , Renault , and Ford . Starting in 2000 , with Ford 's creation of the largely unsuccessful Jaguar team , new manufacturer-owned teams entered Formula One for the first time since the departure of Alfa Romeo and Renault at the end of 1985 . By 2006 , the manufacturer teams–Renault , BMW , Toyota , Honda , and Ferrari–dominated the championship , taking five of the first six places in the constructors ' championship . The sole exception was McLaren , which at the time was part-owned by Mercedes Benz . Through the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association ( GPMA ) , they negotiated a larger share of Formula One 's commercial profit and a greater say in the running of the sport . Manufacturers ' decline and return of the privateers In 2008 and 2009 , Honda , BMW , and Toyota all withdrew from Formula One racing within the space of a year , blaming the economic recession . This resulted in the end of manufacturer dominance within the sport . The Honda F1 team went through a management buyout to become Brawn GP with the notable F1 designer Ross Brawn and Nick Fry running and owning the majority of the organisation . Brawn GP went through a painful size reduction , laying off hundreds of employees , but eventually won the year 's world championships with Jenson Button and Rubens Barrichello . BMW F1 was bought out by the original founder of the team , Peter Sauber . The Lotus F1 Team are another , formerly manufacturer-owned team that has reverted to `` privateer '' ownership , together with the buy-out of the Renault F1 Team by Genii Capital investors in recent years . A link with their previous owners still survived however , with their car continuing to be powered by a Renault Power Unit until 2014 . McLaren also announced that it was to reacquire the shares in its team from Mercedes Benz ( McLaren 's partnership with Mercedes was reported to have started to sour with the McLaren Mercedes SLR road car project and tough F1 championships which included McLaren being found guilty of spying on Ferrari ) . Hence , during the 2010 season , Mercedes Benz re-entered the sport as a manufacturer after its purchase of Brawn GP , and split with McLaren after 15 seasons with the team . This leaves Mercedes , McLaren , and Ferrari as the only car manufacturers in the sport , although both McLaren and Ferrari began as racing teams rather than manufacturers . AT & T Williams confirmed towards the end of 2009 their new engine deal with Cosworth , who also supplied the wave of new teams Virgin Racing , Hispania Racing F1 , and the newly formed Lotus Racing team . The exit of car manufacturers has also paved the way for teams representing their countries , with some having the funding by their respective national governments ( such as Lotus being funded by Malaysia , Lotus Cars being owned by Proton , a Malaysian manufacturer , and Lotus Racing being run by Tony Fernandes , a Malaysian business man known for his Asian low-cost airline ) . Williams later rejoined with Renault in 2012 , rekindling a partnership that dates back to the early to mid-1990s . However , the partnership was short lived and as of the 2014 F1 season , Williams competes with the Mercedes Power Unit . A rule shake-up in 2014 meant Mercedes emerged as the dominant force , with Lewis Hamilton winning the championship closely followed by his main rival and team-mate , Nico Rosberg , with the team winning 16 out of the 19 races that season ( all other victories coming from Daniel Ricciardo of Red Bull ) . 2014 also saw a financial crisis which resulted in the backmarker Marussia and Caterham teams being put into administration , alongside the uncertain futures of Force India and Sauber . Marussia returned under the Manor name in 2015 , a season in which Ferrari were the only challengers to Mercedes , with Vettel taking victory in the three Grands Prix Mercedes did not win . The 2016 season began in dominant fashion for Nico Rosberg , winning the first 4 Grands Prix . His charge was halted by Max Verstappen , who took his maiden win in Spain in his debut race for Red Bull . After his charge halting , the reigning champion Lewis Hamilton decreased the point gap between them to only one point . Political disputes FISA–FOCA war The battle for control of Formula One was contested between the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , at the time an autonomous subcommittee of the FIA , and FOCA ( the Formula One Constructors ' Association ) . The beginnings of the dispute are numerous , and many of the underlying reasons may be lost in history . The teams ( excepting Ferrari and the other major manufacturers – Renault and Alfa Romeo in particular ) were of the opinion that their rights and ability to compete against the larger and better funded teams were being negatively affected by a perceived bias on the part of the controlling organisation ( FISA ) toward the major manufacturers . In addition , the battle revolved around the commercial aspects of the sport ( the FOCA teams were unhappy with the disbursement of proceeds from the races ) and the technical regulations which , in FOCA 's opinion , tended to be malleable according to the nature of the transgressor more than the nature of the transgression . The war culminated in a FOCA boycott of the 1982 San Marino Grand Prix months later . In theory , all FOCA teams were supposed to boycott the Grand Prix as a sign of solidarity and complaint at the handling of the regulations and financial compensation ( and extreme opposition to the accession of Balestre to the position of FISA president : both Colin Chapman of Lotus and Frank Williams of Williams stated clearly that they would not continue in Formula One with Balestre as its governor ) . In practice , several of the FOCA teams backed out of the boycott , citing `` sponsor obligations '' . Notable among these were the Tyrrell and Toleman teams . FIA–FOTA dispute During the 2009 season of Formula One , the sport was gripped in a governance crisis . The FIA President Max Mosley proposed numerous cost cutting measures for the following season , including an optional budget cap for the teams ; teams electing to take the budget cap would be granted greater technical freedom , adjustable front and rear wings and an engine not subject to a rev limiter . The Formula One Teams Association ( FOTA ) believed that allowing some teams to have such technical freedom would have created a 'two-tier ' championship , and thus requested urgent talks with the FIA . However , talks broke down and FOTA teams announced , with the exception of Williams and Force India , that 'they had no choice ' but to form a breakaway championship series . On 24 June , an agreement was reached between Formula One 's governing body and the teams to prevent a breakaway series . It was agreed teams must cut spending to the level of the early 1990s within two years ; exact figures were not specified , and Max Mosley agreed he would not stand for re-election to the FIA presidency in October . Following further disagreements after Max Mosley suggested he would stand for re-election , FOTA made it clear that breakaway plans were still being pursued . On 8 July , FOTA issued a press release stating they had been informed they were not entered for the 2010 season , and an FIA press release said the FOTA representatives had walked out of the meeting . On 1 August , it was announced FIA and FOTA had signed a new Concorde Agreement , bringing an end to the crisis and securing the sport 's future until 2012 . Outside the World Championship The terms `` Formula One race '' and `` World Championship race '' are effectively synonymous ; since 1984 , every Formula One race has counted towards an official FIA World Championship , and every World Championship race has been held to Formula One regulations . In the earlier history of Formula One , many races took place outside the world championship , and local championships run to Formula One regulations also occurred . These events often took place on circuits that were not suitable for the World Championship , and featured local cars and drivers as well as those competing in the Championship . European non-championship racing In the early years of Formula One , before the world championship was established , there were around twenty races held from late Spring to early Autumn in Europe , although not all of these were considered significant . Most competitive cars came from Italy , particularly Alfa Romeo . After the start of the world championship , these non-championship races continued . In the 1950s and 1960s , there were many Formula One races which did not count for the World Championship ; in a total of twenty-two Formula One races were held , of which only six counted towards the World Championship . In 1952 and 1953 , when the world championship was run for Formula Two cars , non-championship events were the only Formula One races that took place . Some races , particularly in the UK , including the Race of Champions , Oulton Park International Gold Cup and the International Trophy , were attended by the majority of the world championship contenders . Other smaller events were regularly held in locations not part of the championship , such as the Syracuse and Danish Grands Prix , although these only attracted a small amount of the championship teams and relied on private entries and lower Formula cars to make up the grid . These became less common through the 1970s and 1983 saw the last non-championship Formula One race ; the 1983 Race of Champions at Brands Hatch , won by reigning World Champion Keke Rosberg in a Williams-Cosworth in a close fight with American Danny Sullivan . South African Formula One championship South Africa 's flourishing domestic Formula One championship ran from 1960 through to 1975 . The frontrunning cars in the series were recently retired from the world championship although there was also a healthy selection of locally built or modified machines . Frontrunning drivers from the series usually contested their local World Championship Grand Prix , as well as occasional European events , although they had little success at that level . British Formula One Series The DFV helped make the UK domestic Formula One series possible between 1978 and 1980 . As in South Africa a decade before , second hand cars from manufacturers like Lotus and Fittipaldi Automotive were the order of the day , although some , such as the March 781 , were built specifically for the series . In 1980 , the series saw South African Desiré Wilson become the only woman to win a Formula One race when she triumphed at Brands Hatch in a Wolf WR3 . Racing and strategy A Formula

sfq_22796--Formula_One.txt

Where in Northamptonshire is the British Formula 1 Grand Prix held?

The FIFA World Cup , often simply called the World Cup , is an international association football competition contested by the senior men 's national teams of the members of ' ( FIFA ) , the sport 's global governing body . The championship has been awarded every four years since the inaugural tournament in 1930 , except in 1942 and 1946 when it was not held because of the Second World War . The current champion is Germany , which won its fourth title at the 2014 tournament in Brazil . The current format of the competition involves a qualification phase , which currently takes place over the preceding three years , to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase , which is often called the World Cup Finals . 32 teams , including the automatically qualifying host nation ( s ) , compete in the tournament phase for the title at venues within the host nation ( s ) over a period of about a month . The 20 World Cup tournaments have been won by eight different national teams . Brazil have won five times , and they are the only team to have played in every tournament . The other World Cup winners are Germany and Italy , with four titles each ; Argentina and inaugural winners Uruguay , with two titles each ; and England , France and Spain , with one title each . The World Cup is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world , exceeding even the Olympic Games ; the cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 FIFA World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the final match , a ninth of the entire population of the planet . History Previous international competitions The world 's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England , which ended in a 0–0 draw . The first international tournament , the inaugural edition of the British Home Championship , took place in 1884 . As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the turn of the 20th century , it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics ( however , the IOC has retroactively upgraded their status to official events ) , and at the 1906 Intercalated Games . After FIFA was founded in 1904 , it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906 . These were very early days for international football , and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been a failure . At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London , football became an official competition . Planned by The Football Association ( FA ) , England 's football governing body , the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition . Great Britain ( represented by the England national amateur football team ) won the gold medals . They repeated the feat in 1912 in Stockholm . With the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams , Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909 . The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs ( not national teams ) from different nations , each one of which represented an entire nation . The competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup , and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy , Germany and Switzerland , but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team . Lipton invited West Auckland , an amateur side from County Durham , to represent England instead . West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title . In 1914 , FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a `` world football championship for amateurs '' , and took responsibility for managing the event . This paved the way for the world 's first intercontinental football competition , at the 1920 Summer Olympics , contested by Egypt and 13 European teams , and won by Belgium . Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928 . Those were also the first two open world championships , as 1924 was the start of FIFA 's professional era . World Cups before World War II Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments , FIFA , with President Jules Rimet as the driving force , again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics . On 28 May 1928 , the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship itself . With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930 , FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament . The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team , but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides . Indeed , no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition . Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium , France , Romania , and Yugoslavia to make the trip . In total , 13 nations took part : seven from South America , four from Europe and two from North America . The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930 , and were won by France and USA , who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0 respectively . The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France . In the final , Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo , and in doing so became the first nation to win the World Cup . After the creation of the World Cup , the 1932 Summer Olympics , held in Los Angeles , did not plan to include football as part of the schedule due to the low popularity of the sport in the United States , as American football had been growing in popularity . FIFA and the IOC also disagreed over the status of amateur players , and so football was dropped from the Games . Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics , but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup . The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel , and war . Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 and 1938 tournaments , with Brazil the only South American team to compete in both . The 1942 and 1946 competitions , which Nazi Germany and Brazil sought to host , were cancelled due to World War II and its aftermath . World Cups after World War II The 1950 World Cup , held in Brazil , was the first to include British participants . British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920 , partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with , and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football , but rejoined in 1946 following FIFA 's invitation . The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay , who had boycotted the previous two World Cups . Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil , in the match called `` Maracanazo '' ( Portuguese : Maracanaço ) . In the tournaments between 1934 and 1978 , 16 teams competed in each tournament , except in 1938 , when Austria was absorbed into Germany after qualifying , leaving the tournament with 15 teams , and in 1950 , when India , Scotland , and Turkey withdrew , leaving the tournament with 13 teams . Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America , with a small minority from North America , Africa , Asia , and Oceania . These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams . Until 1982 , the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were : USA , semi-finalists in 1930 ; Cuba , quarter-finalists in 1938 ; North Korea , quarter-finalists in 1966 ; and Mexico , quarter-finalists in 1970 . Expansion to 32 teams The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982 , and then to 32 in 1998 , also allowing more teams from Africa , Asia and North America to take part . Since then , teams from these regions have enjoyed more success , with several having reached the quarter-finals : Mexico , quarter-finalists in 1986 ; Cameroon , quarter-finalists in 1990 ; South Korea , finishing in fourth place in 2002 ; Senegal , along with USA , both quarter-finalists in 2002 ; Ghana , quarter-finalists in 2010 ; and Costa Rica , quarter-finalists in 2014 . Nevertheless , European and South American teams continue to dominate , e.g. , the quarter-finalists in 1994 , 1998 , and 2006 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far . Two hundred teams entered the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds ; 198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , while a record 204 countries entered qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup . Possible expansion to 40 teams In October 2013 , Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing the Caribbean Football Union 's region a position in the World Cup . In the 25 October 2013 edition of the FIFA Weekly Blatter wrote that : `` From a purely sporting perspective , I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously , and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup . It can not be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup . '' Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency . Following the magazine 's publication , Blatter 's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency , UEFA President Michel Platini responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations , increasing the number of participants by eight . Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth to UEFA , two to Asia Football Confederation and Confederation of African Football , two shared between CONCACAF and CONMEBOL , and a guaranteed place for the Oceania Football Confederation . Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup . He said : `` [ The World Cup is ] not based on the quality of the teams because you do n't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it 's a good compromise . ... It 's a political matter so why not have more Africans ? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world . If you do n't give the possibility to participate , they do n't improve . '' In 2016 FIFA president Gianni Infantino stated his support for a 40-team World Cup in 2026 . 2015 FIFA corruption case By May 2015 , the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case , allegations and criminal charges of bribery , fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights ( rigged bids ) for FIFA games , with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $ 150 million over 24 years . In late May , the U.S. Justice Department announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering , wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people . Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time , particularly on May 29 and December 3 . By the end of May 2015 , a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption . At the time , FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016 . On 4 June 2015 Chuck Blazer while co-operating with the FBI and the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA 's executive committee were bribed in order to promote the South African , 1998 and 2010 World Cups . On 10 June 2015 Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices of Sepp Blatter . Also , on 10 June 2015 FIFA postponed the bidding process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup in light of the allegations surrounding bribery in the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments . Then-secretary general Jérôme Valcke stated , `` Due to the situation , I think it 's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being . '' On 28 October 2015 , Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini , a potential candidate for presidency , were suspended for 90 days ; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media . On 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May . An additional 16 indictments by the U.S. Department of Justice were announced on the same day . Other FIFA tournaments An equivalent tournament for women 's football , the FIFA Women 's World Cup , was first held in 1991 in China . The women 's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men 's , but is growing ; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120 , more than double that of 1991 . Football has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932 . Unlike many other sports , the men 's football tournament at the Olympics is not a top-level tournament , and since 1992 , an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players . Women 's football made its Olympic debut in 1996 , and is contested between full national sides with no age restrictions . The FIFA Confederations Cup is a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation ( s ) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup . It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships , along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country . FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football ( FIFA U-20 World Cup , FIFA U-17 World Cup , FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup , FIFA U-17 Women 's World Cup ) , club football ( FIFA Club World Cup ) , and football variants such as futsal ( FIFA Futsal World Cup ) and beach soccer ( FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup ) . The latter three do not have a women 's version , although a FIFA Women 's Club World Cup is planned for 2017 . When the U-20 Women 's World Cup is held the year before the Women 's World Cup , both tournaments are awarded in a single bidding process . The U-20 tournament serves as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition , the same role as the Confederations Cup plays in the men 's game . Trophy From 1930 to 1970 , the Jules Rimet Trophy was awarded to the World Cup winning team . It was originally simply known as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde , but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament . In 1970 , Brazil 's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently . However , the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered , apparently melted down by the thieves . After 1970 , a new trophy , known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy , was designed . The experts of FIFA , coming from seven countries , evaluated the 53 presented models , finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga . The new trophy is 36 cm high , made of solid 18 carat ( 75 % ) gold and weighs . The base contains two layers of semi-precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974 . The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was : `` The lines spring out from the base , rising in spirals , stretching out to receive the world . From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory . '' This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently . World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished . They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards . Currently , all members ( players , coaches , and managers ) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of the World Cup Trophy ; winners ' ( gold ) , runners-up ' ( silver ) , and third-place ( bronze ) . In the 2002 edition , fourth-place medals were awarded to hosts South Korea . Before the 1978 tournament , medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match . In November 2007 , FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners ' medals . Format Qualification Since the second World Cup in 1934 , qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament . They are held within the six FIFA continental zones ( Africa , Asia , North and Central America and Caribbean , South America , Oceania , and Europe ) , overseen by their respective confederations . For each tournament , FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand , generally based on the relative strength of the confederations ' teams . The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period . The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations . Usually , one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play-offs . For example , the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup . From the 1938 World Cup onwards , host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament . This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002 , but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward , requiring the champions to qualify . Brazil , winners in 2002 , were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches . Final tournament The current final tournament has been used since 1998 and features 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nation ( s ) . There are two stages : the group stage followed by the knockout stage . In the group stage , teams compete within eight groups of four teams each . Eight teams are seeded , including the hosts , with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on the FIFA World Rankings and/or performances in recent World Cups , and drawn to separate groups . The other teams are assigned to different `` pots '' , usually based on geographical criteria , and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups . Since 1998 , constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation . Each group plays a round-robin tournament , in which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group . This means that a total of six matches are played within a group . The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams . The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage . Points are used to rank the teams within a group . Since 1994 , three points have been awarded for a win , one for a draw and none for a loss ( before , winners received two points ) . If one considers all possible outcomes ( win , draw , loss ) for all six matches in a group , there are 729 ( = 36 ) different outcome combinations possible . However a certain number ( 207 ) of these combinations lead to ties between the second and third places . In such case , the ranking among these teams is determined as follows : # Greatest combined goal difference in all group matches # Greatest combined number of goals scored in all group matches # If more than one team remain level after applying the above criteria , their ranking will be determined as follows : # # Greatest number of points in head-to-head matches among those teams # # Greatest goal difference in head-to-head matches among those teams # # Greatest number of goals scored in head-to-head matches among those teams # If any of the teams above remain level after applying the above criteria , their ranking will be determined by the drawing of lots The knockout stage is a single-elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one-off matches , with extra time and penalty shootouts used to decide the winner if necessary . It begins with the round of 16 ( or the second round ) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group . This is followed by the quarter-finals , the semi-finals , the third-place match ( contested by the losing semi-finalists ) , and the final . Hosts Selection process Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA 's congress . The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat . The decision to hold the first World Cup in Uruguay , for example , led to only four European nations competing . The next two World Cups were both held in Europe . The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed , as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents . Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the 1938 FIFA World Cup . Since the 1958 FIFA World Cup , to avoid future boycotts or controversy , FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe , which continued until the 1998 FIFA World Cup . The 2002 FIFA World Cup , hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan , was the first one held in Asia , and the only tournament with multiple hosts . South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in 2010 . The 2014 FIFA World Cup is hosted by Brazil , the first held in South America since Argentina 1978 , and is the first occasion where consecutive World Cups are held outside Europe . The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA 's Executive Committee . This is done under an exhaustive ballot system . The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a `` Hosting Agreement '' from FIFA , which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid . The bidding association also receives a form , the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy . After this , a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced . The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament . However , there have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time , as was the case for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups , which were awarded to Russia and Qatar respectively . For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups , the final tournament is rotated between confederations , allowing only countries from the chosen confederation ( Africa in 2010 , South America in 2014 ) to bid to host the tournament . The rotation policy was introduced after the controversy surrounding Germany 's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the 2006 tournament . However , the policy of continental rotation will not continue beyond 2014 , so any country , except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments , can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from 2018 . This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament , where Brazil was the only official bidder . Performances Six of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland , the exceptions being Brazil , who finished as runners-up after losing the deciding match on home soil in 1950 and lost their semifinal against Germany in 2014 , and Spain , which reached the second round on home soil in 1982 . England ( 1966 ) and France ( 1998 ) won their only titles while playing as host nations . Uruguay ( 1930 ) , Italy ( 1934 ) and Argentina ( 1978 ) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again , while Germany ( 1974 ) won their second title on home soil . Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament . Switzerland ( quarter-finals 1954 ) , Sweden ( runners-up in 1958 ) , Chile ( third place in 1962 ) , South Korea ( fourth place in 2002 ) , and Mexico ( quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986 ) all have their best results when serving as hosts . So far , South Africa ( 2010 ) has been the only host nation to fail to advance beyond the first round . Attendance QF Quarter-Finals ( top 8 ) ; Group did not advance beyond first round ( group play ) [ Solna borders Stockholm , Pasadena borders Los Angeles and Saint-Denis is a suburb of Paris . ] The best-attended single match , shown in the last two columns , has been the final in only about half of the twenty World Cup series so far . Another match or matches drew more attendance than the final in 1938 , 1954 , 1966–1982 , 1990 and 2006 . * Source : FIFA Broadcasting and promotion The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and is now the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world . The cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 World Cup is estimated to be 26.29 billion . 715.1 million individuals watched the final match of this tournament ( a ninth of the entire population of the planet ) . The 2006 World Cup draw , which decided the distribution of teams into groups , was watched by 300 million viewers . The World Cup attracts many sponsors such as Coca-Cola , McDonald 's and Adidas . For these companies and many more , being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands . Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event . It is predicted that Brazil will bring in more than $ 11 billion in revenue for the 2014 World Cup . Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot or logo . World Cup Willie , the mascot for the 1966 competition , was the first World Cup mascot . Recent World Cups have also featured official match balls specially designed for each World Cup . The World Cup even has a statistically significant effect

qb_10177--FIFA_World_Cup.txt

In the 2002 FIFA World Cup, which national football team became the first team in the Asian Football Confederation to reach the World Cup semi-finals?

The London and North Eastern Railway ( LNER ) was the second largest of the `` Big Four '' railway companies created by the Railways Act 1921 in Britain . It operated from 1 January 1923 until nationalisation on 1 January 1948 . At that time , it was divided into the new British Railways ' Eastern Region , North Eastern Region , and partially the Scottish Region . Sir Ralph Wedgwood was the Chief Officer for its first 16 years . Formation The principal constituents of the LNER were : * Great Eastern Railway * Great Central Railway * Great Northern Railway * Great North of Scotland Railway * Hull and Barnsley Railway * North British Railway * North Eastern Railway The total route mileage was 6590 mi . The North Eastern Railway had the largest route mileage , 1757 mi , the Hull and Barnsley Railway just . The LNER owned : * 7,700 locomotives , 20,000 coaching vehicles , 29,700 freight vehicles , 140 items of electric rolling stock , 6 electric locomotives and 10 rail motor cars * 6 turbine and 36 other steamers , and river boats and lake steamers , etc . In partnership with the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) , the LNER was co-owner of the Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway , the UK 's biggest joint railway , much of which competed with the LNER 's own lines . The M & GNJR was incorporated into the LNER in 1936 . In 1933 , on the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board , the LNER acquired the remaining operations of the Metropolitan Railway Company . The LNER was the majority partner in the Cheshire Lines Committee and the Forth Bridge Railway Company . Geographic area The LNER covered the area north and east of London . It included the East Coast Main Line from London to Edinburgh via York and Newcastle upon Tyne and the routes from Edinburgh to Aberdeen and Inverness . Most of the country east of the Pennines was within its purview , including East Anglia . The main workshops were in Doncaster , with others at Darlington , Inverurie and Stratford , London . The LNER inherited four of London 's termini : ( ex-London and Blackwall Railway ; King 's Cross ( ex-Great Northern Railway ) ; ( ex-Great Eastern Railway ) ; and ( ex-Great Central Railway ) . In addition , it ran suburban services to ( London , Midland and Scottish Railway ) and ( Metropolitan Railway , later London Transport ) . Accidents and incidents * On 13 February 1923 , an express passenger train overran signals at , Nottinghamshire and was in a rear-end collision with a freight train . Three people were killed . * On 23 December 1923 , an express passenger train overran signals and was in collision with a light engine at , Northumberland . * On 28 July 1924 , a passenger train overran signals and collided with another at station , Edinburgh , Lothian . Five people were killed . * On 12 May 1926 , during the General Strike , an express passenger train was deliberately derailed south of , Northumberland . * On 7 August 1926 , an electric multiple unit overran signals and was in collision with a freight train at station , Newcastle upon Tyne , Northumberland . The accident was caused by the driver tying down the controller with a handkerchief . When he leant out of the train he struck an overbridge and was killed . The train was able to continue moving until the collision . * On 30 August 1926 , a passenger train was in collision with a charabanc on a level crossing at Naworth , Cumberland due to errors by the crossing keeper and a lack of interlocking between the signals and gates . Nine people are killed . * On 14 February 1927 , two passenger trains were in a head-on collision at station , Yorkshire due to a signalman 's error . Twelve people were killed and 24 were injured . * On 27 February 1927 , an express passenger train collided with a light engine at , Yorkshire due to a signalman 's error . * On 17 August 1928 , a passenger train collided with a lorry on a level crossing at Shepreth , Hertfordshire and was derailed . * On 27 June 1928 , an excursion train was in a head-on collision with a parcels train that was being shunted at , County Durham . Twenty-five people were killed and 45 were injured . * On 9 June 1929 , a steam railcar overran signals and was involved in a collision with an excursion train at Marshgate Junction , Doncaster , Yorkshire . * On 4 October 1929 , a freight train departed against a danger signal at Tottenham , London . The train subsequently stopped foul of a junction where the crew abandoned their locomotive . An express passenger train was in a head-on collision with it and was derailed . * On 17 January 1931 , a newspaper train departed from station , Essex against signals and was in a head-on collision with a light engine at Great Holland . Two people were killed and two were seriously injured . * On 27 May 1931 , a passenger train overran signals and was in a head-on collision with another at station , Norfolk . One person was killed and fifteen were injured . * On 8 September 1933 , a passenger train was in collision with wagons on the line at , West Dunbartonshire due to a signalman 's error . Five people were injured . * In November 1934 , a Class D16/2 locomotive was derailed at Wormley , Hertfordshire when it collided with a lorry on a level crossing . Both engine crew were killed . * On 15 June 1935 , an express passenger train was in a rear-end collision with another at , Hertfordshire due to a signalman 's error . Fourteen people were killed and 29 were injured . * On 15 February 1937 , a passenger train was derailed at Sleaford North Junction , Lincolnshire due to excessive speed on a curve . Four people were killed and sixteen were injured , one seriously . * On 15 February 1937 , a freight train was derailed at Upton , Sleaford due to excessive speed on a curve . The train had been diverted due to the earlier derailment . * On 6 March 1937 , a passenger train was derailed at , Lincolnshire due to the poor condition of the track . * On 13 June 1937 , an excursion train overran signals and was derailed by trap points south of Durham . Nine people were injured . * On 26 January 1939 , an empty fish train was involved in a rear-end collision with a passenger train at , Hertfordshire . * On 1 June 1939 , a passenger train collided with a lorry on an occupation crossing at , Norfolk and was derailed . * On 8 June 1939 , a passenger train departed from station , Lancashire against a danger signal and collided with another passenger train . Several people were injured . * On 10 February 1941 , an express passenger train overran signals and was in a rear-end collision with a passenger train at Harold Wood , Essex . Seven people were killed and seventeen were seriously injured . * On 28 April 1941 , a fire broke out on an express passenger train which was brought to a stand at Westborough , Lincolnshire . The rear three carriages were burnt out . Six people were killed and seven were injured . Among those killed were the two eldest children of Hubert Pierlot , the Prime Minister of the Belgian government in exile . * On 2 June 1944 , WD Austerity 2-8-0 locomotive No . 7337 was hauling a freight train which caught fire as it approached , Cambridgeshire . The train comprised wagons carrying bombs . The train was divided behind the burning wagon , with the front portion being taken forward with the intention of isolating the wagon in open countryside . Its cargo detonated at Soham station , killing the driver and the Soham signalman and injuring the trains ' fireman and guard . Soham station was severely damaged , but the line was re-opened within eighteen hours . For their actions , Benjamin Gimbert and James Nightall were awarded George Crosses . * In July 1944 , a passenger train was derailed at Pannal Junction by points that were half-open . * On 5 January 1946 , a freight train became divided on the East Coast Main Line in County Durham . The front section was brought to a stand but the rear section crashed into it . The wreckage fouled signal cables , giving a false clear signal to a passenger train on the opposite line . This then crashed into the wreckage . Ten people were killed . * On 10 February 1946 , a passenger train crashed at , Hertfordshire due to a signalman 's error . The wreckage fouled signal cables , giving a false clear to an express passenger train which then ran into the wreckage . A third passenger train then collided with the wreckage . Two people were killed . * On 2 January 1947 , a passenger train overran signals and was in a rear-end collision with another passenger train at , Essex . Seven people were killed , 45 were hospitalised . * On 9 August 1947 , a passenger train was in a rear-end collision with another at , County Durham due to a signalman 's error . Twenty-one people were killed and 188 were injured . * On 26 October 1947 , an express passenger train was derailed at , Northumberland due to excessive speed on a crossover . Twenty-eight people were killed and 65 were injured . Ancillary activities The LNER inherited : * 8 canals , including the Ashton , Chesterfield , Macclesfield , Nottingham & Grantham , Peak Forest * Docks and harbours in 20 locations , including Grimsby , Hartlepool , Hull , Immingham , Middlesbrough , some eastern Scottish ports , Harwich , Lowestoft and London * Other wharves , staithes , piers * 2 electric tramways * 23 hotels ( 20 of them were nationalised in 1948 as British Transport Hotels . Of the other three , Cruden Bay Hotel was requisitioned in 1940 , Palace Hotel , Aberdeen caught fire in 1941 and the Yarborough Hotel , New Holland was sold , being advertised for sale in 1947 . ) * A 49 % stake in the haulage firm Mutter , Howey & Co. Ltd . It took shares in a large number of bus companies , including for a time a majority stake in United Automobile Services Ltd . In Halifax and Sheffield , it participated in Joint Omnibus Committees with the LMS and the Corporation . In 1935 , with the LMS , Wilson Line of Hull and others it formed the shipping company Associated Humber Lines Ltd . In 1938 it was reported that the LNER , with 800 mechanical horse tractors , was the world 's largest owner of this vehicle type . Ships The LNER operated a number of ships . Liveries The most common liveries were lined apple green on passenger locomotives ( much lighter and brighter than the green used by the Great Western Railway ) and unlined black on freight locomotives , both with gold lettering . Passenger carriages were generally varnished teak ( wood ) finish ; the few metal-panelled coaches were painted to represent teak . Some special trains and A4 Pacific locomotives were painted differently , including silver-grey and garter blue . Advertising The LNER covered quite an extensive area of Britain , from London through East Anglia , the East Midlands and Yorkshire to the north east of England and Scotland . The 1923 grouping meant that former rivals within the LNER had to work together . The task of creating an instantly recognisable public image went to William M. Teasdale , the first advertising manager . Teasdale was influenced by the philosophies and policies of Frank Pick , who controlled the style and content of the London Underground 's widely acclaimed poster advertising . Teasdale did not confine his artists within strict guidelines but allowed them a free hand . William Barribal designed a series of bold Art Deco posters in the 1920s and 1930s . When Teasdale was promoted to Assistant General Manager , this philosophy was carried on by Cecil Dandridge who succeeded him and was the Advertising Manager until nationalisation in 1948 . Dandridge was largely responsible for the adoption of the Gill Sans typeface , later adopted by British Railways . The LNER was a very industrial company : hauling more than a third of Britain 's coal , it derived two thirds of its income from freight . Despite this , the main image presented was one of glamour , of fast trains and sophisticated destinations . Advertising was highly sophisticated and advanced compared with those of its rivals . Teasdale and Dandridge commissioned top graphic designers and poster artists such as Tom Purvis to promote its services and encourage the public to visit the holiday destinations of the east coast in the summer . Chief mechanical engineers The public face of a railway is in large part its locomotives and rolling stock , and the personalities of the Chief Mechanical Engineers impressed their distinctive visions upon the railway . There were three CMEs : Sir Nigel Gresley Sir Nigel Gresley was the first CME and held the post for most of the LNER 's existence , and thus he had the greatest effect on the company . He came to the LNER via the Great Northern Railway , where he was CME . He was noted for his `` Big Engine '' policy , and is best remembered for his large express passenger locomotives , many times the holder of the world speed record for steam locomotives . LNER Class A4 4-6-2 Pacific locomotive Mallard holds the record to this day . Gresley died in office in 1941 . Edward Thompson Edward Thompson 's short reign ( 1941–1946 ) was a controversial one . A noted detractor of Gresley even before his elevation to the post of CME , there are those who interpret many of his actions as being motivated by dislike of his predecessor . Against this Gresley 's designs had their flaws as well as their brilliance . His record is best served by his solid and dependable freight and mixed-traffic locomotives built under and for wartime conditions . He retired in 1946 . Arthur H. Peppercorn Peppercorn 's career was cut short by nationalisation and he was CME for only 18 months . In this short period and in an atmosphere of reconstruction rather than great new endeavours , his only notable designs were the A1 and A2 Pacific express passenger locomotives , most completed after nationalisation . Peppercorn was a student and admirer of Gresley and his locomotives combined the classic lines of Gresley 's with the reliability and solidity they never quite achieved . After the Second World War The company was nationalised in 1948 along with the rest of the railway companies of Great Britain . It continued to exist as a legal entity for nearly two more years , being formally wound up on 23 December 1949 . On the privatisation of BR in 1996 , the franchise to run long distance express trains on the East Coast Main Line was won by Sea Containers Ltd , who named the new operating company Great North Eastern Railway ( GNER ) , a name and initials deliberately chosen to echo the LNER . Cultural activities During the 1930s , the LNER Musical Society comprised a number of amateur male-voice choirs , based at Doncaster , Leicester , Huddersfield , Peterborough , Selby and elsewhere , which annually combined for a performance in London under their musical director Leslie Woodgate .

bb_6489--London_and_North_Eastern_Railway.txt

LNER Flying Scotsman, built in 1923, became in 1934 the first (What?) to attain 100mph?

Dundee ( ; ) , officially the City of Dundee , is Scotland 's fourth largest city and the 51st most populous built-up area in the United Kingdom . At the 2011 census , Dundee had a population density of 8,541.8/sq mi ( 3,298.0/km2 ) , the second highest of any Scottish city . The mid-year population estimate for 2014 is 148,260 . It lies within the eastern central Lowlands on the north bank of the Firth of Tay , which feeds into the North Sea . Under the name of Dundee City , it forms one of the 32 council areas used for local government in Scotland . Historically part of Angus , the city developed into a burgh in medieval times , and expanded rapidly in the 19th century largely due to the jute industry . This , along with its other major industries gave Dundee its epithet as city of `` jute , jam and journalism '' . Dundee 's recorded population reached a peak of 182,204 at the 1971 census . Today , Dundee is promoted as 'One City , Many Discoveries ' in honour of Dundee 's history of scientific activities and of the RRS Discovery , Robert Falcon Scott 's Antarctic exploration vessel , which was built in Dundee and is now berthed in the city harbour . Biomedical and technological industries have arrived since the 1980s , and the city now accounts for 10 % of the United Kingdom 's digital-entertainment industry . Dundee has two universities—the University of Dundee and the Abertay University . In 2014 Dundee was recognised by the United Nations as the UK 's first UNESCO City of Design for its diverse contributions to fields including medical research , comics and video games . A unique feature of Dundee is that its two professional football clubs have stadiums all but adjacent to each other . A £1 billion master plan to regenerate and to reconnect the Waterfront to the city centre which started in 2001 is expected to be completed within a 30-year period , with the Dundee Victoria & Albert Museum opening by 2018 at a cost of £80 million . History The name `` Dundee '' is made up of two parts : the common Celtic place-name element dun , meaning fort ; and a second part that may derive from a Celtic element , cognate with the Gaelic dè , meaning 'fire ' . While earlier evidence for human occupation is abundant , Dundee 's success and growth as a seaport town arguably came as a result of William the Lion 's charter , granting Dundee to his younger brother , David ( later Earl of Huntingdon ) in the late 12th century . The situation of the town and its promotion by Earl David as a trading centre led to a period of prosperity and growth . The earldom was passed down to David 's descendants , amongst whom was John Balliol . The town became a Royal Burgh on John 's coronation as king in 1292 . The town and its castle were occupied by English forces for several years during the First War of Independence and recaptured by Robert the Bruce in early 1312 . The original Burghal charters were lost during the occupation and subsequently renewed by Bruce in 1327 . The burgh suffered considerably during the conflict known as the Rough Wooing of 1543 to 1550 , and was occupied by the English forces of Andrew Dudley from 1547 . In 1548 , unable to defend the town against an advancing Scottish force , Dudley ordered that the town be burnt to the ground . In 1645 , during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , Dundee was again besieged , this time by the Royalist Marquess of Montrose . The town was finally destroyed by Parliamentarian forces led by George Monck in 1651 . The town played a pivotal role in the establishment of the Jacobite cause when John Graham of Claverhouse , 1st Viscount Dundee raised the Stuart standard on the Dundee Law in 1689 . The town was held by the Jacobites in the 1715–16 rising , and on 6 January 1716 the Jacobite claimant to the throne , James VIII and III ( the Old Pretender ) , made a public entry into the town . Many in Scotland , including many in Dundee , regarded him as the rightful king . The economy of mediaeval Dundee centred on the export of raw wool , with the production of finished textiles being a reaction to recession in the 15th century . Two government Acts in the mid 18th century had a profound effect on Dundee 's industrial success : the textile industry was revolutionised by the introduction of large four-storey mills , stimulated in part by the 1742 Bounty Act which provided a government-funded subsidy on Osnaburg linen produced for export . Expansion of the whaling industry was triggered by the second Bounty Act , introduced in 1750 to increase Britain 's maritime and naval skill base . Dundee , and Scotland more generally , saw rapid population increase at end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century , with the city 's population increasing from 12,400 in 1751 to 30,500 in 1821 . The phasing out of the linen export bounty between 1825 and 1832 stimulated demand for cheaper textiles , particularly for cheaper , tough fabrics . The discovery that the dry fibres of jute could be lubricated with whale oil ( of which Dundee had a surfeit , following the opening of its gasworks ) to allow it to be processed in mechanised mills resulted in the Dundee mills rapidly converting from linen to jute , which sold at a quarter of the price of flax . Interruption of Prussian flax imports during the Crimean War and of cotton during the American Civil War resulted in a period of inflated prosperity for Dundee and the jute industry dominated Dundee throughout the latter half of the 19th century . Unprecedented immigration , notably of Irish workers , led to accelerated urban expansion , and at the height of the industry 's success , Dundee supported 62 jute mills , employing some 50,000 workers . Cox Brothers , who owned the massive Camperdown Works in Lochee , were one of the largest jute manufacturers in Europe and employed more than 5,000 workers . The rise of the textile industries brought with it an expansion of supporting industries , notably of the whaling , maritime and shipbuilding industries , and extensive development of the waterfront area started in 1815 to cope with increased demand for port capacity . At its height , 200 ships per year were built there , including Robert Falcon Scott 's Antarctic research vessel , the RRS Discovery . This ship is now on display at Discovery Point in the city . A significant whaling industry was also based in Dundee , largely existing to supply the jute mills with whale oil . Whaling ceased in 1912 and shipbuilding ceased in 1981 . While the city 's economy was dominated by the jute industry , it also became known for smaller industries . Most notable among these were James Keiller 's and Sons , established in 1795 , which pioneered commercial marmalade production , and the publishing firm DC Thomson & Co. , which was founded in the city in 1905 and remains the largest employer after the health and leisure industries . Dundee was said to be built on the 'three Js ' : Jute , Jam and Journalism . The town was also the location of one of the worst rail disasters in British history , the Tay Bridge disaster . The first Tay Rail Bridge was opened in 1878 . It collapsed some 18 months later during a storm , as a passenger train passed over it , resulting in the loss of 75 lives . The most destructive fire in the city 's history came in 1906 , reportedly sending `` rivers of burning whisky '' through the street . The jute industry fell into decline in the early 20th century , partly due to reduced demand for jute products and partly due to an inability to compete with the emerging industry in Calcutta . This gave rise to unemployment levels far in excess of the national average , peaking in the inter-war period , but major recovery was seen in the post-war period , thanks to the arrival first of American light engineering companies like Timex and NCR , and subsequent expansion into microelectronics . A £1 billion master plan to regenerate Dundee Waterfront is expected to last for a 30-year period between 2001 and 2031 . The aims of the project are to reconnect the city centre to the waterfront ; to improve facilities for walking , cyclists and buses ; to replace the existing inner ring road with a pair of east/west tree-lined boulevards ; and to provide a new civic square and a regenerated railway station and arrival space at the western edge . A new Victoria and Albert museum is also being built , set for completion by 2018 . Governance Dundee was granted Royal Burgh status on the coronation of John Balliol as King of Scotland in 1292 . The city has two mottos— ( Gift of God ) and Prudentia et Candore ( With Thought and Purity ) although usually only the latter is used for civic purposes . Prior to 1996 , Dundee was governed by the City of Dundee District Council . This was formed in 1975 , implementing boundaries imposed in the Local Government ( Scotland ) Act 1973 . Under these boundaries , the Angus burgh and district of Monifieth , and the Perth electoral division of Longforgan ( which included Invergowrie ) were annexed to the county of the city of Dundee . In 1996 , the Dundee City unitary authority was created following implementation of the Local Government etc . ( Scotland ) Act 1994 . This placed Monifieth and Invergowrie in the unitary authorities of Angus and Perth and Kinross , largely reinstating the pre-1975 county boundaries . Some controversy has ensued as a result of these boundary changes , with Dundee city councillors arguing for the return of Monifieth and Invergowrie . Local government Dundee is one of 32 council areas of Scotland , and is represented by the Dundee City Council – a local council composed of 29 elected councillors . Previously the city was a county of a city and later a district of the Tayside region . Council meetings take place in the City Chambers , which opened in 1933 in City Square . The civic head and chair of the council is known as the Lord Provost , a position similar to that of mayor in other cities . Dundee House , the new headquarters for the city council on North Lindsay Street , opened in August 2011 . This has replaced Tayside House which was demolished in 2013 as part of the Dundee Waterfront improvements . Elections to the council are on a four-year cycle , the most recent being on 3 May 2012 . Since 2007 , the Local Governance ( Scotland ) Act 2004 has meant that there are eight multi-member wards which elect three or four councillors by single transferable vote , to produce a form of proportional representation . The 2012 elections gave the SNP overall control of the council . Scotland 's longest-serving councillor , Ian Borthwick , sits on the council . Westminster and Holyrood For elections to the British House of Commons at Westminster , the city area and portions of the Angus council area are divided in two constituencies . The constituencies of Dundee East and Dundee West are as of 2015 represented by Stewart Hosie ( Scottish National Party ) and Chris Law ( Scottish National Party ) , respectively . For elections to the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood , the city area is divided between three constituencies . The Dundee East ( Holyrood ) constituency and the Dundee West ( Holyrood ) constituency are entirely within the city area . The Angus South ( Holyrood ) constituency includes north-eastern and north-western portions of the city area . All three constituencies are within the North East Scotland electoral region : Shona Robison ( SNP ) is the Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) for the Dundee East constituency ; Joe Fitzpatrick ( SNP ) is the current MSP for the Dundee West constituency and Graeme Dey ( SNP ) is the current MSP for the Angus South constituency . Dundee is also part of the pan-Scotland European Parliament constituency which elects seven Members of the European Parliament ( MEP ) s using the d'Hondt method of party-list proportional representation . Scotland returns two Labour MEPs , two SNP MEPs , one Conservative and Unionist MEP and one UKIP MEP , to the European Parliament . Winston Churchill served as the MP for Dundee from 1908-1922 . 2014 Scottish Referendum On 18 September 2014 , Dundee was one of four council areas to vote `` Yes '' in the Scottish Independence Referendum , with 57.3 % voting `` Yes '' on a 78.8 % turnout . With the highest Yes vote for any local authority in Scotland , some in the Yes Scotland campaign nicknamed Dundee the 'Yes City ' , including former First Minister Alex Salmond . Geography Dundee sits on the north bank of the Firth of Tay on the eastern , North Sea Coast of Scotland . The city lies NNE of Edinburgh and NNW of London . The built-up area occupies a roughly rectangular shape long by wide , aligned in an east to west direction and occupies an area of 60 km2 . The town is bisected by a line of hills stretching from Balgay Hill ( elevation of 143 m ) in the west end of the city , through the Dundee Law ( 174 m ) which occupies the centre of the built up area , to Gallow Hill ( 83 m ) , between Baxter Park and the Eastern Cemetery . North of this ridge lies a valley through which cuts the Dighty Water burn , the elevation falling to around 45 m. North of the Dighty valley lie the Sidlaw Hills , the most prominent hill being Craigowl Hill ( 455 m ) . The western and eastern boundaries of the city are marked by two burns that are tributaries of the River Tay . On the western-most boundary of the city , the Lochee burn meets the Fowlis burn , forming the Invergowrie burn , which meets the Tay at Invergowrie basin . The Dighty Water enters Dundee from the village of Strathmartine and marks the boundaries of a number of northern districts of the city , joining the Tay between Barnhill and Monifieth . The Scouring burn in the west end of the city and Dens Burn in the east , both of which played important roles in the industrial development of the city , have now been culverted over . Geology The city lies within the Sidlaw-Ochil anticline , and the predominant bedrock type is Old Red Sandstone of the Arbuthnott-Garvock group . ; Differential weathering of a series of igneous intrusions has yielded a number of prominent hills in the landscape , most notably the Dundee Law ( a late Silurian/early Devonian Mafic rock intrusion ) and Balgay hill ( a Felsic rock intrusion of similar age ) . In the east of the city , in Craigie and Broughty Ferry , the bedrock geology is of extrusive rocks , including mafic lava and tuff . The land surrounding Dundee , particularly that in the lower lying areas to the west and east of the city , bears high quality soil that is particularly suitable for arable farming . It is predominantly of a brown forest soil type with some gleying , the lower parts being formed from raised beach sands and gravels derived from Old Red Sandstone and lavas . Location Urban environment Very little of pre-Reformation Dundee remains , the destruction suffered in the War of the Rough Wooing being almost total , with only scattered , roofless shells remaining . The area occupied by the medieval burgh of Dundee extends between East Port and West Port , which formerly held the gates to the walled city . The shoreline has been altered considerably since the early 19th century through development of the harbour area and land reclamation . Several areas on the periphery of the burgh saw industrial development with the building of textile mills from the end of the 18th century . Their placement was dictated by the need for a water supply for the modern steam powered machinery , and areas around the Lochee Burn ( Lochee ) , Scouring Burn ( Blackness ) and Dens Burn ( Dens Road area ) saw particular concentrations of mills . The post war period saw expansion of industry to estates along the Kingsway . Working class housing spread rapidly and without control throughout the Victorian era , particularly in the Hawkhill , Blackness Road , Dens Road and Hilltown areas . Despite the comparative wealth of Victorian Dundee as a whole , living standards for the working classes were very poor . A general lack of town planning coupled with the influx of labour during the expansion of the jute industry resulted in insanitary , squalid and cramped housing for much of the population . While gradual improvements and slum clearance began in the late 19th century , the building of the groundbreaking Logie housing estate marked the beginning of Dundee 's expansion through the building of planned housing estates , under the vision of city architect James Thomson , whose legacy also includes the housing estate of Craigiebank and the beginnings of an improved transport infrastructure by planning the Kingsway bypass . Modernisation of the city centre continued in the post-war period . The mediaeval Overgate was demolished in the early 1960s to make way for a shopping centre , followed by construction of the inner ring road and the Wellgate Shopping Centre . The Tay Road Bridge , completed in 1966 had as its northern landfall the docklands of central Dundee , and the new associated road system resulted in the city centre being cut off from the river . An acute shortage of housing in the late 1940s was addressed by a series of large housing estates built in the northern environs including the Fintry , Craigie , Charleston and Douglas areas in the 1950s and early 1960s . These were followed by increasingly cost-effective and sometimes poorly planned housing in throughout the 1960s . Much of this , in particular the high rise blocks of flats at Lochee , Kirkton , Trottick , Whitfield , Ardler and Menzieshill , and the prefabricated Skarne housing blocks at Whitfield , have been demolished since the 1990s or are scheduled for future demolition . Climate The climate , like the rest of lowland Scotland , is Oceanic ( Köppen-Geiger classification Cfb ) . Mean temperature and rainfall are typical for the east coast of Scotland , and with the city 's sheltered estuarine position , mean daily maxima are slightly higher than coastal areas to the North , particularly in spring and summer . The summers are still chilly when compared with similar latitudes in continental Europe , something compensated for by the mild winters , similar to the rest of the British Isles . The nearest official Met Office weather station is Mylnefield , Invergowrie which is about 4 mi west of the City Centre . A record high of was recorded in August 1995 . The warmest month was July 2006 , with an average temperature of ( mean maximum , mean minimum ) . In an 'average ' year the warmest day should reach , and in total just 1.63 days should equal or exceed a temperature of per year , illustrating the rarity of such warmth . Demography According to the 2001 census , the City of Dundee had a population of 154,674 . A more recent population estimate of the City of Dundee has been recorded at 156,561 in 2012 . The demographic make-up of the population is much in line with the rest of Scotland . The age group from 30 to 44 forms the largest portion of the population ( 20 % ) . The median age of males and females living in Dundee was 37 and 40 years respectively , compared to 37 and 39 years for those in the whole of Scotland . The place of birth of the town 's residents was 94.16 % United Kingdom ( including 87.85 % from Scotland ) , 0.42 % Republic of Ireland , 1.33 % from other European Union countries , and 3.09 % from elsewhere in the world . The economic activity of residents aged 16–74 was 35.92 % in full-time employment , 10.42 % in part-time employment , 4.25 % self-employed , 5.18 % unemployed , 7.82 % students with jobs , 4.73 % students without jobs , 15.15 % retired , 4.54 % looking after home or family , 7.92 % permanently sick or disabled , and 4.00 % economically inactive for other reasons . Compared with the average demography of Scotland , Dundee has both low proportions of people born outside the United Kingdom and for people over 75 years old . Natives of Dundee are called Dundonians and are often recognisable by their distinctive dialect of Scots as well as their accent , which most noticeably substitutes the monophthong /ɛ/ ( pronounced `` eh '' ) in place of the diphthong /aj/ ( pronounced `` ai '' ) . Dundee , and Scotland more generally , saw rapid population increase at end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century , with the city 's population increasing from 12,400 in 1751 to 30,500 in 1821 . Of particular significance was an influx of Irish workers in the early to mid-19th century , attracted by the prospect of employment in the textiles industries . In 1851 , 18.9 % of people living in Dundee were of Irish birth . The city has also attracted immigrants from Italy , fleeing poverty and famine , in the 19th century Jews , fleeing from the Russia controlled portions of partitioned Poland and from German occupation in the 20th . Today , Dundee has a sizeable ethnic minority population , and has around ( 4.0 % ) 4,000 Asian residents which is the fourth largest Asian community in Scotland . The city also has 1.0 % of residents from a Black/African/Caribbean background . Dundee has a higher proportion of university students – one in seven of the population – than any other town in Europe , except Heidelberg . The 14.2 % come from all around the world to attend the local universities and colleges . Dundee is a major attraction for Northern Irish students who make up 5 % of the total student population . The city 's universities are believed to hold the highest percentage of Northern Irish students outside of Northern Ireland and have a big impact on the local economy and culture . However this has declined in recent years due to the increase of tuition fees for students elsewhere in the UK . Dundee also has a lot of students from abroad , mostly from Republic of Ireland and other EU countries but with an increasing number from countries from the Far East and Nigeria . Economy The period following World War II was notable for the transformation of the city 's economy . While jute still employed one-fifth of the working population , new industries were attracted and encouraged . NCR Corporation selected Dundee as the base of operations for the UK in late 1945 , primarily because of the lack of damage the city had sustained in the war , good transport links and high productivity from long hours of sunshine . Production started in the year before the official opening of the plant on 11 June 1947 . A fortnight after the 10th anniversary of the plant the 250,000th cash register was produced . By the 1960s , NCR had become the principal employer of the city producing cash registers , and later ATMs , at several of its Dundee plants . The firm developed magnetic-strip readers for cash registers and produced early computers . Astral , a Dundee-based firm that manufactured and sold refrigerators and spin dryers was merged into Morphy Richards and rapidly expanded to employ over 1,000 people . The development in Dundee of a Michelin tyre-production facility helped to absorb the unemployment caused by the decline of the jute industry , particularly with the abolition of the jute control by the Board of Trade on 30 April 1969 . Employment in Dundee changed dramatically during the 1980s with the loss of nearly 10,000 manufacturing jobs due to closure of the shipyards , cessation of carpet manufacturing and the disappearance of the jute trade . To combat growing unemployment and declining economic conditions , Dundee was declared an Enterprise Zone in January 1984 . In 1983 , the first Sinclair ZX Spectrum home computers were produced in Dundee by Timex . In the same year the company broke production records , despite a sit-in by workers protesting against job cuts and plans to demolish one of the factory buildings to make way for a supermarket . Timex closed its Dundee plant in 1993 following an acrimonious six-month industrial dispute . Modern day Dundee is a regional employment and education centre , with around 325,000 people within 30 minutes drive of the city centre and 860,000 people within one hour . Many people from North East Fife , Angus and Perth and Kinross commute to the city . In 2009 , there were 30 employers who employed 300 or more staff . The largest employers in the city are NHS Tayside , Dundee City Council , University of Dundee , Tesco , D. C. Thomson & Co and BT . Other employers include limited and private companies such as NCR , Michelin , Alliance Trust , Aviva , Royal Bank of Scotland , Asda , Stagecoach Strathtay , Tayside Contracts , Tokheim , Scottish Citylink , C J Lang & Son ( SPAR Scotland ) , Joinery and Timber Creations , HBOS , Debenhams , Xplore Dundee , and W. L. Gore and Associates . The only sectors to see job increases between 2005 and 2009 were in education and human health and social work activities , while manufacturing and administration and support service activities both saw a significant decline . Average weekly earnings of full-time employers in Dundee in May 2010 was £482.80 ; men received £507.40 and women £418.80 . Average earnings in Dundee have increased from £325.00 in 2000 to £482.80 in 2010 . The biomedical and biotechnology sectors , including start-up biomedical companies arising from university research , employ just under 1,000 people directly and nearly 2,000 indirectly . Information technology and Video game development have been important industries in the city for more than 20 years . Rockstar North , developer of Lemmings and the Grand Theft Auto series was founded in Dundee as DMA Design by David Jones ; an undergraduate of the Abertay University . Other game development studios in Dundee include Denki , Ruffian Games , Dynamo Games , 4J Studios , Cohort Studios amongst others . Dundee is also a key retail destination for North East Scotland and has been ranked 4th in Retail Rankings in Scotland . The city centre offers a wide variety of retailers , department stores and independent/specialist stores . The Murraygate and High Street forms the main pedestrian area and is home to a number of main anchors such as Marks and Spencer , Accessorise and Zara . The main pedestrian area also connects the two large shopping centres ; the 420000 sqft Overgate Centre which is anchored by Debenhams , H & M , Next , Argos , and The Perfume Shop and the 310000 sqft Wellgate Centre by BHS , Home Bargains , B & M , Superdrug , Iceland , Holland & Barrett , Poundland , Savers , The Works , Hydro Electric , Bright house , Other retail areas in the city include Gallagher Retail Park , Kingsway East Retail Park and Kingsway West Retail Park . Landmarks The city and its landscape are dominated by The Law and the Firth of Tay . The Law , a large hill to the north of the City Centre was the site of an Iron Age Hill Fort , upon which the Law War Memorial , designed by Thomas Braddock , was erected in 1921 to commemorate the fallen of World War I . The waterfront , much altered by

odql_2576--Dundee.txt

Which famous fishing town of east Scotland lies roughly half-way between Montrose and Dundee?

The Flag of Scotland , ( , ) , also known as St Andrew 's Cross or the Saltire , is the national flag of Scotland . As the national flag , the Saltire , rather than the Royal Standard of Scotland , is the correct flag for all individuals and corporate bodies to fly . It is also , where possible , flown from Scottish Government buildings every day from 8am until sunset , with certain exceptions . According to legend , the Christian apostle and martyr Saint Andrew , the patron saint of Scotland , was crucified on an X-shaped cross at Patras , ( Patrae ) , in Achaea . Use of the familiar iconography of his martyrdom , showing the apostle bound to an X-shaped cross , first appears in the Kingdom of Scotland in 1180 during the reign of William I . It was again depicted on seals used during the late 13th century , including on one used by the Guardians of Scotland , dated 1286 . Using a simplified symbol which does not depict St. Andrew 's image , the saltire or crux decussata , ( from the Latin crux , 'cross ' , and decussis , 'having the shape of the Roman numeral X ' ) , began in the late 14th century . In June 1385 , the Parliament of Scotland decreed that Scottish soldiers serving in France would wear a white Saint Andrew 's Cross , both in front and behind , for identification . The earliest reference to the Saint Andrew 's Cross as a flag is found in the Vienna Book of Hours , circa 1503 , in which a white saltire is depicted with a red background . In the case of Scotland , use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew 's Cross is said to date from at least the 15th century , with the first certain illustration of a flag depicting such appearing in Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount 's Register of Scottish Arms , circa 1542 . The legend surrounding Scotland 's association with the Saint Andrew 's Cross was related by Walter Bower and George Buchanan , who claimed that the flag originated in a 9th-century battle , where Óengus II led a combined force of Picts and Scots to victory over the Angles , led by Æthelstan . Supposedly , a miraculous white saltire appeared in the blue sky and Óengus ' troops were roused to victory by the omen . Consisting of a blue background over which is placed a white representation of an X-shaped cross , the Saltire is one of Scotland 's most recognisable symbols . Design The heraldic term for an X-shaped cross is a 'saltire ' , from the old French word saultoir or salteur ( itself derived from the Latin saltatorium ) , a word for both a type of stile constructed from two cross pieces and a type of cross-shaped stirrup-cord . In heraldic language , it may be blazoned azure , a saltire argent . The tincture of the Saltire can appear as either silver ( argent ) or white , however the term azure does not refer to a particular shade of blue . Throughout the history of fabric production natural dyes have been used to apply a form of colour , with dyes from plants , including indigo from Woad , having dozens of compounds whose proportions may vary according to soil type and climate ; therefore giving rise to variations in shade . In the case of the Saltire , variations in shades of blue have resulted in the background of the flag ranging from sky blue to navy blue . When incorporated as part of the Union Flag during the 17th century , the dark blue applied to Union Flags destined for maritime use was possibly selected on the basis of the durability of darker dyes , with this dark blue shade eventually becoming standard on Union Flags both at sea and on land . Some flag manufacturers selected the same navy blue colour trend of the Union Flag for the Saltire itself , leading to a variety of shades of blue being depicted on the flag of Scotland . These variations in shade eventually led to calls to standardise the colour of Scotland 's national flag , and in 2003 a committee of the Scottish Parliament met to examine a petition that the Scottish Executive adopt the Pantone 300 colour as a standard . ( Note that this blue is of a lighter shade than the Pantone 280 of the Union Flag ) . Having taken advice from a number of sources , including the office of the Lord Lyon King of Arms , the committee recommended that the optimum shade of blue for the Saltire be Pantone 300 . Recent versions of the Saltire have therefore largely converged on this official recommendation . ( Pantone 300 is # 006CB4 as hexadecimal web colours . ) The flag proportions are not fixed , however the Lord Lyon King of Arms states that 5:4 is suitable . ( Flag manufacturers themselves may adopt alternative ratios , including 1:2 or 2:3 ) . The ratio of the width of the bars of the saltire in relation to the width of the field is specified in heraldry in relation to shield width rather than flag width . However , this ratio , though not rigid , is specified as one-third to one-fifth of the width of the field . History According to legend , in 832 A.D. Óengus II led an army of Picts and Scots into battle against the Angles , led by Æthelstan , near modern-day Athelstaneford , East Lothian . The legend states that whilst engaged in prayer on the eve of battle , Óengus vowed that if granted victory he would appoint Saint Andrew as the Patron Saint of Scotland ; Andrew then appeared to Óengus that night in a dream and assured him of victory . On the morning of battle white clouds forming the shape of an X were said to have appeared in the sky . Óengus and his combined force , emboldened by this apparent divine intervention , took to the field and despite being inferior in terms of numbers were victorious . Having interpreted the cloud phenomenon as representing the crux decussata upon which Saint Andrew was crucified , Óengus honoured his pre-battle pledge and duly appointed Saint Andrew as the Patron Saint of Scotland . The white saltire set against a celestial blue background is said to have been adopted as the design of the flag of Scotland on the basis of this legend . Although the earliest use as a national symbol can be traced to the seal of the Guardians of Scotland in 1286 , material evidence for the Saltire being used as a flag , as opposed to appearing on another object such as a seal , brooch or surcoat , dates from somewhat later . The huge heraldic standard of the Great Michael had the `` Sanct Androis cors '' on a blue background in the Hoist and by 1542 a white saltire set against a blue background was depicted as being the flag of Scotland . An even earlier example known as the `` Blue Blanket of the Trades of Edinburgh '' , reputedly made by Queen Margaret , wife of James III ( 1451–1488 ) , also shows a white saltire on a blue field . However , in this case the saltire is not the only emblem to be portrayed . Protocol Use by the Scottish Government The Scottish Government has ruled that the Saltire should , where possible , fly on all its buildings every day from 8am until sunset . An exception is made for United Kingdom `` national days '' , when on buildings where only one flagpole is present the Saltire shall be lowered and replaced with the Union Flag . Such flag days are standard throughout the United Kingdom , with the exception of Merchant Navy Day , ( 3 September ) , which is a specific flag day in Scotland during which the Red Ensign of the Merchant Navy may be flown on land in place of either the Saltire or Union Flag . A further Scottish distinction from the UK flag days is that on Saint Andrew 's Day , ( 30 November ) , the Union Flag will only be flown where a building has more than one flagpole ; the Saltire will not be lowered to make way for the Union Flag where a single flagpole is present . If there are two or more flagpoles present , the Saltire may be flown in addition to the Union Flag but not in a superior position . This distinction arose after Members of the Scottish Parliament complained that Scotland was the only country in the world where the potential existed for the citizens of a country to be unable to fly their national flag on their country 's national day . ( In recent years , embassies of the United Kingdom have also flown the Saltire to mark St Andrew 's Day ) . Many bodies of the Scottish Government use the flag as a design basis for their logo ; for example , Safer Scotland 's emblem depicts a lighthouse shining beams in a saltire shape onto a blue sky . Other Scottish bodies , both private and public , have also used the saltire in similar ways . Use by military institutions on land The seven British Army Infantry battalions of the Scottish Division , plus the Scots Guards and Royal Scots Dragoon Guards regiments , use the Saltire in a variety of forms . Combat and transport vehicles of these Army units may be adorned with a small , ( 130x80mm approx . ) , representation of the Saltire ; such decals being displayed on the front and/or rear of the vehicle . ( On tanks these may also be displayed on the vehicle turret ) . In Iraq , during both Operation Granby and the subsequent Operation Telic , the Saltire was seen to be flown from the communications whip antenna of vehicles belonging to these units . Funerals , conducted with full military honours , of casualties of these operations in Iraq , ( plus those killed in operations in Afghanistan ) , have also been seen to include the Saltire ; the flag being draped over the coffin of the deceased on such occasions . In the battle for `` hearts and minds '' in Iraq , the Saltire was again used by the British Army as a means of distinguishing troops belonging to Scottish regiments from other coalition forces , in the hope of fostering better relations with the civilian population in the area south west of Baghdad . Leaflets were distributed to Iraqi civilians , by members of the Black Watch , depicting troops and vehicles set against a backdrop of the Saltire . Immediately prior to , and following , the merger in March 2006 of Scotland 's historic infantry regiments to form a single Royal Regiment of Scotland , a multi-million-pound advertising campaign was launched in Scotland in an attempt to attract recruits to join the reorganised and simultaneously rebranded `` Scottish Infantry '' . The recruitment campaign employed the Saltire in the form of a logo ; the words `` Scottish Infantry . Forward As One . '' being placed next to a stylised image of the Saltire . For the duration of the campaign , this logo was used in conjunction with the traditional Army recruiting logo ; the words `` Army . Be The Best . '' being placed beneath a stylised representation of the Union Flag . Despite this multi-media campaign having had mixed results in terms of overall success , the Saltire continues to appear on a variety of Army recruiting media used in Scotland . Other uses of the Saltire by the Army include the cap badge design of the Royal Regiment of Scotland , which consists of a ( silver ) Saltire , surmounted by a ( gilt ) lion rampant and ensigned with a representation of the Crown of Scotland . ( This same design , save for the Crown , is used on both the Regimental flag and tactical recognition flash of the Royal Regiment of Scotland ) . The badge of the No . 679 ( The Duke of Connaught 's ) Squadron Army Air Corps bears a Saltire between two wreaths ensigned 'Scottish Horse ' ; an honour they received in 1971 which originated through their links with the Royal Artillery . The Officer Training Corps units attached to universities in Edinburgh and Glasgow , plus the Tayforth University OTC , all feature the Saltire in their cap badge designs . The Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy adorned three of their aircraft with the Saltire . Specifically , the Westland Sea King Mk5 aircraft of HMS Gannet , operating in the Search and Rescue ( SAR ) role from Royal Naval Air Station Prestwick , Ayrshire , displayed a Saltire decal on the nose of each aircraft . ( The SAR function was transferred from the Royal Navy to Bristow Helicopters , acting on behalf of HM Coastguard , part of the UK 's Maritime and Coastguard Agency , with effect from 1 January 2016 . ) Although not represented in the form of a flag , the No . 602 ( City of Glasgow ) Squadron of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force uses the Saltire surmounted by a lion rampant as the device shown on the squadron crest . The station crest of the former RAF Leuchars , Fife , also showed the Saltire , in this case surmounted by a sword . The crest of the former RAF East Fortune , East Lothian , also showed a sword surmounting the Saltire , however unlike Leuchars this sword was shown inverted , and the station crest of the former RAF Turnhouse , Edinburgh , showed a Saltire surmounted by an eagle 's head . The East of Scotland Universities Air Squadron crest features a Saltire surmounted by an open book ; the book itself being supported by red lions rampant . General use In Scotland , planning permission to fly the Saltire from a flagpole is required , therefore it can not be flown at any time by any individual , company , local authority , hospital or school without first obtaining planning permission ( in practice this is not enforced ) . This is not the case in England & Wales where the Saltire can be flown without planning permission first being obtained . Many local authorities in Scotland fly the Saltire from Council Buildings , however in 2007 Angus Council approved a proposal to replace the Saltire on Council Buildings with a new Angus flag , based on the council 's coat of arms . This move led to public outcry across Scotland with more than 7,000 people signing a petition opposing the council 's move , leading to a compromise whereby the Angus flag would not replace but be flown alongside the Saltire on council buildings . In the United Kingdom , owners of vehicles registered in Great Britain have the option of displaying the Saltire on the vehicle registration plate , in conjunction with the letters `` SCO '' or alternatively the word `` Scotland '' . In 1999 , the Royal Mail issued a series of pictorial stamps for Scotland , with the '2nd ' value stamp depicting the Flag of Scotland . In Northern Ireland , sections of the Protestant community routinely employ the Saltire as a means of demonstrating and celebrating their Ulster-Scots heritage . Use of the Saltire at sea as a Jack or courtesy flag has been observed , including as a Jack on the Scottish Government 's Marine Partrol Vessel ( MPV ) Jura . The ferry operator Caledonian MacBrayne routinely flies the Saltire as a Jack on vessels which have a bow staff , including when such vessels are underway . This practice has also been observed on the Paddle Steamer Waverley when operating in and around the Firth of Clyde . The practice of maritime vessels adopting the Saltire , for use as a jack or courtesy flag , may lead to possible confusion in that the Saltire closely resembles the maritime signal flag M , `` MIKE '' , which is used to indicate `` My vessel is stopped ; making no way . '' Obviously mariners who understand this signal code also understand that the saltire is displayed on the jackstaff and not as a signal . For the benefit of Scottish seafarers wishing to display a Scottish flag other than the Saltire , thereby avoiding confusion and a possible fine , a campaign was launched in November 2007 seeking official recognition for the historic Scottish Red Ensign . Despite having last been used officially by the pre-Union Royal Scots Navy and merchant marine fleets in the 18th century , the flag continues to be produced by flag manufacturers and its unofficial use by private citizens on water has been observed . In May 2016 , the Saltire was flown from horseback during The Queen 's 90th birthday celebration at Windsor , alongside the flags of England , Northern Ireland and Wales Incorporation into the Union Flag The Saltire is one of the key components of the Union Flag which , since its creation in 1606 , has appeared in various forms following the Flag of Scotland and Flag of England first being merged to mark the Union of the Crowns . ( The Union of the Crowns having occurred three years earlier , in 1603 , when James VI , King of Scots , acceded to the thrones of both England and Ireland upon the death of Elizabeth I of England ) . The proclamation by King James , made on 12 April 1606 , which led to the creation of the Union Flag states : However , in objecting strongly to the form and pattern of Union Flag designed by the College of Arms and approved by King James , whereby the cross of Saint George surmounted that of Saint Andrew , ( regarded in Scotland as a slight upon the Scottish nation ) , a great number of shipmasters and ship-owners in Scotland took up the matter with John Erskine , 18th Earl of Mar , and encouraged him to send a letter of complaint , dated 7 August 1606 , to James VI , via the Privy Council of Scotland , stating : Despite the drawings described in this letter as showing drafts of the two new patterns , together with any royal response to the complaint which may have accompanied them , having been lost , ( possibly in the 1834 Burning of Parliament ) , other evidence exists , at least on paper , of a Scottish variant whereby the Scottish cross appears uppermost . Whilst , in the absence of evidence to the contrary , this design is considered by most vexillologists to have been unofficial , there is reason to believe that such flags were employed during the 17th century for use on Scottish vessels at sea . This flag 's design is also described in the 1704 edition of The Present State of the Universe by John Beaumont , Junior , which contains as an appendix The Ensigns , Colours or Flags of the Ships at Sea : Belonging to The several Princes and States in the World . On land , evidence suggesting use of this flag appears in the depiction of Edinburgh Castle by John Slezer , in his series of engravings entitled Theatrum Scotiae , c. 1693 . Appearing in later editions of Theatrum Scotiae , the North East View of Edinburgh Castle engraving depicts the Scotch ( to use the appropriate adjective of that period ) version of the Union Flag flying from the Castle Clock Tower . A reduced view of this engraving , with the flag similarly detailed , also appears on the Plan of Edenburgh , Exactly Done . However , on the engraving entitled North Prospect of the City of Edenburgh the detail of the flag , when compared to the aforementioned engravings , appears indistinct and lacks any element resembling a saltire . ( The reduced version of the North Prospect ... , as shown on the Plan of Edenburgh , Exactly Done , does however display the undivided arm of a saltire and is thereby suggestive of the Scottish variant ) . On 17 April 1707 , just two weeks prior to the Acts of Union coming into effect , Sir Henry St George , Garter King of Arms , presented several designs to Queen Anne and her Privy Council for consideration as the flag of the soon to be unified Kingdom of Great Britain . At the request of the Scots representatives , the designs for consideration included that version of Union Flag showing the Cross of Saint Andrew uppermost ; identified as being the `` Scots union flagg as said to be used by the Scots '' . Partial view at [ http : //www.encyclopedia.com/ Encyclopedia.com ] However , Queen Anne and her Privy Council approved Sir Henry 's original effort , ( pattern `` one '' ) , showing the Cross of Saint George uppermost . From 1801 , in order to symbolise the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland a new design , which included the St Patrick 's Cross , was adopted for the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . A manuscript compiled from 1785 by William Fox , and in possession of the Flag Research Center , includes a full plate showing `` the scoth union '' flag with the addition of the cross of St. Patrick . This could imply that there was still some insistence on a Scottish variant after 1801 . Despite its unofficial and historic status the Scottish Union Flag continues to be produced by flag manufacturers , and its unofficial use by private citizens on land has been observed . In 2006 historian David R. Ross called for Scotland to once again adopt this design in order to `` reflect separate national identities across the UK '' , however the 1801 design of Union Flag remains the official flag of the entire United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . File : Scottish Union Flag - detail.JPG|Scottish Union Flag . An unofficial variant used in the Kingdom of Scotland during the 17th century , following the Union of the Crowns . File : Châté Lîzabé Couleu d'la Grande Brétangne c ( reverse ) .jpg|Union Flag used in the Kingdom of England from 1606 and , following the Acts of Union , the flag of the Kingdom of Great Britain from 1707–1800 . File : Union flag.jpg|Union Flag since 1801 , including the Cross of Saint Patrick , following the Act of Union between the Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland . File : Union Flag and St Georges Cross.jpg|Flag of the United Kingdom , ( Union Flag since 1801 ) , flying alongside the Flag of England ; the Cross of Saint George . Similar flags Several flags outside of the United Kingdom are based on the Scottish saltire . In Canada , an inverse representation of the flag ( i.e . a blue saltire on a white field ) , combined with the shield from the royal arms of the Kingdom of Scotland , forms the modern flag of the province of Nova Scotia . Nova Scotia ( Latin for `` New Scotland '' ) was the first colonial venture of the Kingdom of Scotland in the Americas . The Dutch municipality of Sint-Oedenrode , named after the Scottish princess Saint Oda , uses a version of the flag of Scotland , defaced with a gold castle having on both sides a battlement . The flag of Tenerife , an island of the Canary Islands , is identical to the Scottish flag except for the shade of blue . Although some theories claim a connection between the flags , their similarity is likely coincidental . File : Australian Scottish-heritage flag.svg|Flag of the Scottish Australian Heritage Council , Australia File : Royal Regiment of Scotland Flag.PNG|Regimental flag of the Royal Regiment of Scotland File : Flag of Scotland defaced with Royal Arms.PNG|Unofficial design ; popular with members of the Tartan Army File : Flag of Nova Scotia.svg|Provincial flag of Nova Scotia , Canada File : Sint-Oedenrode vlag.svg|Flag of Sint-Oedenrode , Netherlands File : Flag of Tenerife.svg|Flag of Tenerife , Canary Islands , Spain File : ICS_Mike.svg|International Code of Signals flag `` M '' ( Mike ) Royal Standard of Scotland The Royal Standard of Scotland , also known as the Banner of the King of Scots or more commonly the Lion Rampant of Scotland , is the Scottish Royal Banner of Arms . Used historically by the King of Scots , the Royal Standard of Scotland differs from Scotland 's national flag , The Saltire , in that its correct use is restricted by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland to only a few Great Officers of State who officially represent The Sovereign in Scotland . It is also used in an official capacity at Royal residences in Scotland when the Sovereign is not present . Gallery File : Flag of Scotland.jpg|The Saltire , the national flag of Scotland : A white ( argent ) saltire on a blue ( azure ) field . File : Flags outside Parliament.jpg|The Flag of the United Kingdom , Flag of Scotland and Flag of Europe at the Scottish Parliament Building . File : Slag om Grolle 2008-1 - Linie van Staatse troepen vuurt.jpg|The Scottish Red Ensign at a historical reenactment of the Battle for Grolle . File : The Saltire - geograph.org.uk - 718800.jpg|A variety of Saltires at Murrayfield Stadium ; the national stadium of Rugby Union in Scotland . File : Welcome to Scotland - geograph.org.uk - 931197.jpg|The Flag ( s ) of Scotland marking the Anglo-Scottish Border . File : Highland Games-Opening ceremonies in Canmore.jpg|The Flag of Scotland and Flag of Canada at the Canmore Highland Games . File : Hampden_Park_WP_EN.JPG|The Flag of Scotland seating design at Hampden Park Stadium ; the national stadium of Football in Scotland . File : Replica Covenanter flag , National Museum of Scotland.JPG|A replica 17th-century Covenanters ' flag . File : The flag at North Berwick Golf Course - geograph.org.uk - 1523656.jpg|A defaced Saltire belonging to the Bass Rock golf club , North Berwick . File : Carrying the Royal Burgh Flag on Peat Hill - geograph.org.uk - 1354482.jpg|The defaced Saltire of the Royal Burgh of Selkirk leading the Common Riding . File : Scottish Flag.jpg|The Flag of Scotland ; Proportions : 2:3 . File : Saltire.jpg|The Flag of Scotland ; Proportions : 1:2 .

bb_2276--Flag_of_Scotland.txt

The Saltire is which country's flag?

Anemia , also spelled anaemia , is usually defined as a decrease in the amount of red blood cells ( RBCs ) or hemoglobin in the blood . It can also be defined as a lowered ability of the blood to carry oxygen . When anemia comes on slowly , the symptoms are often vague and may include : feeling tired , weakness , shortness of breath or a poor ability to exercise . Anemia that comes on quickly often has greater symptoms , which may include : confusion , feeling like one is going to pass out , loss of consciousness , or increased thirst . Anemia must be significant before a person becomes noticeably pale . Additional symptoms may occur depending on the underlying cause . There are three main types of anemia : that due to blood loss , that due to decreased red blood cell production , and that due to increased red blood cell breakdown . Causes of blood loss include trauma and gastrointestinal bleeding , among others . Causes of decreased production include iron deficiency , a lack of vitamin B12 , thalassemia , and a number of neoplasms of the bone marrow . Causes of increased breakdown include a number of genetic conditions such as sickle cell anemia , infections like malaria , and certain autoimmune diseases . It can also be classified based on the size of red blood cells and amount of hemoglobin in each cell . If the cells are small , it is microcytic anemia . If they are large , it is macrocytic anemia while if they are normal sized , it is normocytic anemia . Diagnosis in men is based on a hemoglobin of less than 130 to 140 g/L ( 13 to 14 g/dL ) , while in women , it must be less than 120 to 130 g/L ( 12 to 13 g/dL ) . Further testing is then required to determine the cause . Certain groups of individuals , such as pregnant women , benefit from the use of iron pills for prevention . Dietary supplementation , without determining the specific cause , is not recommended . The use of blood transfusions is typically based on a person 's signs and symptoms . In those without symptoms , they are not recommended unless hemoglobin levels are less than 60 to 80 g/L ( 6 to 8 g/dL ) . These recommendations may also apply to some people with acute bleeding . Erythropoiesis-stimulating medications are only recommended in those with severe anemia . Anemia is the most common disorder of the blood , affecting about a quarter of the people globally . Iron-deficiency anemia affects nearly 1 billion . In 2013 , anemia due to iron deficiency resulted in about 183,000 deaths – down from 213,000 deaths in 1990 . It is more common in females than males , among children , during pregnancy , and in the elderly . Anemia increases costs of medical care and lowers a person 's productivity through a decreased ability to work . The name is derived from ' , meaning `` lack of blood '' , from ἀν- an- , `` not '' + αἷμα haima , `` blood '' . Signs and symptoms Anemia goes undetected in many people and symptoms can be minor . The symptoms can be related to an underlying cause or the anemia itself . Most commonly , people with anemia report feelings of weakness , or fatigue , general malaise , and sometimes poor concentration . They may also report dyspnea ( shortness of breath ) on exertion . In very severe anemia , the body may compensate for the lack of oxygen-carrying capability of the blood by increasing cardiac output . The patient may have symptoms related to this , such as palpitations , angina ( if pre-existing heart disease is present ) , intermittent claudication of the legs , and symptoms of heart failure . On examination , the signs exhibited may include pallor ( pale skin , lining mucosa , conjunctiva and nail beds ) , but this is not a reliable sign . There may be signs of specific causes of anemia , e.g. , koilonychia ( in iron deficiency ) , jaundice ( when anemia results from abnormal break down of red blood cells — in hemolytic anemia ) , bone deformities ( found in thalassemia major ) or leg ulcers ( seen in sickle-cell disease ) . In severe anemia , there may be signs of a hyperdynamic circulation : tachycardia ( a fast heart rate ) , bounding pulse , flow murmurs , and cardiac ventricular hypertrophy ( enlargement ) . There may be signs of heart failure . Pica , the consumption of non-food items such as ice , but also paper , wax , or grass , and even hair or dirt , may be a symptom of iron deficiency , although it occurs often in those who have normal levels of hemoglobin . Chronic anemia may result in behavioral disturbances in children as a direct result of impaired neurological development in infants , and reduced academic performance in children of school age . Restless legs syndrome is more common in those with iron-deficiency anemia . Causes The causes of anemia may be classified as impaired red blood cell ( RBC ) production , increased RBC destruction ( hemolytic anemias ) , blood loss and fluid overload ( hypervolemia ) . Several of these may interplay to cause anemia eventually . Indeed , the most common cause of anemia is blood loss , but this usually does not cause any lasting symptoms unless a relatively impaired RBC production develops , in turn most commonly by iron deficiency . ( See Iron deficiency anemia ) Impaired production * Disturbance of proliferation and differentiation of stem cells * * Pure red cell aplasiaTable 12-1 in : 8th edition . * * Aplastic anemia affects all kinds of blood cells . Fanconi anemia is a hereditary disorder or defect featuring aplastic anemia and various other abnormalities . * * Anemia of renal failure by insufficient erythropoietin production * * Anemia of endocrine disorders Increased destruction Anemias of increased red blood cell destruction are generally classified as hemolytic anemias . These are generally featuring jaundice and elevated lactate dehydrogenase levels . Blood loss * Anemia of prematurity from frequent blood sampling for laboratory testing , combined with insufficient RBC production * Trauma or surgery , causing acute blood loss * Gastrointestinal tract lesions , causing either acute bleeds ( e.g . variceal lesions , peptic ulcers ) or chronic blood loss ( e.g . angiodysplasia ) * Gynecologic disturbances , also generally causing chronic blood loss * From menstruation , mostly among young women or older women who have fibroids * Infection by intestinal nematodes feeding on blood , such as hookworms and the whipworm Trichuris trichiura . Fluid overload Fluid overload ( hypervolemia ) causes decreased hemoglobin concentration and apparent anemia : * General causes of hypervolemia include excessive sodium or fluid intake , sodium or water retention and fluid shift into the intravascular space.Page 62 ( Fluid imbalances ) in : * Anemia of pregnancy is induced by blood volume expansion experienced in pregnancy . Diagnosis Anemia is typically diagnosed on a complete blood count . Apart from reporting the number of red blood cells and the hemoglobin level , the automatic counters also measure the size of the red blood cells by flow cytometry , which is an important tool in distinguishing between the causes of anemia . Examination of a stained blood smear using a microscope can also be helpful , and it is sometimes a necessity in regions of the world where automated analysis is less accessible . In modern counters , four parameters ( RBC count , hemoglobin concentration , MCV and RDW ) are measured , allowing others ( hematocrit , MCH and MCHC ) to be calculated , and compared to values adjusted for age and sex . Some counters estimate hematocrit from direct measurements . Reticulocyte counts , and the `` kinetic '' approach to anemia , have become more common than in the past in the large medical centers of the United States and some other wealthy nations , in part because some automatic counters now have the capacity to include reticulocyte counts . A reticulocyte count is a quantitative measure of the bone marrow 's production of new red blood cells . The reticulocyte production index is a calculation of the ratio between the level of anemia and the extent to which the reticulocyte count has risen in response . If the degree of anemia is significant , even a `` normal '' reticulocyte count actually may reflect an inadequate response . If an automated count is not available , a reticulocyte count can be done manually following special staining of the blood film . In manual examination , activity of the bone marrow can also be gauged qualitatively by subtle changes in the numbers and the morphology of young RBCs by examination under a microscope . Newly formed RBCs are usually slightly larger than older RBCs and show polychromasia . Even where the source of blood loss is obvious , evaluation of erythropoiesis can help assess whether the bone marrow will be able to compensate for the loss , and at what rate . When the cause is not obvious , clinicians use other tests , such as : ESR , ferritin , serum iron , transferrin , RBC folate level , serum vitamin B12 , hemoglobin electrophoresis , renal function tests ( e.g . serum creatinine ) although the tests will depend on the clinical hypothesis that is being investigated . When the diagnosis remains difficult , a bone marrow examination allows direct examination of the precursors to red cells , although is rarely used as is painful , invasive and is hence reserved for cases where severe pathology needs to be determined or excluded . Red blood cell size In the morphological approach , anemia is classified by the size of red blood cells ; this is either done automatically or on microscopic examination of a peripheral blood smear . The size is reflected in the mean corpuscular volume ( MCV ) . If the cells are smaller than normal ( under 80 fl ) , the anemia is said to be microcytic ; if they are normal size ( 80–100 fl ) , normocytic ; and if they are larger than normal ( over 100 fl ) , the anemia is classified as macrocytic . This scheme quickly exposes some of the most common causes of anemia ; for instance , a microcytic anemia is often the result of iron deficiency . In clinical workup , the MCV will be one of the first pieces of information available , so even among clinicians who consider the `` kinetic '' approach more useful philosophically , morphology will remain an important element of classification and diagnosis . Limitations of MCV include cases where the underlying cause is due to a combination of factors - such as iron deficiency ( a cause of microcytosis ) and vitamin B12 deficiency ( a cause of macrocytosis ) where the net result can be normocytic cells . Production vs. destruction or loss The `` kinetic '' approach to anemia yields arguably the most clinically relevant classification of anemia . This classification depends on evaluation of several hematological parameters , particularly the blood reticulocyte ( precursor of mature RBCs ) count . This then yields the classification of defects by decreased RBC production versus increased RBC destruction and/or loss . Clinical signs of loss or destruction include abnormal peripheral blood smear with signs of hemolysis ; elevated LDH suggesting cell destruction ; or clinical signs of bleeding , such as guaiac-positive stool , radiographic findings , or frank bleeding . The following is a simplified schematic of this approach : * For instance , sickle cell anemia with superimposed iron deficiency ; chronic gastric bleeding with B12 and folate deficiency ; and other instances of anemia with more than one cause . * * Confirm by repeating reticulocyte count : ongoing combination of low reticulocyte production index , normal MCV and hemolysis or loss may be seen in bone marrow failure or anemia of chronic disease , with superimposed or related hemolysis or blood loss . Here is a schematic representation of how to consider anemia with MCV as the starting point : Other characteristics visible on the peripheral smear may provide valuable clues about a more specific diagnosis ; for example , abnormal white blood cells may point to a cause in the bone marrow . Microcytic Microcytic anemia is primarily a result of hemoglobin synthesis failure/insufficiency , which could be caused by several etiologies : Iron deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia overall and it has many causes . RBCs often appear hypochromic ( paler than usual ) and microcytic ( smaller than usual ) when viewed with a microscope . * Iron deficiency anemia is due to insufficient dietary intake or absorption of iron to meet the body 's needs . Infants , toddlers , and pregnant women have higher than average needs . Increased iron intake is also needed to offset blood losses due to digestive tract issues , frequent blood donations , or heavy menstrual periods . [ http : //www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone/iron_deficiency/index.htm Recommendations to Prevent and Control Iron Deficiency in the United States ] MMWR 1998 ; 47 ( No . RR-3 ) p. 5 Iron is an essential part of hemoglobin , and low iron levels result in decreased incorporation of hemoglobin into red blood cells . In the United States , 12 % of all women of childbearing age have iron deficiency , compared with only 2 % of adult men . The incidence is as high as 20 % among African American and Mexican American women . Studies have shown iron deficiency without anemia causes poor school performance and lower IQ in teenage girls , although this may be due to socioeconomic factors . Iron deficiency is the most prevalent deficiency state on a worldwide basis . It is sometimes the cause of abnormal fissuring of the angular ( corner ) sections of the lips ( angular stomatitis ) . * In the United States , the most common cause of iron deficiency is bleeding or blood loss , usually from the gastrointestinal tract . Fecal occult blood testing , upper endoscopy and lower endoscopy should be performed to identify bleeding lesions . In older men and women , the chances are higher that bleeding from the gastrointestinal tract could be due to colon polyps or colorectal cancer . * Worldwide , the most common cause of iron deficiency anemia is parasitic infestation ( hookworms , amebiasis , schistosomiasis and whipworms ) . The Mentzer index ( mean cell volume divided by the RBC count ) predicts whether microcytic anemia may be due to iron deficiency or thallasemia , although it requires confirmation . Macrocytic * Megaloblastic anemia , the most common cause of macrocytic anemia , is due to a deficiency of either vitamin B12 , folic acid , or both . Deficiency in folate and/or vitamin B12 can be due either to inadequate intake or insufficient absorption . Folate deficiency normally does not produce neurological symptoms , while B12 deficiency does . * * Pernicious anemia is caused by a lack of intrinsic factor , which is required to absorb vitamin B12 from food . A lack of intrinsic factor may arise from an autoimmune condition targeting the parietal cells ( atrophic gastritis ) that produce intrinsic factor or against intrinsic factor itself . These lead to poor absorption of vitamin B12 . * * Macrocytic anemia can also be caused by removal of the functional portion of the stomach , such as during gastric bypass surgery , leading to reduced vitamin B12/folate absorption . Therefore , one must always be aware of anemia following this procedure . * Hypothyroidism * Alcoholism commonly causes a macrocytosis , although not specifically anemia . Other types of liver disease can also cause macrocytosis . * Drugs such as Methotrexate , zidovudine , and other substances may inhibit DNA replication such as heavy metals ( e.g. , lead ) Macrocytic anemia can be further divided into `` megaloblastic anemia '' or `` nonmegaloblastic macrocytic anemia '' . The cause of megaloblastic anemia is primarily a failure of DNA synthesis with preserved RNA synthesis , which results in restricted cell division of the progenitor cells . The megaloblastic anemias often present with neutrophil hypersegmentation ( six to 10 lobes ) . The nonmegaloblastic macrocytic anemias have different etiologies ( i.e . unimpaired DNA globin synthesis , ) which occur , for example , in alcoholism . In addition to the nonspecific symptoms of anemia , specific features of vitamin B12 deficiency include peripheral neuropathy and subacute combined degeneration of the cord with resulting balance difficulties from posterior column spinal cord pathology . Other features may include a smooth , red tongue and glossitis . The treatment for vitamin B12-deficient anemia was first devised by William Murphy , who bled dogs to make them anemic , and then fed them various substances to see what ( if anything ) would make them healthy again . He discovered that ingesting large amounts of liver seemed to cure the disease . George Minot and George Whipple then set about to isolate the curative substance chemically and ultimately were able to isolate the vitamin B12 from the liver . All three shared the 1934 Nobel Prize in Medicine . Normocytic Normocytic anemia occurs when the overall hemoglobin levels are decreased , but the red blood cell size ( mean corpuscular volume ) remains normal . Causes include : Dimorphic A dimorphic appearance on a peripheral blood smear occurs when there are two simultaneous populations of red blood cells , typically of different size and hemoglobin content ( this last feature affecting the color of the red blood cell on a stained peripheral blood smear ) . For example , a person recently transfused for iron deficiency would have small , pale , iron deficient red blood cells ( RBCs ) and the donor RBCs of normal size and color . Similarly , a person transfused for severe folate or vitamin B12 deficiency would have two cell populations , but , in this case , the patient 's RBCs would be larger and paler than the donor 's RBCs . A person with sideroblastic anemia ( a defect in heme synthesis , commonly caused by alcoholism , but also drugs/toxins , nutritional deficiencies , a few acquired and rare congenital diseases ) can have a dimorphic smear from the sideroblastic anemia alone . Evidence for multiple causes appears with an elevated RBC distribution width ( RDW ) , indicating a wider-than-normal range of red cell sizes , also seen in common nutritional anemia . Heinz body anemia Heinz bodies form in the cytoplasm of RBCs and appear as small dark dots under the microscope . Heinz body anemia has many causes , and some forms can be drug-induced . It is triggered in cats by eating onions or acetaminophen ( paracetamol ) . It can be triggered in dogs by ingesting onions or zinc , and in horses by ingesting dry red maple leaves . Hyperanemia Hyperanemia is a severe form of anemia , in which the hematocrit is below 10 % . Refractory anemia Refractory anemia , an anemia which does not respond to treatment , is often seen secondary to myelodysplastic syndromes . Iron deficiency anemia may also be refractory as a clinical manifestation of gastrointestinal problems which disrupt iron absorption or cause occult bleeding . Treatments Treatments for anemia depend on cause and severity . Vitamin supplements given orally ( folic acid or vitamin B12 ) or intramuscularly ( vitamin B12 ) will replace specific deficiencies . Oral iron Nutritional iron deficiency is common in developing nations . An estimated two-thirds of children and of women of childbearing age in most developing nations are estimated to suffer from iron deficiency ; one-third of them have the more severe form of the disorder , anemia . Iron deficiency from nutritional causes is rare in men and postmenopausal women . The diagnosis of iron deficiency mandates a search for potential sources of loss , such as gastrointestinal bleeding from ulcers or colon cancer . Mild to moderate iron-deficiency anemia is treated by oral iron supplementation with ferrous sulfate , ferrous fumarate , or ferrous gluconate . When taking iron supplements , stomach upset and/or darkening of the feces are commonly experienced . The stomach upset can be alleviated by taking the iron with food ; however , this decreases the amount of iron absorbed . Vitamin C aids in the body 's ability to absorb iron , so taking oral iron supplements with orange juice is of benefit . In anemias of chronic disease , associated with chemotherapy , or associated with renal disease , some clinicians prescribe recombinant erythropoietin or epoetin alfa , to stimulate RBC production , although since there is also concurrent iron deficiency and inflammation present , parenteral iron is advised to be taken concurrently . Injectable iron In cases where oral iron has either proven ineffective , would be too slow ( for example , pre-operatively ) or where absorption is impeded ( for example in cases of inflammation ) , parenteral iron can be used . The body can absorb up to 6 mg iron daily from the gastrointestinal tract . In many cases the patient has a deficit of over 1,000 mg of iron which would require several months to replace . This can be given concurrently with erythropoietin to ensure sufficient iron for increased rates of erythropoiesis . Blood transfusions Blood transfusions in those without symptoms is not recommended until the hemoglobin is below 60 to 80 g/L ( 6 to 8 g/dL ) . In those with coronary artery disease who are not actively bleeding transfusions are only recommended when the hemoglobin is below 70 to 80g/L ( 7 to 8 g/dL ) . Transfusing earlier does not improve survival . Transfusions otherwise should only be undertaken in cases of cardiovascular instability . Erythropoiesis-stimulating agent The motive for the administration of an erythropoiesis-stimulating agent ( ESA ) is to maintain hemoglobin at the lowest level that both minimizes transfusions and meets the individual person 's needs . They should not be used for mild or moderate anemia . They are not recommended in people with chronic kidney disease unless hemoglobin levels are less than 10 g/dL or they have symptoms of anemia . Their use should be along with parenteral iron . Hyperbaric oxygen Treatment of exceptional blood loss ( anemia ) is recognized as an indication for hyperbaric oxygen ( HBO ) by the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society . The use of HBO is indicated when oxygen delivery to tissue is not sufficient in patients who can not be given blood transfusions for medical or religious reasons . HBO may be used for medical reasons when threat of blood product incompatibility or concern for transmissible disease are factors . The beliefs of some religions ( ex : Jehovah 's Witnesses ) may require they use the HBO method . A 2005 review of the use of HBO in severe anemia found all publications reported positive results . Epidemiology A moderate degree of iron-deficiency anemia affected approximately 610 million people worldwide or 8.8 % of the population . It is slightly more common in females ( 9.9 % ) than males ( 7.8 % ) . Mild iron deficiency anemia affects another 375 million . History Evidence of anemia goes back more than 4000 years . The word anaemia is from Greek , meaning without blood ( anwithout , heam blood ) .

jp_3296--Anemia.txt

Anemia can be caused by a deficiency of what dietary mineral?

The ATP World Tour Masters 1000 is a series of nine tennis tournaments that are part of the Association of Tennis Professionals ( ATP ) tour , held annually throughout the year in Europe , North America and Asia . The series constitutes the most prestigious tournaments in men 's tennis after the four Grand Slam events and the ATP World Tour Finals . Results in ATP Masters 1000 events earn players more world ranking points than regular tournaments , though not as many as Grand Slam events or the year-end ATP World Tour Finals . Up until 2007 , most Masters Series finals were contested as best of five-set matches . Currently , all Masters Series events are decided in best of three-set matches . Novak Djokovic holds the record for the most singles titles with 30 since the Masters series began in 1990 . The Bryan Brothers have won a record 36 doubles titles , all as a team . No man has ever won all 9 singles titles in his career , with Novak Djokovic winning 8 , and Andre Agassi , Roger Federer , and Rafael Nadal each winning 7 out of 9 titles . However , in doubles , Daniel Nestor and the Bryan Brothers ( Bob and Mike ) have each won all 9 titles throughout their careers . Novak Djokovic holds the record for 6 singles titles in a year . In doubles , the Bryans have won 6 titles in a single year once ( 2014 ) and 5 titles in a single year twice ( 2007 and 2013 ) . History The series was introduced in 1990 with the inception of the ATP Tour by bringing together the nine most prestigious tournaments of the Grand Prix Tour Championship Series ( 1970–1989 ) . The events were originally known as the ATP Championship Series , Single Week for the first six years . From 1996 through 1999 , the series was known as the Mercedes-Benz Super 9 . In 2000 , the name was changed to the Tennis Masters Series and then changed to ATP Masters Series in 2004 . The present name took effect in 2009 . 2009 changes For the 2009 season major changes took place . The ATP Masters Series was rebranded the `` ATP World Tour Masters 1000 '' , with the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament . Contrary to earlier plans , the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and the Monte Carlo Masters remains part of the series although , unlike the other events , it will not have a mandatory player commitment . The Hamburg Masters event was downgraded to an ATP World Tour 500 event . The Madrid Masters moved to May and onto clay courts . A new tournament in Shanghai replaced the Hamburg Masters and took over Madrid 's former October indoor slot . Six of the nine `` 1000 '' level tournaments are combined ATP and Women 's Tennis Association events ; more precisely , three WTA Premier Mandatory and three WTA Premier 5 tournaments , which have similar status to the ATP Masters 1000 . Tournaments ATP ranking points * Players with byes receive first round points . Winners by tournament Singles Doubles Titles champions ( since 2009 ) Singles titles Doubles titles Singles finals Doubles finals Active players in bold . 2009 finals 2010 finals 2011 finals 2012 finals 2013 finals 2014 finals 2015 finals 2016 finals Notes After the Italian Open 2016 , since the 2009 changes the `` big four '' i.e . Roger Federer , Rafael Nadal , Novak Djokovic & Andy Murray combined have won 61 out of 68 ATP Masters 1000 finals , and have won 17 titles in a row .

qw_15293--ATP_World_Tour_Masters_1000.txt

Since the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) World Tour Masters 1000 was introduced in 1990 until 2015, which former world number 1 holds the record for the most titles, with 27?

Ancient Rome was an Italic civilization that began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC . Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome , it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants ( roughly 20 % of the world 's populationMcEvedy and Jones ( 1978 ) . ) and covering 6.5 million square kilometers ( 2.5 million sq mi ) at its height between the first and second centuries AD . In its approximately 12 centuries of existence , Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire . Through conquest and assimilation , it came to dominate Southern and Western Europe , Asia Minor , North Africa , and parts of Northern and Eastern Europe . Rome was preponderant throughout the Mediterranean region and was one of the most powerful entities of the ancient world . It is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece , and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world . Ancient Roman society has contributed to modern government , law , politics , engineering , art , literature , architecture , technology , warfare , religion , language and society . A highly developed civilization , Rome professionalized and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica , the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France . It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats , such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads , as well as the construction of large monuments , palaces , and public facilities . By the end of the Republic ( 27 BC ) , Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond : its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa . The Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar . 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia . It would become the longest conflict in human history , and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires . Under Trajan , the Empire reached its territorial peak . Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period , with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor . Splinter states , such as the Palmyrene Empire , would temporarily divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century . Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples , the western part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century . This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of universal history from the pre-medieval `` Dark Ages '' of Europe . Founding myth According to the founding myth of Rome , the city was founded on 21 April 753 BC by twin brothers Romulus and Remus , who descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas and who were grandsons of the Latin King , Numitor of Alba Longa . King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother , Amulius , while Numitor 's daughter , Rhea Silvia , gave birth to the twins . Because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars , the Roman god of war , the twins were considered half-divine . The new king , Amulius , feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne , so he ordered them to be drowned . A she-wolf ( or a shepherd 's wife in some accounts ) saved and raised them , and when they were old enough , they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor . The twins then founded their own city , but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over the location of the Roman Kingdom , though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to rule or give his name to the city . Romulus became the source of the city 's name . In order to attract people to the city , Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent , exiled , and unwanted . This caused a problem for Rome , which had a large workforce but was bereft of women . Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights , but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused . Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens , leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines . Another legend , recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus , says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy , since the original was destroyed in the outcome of the Trojan War . After a long time in rough seas , they landed at the banks of the Tiber River . Not long after they landed , the men wanted to take to the sea again , but the women who were traveling with them did not want to leave . One woman , named Roma , suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving . At first , the men were angry with Roma , but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle . They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships . The Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid . In the Aeneid , the Trojan prince Aeneas is destined by the gods in his enterprise of founding a new Troy . In the epic , the women also refused to go back to the sea , but they were not left on the Tiber . After reaching Italy , Aeneas , who wanted to marry Lavinia , was forced to wage war with her former suitor , Turnus . According to the poem , the Alban kings were descended from Aeneas , and thus Romulus , the founder of Rome , was his descendant . ImageSize = width:800 height:85 PlotArea = width:720 height:55 left:65 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id : time value : rgb ( 0.7,0.7,1 ) # id : period value : rgb ( 1,0.7,0.5 ) # id : age value : rgb ( 0.95,0.85,0.5 ) # id : era value : rgb ( 1,0.85,0.5 ) # id : eon value : rgb ( 1,0.85,0.7 ) # id : filler value : gray ( 0.8 ) # background bar id : black value : black Period = from : -753 till:1455 TimeAxis = orientation : horizontal ScaleMajor = unit : year increment:100 start : -753 ScaleMinor = unit : year increment:10 start : -753 PlotData = align : center textcolor : black fontsize:8 mark : ( line , black ) width:11 shift : ( 0 , -5 ) bar : Roman color : era from : -753 till : -508 text : Kingdom from : -508 till : -27 text : Republic from : -27 till:1453 text : Empire bar : States color : era from:285 till:476 text : Western Empire bar : color : era from:324 till:1453 text : Eastern Empire Kingdom The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber , a crossroads of traffic and trade.a According to archaeological evidence , the village of Rome was probably founded some time in the 8th century BC , though it may go back as far as the 10th century BC , by members of the Latin tribe of Italy , on the top of the Palatine Hill . The Etruscans , who had previously settled to the north in Etruria , seem to have established political control in the region by the late 7th century BC , forming an aristocratic and monarchical elite . The Etruscans apparently lost power by the late 6th century BC , and at this point , the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic , with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power . Roman tradition and archaeological evidence point to a complex within the Forum Romanum as the seat of power for the king and the beginnings of the religious center there as well . Numa Pompilius the second king of Rome , succeeding Romulus , began Rome 's building projects with his royal palace the Regia and the complex of the Vestal virgins . Republic According to tradition and later writers such as Livy , the Roman Republic was established around 509 BC , when the last of the seven kings of Rome , Tarquin the Proud , was deposed by Lucius Junius Brutus and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established . A constitution set a series of checks and balances , and a separation of powers . The most important magistrates were the two consuls , who together exercised executive authority such as imperium , or military command . The consuls had to work with the senate , which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility , or patricians , but grew in size and power . Other magistrates of the Republic include tribunes , quaestors , aediles , praetors and censors . The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians , but were later opened to common people , or plebeians.Livy II Republican voting assemblies included the comitia centuriata ( centuriate assembly ) , which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices , and the comitia tributa ( tribal assembly ) , which elected less important offices . In the 4th century BC , Rome had come under attack by the Gauls , who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Etruria . On 16 July 390 BC , a Gallic army under the leadership of a tribal chieftain named Brennus , met the Romans on the banks of the Allia River just ten miles north of Rome . Brennus defeated the Romans , and the Gauls marched directly to Rome . Most Romans had fled the city , but some barricaded themselves upon the Capitoline Hill for a last stand . The Gauls looted and burned the city , then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill . The siege lasted seven months , the Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 lb of gold . ( According to later legend , the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales . The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls ; their victorious general Camillus remarked `` With iron , not with gold , Rome buys her freedom . '' ) The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula , including the Etruscans . The last threat to Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum , a major Greek colony , enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 281 BC , but this effort failed as well . The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas , thereby establishing stable control over the region of Italy they had conquered . Punic Wars In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent : Carthage . Carthage was a rich , flourishing Phoenician city-state that intended to dominate the Mediterranean area . The two cities were allies in the times of Pyrrhus , who was a menace to both , but with Rome 's hegemony in mainland Italy and the Carthaginian thalassocracy , these cities became the two major powers in the Western Mediterranean and their contention over the Mediterranean led to conflict . The First Punic War began in 264 BC , when the city of Messana asked for Carthage 's help in their conflicts with Hiero II of Syracuse . After the Carthaginian intercession , Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians . Rome entered this war because Syracuse and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory ; along with this , Rome could extend its domain over Sicily . Although the Romans had experience in land battles , to defeat this new enemy , naval battles were necessary . Carthage was a maritime power , and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience would make the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the Roman Republic . Despite this , after more than 20 years of war , Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed . Among the reasons for the Second Punic War was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War . The Second Punic War is famous for its brilliant generals : on the Punic side Hannibal and Hasdrubal ; on the Roman , Marcus Claudius Marcellus , Quintus Fabius Maximus and Publius Cornelius Scipio . Rome fought this war simultaneously with the First Macedonian War . The war began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by Hannibal , the Carthaginian general who had led operations on Sicily in the First Punic War . Hannibal , son of Hamilcar Barca , rapidly marched through Hispania to the Italian Alps , causing panic among Rome 's Italian allies . The best way found to defeat Hannibal 's purpose of causing the Italians to abandon Rome was to delay the Carthaginians with a guerrilla war of attrition , a strategy propounded by Quintus Fabius Maximus , who would be nicknamed Cunctator ( `` delayer '' in Latin ) , and whose strategy would be forever after known as Fabian . Due to this , Hannibal 's goal was unachieved : he could not bring enough Italian cities to revolt against Rome and replenish his diminishing army , and he thus lacked the machines and manpower to besiege Rome . Still , Hannibal 's invasion lasted over 16 years , ravaging Italy . Finally , when the Romans perceived that Hannibal 's supplies were running out , they sent Scipio , who had defeated Hannibal 's brother Hasdrubal in Spain , to invade the unprotected Carthaginian hinterland and force Hannibal to return to defend Carthage itself . The result was the ending of the Second Punic War by the famously decisive Battle of Zama in October 202 BC , which gave to Scipio his agnomen Africanus . At great cost , Rome had made significant gains : the conquest of Hispania by Scipio , and of Syracuse , the last Greek realm in Sicily , by Marcellus . More than a half century after these events , Carthage was humiliated and Rome was no more concerned about the African menace . The Republic 's focus now was only to the Hellenistic kingdoms of Greece and revolts in Hispania . However , Carthage , after having paid the war indemnity , felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased , a vision not shared by the Roman Senate . When in 151 BC Numidia invaded Carthage , Carthage asked for Roman intercession . Ambassadors were sent to Carthage , among them was Marcus Porcius Cato , who after seeing that Carthage could make a comeback and regain its importance , ended all his speeches , no matter what the subject was , by saying : `` Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam '' ( `` Furthermore , I think that Carthage must be destroyed '' ) . As Carthage fought with Numidia without Roman consent , the Third Punic war began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149 BC . Carthage resisted well at the first strike , with the participation of all the inhabitants of the city . However , Carthage could not withstand the attack of Scipio Aemilianus , who entirely destroyed the city and its walls , enslaved and sold all the citizens and gained control of that region , which became the province of Africa . Thus ended the Punic War period . All these wars resulted in Rome 's first overseas conquests , of Sicily , Hispania and Africa and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power and began the end of democracy . Late Republic After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the 2nd century BC , the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea.Bagnall 1990 The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite , once rural , became a luxurious and cosmopolitan one . At this time Rome was a consolidated empire – in the military view – and had no major enemies . Foreign dominance led to internal strife . Senators became rich at the provinces ' expense ; soldiers , who were mostly small-scale farmers , were away from home longer and could not maintain their land ; and the increased reliance on foreign slaves and the growth of latifundia reduced the availability of paid work . Income from war booty , mercantilism in the new provinces , and tax farming created new economic opportunities for the wealthy , forming a new class of merchants , called the equestrians . The lex Claudia forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce , so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate , they were severely restricted in political power . The Senate squabbled perpetually , repeatedly blocked important land reforms and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government . Violent gangs of the urban unemployed , controlled by rival Senators , intimidated the electorate through violence . The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers , a pair of tribunes who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians . Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother 's actions . This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups ( populares ) and equestrian classes ( optimates ) . Marius and Sulla Gaius Marius , a novus homo , who started his political career with the help of the powerful Metelli family soon become a leader of the Republic , holding the first of his seven consulships ( an unprecedented number ) in 107 BC by arguing that his former patron Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king Jugurtha . Marius then started his military reform : in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha , he levied very poor ( an innovation ) and many landless men entered the army ; this was the seed of securing loyalty of the army to the General in command . At this time , Marius began his quarrel with Lucius Cornelius Sulla : Marius , who wanted to capture Jugurtha , asked Bocchus , son-in-law of Jugurtha , to hand him over . As Marius failed , Sulla , a general of Marius at that time , in a dangerous enterprise , went himself to Bocchus and convinced Bocchus to hand Jugurtha over to him . This was very provocative to Marius , since many of his enemies were encouraging Sulla to oppose Marius . Despite this , Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100 BC , as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the Cimbri and the Teutones , who were threatening Rome . After Marius 's retirement , Rome had a brief peace , during which the Italian socii ( `` allies '' in Latin ) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights . The reformist Marcus Livius Drusus supported their legal process but was assassinated , and the socii revolted against the Romans in the Social War . At one point both consuls were killed ; Marius was appointed to command the army together with Lucius Julius Caesar and Sulla . By the end of the Social War , Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict , both sides jostling for power . In 88 BC , Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat Mithridates VI of Pontus , whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories . However , Marius 's partisans managed his installation to the military command , defying Sulla and the Senate , and this caused Sulla 's wrath . To consolidate his own power , Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action : he marched to Rome with his legions , killing all those who showed support to Marius 's cause and impaling their heads in the Roman Forum . In the following year , 87 BC , Marius , who had fled at Sulla 's march , returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece . He seized power along with the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and killed the other consul , Gnaeus Octavius , achieving his seventh consulship . In an attempt to raise Sulla 's anger , Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre . Marius died in 86 BC , due to age and poor health , just a few months after seizing power . Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84 BC . Sulla after returning from his Eastern campaigns , had a free path to reestablish his own power . In 83 BC he made his second march in Rome and began a time of terror : thousands of nobles , knights and senators were executed . Sulla also held two dictatorships and one more consulship , which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic . Caesar and the First Triumvirate In the mid-1st century BC , Roman politics were restless . Political divisions in Rome became identified with two groupings , populares ( who hoped for the support of the people ) and optimates ( the `` best '' , who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control ) . Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers ( such as those of the tribune of the plebs ) that had supported populist approaches . Meanwhile , social and economic stresses continued to build ; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy , debt-ridden aspirants , and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers . The latter groups supported the Catilinarian conspiracy – a resounding failure , since the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero quickly arrested and executed the main leaders of the conspiracy . Onto this turbulent scene emerged Gaius Julius Caesar , from an aristocratic family of limited wealth . His aunt Julia was Marius ' wife , [ http : //penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar * .html Plutarch Parallel Lives ] , Life of Caesar , I,2 and Caesar identified with the populares . To achieve power , Caesar reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome : Marcus Licinius Crassus , who had financed much of his earlier career , and Crassus ' rival , Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ( anglicized as Pompey ) , to whom he married his daughter . He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself , the First Triumvirate ( `` three men '' ) . This satisfied the interests of all three : Crassus , the richest man in Rome , became richer and ultimately achieved high military command ; Pompey exerted more influence in the Senate ; and Caesar obtained the consulship and military command in Gaul.Scullard 1982 , chapters VI-VII So long as they could agree , the three were in effect the rulers of Rome . In 54 BC , Caesar 's daughter , Pompey 's wife , died in childbirth , unraveling one link in the alliance . In 53 BC , Crassus invaded Parthia and was killed in the Battle of Carrhae . The Triumvirate disintegrated at Crassus ' death . Crassus had acted as mediator between Caesar and Pompey , and , without him , the two generals manoeuvred against each other for power . Caesar conquered Gaul , obtaining immense wealth , respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions . He also became a clear menace to Pompey and was loathed by many optimates . Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means , Pompey 's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions , a prelude to Caesar 's trial , impoverishment , and exile . To avoid this fate , Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Rome in 49 BC . Pompey and his party fled from Italy , pursued by Caesar . The Battle of Pharsalus was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns he destroyed all of the optimates leaders : Metellus Scipio , Cato the Younger , and Pompey 's son , Gnaeus Pompeius . Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48 BC . Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome , attracting the bitter enmity of many aristocrats . He was granted many offices and honours . In just five years , he held four consulships , two ordinary dictatorships , and two special dictatorships : one for ten years and another for perpetuity . He was murdered in 44 BC , on the Ides of March by the Liberatores . Octavian and the Second Triumvirate Caesar 's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome ; without the dictator 's leadership , the city was ruled by his friend and colleague , Mark Antony . Soon afterward , Octavius , whom Caesar adopted through his will , arrived in Rome . Octavian ( historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the Roman naming conventions ) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction . In 43 BC , along with Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , Caesar 's best friend , he legally established the Second Triumvirate . This alliance would last for five years . Upon its formation , 130–300 senators were executed , and their property was confiscated , due to their supposed support for the Liberatores . In 42 BC , the Senate deified Caesar as Divus Iulius ; Octavian thus became Divi filius , the son of the deified . In the same year , Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar 's assassins and the leaders of the Liberatores , Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus , in the Battle of Philippi . The Second Triumvirate was marked by the proscriptions of many senators and equites : after a revolt led by Antony 's brother Lucius Antonius , more than 300 senators and equites involved were executed on the anniversary of the Ides of March , although Lucius was spared . The Triumvirate proscribed several important men , including Cicero , whom Antony hated ; Quintus Tullius Cicero , the younger brother of the orator ; and Lucius Julius Caesar , cousin and friend of the acclaimed general , for his support of Cicero . However , Lucius was pardoned , perhaps because his sister Julia had intervened for him . The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs : Lepidus was given charge of Africa , Antony , the eastern provinces , and Octavian remained in Italia and controlled Hispania and Gaul . The Second Triumvirate expired in 38 BC but was renewed for five more years . However , the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated , and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in Sicily . By the end of the Triumvirate , Antony was living in Egypt , an independent and rich kingdom ruled by Antony 's lover , Cleopatra VII . Antony 's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason , since she was queen of another country . Additionally , Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and Hellenistic for a Roman statesman . Following Antony 's Donations of Alexandria , which gave to Cleopatra the title of `` Queen of Kings '' , and to Antony 's and Cleopatra 's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories , war between Octavian and Antony broke out . Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC . Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide . Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire , and for the Romans , a new era had begun . Empire – the Principate In 27 BC and at the age of 36 , Octavian was the sole Roman

jp_1658--Ancient_Rome.txt

What was the central meeting place of ancient Rome?

It is historically famous for the wave of revolutions , a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments , which broke out from Brazil to Hungary ; although most failed in their immediate aims , they significantly altered the political and philosophical landscape and had major ramifications throughout the rest of the century . Events January–March * January 3 – Joseph Jenkins Roberts is sworn in as the first president of the independent African Republic of Liberia . * January 12 – The Palermo rising erupts in Sicily , against the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . * January 24 – California Gold Rush : James W. Marshall finds gold at Sutter 's Mill , in Coloma , California . * January 31 * * Construction of the Washington Monument begins in Washington , D.C . * * John C. Frémont is court-martialed on grounds of mutiny and disobeying orders . The verdict is set aside by United States President James K. Polk , but Frémont retires to California Territory . * February 2 * * Mexican–American War formally ends with signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , ceding virtually all of what becomes the Southwestern United States to the U.S . The unincorporated California Territory becomes a provisional official possession ; it is never organized by the United States Congress as a territory , but directly passes the requirements for statehood in 1850 . * * John Henry Newman founds the first Oratory in the English-speaking world when he establishes the Birmingham Oratory at 'Maryvale ' , Old Oscott , England . * February 21 – Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist Manifesto ( Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei ) in London . * February 23 – François Guizot , Prime Minister of France , resigns . 52 people from the Paris mob are killed by soldiers guarding public buildings . * February 24 – Louis Philippe I , King of the French , abdicates in favour of his grandson , Prince Philippe , Count of Paris , and flees to England after days of revolution in Paris . The French Second Republic is later proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine in the name of the provisional government elected by the Chamber under the pressure of the mob . * March 11 – Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and Robert Baldwin became the first Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada to be democratically elected under a system of responsible government . * March 13 – Prince Klemens von Metternich gives up office as State Chancellor and Foreign Minister of the Austrian Empire . * March 15 – Start of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 . The Hungarian young revolutionary intellectuals led by Sándor Petőfi , Mór Jókai , etc. , called the Márciusi Ifjak ( Young men of March ) organized peaceful mass demonstrations in Pest , forcing the city 's Habsburg authorities to accept the 12 points : the claims of the Hungarians for freedom and self-determination within the Habsburg Empire . On the same day Lajos Kossuth and representatives of the Diet of Hungary went to Vienna and forced the emperor and Hungarian king Ferdinand I of Austria to accept Hungarian claims for self-determination within the empire . * March 18 – In Berlin barricade fighting between revolutionaries and royalist forces marks the culmination of the German revolutions of 1848–49 . Hundreds are killed in the clashes but king Frederick William IV of Prussia is forced to honour the dead and appoint a liberal government . * March 22 – Republic of San Marco comes into existence in Venice . * March 23 – Founding of the New Zealand city of Dunedin , with the arrival of settlers from Scotland on board the John Wickliffe . * March 24 – Start of the First Schleswig War ( or Three Years ' War ( ) ) a military conflict in southern Denmark and northern Germany rooted in the Schleswig-Holstein Question , contesting the issue of who should control the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein . April–June * April 10 * * A Chartist 'Monster Rally ' is held in Kennington Park London , headed by Feargus O'Connor . A petition demanding the franchise is presented to the Parliament of the United Kingdom . * * The Illinois and Michigan Canal is completed . * April 11 – The first Hungarian national government is formed , under the leadership of Lajos Batthyány . The April Laws , the first democratic revolutionary laws in Hungary are promulgated . These laws are the first modern laws in Hungary , which put an end to the feodal privileges of the nobility and to the serfdom , proclaim the freedom of religion , the freedom of the press , the foundation of the Hungarian National Bank , organises the first democratic election in Hungary based in popular representation , national guard , reunion of Transylvania with Hungary , etc . The Habsburg emperor , and Hungarian king Ferdinand I of Austria , ratifies these laws , which form the base of modern Hungary . * April 18 – Second Anglo-Sikh War breaks out in the Punjab . * April 29 – Pope Pius IX publishes an allocution announcing his refusal to support Piedmont-Sardinia in its war with Austria and dispelling hopes that he might serve as ruler of a pan-Italian republic . The allocution , by which Pius is seen to withdraw his moral support for the Italian unification movement , is a key first step in the soon-to-be crushing reaction against the revolutions of 1848 . * May 15 * * Radicals invade the French Chamber of Deputies . * * 40,000 Romanians meet at Blaj to protest Transylvania becoming a part of Hungary . * May 18 – The first German National Assembly ( Nationalversammlung ) opens in Frankfurt , Germany . * May 19 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , ending the Mexican–American War , is ratified by the Mexican government ( cf . February 2 , above ) . * May 29 – Wisconsin is admitted as the 30th U.S. state . * June – The Serbians from Vojvodina start a rebellion against the Hungarian government . * June 2–12 – Prague Slavic Congress brings together members of the Pan-Slavism movement . * June 17 – The Austrian army bombards Prague and crushes a working class revolt . * June 21 – Wallachian Revolution of 1848 : The Proclamation of Islaz is made public and a Romanian revolutionary government led by Ion Heliade Rădulescu and Christian Tell is created . * June 22 – The French government dissolves the national workshops in Paris , giving the workers the choice of joining the army or going to workshops in the provinces . The following day was the start of the June Days Uprising in response . July–September * July – The Public Health Act establishes Boards of Health across England and Wales , the nation 's first public health law , giving cities broad authority to build modern sanitary systems . * July 5 – The Hungarian national revolutionary parliament starts to work . * July 19 – Women 's rights – Seneca Falls Convention : The 2-day Women 's Rights Convention opens in Seneca Falls , New York and the `` Bloomers '' are introduced at the feminist convention . * July 26 – Matale Rebellion against British rule in Sri Lanka . * July 29 – Young Irelander Rebellion : a nationalist revolt in County Tipperary against British rule is put down by the Irish Constabulary . * August 6 – HMS Daedalus report a sighting of a sea serpent . * August 14 – American President James K. Polk annexes the Oregon Country and renames it the Oregon Territory as part of the United States . * August 17 – Yucatán officially unites with Mexico . * August 19 – California Gold Rush : The New York Herald breaks the news to the East Coast of the United States that there is a gold rush in California ( although the rush started in January ) . * August 24 – The U.S. barque Ocean Monarch is burnt out off the Great Orme , North Wales , with the loss of 178 , chiefly emigrants . * August 28 – Mathieu Luis becomes the first black member to join the French Parliament as a representative of Guadeloupe . * September 11 – The Croatian army of Josip Jelačić , encouraged in secret by the Habsburg government , crosses the Drava river and attacks Hungary , with the goal of ending the revolution in Hungary . * September 12 – One of the successes of the Revolutions of 1848 , the Swiss Federal Constitution , patterned on the US Constitution , enters into force , creating a federal republic and one of the first modern democratic states in Europe . * September 13 – Vermont railroad worker Phineas Gage survives a 3-foot-plus iron rod being driven through his head . * September 16 – William Cranch Bond and William Lassell discover Hyperion , Saturn 's moon . * September 25 – The Hungarian king and Habsburg emperor Ferdinand V refuses to recognise the Hungarian government led by Lajos Batthyány . The Batthyány government resigns and the National Defence Committee is formed , which is a temporary crisis government , totally independent from Vienna , under the leadership of Lajos Kossuth . * September 29 – The Hungarian revolutionary army , led by János Móga defeats at Pákozd the Croatian army of Josip Jelačić , forcing him to retreat towards Vienna . October–December * October – Publication ( anonymously ) in London of Elizabeth Gaskell 's first novel , Mary Barton : A Tale of Manchester Life . * October 2 – The National Defence Committee ( Országos Honvédelmi Bizottmány ) led by Lajos Kossuth becomes the executive power in Hungary after the resignation of the Lajos Batthyány government . * October 3 – General Antal Puchner , the commander of the Austrian armies of Transylvania , declares insurrection against Hungary , and , together with the Romanian insurgents led by Avram Iancu , attacks and chases away the Hungarian armed forces occupying Transylvania . During these events ( mostly in October–January 1848 – 1849 , but also between May–July 1849 ) 7500-8500 of Hungarian civilians ( men , women , and children ) were massacred by the Romanian insurgents . * October 24 – Romanian bands massacre 640 Hungarian civilians at the town of Zlatna in Transylvania.Magyar Nemzet : [ http : //www.mno.hu/portal/611317 Fejőszék Százhatvan éve irtották ki Nagyenyedet a román felkelők . ] * October 28 – In Catalonia , Spain , the Barcelona–Mataró railroad route ( the first to be constructed in the Iberian Peninsula ) is inaugurated . * October 30 – Battle of Schwechat : Hungarian forces which crossed the Austrian border in order to unite with the Viennese revolutionaries are defeated by the imperial army led by Alfred I , Prince of Windisch-Grätz and Josip Jelačić . * October 31 – Vienna is occupied by the imperial forces led by Alfred I , Prince of Windisch-Grätz , who crushes the revolution here . * November 1 – In Boston , Massachusetts , the first medical school for women , The Boston Female Medical School ( which later merges with Boston University School of Medicine ) , opens . * November 3 – A greatly revised Dutch constitution is proclaimed . * November 4 – France ratifies a new constitution . The Second Republic of France is set up , ending the state of temporary government lasting since the Revolution of 1848 . * November 7 – United States presidential election , 1848 : Whig Zachary Taylor of Louisiana defeats Democrat Lewis Cass of Michigan in the first U.S. presidential election held in every state on the same day . * December 2 – Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria abdicates in favor of his nephew , Franz Joseph , who will serve as Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary and Bohemia until his death in 1916 . * December 6 – The Austrian imperial army led by Franz Schlik attacks Hungary . * December 10 – Prince Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte is elected first president of the French Second Republic . * December 16 – The main Austrian imperial forces , led by Alfred I , Prince of Windisch-Grätz , cross the Hungarian border . * December 18 – Punta Arenas , the first major settlement in the Strait of Magellan , is founded . * December 20 – President Napoleon III takes his oath of office in front of the French National Assembly . * December 25 – The Hungarian forces led by Józef Bem enter Kolozsvár ( Cluj ) after defeating the Austrian armies in northern Transylvania . * December 20 – Slavery is abolished in Réunion . This day is celebrated every year since 1981 . * December 30 – The imperial army led by Josip Jelačić defeats the Hungarian army led by Mór Perczel in the Battle of Mór . Date unknown * The Independent Republic of Yucatán joins Mexico in exchange for Mexican help in suppressing a revolt by the indigenous Maya population . * British , Dutch , and German governments lay claim to New Guinea . * Admiral Nevelskoy demonstrates that the Strait of Tartary is a strait . * Dunedin , New Zealand , is founded by Scots settlers . * A cholera epidemic in New York kills 5,000 . * The University of Ottawa is founded . * The University of Mississippi is founded . * The University of Wisconsin–Madison is founded . * Geneva College in Pennsylvania is founded . * Queen 's College , London , for women , is founded . * Rhodes College is founded . * The Boston Public Library is founded by an act of the Great and General Court of Massachusetts . * John Sumner becomes archbishop of Canterbury . * The Shaker song `` Simple Gifts '' is written by Joseph Brackett in Alfred , Maine . * Richard Wagner begins writing the libretto that will become Der Ring des Nibelungen ( `` The Ring of the Nibelung '' ) . Ongoing events * Great Famine ( Ireland ) ( 1845–49 ) Births January–June * January 6 – Hristo Botev , Bulgarian revolutionary ( d. 1876 ) * January 19 – John F. Stairs , Canadian businessman and statesman ( d. 1904 ) * January 21 * * Eliza Moore , last American to have been a slave ( d. 1948 ) * * Henri Duparc , French composer ( d. 1933 ) * January 24 – Vasily Surikov Russian painter ( d. 1916 ) * January 27 – Tōgō Heihachirō , Japanese admiral ( d. 1934 ) * February 5 * * Belle Starr , American outlaw ( d. 1889 ) * * Joris-Karl Huysmans , French author ( d. 1907 ) * February 14 – Benjamin Baillaud , French astronomer ( d. 1934 ) * February 16 * * Octave Mirbeau , French art critic and novelist ( d. 1917 ) * * Hugo de Vries , Dutch botanist and geneticist ( d. 1935 ) * February 18 – Louis Comfort Tiffany , American glass artist ( d. 1933 ) * February 24 * * Andrew Inglis Clark , Tasmanian politician ( d. 1907 ) * * Grant Allen , Canadian author ( d. 1899 ) * February 25 – King William II of Württemberg ( d. 1921 ) * February 27 – Hubert Parry , English composer ( d. 1918 ) * March 3 – Adelaide Neilson , English actress ( d. 1880 ) * March 10 – John William Brodie-Innes , British member of the Golden Dawn ( d. 1923 ) * March 18 – Princess Louise , Duchess of Argyll , daughter of Queen Victoria ( d. 1939 ) * March 19 – Wyatt Earp , American lawman and gunfighter ( d. 1929 ) * March 29 – Aleksey Kuropatkin , Russian general and Imperial Russian Minister of War ( d. 1925 ) * March 31 – Viscount William Astor , British financier and statesman ( d. 1919 ) * April 7 – Randall Thomas Davidson , Archbishop of Canterbury ( d. 1930 ) * April 10 – Hubertine Auclert , French feminist ( d. 1914 ) * April 27 – King Otto of Bavaria ( d. 1916 ) * May 10 – Thomas Lipton , Scottish businessman ( d. 1931 ) * May 20 – Howard Vernon , Australian actor ( d. 1921 ) * May 23 * * Otto Lilienthal , German engineer and aviation pioneer ( d. 1896 ) * * Helmuth von Moltke the Younger , German general ( d. 1916 ) * June 7 – Paul Gauguin , French artist ( d. 1903 ) * June 15 – Sol Smith Russell , American stage comedian , ( d. 1902 ) July–December * July 3 – Lothar von Trotha , German military commander ( d. 1920 ) * July 6 – Gábor Baross , Hungarian statesman ( d. 1892 ) * July 9 – Robert I , Duke of Parma , last ruling Duke of Parma ( d. 1907 ) * July 15 – Vilfredo Pareto , Italian economist ( d. 1923 ) * July 18 – W. G. Grace , cricketer ( d. 1915 ) * July 22 * * Adolphus Frederick V , Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ( d. 1914 ) * * Winfield Scott Stratton , American miner ( d. 1902 ) * July 25 * * Arthur Balfour , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom ( d. 1930 ) * * George Robert Aberigh-Mackay , Anglo-Indian writer ( d. 1881 ) * August 19 – Gustave Caillebotte , French painter ( d. 1894 ) * August 24 – Kate Claxton , American actress ( d. 1924 ) * September 4 – Lewis Howard Latimer , African American inventor ( d. 1928 ) * September 8 – Viktor Meyer , German chemist ( d. 1897 ) * September 20 – Friedrich Soennecken , German entrepreneur and inventor of hole punch and ringbinder ( d. 1919 ) * October 3 – Henry Lerolle , French painter ( d. 1929 ) * October 11 – James Acton , English cricketer ( d. 1924 ) * October 15 – Harmon Northrop Morse , American chemist ( d. 1920 ) * November 8 – Gottlob Frege , German logician ( d. 1925 ) * November 11 – Zinovy Rozhestvensky , Russian admiral ( d. 1909 ) * November 12 – Eduard Müller , member of the Swiss Federal Council ( d. 1919 ) * November 13 – Albert I , Prince of Monaco ( d. 1922 ) * November 15 – Edwin Bibby , English wrestler ( d. 1905 ) * November 20 – James M. Spangler , American inventor ( d. 1915 ) * November 28 – Henry Lomb , German-American optician , co-founder of Bausch & Lomb ( d. 1908 ) * November 29 – Paul Pau , French general ( d. 1932 ) * December 6 – Johann Palisa , Austrian astronomer ( d. 1925 ) * December 17 – William Wynn Westcott , British Freemason ( d. 1925 ) date unknown * Alexander Bedward , Jamaican preacher ( d. 1930 ) * Max Théon , Polish Jewish occultist ( d. 1927 ) Deaths January–June * January 19 – Isaac D'Israeli , English author ( b . 1766 ) * January 20 – Christian VIII , King of Denmark ( b . 1786 ) * February 15 – Hermann von Boyen , Prussian field marshal ( b . 1771 ) * February 22 – Wilhelmine Reichard , first German women balloonist ( b . 1788 ) * February 23 – John Quincy Adams , 6th President of the United States ( b . 1767 ) * March 29 – John Jacob Astor , American businessman ( b . 1763 ) * April 8 – Gaetano Donizetti , Italian composer ( b . 1797 ) * May 24 – Annette von Droste-Hülshoff , German writer ( b . 1797 ) * June 23 – Archduchess Maria Leopoldine of Austria-Este ( b . 1776 ) * June 27 – Denis Auguste Affre , Archbishop of Paris ( b . 1793 ) July–December * July 4 – François-René de Chateaubriand , French writer and diplomat ( b . 1768 ) * July 10 – Karoline Jagemann , German actor ( b . 1777 ) * August 3 – Edward Baines , British newspaperman and politician ( b . 1774 ) * August 7 – Jöns Jacob Berzelius , Swedish chemist ( b . 1779 ) * August 8 – Puran Appu , Sri Lankan hero who led the Matale Rebellion against the British ( b.1812 ) * August 12 – George Stephenson , English locomotive pioneer ( Locomotion No 1 & Rocket ) ( b . 1781 ) * August 30 – Simon Willard , celebrated American horologist ( b . 1753 ) * September 24 – Branwell Brontë , painter and poet , brother of novelists Charlotte , Emily and Anne ( b . 1817 ) * November 9 – Robert Blum , German politician ( b . 1810 ) * November 10 – Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt , military leader ( b . 1789 ) * November 23 – Sir John Barrow , English statesman ( b . 1764 ) * November 24 – William Lamb , 2nd Viscount Melbourne , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom ( b . 1779 ) * December 1 – Kyokutei Bakin , Japanese author ( b . 1767 ) * December 19 – Emily Brontë , English author ( b . 1818 )

qw_6435--1848.txt

In 1848, Mexico ratified the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, officially ceding what to the USA?

Methyl isocyanate ( MIC ) is an organic compound with the molecular formula CH3NCO . Synonyms are isocyanatomethane , methyl carbylamine , and MIC . Methyl isocyanate is an intermediate chemical in the production of carbamate pesticides ( such as carbaryl , carbofuran , methomyl , and aldicarb ) . It has also been used in the production of rubbers and adhesives . As a highly toxic and irritating material , it is extremely hazardous to human health . It was the principal toxicant involved in the Bhopal disaster , which killed nearly 2,259 people initially and officially 3,787 people in total . Physical properties Methyl isocyanate ( MIC ) is a colorless , lachrymatory ( tearing agent ) , flammable liquid . It is soluble in water to 6–10 parts per 100 parts , but it also reacts with water ( see Reactions below ) . Manufacture Methyl isocyanate is usually manufactured by the reaction of monomethylamine and phosgene . For large scale production , it is advantageous to combine these reactants at higher temperature in the gas phase . A mixture of methyl isocyanate and two moles of hydrogen chloride is formed , but N-methylcarbamoyl chloride ( MCC ) forms as the mixture is condensed , leaving one mole of hydrogen chloride as a gas . The methyl isocyanate is obtained by treating the MCC with a tertiary amine , such as N , N-dimethylaniline , or with pyridine or by separating it by using distillation techniques . Methyl isocyanate is also manufactured from N-methylformamide and air . In the latter process , it is immediately consumed in a closed-loop process to make methomyl . Other manufacturing methods have been reported . Reactions Methyl isocyanate reacts readily with many substances that contain N-H or O-H groups . With water , it forms 1,3-dimethylurea and carbon dioxide with the evolution of heat ( 325 calories per gram of MIC ) : At 25 °C , in excess water , half of the MIC is consumed in 9 min . ; if the heat is not efficiently removed from the mixture , the rate of the reaction will increase and rapidly cause the MIC to boil . If MIC is in excess , 1,3,5-trimethylbiuret is formed along with carbon dioxide . Alcohols and phenols , which contain an O-H group , react slowly with MIC , but the reaction can be catalyzed by trialkylamines or dialkyltin dicarboxylate . Oximes , hydroxylamines , and enols also react with MIC to form methylcarbamates . These reactions produce the products described below ( Uses ) . Ammonia , primary , and secondary amines rapidly react with MIC to form substituted ureas . Other N-H compounds , such as amides and ureas , react much more slowly with MIC . It also reacts with itself to form a trimer or higher molecular weight polymers . In the presence of catalysts , MIC reacts with itself to form a solid trimer , trimethyl isocyanurate , or a higher molecular weight polymer : Sodium methoxide , triethyl phosphine , ferric chloride and certain other metal compounds catalyze the formation of the MIC-trimer , while the high-molecular-weight polymer formation is catalyzed by certain trialkylamines . Since the formation of the MIC trimer is exothermic ( 298 calories per gram of MIC ) , the reaction can lead to violent boiling of the MIC . The high-molecular-weight polymer hydrolyzes in hot water to form the trimethyl isocyanurate . Since catalytic metal salts can be formed from impurities in commercial grade MIC and steel , this product must not be stored in steel drums or tanks . Uses Methyl isocyanate is an intermediate chemical in the production of carbamate pesticides ( such as carbaryl , carbofuran , methomyl , and aldicarb and Bendiocarb ) . It has also been used in the production of rubbers and adhesives . MIC is used in the synthesis of Fluzinamide , Caracemide and cloretazine . Hazards Methyl isocyanate ( MIC ) is extremely toxic . The threshold limit value set by the American Conference on Government Industrial Hygienists is 0.02 ppm . MIC is toxic by inhalation , ingestion and contact in quantities as low as 0.4 ppm . Exposure symptoms includes coughing , chest pain , dyspnea , asthma , irritation of the eyes , nose and throat , as well as skin damage . Higher levels of exposure , over 21 ppm , can result in pulmonary or lung edema , emphysema and hemorrhages , bronchial pneumonia and death . Although the odor of methyl isocyanate can not be detected at 5 ppm by most people , its potent lachrymal properties provide an excellent warning of its presence ( at a concentration of 2–4 parts per million ( ppm ) subject 's eyes are irritated , while at 21 ppm , subjects could not tolerate the presence of methyl isocyanate in air ) . Proper care must be taken to store methyl isocyanate because of its ease of exothermically polymerizing ( see Reactions ) and its similar sensitivity to water . Only stainless steel or glass containers may be safely used ; the MIC must be stored at temperatures below 40 °C and preferably at 4 °C . The toxic effect of the compound was apparent in the Bhopal disaster , when around 42000 kg of methyl isocyanate and other gases were released from the underground reservoirs of the Union Carbide India Limited ( UCIL ) factory , over a populated area on December 3 , 1984 , immediately killing thousands . Extraterrestrial occurrence On 30 July 2015 , scientists reported that upon the first touchdown of the Philae lander on comet 67/P surface , measurements by the COSAC and Ptolemy instruments revealed sixteen organic compounds , four of which were seen for the first time on a comet , including acetamide , acetone , methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde .

wh_515--Methyl_isocyanate.txt

In 1984, in Bophal, India, there was a leak of 30 tons of methyl isocyanate, which resulted in the deaths of 25,000 people. What American chemical company owned the plant where the leak occurred?

The Saint Valentine 's Day Massacre is the name given to the 1929 murder of seven men of the North Side Irish gang during the Prohibition Era . It resulted from the struggle between the Irish American gang and the South Side Italian gang led by Al Capone to take control of organized crime in Chicago . Former members of the Egan 's Rats gang were suspected of a significant role in the incident , assisting Capone . History At 10:30 a.m on February 14 , 1929 , seven men were murdered at the garage at 2122 North Clark Street , in the Lincoln Park neighborhood of Chicago 's North Side . They were shot by four men using weapons that included two Thompson submachine guns . Two of the shooters were dressed as uniformed policemen , while the others wore suits , ties , overcoats and hats . Witnesses saw the `` police '' leading the other men at gunpoint out of the garage after the shooting . The victims included five members of George `` Bugs '' Moran 's North Side Gang . Moran 's second-in-command , Albert Kachellek ( alias James Clark ) , was killed along with Adam Heyer , the gang 's bookkeeper and business manager , Albert Weinshank , who managed several cleaning and dyeing operations for Moran , and gang enforcers Frank Gusenberg and Peter Gusenberg . Two collaborators were also shot : Reinhardt H. Schwimmer , a former optician turned gambler and gang associate , and John May , an occasional mechanic for the Moran gang . When real Chicago police officers arrived at the scene , one of the victims , Frank Gusenberg was still alive . He was taken to the hospital , where doctors stabilized him for a short time . Police tried to question Gusenberg . Asked who shot him , Gusenberg , who had sustained fourteen bullet wounds , replied `` No one shot me . '' He died three hours later . The massacre was allegedly planned by the organization led by Al Capone to eliminate George `` Bugs '' Moran , the boss of the long-established North Side Gang . The former boss of the North Side Gang , Dion O'Banion , had been murdered by four gunmen in his flower shop on North State Street in 1924 . After the murder of O'Banion , each successive leader of the North Siders was also killed , allegedly by various members or associates of the Capone organization . Several factors contributed to the timing of the plan to kill George `` Bugs '' Moran . Earlier in the year , North Sider Frank Gusenberg and his brother Peter unsuccessfully attempted to murder Jack McGurn . The North Side Gang 's was complicit in the murders of Pasqualino `` Patsy '' Lolordo and Antonio `` The Scourge '' Lombardo . Both had been presidents of the Unione Siciliana , the local Mafia , and close associates of Capone . Moran and Capone had been vying for control of the lucrative Chicago bootlegging trade , and Bugs Moran had been moving in on several of Capone 's enterprises . Moran was muscling in on a Capone-run dog track in the Chicago suburbs and he had taken over several saloons that were run by Capone , insisting they were in his territory . The plan was to lure Bugs Moran to the SMC Cartage warehouse on North Clark Street on February 14 , 1929 . The intent was to kill Moran , and perhaps two or three of his lieutenants . It is usually assumed that the North Siders were lured to the garage with the promise of a stolen , cut-rate shipment of whiskey , supplied by Detroit 's Purple Gang , which was associated with Capone . The Gusenberg brothers were supposed to drive two empty trucks to Detroit that day to pick up two loads of stolen Canadian whiskey . All of the victims , with the exception of John May , were dressed in their best clothes , as was customary for the North Siders and other gangsters at the time . On St. Valentine 's Day , most of the Moran gang had already arrived at the warehouse by approximately 10:30 AM . Moran was not there , having left his Parkway Hotel apartment late . As Moran and one of his men , Ted Newberry , approached the rear of the warehouse from a side street , they saw a police car approach the building . They immediately turned and retraced their steps , going to a nearby coffee shop . They encountered another gang member , Henry Gusenberg , on the street . Henry was warned and turned back . Willie Marks , also a North Side Gang member , spotted the police car on his way to the garage . He ducked into a doorway and jotted down the license number before leaving the neighborhood . Capone 's lookouts likely mistook one of Moran 's men for Moran himself – probably Albert Weinshank , who was the same height and build . That morning the physical similarity between the two men was enhanced by their dress : both happened to be wearing the same color overcoats and hats . Witnesses outside the garage saw a Cadillac sedan pull to a stop in front of the garage . Four men , two dressed in police uniform , emerged and walked inside . The two fake police officers , carrying shotguns , entered the rear portion of the garage and found members of Moran 's gang and two gang collaborators , Reinhart Schwimmer and John May , who was fixing one of the trucks . The `` police officers '' then ordered the men to line up against the wall . The two `` police officers '' then signaled to the pair in civilian clothes who had accompanied them . Two of the killers opened fire with Thompson sub-machine guns , one with a 20-round box magazine and the other a 50-round drum . They were thorough , spraying their victims left and right , even continuing to fire after all seven had hit the floor . The seven men were ripped apart in the volley . Two shotgun blasts afterward all but obliterated the faces of John May and James Clark , according to the coroner 's report . To give the appearance that everything was under control , the men in street clothes came out with their hands up , prodded by the two uniformed police officers . Inside the garage , the only survivors in the warehouse were Highball ( May 's dog ) and Frank Gusenberg . Despite fourteen bullet wounds , he was still conscious , but died three hours later , refusing to utter a word about the identities of the killers . The Valentine 's Massacre set off a public outcry that posed a problem for all mob bosses . Victims * Peter Gusenberg , a frontline enforcer for the Moran organizations . * Frank Gusenberg , the brother of Peter Gusenberg and also an enforcer . * Albert Kachellek ( alias `` James Clark '' ) , Moran 's second-in-command . * Adam Heyer , the bookkeeper and business manager of the Moran gang . * Reinhardt Schwimmer , an optician who had abandoned his practice to gamble on horse racing and associated with the gang . * Albert Weinshank , who managed several cleaning and dyeing operations for Moran . His resemblance to Moran , including the clothes he was wearing , is what allegedly set the massacre in motion before Moran actually arrived . * John May , an occasional car mechanic for the Moran gang . Investigation Since it was common knowledge that Moran was hijacking Capone 's Detroit-based liquor shipments , police focused their attention on Detroit 's predominantly Jewish Purple Gang . Mug shots of Purple members George Lewis , Eddie Fletcher , Phil Keywell and his younger brother Harry , were picked out by landladies Mrs. Doody and Mrs. Orvidson , who had taken in three men as roomers ten days before the massacre ; their rooming houses were directly across the street from the Clark Street garage . Later , these women wavered in their identification , and Fletcher , Lewis , and Harry Keywell were all questioned and cleared by Chicago Police . Nevertheless , the Keywell brothers ( and by extension the Purple Gang ) would remain ensnared in the massacre case for all time . Many also believed what the killers wanted them to believe – that the police did it . February 22 , police were called to the scene of a garage fire on Wood Street where a 1927 Cadillac Sedan was found disassembled and partially burned . It was determined that the car had been used by the killers . The engine number was traced to a Michigan Avenue dealer , who had sold the car to a James Morton of Los Angeles . The garage had been rented by a man calling himself Frank Rogers , who gave his address as 1859 West North Avenue – which happened to be the address of the Circus Café , operated by Claude Maddox , a former St. Louis gangster with ties to the Capone organization , the Purple Gang , and a St. Louis gang called Egan 's Rats . Police could not turn up any information about persons named James Morton or Frank Rogers . But they had a definite lead on one of the killers . Just minutes before the killings , a truck driver named Elmer Lewis had turned a corner only a block away from 2122 North Clark and sideswiped what he took to be a police car . He told police later that he stopped immediately but was waved away by the uniformed driver , whom he noticed was missing a front tooth . The same description of the car 's driver was also given by the president of the Board of Education , H. Wallace Caldwell , who had also witnessed the accident . Police knew that this description could be none other than a former member of Egan 's Rats , Fred 'Killer ' Burke ; Burke and a close companion , James Ray , were well known to wear police uniforms whenever on a robbery spree . Burke was also a fugitive , under indictment for robbery and murder in Ohio . Police also suggested that Joseph Lolordo could have been one of the killers , because of his brother Pasqualino 's recent murder by the North Side Gang . Police then announced that they suspected Capone gunmen John Scalise and Albert Anselmi , as well as Jack McGurn himself , and Frank Rio , a Capone bodyguard . Police eventually charged McGurn and Scalise with the massacre . John Scalise , along with Anselmi and Joseph 'Hop Toad ' Giunta , were murdered by Capone in May 1929 , after Capone learned about their plan to kill him , and before he went to trial . The murder charges against Jack McGurn were finally dropped because of a lack of evidence , and he was just charged with a violation of the Mann Act : he took his girlfriend , Louise Rolfe , who was also the main witness against him and became known as the `` Blonde Alibi '' , across state lines to marry . The case stagnated until December 14 , 1929 , when the Berrien County , Michigan Sheriff 's Department raided the St. Joseph , Michigan bungalow of “ Frederick Dane ” , the registered owner of a vehicle driven by Fred `` Killer '' Burke . Burke had been drinking that night , rear-ended another vehicle and drove off . Patrolman Charles Skelly pursued , finally forcing Burke off the road . As Skelly hopped on the running board he was shot three times and died of his wounds later that night . The car was found wrecked and abandoned just outside St. Joseph and traced to Fred Dane . By this time police photos confirmed that Dane was in fact Fred Burke , wanted by the Chicago police for his participation in the St. Valentine 's Day Massacre . When police raided Burke 's bungalow , they found a large trunk containing a bullet-proof vest , almost $ 320,000 in bonds recently stolen from a Wisconsin bank , two Thompson submachine guns , pistols , two shotguns , and thousands of rounds of ammunition . St. Joseph authorities immediately notified the Chicago police , who requested that both machine guns be brought there at once . Through the then relatively new science of forensic ballistics , both weapons were determined to have been used in the massacre – and that one of Burke 's Tommy guns had also been used to murder New York mobster Frankie Yale ( who participated in O'Banion 's murder ) a year and a half earlier . Unfortunately , no further concrete evidence would surface in the massacre case . Burke would be captured over a year later on a Missouri farm . As the case against him in the murder of Officer Skelly was strongest , he was tried in Michigan and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment . Burke died in prison in 1940 . Bolton revelations On January 8 , 1935 , Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) agents surrounded a Chicago apartment building at 3920 North Pine Grove , looking for the remaining members of the Barker Gang . A brief shootout erupted , resulting in the death of bank robber Russell Gibson . Taken into custody were Doc Barker , Byron Bolton , and two women . While interrogating agents got nothing out of Barker , Bolton ( a hitherto obscure criminal ) proved to be a `` geyser of information '' , as one crime historian called him . Bolton , a former Navy machine-gunner and associate of Egan 's Rats , had been the valet of the Chicago hit man Fred Goetz . Bolton was privy to many of the Barker Gang 's crimes and pinpointed the Florida hideout of Ma and Freddie Barker ( both of whom were killed in a shootout with the FBI a week later ) . Bolton claimed to have taken part in the St. Valentine 's Day Massacre with Goetz , Fred Burke , and several others . Because the FBI had no jurisdiction in a state murder case , they kept Bolton ’ s revelations confidential , until the Chicago American newspaper reported a second-hand version of the bank robber ’ s confession . The newspaper declared that the crime had been “ solved ” , despite being stonewalled by J. Edgar Hoover and the Bureau , who did not want any part of the massacre case . Garbled versions of Bolton ’ s story went out in the national media . Bolton , it was reported , claimed that the murder of Bugs Moran had been plotted in “ October or November ” 1928 at a Couderay , Wisconsin resort owned by Fred Goetz . Present at this meet were Goetz , Al Capone , Frank Nitti , Fred Burke , Gus Winkeler , Louis Campagna , Daniel Serritella , William Pacelli , and Bolton himself . The men stayed two or three weeks , hunting and fishing when they were not planning the murder of their enemies . Byron Bolton claimed he and Jimmy Moran were charged with watching the S.M.C . Cartage garage and phoning the signal to the killers at the Circus Café when Bugs Moran arrived at the meeting . Police had indeed found a letter addressed to Bolton in the lookout nest ( and possibly a vial of prescription medicine ) . Bolton guessed that the actual killers had been Burke , Winkeler , Goetz , Bob Carey , Raymond `` Crane Neck '' Nugent , and Claude Maddox ( four shooters and two getaway drivers ) . Bolton gave an account of the massacre different from the one generally told by historians . He claimed that he saw only “ plainclothes ” men exit the Cadillac and go into the garage . This indicates that a second car was used by the killers . One witness , George Brichet , claimed to have seen at least two uniformed men exiting a car in the alley and entering the garage through its rear doors . A Peerless sedan had been found near a Maywood house owned by Claude Maddox in the days after the massacre , and in one of the pockets was an address book belonging to victim Albert Weinshank . Bolton further indicated he had mistaken one of Moran ’ s men to be Moran , after which he telephoned the signal to the Circus Café . When the killers ( who had expected to kill Moran and maybe two or three of his men ) were unexpectedly confronted with seven men , they simply decided to kill them all and get out fast . Bolton claimed that Capone was furious with him for his mistake ( and the resulting police pressure ) and threatened to kill him , only to be dissuaded by Fred Goetz . His claims were corroborated by Gus Winkeler 's widow , Georgette , in both an official FBI statement and her memoirs , which were published in a four-part series in a true detective magazine during the winter of 1935–36 . Georgette Winkeler revealed that her husband and his friends had formed a special crew used by Capone for high-risk jobs . The mob boss was said to have trusted them implicitly and nicknamed them the “ American Boys ” . Byron Bolton ’ s statements were also backed up by William Drury , a maverick Chicago detective who had stayed on the massacre case long after everyone else had given up . Bank robber Alvin Karpis later claimed to have heard secondhand from Ray Nugent about the massacre and that the “ American Boys ” were paid a collective salary of $ 2,000 a week plus bonuses . Karpis also claimed that Capone himself had told him while they were in Alcatraz together that Goetz had been the actual planner of the massacre . Despite Byron Bolton ’ s statements , no action was taken by the FBI . All the men he named , with the exceptions of Burke and Maddox , were all dead by 1935 . Bank robber Harvey Bailey would later complain in his 1973 autobiography that he and Fred Burke had been drinking beer in Calumet City at the time of the massacre , and the resulting heat forced them to abandon their bank robbing ventures . Claude Maddox was questioned fruitlessly by Chicago Police , and there the matter lay . Crime historians are still divided on whether or not the “ American Boys ” committed the St. Valentine ’ s Day Massacre . Other suspects Over the years , many mobsters , in and out of Chicago , would be named as part of the Valentine 's Day hit team . Two prime suspects are Cosa Nostra hit men John Scalise and Albert Anselmi ; both men were effective killers and are frequently mentioned as possibilities for two of the shooters . In the days after the massacre , Scalise was heard to brag , “ I am the most powerful man in Chicago. ” He had recently been elevated to the position of vice-president in the Unione Siciliana by its president , Joseph Guinta . Nevertheless , Scalise , Anselmi , and Guinta would be found dead on a lonely road near Hammond , Indiana May 8 , 1929 . Gangland lore has it that Al Capone had discovered that the pair was planning to betray him . Legend states that at the climax of a dinner party thrown in their honor , Capone produced a baseball bat and beat the trio to death . Murder weapons The two Thompson submachine guns ( serial numbers 2347 and 7580 ) found in Fred Dane ’ s ( an alias for Fred Burke ) Michigan bungalow were personally driven to the Chicago coroner ’ s office by the Berrien County District Attorney . Ballistic expert Calvin Goddard tested the weapons and determined that both had been used in the massacre . One of them had also been used in the murder of Brooklyn mob boss Frankie Yale , which confirmed the New York Police Department ’ s long-held theory that Burke , and by extension Al Capone , had been responsible for Yale 's death . Gun No . 2347 had been originally purchased November 12 , 1924 , by Les Farmer , a deputy sheriff in Marion , Illinois , which happened to be the seat of Williamson County . Marion and the surrounding area were then overrun by the warring bootleg factions of the Shelton Brothers and Charlie Birger . Deputy Farmer was documented as having ties with Egan ’ s Rats , based 100 miles ( 160 km ) away in St. Louis . By the beginning of 1927 at the very latest , the weapon had wound up in Fred Burke 's possession . It is possible he had used this same gun in Detroit ’ s Milaflores Massacre March 28 , 1927 . Gun No . 7580 had been sold by Chicago sporting goods owner Peter von Frantzius to a Victor Thompson ( also known as Frank V. Thompson ) in the care of the Fox Hotel of Elgin , Illinois . Some time after the purchase the machine gun wound up with James `` Bozo '' Shupe , a small-time hood from Chicago ’ s West Side who had ties to various members of Capone ’ s outfit . Both submachine guns are still in the possession of the Berrien County Sheriff 's Department in St. Joseph , Michigan . Legacy Crime scene and bricks from the murder wall The garage , which stood at 2122 N. Clark Street , was demolished in 1967 ; the site is now a landscaped parking lot for a nursing home . There is still controversy over the actual bricks used to build the north inside wall of the building where the mobsters were lined up and shot . They were claimed to be responsible , according to stories , for bringing financial ruin , illness , bad luck and death to anyone who bought them . The bricks from the bullet-marked inside North wall were purchased and saved by Canadian businessman George Patey in 1967 . His original intention was to use them in a restaurant that he represented , but the restaurant 's owner did not like the idea . Patey ended up buying the bricks himself , outbidding three or four others . Patey had the wall painstakingly taken apart and each of the 414 bricks numbered , then shipped them to Canada . There are conflicting reports about what George Patey did with the bricks after he obtained them . In 1978 , Time reported that Patey reassembled the wall and put it on display in a wax museum as a backdrop for gun-wielding gangsters shooting each other to the accompaniment of recorded gunshots . The wax museum later went bankrupt . Another source , an independent newspaper in the United Kingdom , reported in February 2000 that the wall toured shopping malls and exhibitions in the United States for a couple of decades . In 1968 , Patey stopped exhibiting the bricks and put them into retirement . In 1971 , Patey opened a nightclub called the Banjo Palace in Vancouver that had a Roaring Twenties theme and the famous bricks were installed inside the men 's washroom with a Plexiglas shield , so that patrons could urinate and try to hit the targets painted on the Plexiglas . In a 2001 interview with an Argentinian journalist , Patey said , `` I had the most popular club in the city . People came from high society and entertainment , Jimmy Stewart , Robert Mitchum . '' The bricks were placed in storage until 1997 when Patey tried to auction them on a website called Jet Set On The Net . The deal fell-through after a disagreement with the auction company . The last known substantial offer for the entire wall was made by a Las Vegas casino but Patey refused the $ 175,000 offer . In 1999 , Patey tried to sell them brick by brick on his own website and sold about one hundred to gangster buffs . These came with signed certificates by Patey . Patey died December 26 , 2004 , having never revealed how much he paid for the bricks at auction . The remaining bricks of his massacre wall were given as an inheritance to his niece who sold them to the Mob Museum in Las Vegas , which opened February 14 , 2012 . While the wall is no longer complete because of Patey 's sale of some bricks , it still remains the original massacre wall against which the seven men were lined up and killed by Capone 's men . Artistic representations Dramatic * The massacre is dramatized in a scene from the 1932 film Scarface . * The massacre was dramatized in the 1958 Playhouse 90 production Seven Against the Wall . * The massacre was used as a plot device in the 1959 film Some Like It Hot . * The massacre was famously the subject of Roger Corman 's 1967 film The St. Valentine 's Day Massacre . This film , possibly the most well-known of all portrayals of the incident , is a mixture of solid historical facts and conjecture . * The TV show The Wonder Years included an episode named `` The St. Valentine 's Day Massacre '' that aired 13 February 1990 as episode 14 of its third season . * The 1991 movie Oscar , starring Sylvester Stallone , includes a reference to the massacre as well . Stallone plays `` Snaps '' Provolone , a prominent gangster in Chicago in 1931 . In a scene early in the movie , his accountant reminds him , `` You were in Chicago ... It was Saint Valentine 's Day , '' at which Stallone and one of his goons exchange a knowing smile and a chuckle . * The TV series Early Edition included a season four episode named “ Everybody Goes to Rick ’ s ” . Its story is based on the event . * In a season four episode of The Golden Girls entitled `` Valentine 's Day '' , Sophia claims to have witnessed the massacre . * The TV show Happy Endings , aired an episode in 2012 entitled `` The St. Valentine 's Day Maxssacre . '' * In the episode `` Goodies Rule – O.K ? `` , broadcast 21 December 1975 , The Goodies lampoon the incident by dressing up as gangsters of the period and attacking the victims against the wall with pies instead of Thompson submachine guns . `` The authorities were finally to sit up and take note of their activities after the events of February 14th , St Valentine 's Day , '' The Goodies had formed a gang known as the `` Unmentionables . '' * In episode 14 of the sixth season 2011 of the TV series Bones , Agent Booth and Dr. Brennan celebrate Valentine 's Day by shooting Thompson submachine guns at firing range `` in honor of the St.Valentine 's Day Massacre '' . * In episode 10 of season two of The Spectacular Spider-Man , Silvermane states , while toasting with 'The Big Man ' and 'Doctor Octopus ' at a summit , ” To the Valentine 's Day Massac- ... summit . ” * The Untouchables : Capone Rising , the shelved prequel to The Untouchables , was to feature a fictionalised version of the massacre , depicted as a war between Capone 's gang and Irish gangsters rallied by fictional Irish-American policeman James `` Jim '' Malone , the latter seeking revenge against Capone for murdering an innocent maid who witnessed one of his previous murders . * Ted Danson 's character `` Becker '' made a comment in an episode that 'the only person to ever celebrate Valentine 's Day right was Al Capone '' . * At the beginning of a case in Detective Conan ( volume 33 in the manga , episode 266 in the anime ) , the protagonist mentioned this case . The crime scene was drawn non violently , only showing El Capone shooting guns and the victims dying without blood . Improvisational theatre tournament * International Theatresports Tournament , hosted by Vancouver Theatresports League Popular music * David Bowie 's 2013 song Valentine 's Day was named after the Valentine 's Day massacre and the

qf_590--Saint_Valentine's_Day_Massacre.txt

In which month of 1929 did the St Valentines Day massacre take place?

Allium sativum , commonly known as garlic , is a species in the onion genus , Allium . Its close relatives include the onion , shallot , leek , chive , and rakkyo . With a history of human consumption and use of over 7,000 years , garlic is native to central Asia , and has long been a staple in the Mediterranean region , as well as a frequent seasoning in Asia , Africa , and Europe . It was known to Ancient Egyptians , and has been used both for food flavoring and traditional medicine . Description Allium sativum is a bulbous plant . It grows up to 1.2 m ( 4 ft ) in height . Its hardiness is USDA Zone 8 . It produces hermaphrodite flowers . Pollination occurs by bees and other insects . Origin and major types Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized . The `` wild garlic '' , `` crow garlic '' , and `` field garlic '' of Britain are members of the species Allium ursinum , Allium vineale , and Allium oleraceum , respectively . Identification of the wild progenitor for common garlic is made difficult by the sterility of its many cultivars which may all be descended from the species , Allium longicuspis , growing wild in central and southwestern Asia . In North America , Allium vineale ( known as `` wild garlic '' or `` crow garlic '' ) and Allium canadense , known as `` meadow garlic '' or `` wild garlic '' and `` wild onion '' , are common weeds in fields . So-called elephant garlic , is actually a wild leek ( Allium ampeloprasum ) , and not a true garlic . Single clove garlic ( also called pearl or solo garlic ) originated in the Yunnan province of China . European garlic There are a number of garlics with Protected Geographical Status in Europe ; these include : * Aglio Rosso di Nubia ( Red Garlic of Nubia ) from Nubia-Paceco , Provincia di Trapani , Sicily , Italy * Aglio Bianco Polesano from Veneto , Italy ( PDO ) * Aglio di Voghiera from Ferrara , Emilia-Romagna , Italy ( PDO ) * Ail blanc de Lomagne from Lomagne in the Gascony area of France ( PGI ) * Ail de la Drôme from Drôme in France ( PGI ) * Ail rose de Lautrec a rose/pink garlic from Lautrec in France ( PGI ) * Ajo Morado de las Pedroñeras a rose/pink garlic from Las Pedroñeras in Spain ( PGI ) Subspecies and varieties There are two subspecies of A. sativum , ten major groups of varieties , and hundreds of varieties or cultivars . * A. sativum var . ophioscorodon ( Link ) Döll , called Ophioscorodon , or hard necked garlic , includes porcelain garlics , rocambole garlic , and purple stripe garlics . It is sometimes considered to be a separate species , Allium ophioscorodon G.Don . * A. sativum var . sativum , or soft-necked garlic , includes artichoke garlic , silverskin garlic , and creole garlic . Cultivation Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates . While sexual propagation of garlic is indeed possible , nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually , by planting individual cloves in the ground . In colder climates , cloves are planted in the autumn , about six weeks before the soil freezes , and harvested in late spring or early summer . The cloves must be planted at sufficient depth to prevent freeze/thaw which causes mold or white rot . Garlic plants are usually very hardy , and are not attacked by many pests or diseases . Garlic plants are said to repel rabbits and moles . However , two of the major pathogens that attack garlic are nematodes and white rot disease , which remain in the soil indefinitely after the ground has become infected . Garlic can also suffer from pink root , a typically nonfatal disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red . Garlic plants can be grown closely together , leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature , and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth . Garlic does well in loose , dry , well drained soils in sunny locations , and is hardy throughout USDA climate zones 4–9 . When selecting garlic for planting , it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves . Large cloves , along with proper spacing in the planting bed , will also improve bulb size . Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content , but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels . There are different varieties or subspecies of garlic , most notably hardneck garlic and softneck garlic . The latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type as garlic can be day-length sensitive . Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates ; softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator . Garlic scapes are removed to focus all the garlic 's energy into bulb growth . The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked . Production trends Garlic is grown globally , but China is by far the largest producer of garlic , with around 20 million tonnes ( 44 billion pounds ) grown annually , accounting for over 81 % of world output . India ( 4.6 % ) and South Korea ( 1.4 % ) follow , with Egypt ( 1.2 % ) on fourth place and the United States ( where garlic is grown in every state except for Alaska ) in ninth place ( 0.8 % ) . This leaves 11 % of global garlic production in countries that each produce less than 2 % of global output . Much of the garlic production in the United States is centered in Gilroy , California , which calls itself the `` garlic capital of the world '' . Uses Culinary uses Garlic is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning or condiment . The garlic plant 's bulb is the most commonly used part of the plant . With the exception of the single clove types , garlic bulbs are normally divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves . Garlic cloves are used for consumption ( raw or cooked ) or for medicinal purposes . They have a characteristic pungent , spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking . Other parts of the garlic plant are also edible . The leaves and flowers ( bulbils ) on the head ( spathe ) are sometimes eaten . They are milder in flavor than the bulbs , and are most often consumed while immature and still tender . Immature garlic is sometimes pulled , rather like a scallion , and sold as `` green garlic '' . When green garlic is allowed to grow past the `` scallion '' stage , but not permitted to fully mature , it may produce a garlic `` round '' , a bulb like a boiling onion , but not separated into cloves like a mature bulb . It imparts a garlic flavor and aroma in food , minus the spiciness . Green garlic is often chopped and stir-fried or cooked in soup or hotpot in Southeast Asian ( i.e . Vietnamese , Thai , Lao , Cambodian , Singaporean ) and Chinese cookery , and is very abundant and low-priced . Additionally , the immature flower stalks ( scapes ) of the hardneck and elephant types are sometimes marketed for uses similar to asparagus in stir-fries . Inedible or rarely eaten parts of the garlic plant include the `` skin '' covering each clove and root cluster . The papery , protective layers of `` skin '' over various parts of the plant are generally discarded during preparation for most culinary uses , though in Korea immature whole heads are sometimes prepared with the tender skins intact . The root cluster attached to the basal plate of the bulb is the only part not typically considered palatable in any form . Garlic is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions , including eastern Asia , South Asia , Southeast Asia , the Middle East , northern Africa , southern Europe , and parts of South and Central America . The flavor varies in intensity and aroma with the different cooking methods . It is often paired with onion , tomato , or ginger . The parchment-like skin is much like the skin of an onion , and is typically removed before using in raw or cooked form . An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb , coat the cloves by dribbling olive oil ( or other oil-based seasoning ) over them , and roast them in an oven . Garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the ( root ) end of the bulb , or individually by squeezing one end of the clove . In Korea , heads of garlic are heated over the course of several weeks ; the resulting product , called black garlic , is sweet and syrupy , and is now being sold in the United States , United Kingdom and Australia . Garlic may be applied to different kinds of bread , usually in a medium of butter or oil , to create a variety of classic dishes , such as garlic bread , garlic toast , bruschetta , crostini and canapé . Oils can be flavored with garlic cloves . These infused oils are used to season all categories of vegetables , meats , breads and pasta . Garlic , along with fish sauce , chopped fresh chilis , lime juice , sugar and water , is a basic essential item in dipping fish sauce , a highly used dipping sauce condiment used in Indochina . In East and Southeast Asia , chili oil with garlic is a popular dipping sauce , especially for meat and seafood . Tuong ot toi Viet Nam ( Vietnam Chili Garlic Sauce ) is a highly popular condiment and dip across North America and Asia . In some cuisines , the young bulbs are pickled for three to six weeks in a mixture of sugar , salt , and spices . In eastern Europe , the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer . Laba garlic , prepared by soaking garlic in vinegar , is a type of pickled garlic served with dumplings in northern China to celebrate the Chinese New Year . Lightly smoked garlic is becoming increasingly popular in British and European cuisine . It is particularly prized for stuffing poultry and game , and in soups and stews . In both these cases it is important to utilize the undiscarded skin , as much of the smoke flavor is situated there , rather than in the cloves themselves . Immature scapes are tender and edible . They are also known as `` garlic spears '' , `` stems '' , or `` tops '' . Scapes generally have a milder taste than the cloves . They are often used in stir frying or braised like asparagus . Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia . The leaves are cut , cleaned , and then stir-fried with eggs , meat , or vegetables . Mixing garlic with egg yolks and olive oil produces aioli . Garlic , oil , and a chunky base produce skordalia . Blending garlic , almond , oil , and soaked bread produces ajoblanco . Tzatziki , yogurt mixed with garlic and salt is a common sauce in Eastern Mediterranean cuisines . Garlic powder has a different taste from fresh garlic . If used as a substitute for fresh garlic , 1/8 teaspoon of garlic powder is equivalent to one clove of garlic . Storage Domestically , garlic is stored warm [ above 18 °C ( 64 °F ) ] and dry to keep it dormant ( lest it sprout ) . It is traditionally hung ; softneck varieties are often braided in strands called plaits or grappes . Peeled cloves may be stored in wine or vinegar in the refrigerator . Commercially , garlic is stored at 0 °C ( 32 °F ) , in a dry , low-humidity environment . Garlic will keep longer if the tops remain attached . Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavored oil ; however , the practice requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling . Untreated garlic kept in oil can support the growth of Clostridium botulinum which causes the deadly botulism illness ; refrigeration will not assure the safety of garlic kept in oil . To reduce this risk , the oil should be refrigerated and used within one week . Commercially prepared oils are widely available . Manufacturers add acids or other chemicals to eliminate the risk of botulism in their products . Two outbreaks of botulism related to garlic stored in oil have been reported . Garlic bulbs should be clean and white with a dried neck and outer skin and quite firm under pressure . They should be discarded if they are soft or spongy or show signs of mold . Historical use The use of garlic in China dates back to 2000 BC . It was consumed by ancient Greek and Roman soldiers , sailors , and rural classes ( Virgil , Ecologues ii . 11 ) , and , according to Pliny the Elder ( Natural History xix . 32 ) , by the African peasantry . Galen eulogized it as the `` rustic 's theriac '' ( cure-all ) ( see F. Adams ' Paulus Aegineta , p. 99 ) , and Alexander Neckam , a writer of the 12th century ( see Wright 's edition of his works , p. 473 , 1863 ) , discussed it as a palliative for the heat of the sun in field labor . Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads , as a supper for Hecate ( Theophrastus , Characters , The Superstitious Man ) . According to Pliny , garlic and onions were invoked as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths . In his Natural History , Pliny gives a list of scenarios in which garlic was considered beneficial ( N.H. xx . 23 ) . Dr. T. Sydenham valued it as an application in confluent smallpox , and , says Cullen ( Mat . Med . ii . p. 174 , 1789 ) , found some dropsies cured by it alone . Garlic was rare in traditional English cuisine ( though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548 ) and has been a much more common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe . Translations of the Assize of Weights and Measures indicate a passage as dealing with standardized units of garlic production , sale , and taxation—the hundred of 15 ropes of 15 heads each —but the Latin version of the text refers to herring rather than garlic .. & & Garlic was used as an antiseptic to prevent gangrene during World Wars I and II . Nutrients In the typical serving size of 1–3 cloves ( 3–9 g ) , garlic provides no significant nutritional value with the content of all essential nutrients below 10 % of the Daily Value ( DV ) ( right table ) . When expressed per 100 grams , garlic contains several nutrients in rich amounts ( > 20 % DV ) , including vitamins B6 and C , and the dietary minerals , manganese and phosphorus . Per 100 gram serving , garlic is also a good source ( 10–19 % DV ) of certain B vitamins including thiamine ( Vitamin B1 ) , and pantothenic acid ( Vitamin B5 ) , as well as certain dietary minerals including calcium , iron , and zinc ( right table ) . Research Cardiovascular A 2013 meta-analysis concluded that garlic preparations may effectively lower total cholesterol by 11–23 mg/dL and LDL cholesterol by 3–15 mg/dL in adults with high cholesterol if taken for longer than two months . The same analysis found that garlic had a marginally positive effect on HDL cholesterol and no significant effect on blood triglyceride levels , and that garlic preparations were generally well tolerated with very few side effects . A 2012 Cochrane review of two randomized controlled trials found that the effect of garlic supplementation on blood pressure is unclear and that there is insufficient evidence to determine if garlic lowers cardiovascular death and disease rates in people with hypertension . As garlic may reduce platelet aggregation , patients taking anticoagulant medication are cautioned about consuming garlic . Cancer A 2014 meta-analysis of observational epidemiological studies found that garlic consumption is associated with a lower risk of stomach cancer in the Korean population . Similarly , a 2013 meta-analysis of case-control studies and cohort studies found limited evidence suggesting an association between higher garlic consumption and a lower risk of prostate cancer . However , the association was only significant in the case-control studies and the authors noted there was evidence of publication bias . Common cold A 2014 report in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews concluded that `` there is insufficient clinical trial evidence regarding the effects of garlic in preventing or treating the common cold . A single trial suggested that garlic may prevent occurrences of the common cold but more studies are needed to validate this finding . Claims of effectiveness appear to rely largely on poor-quality evidence . '' Other reviews concluded a similar absence of high-quality evidence for garlic having any significant effect on the common cold . Other uses The sticky juice within the bulb cloves is used as an adhesive in mending glass and porcelain . An environmentally benign garlic-derived polysulfide product is approved for use in the European Union ( under Annex 1 of 91/414 ) and the UK as a nematicide and insecticide , including for use for control of cabbage root fly and red mite in poultry . Garlic along with cinnamon is used as a fish and meat preservative , and displays antimicrobial property at temperatures as high as 120 degree Celsius ; the combination can also be used to preserve fried and deep fried foods , and in the future might be used in an inner layer of plastic . Adverse effects and toxicology Garlic is known to cause bad breath ( halitosis ) and body odor , described as a pungent `` garlicky '' smell to sweat . This is caused by allyl methyl sulfide ( AMS ) . AMS is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds ; from the blood it travels to the lungs ( and from there to the mouth , causing bad breath ; see garlic breath ) and skin , where it is exuded through skin pores . Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell . Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath . Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward . Plain water , mushrooms and basil may also reduce the odor ; the mix of fat and water found in milk , however , was the most effective . The green , dry `` folds '' in the center of the garlic clove are especially pungent . The sulfur compound allicin , produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic , produces other sulfur compounds : ajoene , allyl polysulfides , and vinyldithiins . Aged garlic lacks allicin , but may have some activity due to the presence of S-allylcysteine . Some people suffer from allergies to garlic and other species of Allium . Symptoms can include irritable bowel , diarrhea , mouth and throat ulcerations , nausea , breathing difficulties , and , in rare cases , anaphylaxis . Garlic-sensitive patients show positive tests to diallyl disulfide , allylpropyldisulfide , allylmercaptan and allicin , all of which are present in garlic . People who suffer from garlic allergies are often sensitive to many other plants , including onions , chives , leeks , shallots , garden lilies , ginger , and bananas . Several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied topically for various purposes , including naturopathic uses and acne treatment , indicate care must be taken for these uses , usually testing a small area of skin using a very low concentration of garlic . On the basis of numerous reports of such burns , including burns to children , topical use of raw garlic , as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities , is discouraged . In particular , topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable . The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation are largely unknown , and no FDA-approved study has been performed . Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort , sweating , dizziness , allergic reactions , bleeding , and menstrual irregularities . Some breastfeeding mothers have found , after consuming garlic , that their babies can be slow to feed , and have noted a garlic odor coming from them . If higher-than-recommended doses of garlic are taken with anticoagulant medications , this can lead to a higher risk of bleeding . Garlic may interact with warfarin , antiplatelets , saquinavir , antihypertensives , calcium channel blockers , quinolone family of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin , and hypoglycemic drugs , as well as other medications . Alliums might be toxic to cats or dogs . Spiritual and religious uses Garlic has been regarded as a force for both good and evil . In Europe , many cultures have used garlic for protection or white magic , perhaps owing to its reputation as a potent preventative medicine . Central European folk beliefs considered garlic a powerful ward against demons , werewolves , and vampires . To ward off vampires , garlic could be worn , hung in windows , or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes . In Iranian countries which celebrate Nowruz ( Persian calendar New Year ) such as Iran , the Caucasus countries , Afghanistan , and Central Asian countries such as Tajikistan and Uzbekistan , garlic is one of the items in a Seven-Seen table , a traditional New Year 's display . In Islam , it is generally recommended not to eat raw garlic prior to going to the mosque , since the odor could distract other Muslims during their prayer . Muhammad himself disliked eating garlic . In both Hinduism and Jainism , garlic is thought to stimulate and warm the body and to increase one 's desires . Some devout Hindus generally avoid using garlic and the related onion in the preparation of foods , while less devout followers may only observe this for religious festivities and events . Followers of the Jain religion avoid eating garlic and onion on a daily basis . In some Buddhist traditions , garlic – along with the other five `` pungent spices '' – is understood to stimulate sexual and aggressive drives to the detriment of meditation practice . In Mahayana Buddhism , monks and nuns are not allowed to consume garlic or other pungent spices such as chili , which are deemed as being `` earthly pleasures '' and are viewed as promoting aggression due to their spiciness and pungency . Properties Fresh or crushed garlic yields the sulfur-containing compounds alliin , ajoene , diallyl polysulfides , vinyldithiins , S-allylcysteine , and enzymes , saponins , flavonoids , and Maillard reaction products , which are not sulfur-containing compounds . The composition of the bulbs is approximately 84.09 % water , 13.38 % organic matter , and 1.53 % inorganic matter , while the leaves are 87.14 % water , 11.27 % organic matter , and 1.59 % inorganic matter . The phytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant 's cells are damaged . When a cell is broken by chopping , chewing , or crushing , enzymes stored in cell vacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the cell fluids ( cytosol ) . The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong smell of garlic . Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to react over time . Among the members of the onion family , garlic has by far the highest concentrations of initial reaction products , making garlic much more potent than onion , shallot , or leeks . Although many humans enjoy the taste of garlic , these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism , deterring animals such as birds , insects , and worms from eating the plant . Because of this , people throughout history have used garlic to keep away insects such as mosquitoes and slugs . A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic . Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the `` hot '' sensation of raw garlic . This chemical opens thermo-transient receptor potential channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods . The process of cooking garlic removes allicin , thus mellowing its spiciness . Allicin , along with its decomposition products diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide , are major contributors to the characteristic odor of garlic , with other allicin-derived compounds , such as vinyldithiins and ajoene . Because of its strong odor , garlic is sometimes called the `` stinking rose '' . When eaten in quantity , garlic may be strongly evident in the diner 's sweat and garlic breath the following day . This is because garlic 's strong-smelling sulfur compounds are metabolized , forming allyl methyl sulfide . Allyl methyl sulfide ( AMS ) can not be digested and is passed into the blood . It is carried to the lungs and the skin , where it is excreted . Since digestion takes several hours , and release of AMS several hours more , the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time . The well-known phenomenon of `` garlic breath '' is allegedly alleviated by eating fresh parsley . The herb is , therefore , included in many garlic recipes , such as pistou , persillade , and the garlic butter spread used in garlic bread . Because of the AMS in the bloodstream , it is believed by some to act as a mosquito repellent , but no clinically reported evidence suggests it is actually effective . Abundant sulfur compounds in garlic are also responsible for turning garlic green or blue during pickling and cooking . Under these conditions ( i.e . acidity , heat ) the sulfur-containing compound alliinase react with common amino acids to make pyrroles , clusters of carbon-nitrogen rings . These rings can be linked together into polypyrrole molecules . Ring structures absorb particular wavelengths of light and thus appear colored . The two-pyrrole molecule looks red , the three-pyrrole molecule looks blue and the four-pyrrole molecule looks green ( like chlorophyll , a tetrapyrrole ) . Like chlorophyll , the pyrrole pigments are safe to eat . Upon cutting , similar to a color change in onion caused by reactions of amino acids with sulfur compounds , garlic can turn green . Gallery File : Flickr - cyclonebill - Hvidløg.jpg|A bulb of garlic , not separated from the stem . File : Korea-Goheunggun-Garlic harvest 4196-06.JPG|Garlic from a recent harvest

dpql_3157--Garlic.txt

Of what family are Onion, garlic, shallot, leek and chive?

The cetology of Moby-Dick is Ishmael 's zoological classification of whales . Although a work of fiction , Melville included sequences of chapters concerned largely with a pseudo-objective discussion of the properties of whales . The observations , based on a list of sources in addition to Melville 's own experiences in whaling in the 1840s , include observations of various species from the order of Cetacea . These chapters are the most likely to be omitted in abridged versions of the novel . Description Ishmael 's observations are not a complete scientific study , even by standards of the day . Nevertheless , because of the general lack of knowledge about whales in the middle 19th century , the taxonomy in the novel provides a glimpse of the knowledge of whales by the whaling fleet and naturalists of the era . Ishmael somewhat famously asserts in the novel that the whale is a `` spouting fish with a horizontal tail '' . His use of the word `` fish '' here , however , is not meant a denial of the mammalian characteristics of the order Cetacea , but rather simply as an ad hoc definition as an animal that dwells in the sea . He attempts a taxonomy of whales largely based on size , based on his assertion that other characteristics , such as the existence of a hump or baleen , make the classification too confusing . Borrowing an analogy from publishing and bookbinding , he divides whales into three `` books '' , called the Folio Whale ( largest ) , Octavo Whale and the Duodecimo Whale ( smaller ) , represented respectively by the sperm whale , the orca ( which he calls the grampus ) and the porpoise . Each such book is then divided into `` chapters '' representing a separate species . By the current taxonomy of Cetacea , the classification in Moby-Dick is inaccurate and incomplete as well , presenting only a fraction of the nearly ninety species of Cetaceans known today . In the case of some species , in particular the blue whale ( which Ismael calls the `` sulphur-bottom whale '' ) , very little was known at the time . The classification is thus heavily weighted toward whales hunted for oil and other uses , and presents a picture of the common knowledge of whales at the time of the novel . Since Melville presents the study within a fictional context , voiced by a fictional character in the narrative , it is arguable whether or not Melville intended the classification as a serious scientific contribution . Moreover , Melville includes the larger members of the Cetaceans , as well as the porpoises ( dolphins ) . It is quite possible that in the case of the Duodecimo whales ( porpoises ) , Melville has unknowingly combined many disparate species into a single `` chapter '' . Ishmael 's classification The following is the classification introduced by Ishmael in Chapter XXXII , with the spellings and alternative names mentioned by Melville . He does not introduce the Latin scientific names , however , which are provided here as a cross-reference to the modern taxonomy . The Roman numerals shown here are those used by Ishmael for each `` book '' and `` chapter '' . I . The Folio Whale These are the whales of the largest size . * I . Sperm whale ( Physeter macrocephalus ) , the most important prey of Nantucket whaling fleet , which operated principally in the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean . The notorious fictional white whale Moby Dick in the novel is of this species , and is based on the real-life sperm whale Mocha Dick in the South Pacific in the 1840s . Because of lack of observations of the blue whale at that time , Melville asserts inaccurately that the sperm whale is the largest creature on Earth . * II . Right whale ( several species of the genus Eubalaena of the family Balaenidae ) , also known simply as the Whale , the Greenland Whale , the Black Whale , the Great Whale . Melville claims this whale was the first to be regularly hunted by human beings and is famously known for providing baleen , which was also known as `` whalebone '' at the time . The oil of this whale was commercially known as `` whale oil '' and was of inferior grade to that of the sperm whale . During the middle 19th century , it was the principal prey of the whaling fleets of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands , which operated largely in the North Atlantic and Arctic Ocean . * III . Fin-back whale ( Balaenoptera physalus ) , also called the Tall-Spout and Long-John . According to Melville , the whale had been seen in almost every part of the oceans and was commonly observed by passengers crossing the Atlantic Ocean between Europe and New York City . * IV . Hump-back whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) . Melville states that this species is seen frequently on the northern coast of the United States , where it is frequently captured and towed back to harbor . He compares the distinctive hump on its back to the pack of a peddler . Its oil is not very valuable . `` He is the most gamesome of species and light-hearted of all the whales , making more gay foam and white water generally than any of other of them '' . * V. Razor-back whale ( probably Balaenoptera physalus , identical to the fin-back ) . The name `` Razorback whale '' is now used as a synonym for the finback . Melville includes the razorback as a separate `` chapter '' , but states ( in the voice of Ishmael ) that he has only observed him at a distance off Cape Horn . He knows little about this species , `` nor does anyone else '' . * VI . Sulphur-bottom whale ( Balaenoptera musculus , commonly known today as the blue whale ) . This species was elusive in Melville 's day and he states he has observed it only from a distance in the southern seas . Knowledge of the whale among the Nantucket whaling fleet is sparse . He thus provides an incomplete description , mentioning the prominent feature of its `` brimstone belly '' . According to Melville , the whale is never chased , since `` he would run away with rope-walks of line '' . II . The Octavo Whale These are the whales of middle size . * I. Grampus ( Orcinus orca commonly known as the orca or killer whale ) . Melville states that this species is known for its loud blowing and is well known among whalemen . According to Melville , it swims in herds and is never regularly hunted , although it has considerable oil that is good for producing light . He states that the appearance of the grampus is often taken by whalemen to presage the appearance of the sperm whale . * II . Black Fish whale ( one or both species of the genus Globicephala , known today as the Pilot whale ) . Melville calls him the Hyena whale , based on its appearance , stating `` the inner angles of his lips are curved upwards , he carries an everlasting Mephistophelian grin on his face '' . He states that the whale is found in all latitudes , and has a peculiar fin which appears similar to a Roman nose . The whale is often hunted by Nantucket whalers when sperm whales are not available , primarily to keep up the ship 's own supply of oil . Although it has thin blubber , a single whale can yield up to thirty gallons of oil . * III . Narwhal or Nostril whale ( Monodon monoceros ) . Melville writes at length about this whale , which at the time was a well-known denizen of the polar seas . He describes the horn of the narwhal and speculates on its purpose . According to Melville , it is also known as the tusked whale , horned whale and the unicorn whale . In ancient days the horn was used as an antidote for poison . He recounts that Martin Frobisher presented a narwhal horn to Elizabeth I upon returning from the Canadian Arctic . The oil of the narwhal is `` very superior , clear and fine ; but there is little of it , and he is seldom hunted '' . * IV . Killer whale ( probably the orca ) . Melville states that the whale is little known both by the Nantucket whaling community and by naturalists . Ishmael claims to have seen him from a distance , stating that it is approximately the size of the grampus . It is known to seize the large whales by the lip , hanging there `` like a leech , till the mighty brute is worried to death '' . It is never hunted and the type of oil it contains is unknown to the narrator . Ishmael somewhat dislikes the name , stating that `` we are all killers , on land and on sea ; Bonapartes and sharks included '' . * V. Thrasher whale ( probably the orca , mistaken as a separate species in the North Atlantic ) . Melville states that little known of the whale , but it has been observed to mount the Folio whale 's back as it swims , working its way upwards by flogging the larger whale with its tail . III . The Duodecimo Whale These are the species of the smallest size , which Melville generically calls porpoises . * I. Huzza porpoise ( Bottlenose dolphin , Tursiops spps . ) . The identification arises from Melville 's statement that this is the `` common porpoise found all over the globe '' . Melville 's name is completely invented here , based on the fact that the `` he always swims in hilarious shoals ... their appearance is generally hailed with delight by the mariner ... They are accounted a lucky omen '' . He states that a well-fed specimen will yield one gallon of good oil , but that the `` fine and delicate fluid extracted from his jaws is exceedingly valuable '' and is used by jewelers and watchmakers . The meat from this porpoise is also said to be `` good eating '' . * II . Algerine porpoise . Melville states that this species is found only in the Pacific Ocean and is slightly larger than the `` Huzza porpoise '' . Ishmael states that the species is ferocious when attacked , and that although he has lowered for this species many times , he has yet to see this species captured . It is unclear what species Melville meant here . Possibly a pygmy killer whale or the false killer whale . * III . Mealy-mouthed porpoise ( Lissodelphis peronii , the southern right whale dolphin ) . Melville also calls this the right-whale porpoise , since it is often found in the vicinity of the right whale . According to Melville , it is found only in the Pacific Ocean . Beyond the Duodecimo Melville also lists `` a rabble of uncertain , fugitive half-fabulous whales '' of which he knew only by name and not experience . These were the Bottlenose Whale , Junk Whale , Pudding-Headed Whale , Cape Whale , Leading Whale , Cannon Whale , Scragg Whale , Coppered Whale , Elephant Whale , Iceberg Whale , Quog Whale , and Blue Whale . Their lack of description makes it difficult to know exactly which taxonomically correct whales these names might refer , if any . He notes that should any of them be caught and classified they could be easily incorporated into his system .

jp_2776--Cetology_of_Moby-Dick.txt

What type of whale was Moby Dick?

The Merchant of Venice is a play by William Shakespeare in which a merchant in 16th-century Venice must default on a large loan provided by an abused Jewish moneylender . It is believed to have been written between 1596 and 1599 . Though classified as a comedy in the First Folio and sharing certain aspects with Shakespeare 's other romantic comedies , the play is perhaps most remembered for its dramatic scenes , and is best known for Shylock and the famous `` Hath not a Jew eyes ? '' speech . Also notable is Portia 's speech about `` the quality of mercy '' . Characters * Antonio – a merchant of Venice in melancholic mood * Bassanio – Antonio 's friend ; suitor to Portia ; later the husband of Portia * Gratiano – friend of Antonio and Bassanio ; in love with Nerissa ; later the husband of Nerissa * Lorenzo – friend of Antonio and Bassanio ; in love with Jessica ; later the husband of Jessica * Salanio – friend of Antonio and Bassanio * Salario – friend of Antonio and Bassanio * Portia – a rich heiress ; later the wife of Bassanio * Nerissa – Portia 's waiting maid – in love with Gratiano ; later the wife of Gratiano ; disguises herself as Stephano * Balthazar – Portia 's servant , who Portia later disguises herself as * Shylock – a miserly Jew , moneylender , father of Jessica , a great misbeliever of Christianity . * Jessica – daughter of Shylock , later the wife of Lorenzo * Tubal – a Jew ; friend of Shylock * Launcelot Gobbo – servant of Shylock ; later a servant of Bassanio ; son of Old Gobbo * Old Gobbo – blind father of Launcelot * Leonardo – slave to Bassanio * Duke of Venice – authority who presides over the case of Shylock 's bond * Prince of Morocco – suitor to Portia * Prince of Arragon – suitor to Portia * Magnificoes of Venice , officers of the Court of Justice , gaoler , servants to Portia , and other attendants * Salerio – friend of Antonio and Bassanio Summary Bassanio , a young Venetian of noble rank , wishes to woo the beautiful and wealthy heiress Portia of Belmont . Having squandered his estate , he needs 3,000 ducats to subsidise his expenditures as a suitor . Bassanio approaches his friend Antonio , a wealthy merchant of Venice who has previously and repeatedly bailed him out . Antonio agrees , but since he is cash-poor – his ships and merchandise are busy at sea – he promises to cover a bond if Bassanio can find a lender , so Bassanio turns to the Jewish moneylender Shylock and names Antonio as the loan 's guarantor . Antonio has already antagonized Shylock through his outspoken antisemitism , and because Antonio 's habit of lending money without interest forces Shylock to charge lower rates . Shylock is at first reluctant to grant the loan , citing abuse he has suffered at Antonio 's hand . He finally agrees to lend the sum to Bassanio without interest upon one condition : if Bassanio is unable to repay it at the specified date , Shylock may take a pound of Antonio 's flesh . Bassanio does not want Antonio to accept such a risky condition ; Antonio is surprised by what he sees as the moneylender 's generosity ( no `` usance '' – interest – is asked for ) , and he signs the contract . With money at hand , Bassanio leaves for Belmont with his friend Gratiano , who has asked to accompany him . Gratiano is a likeable young man , but is often flippant , overly talkative , and tactless . Bassanio warns his companion to exercise self-control , and the two leave for Belmont and Portia . Meanwhile , in Belmont , Portia is awash with suitors . Her father left a will stipulating each of her suitors must choose correctly from one of three caskets – one each of gold , silver and lead . If he picks the right casket , he gets Portia . The first suitor , the Prince of Morocco , chooses the gold casket , interpreting its slogan , `` Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire , '' as referring to Portia . The second suitor , the conceited Prince of Arragon , chooses the silver casket , which proclaims , `` Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves '' , as he believes he is full of merit . Both suitors leave empty-handed , having rejected the lead casket because of the baseness of its material and the uninviting nature of its slogan , `` Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath . '' The last suitor is Bassanio , whom Portia wishes to succeed , having met him before . As Bassanio ponders his choice , members of Portia 's household sing a song which says that `` fancy '' ( not true love ) is `` engend'red in the eyes , With gazing fed '' ; Bassanio chooses the lead casket and wins Portia 's hand . At Venice , Antonio 's ships are reported lost at sea so the merchant can not repay the bond . Shylock has become more determined to exact revenge from Christians because his daughter Jessica eloped with the Christian Lorenzo and converted . She took a substantial amount of Shylock 's wealth with her , as well as a turquoise ring which Shylock had been given by his late wife , Leah . Shylock has Antonio brought before court . At Belmont , Bassanio receives a letter telling him that Antonio has been unable to repay the loan from Shylock . Portia and Bassanio marry , as do Gratiano and Portia 's handmaid Nerissa . Bassanio and Gratiano leave for Venice , with money from Portia , to save Antonio 's life by offering the money to Shylock . Unknown to Bassanio and Gratiano , Portia sent her servant , Balthazar , to seek the counsel of Portia 's cousin , Bellario , a lawyer , at Padua . The climax of the play takes place in the court of the Duke of Venice . Shylock refuses Bassanio 's offer of 6,000 ducats , twice the amount of the loan . He demands his pound of flesh from Antonio . The Duke , wishing to save Antonio but unable to nullify a contract , refers the case to a visitor . He identifies himself as Balthazar , a young male `` doctor of the law '' , bearing a letter of recommendation to the Duke from the learned lawyer Bellario . The doctor is Portia in disguise , and the law clerk who accompanies her is Nerissa , also disguised as a man . As Balthazar , Portia repeatedly asks Shylock to show mercy in a famous speech , advising him that mercy `` is twice blest : It blesseth him that gives and him that takes '' ( IV , i , 185 ) . However , Shylock adamantly refuses any compensations and insists on the pound of flesh . As the court grants Shylock his bond and Antonio prepares for Shylock 's knife , Portia deftly appropriates Shylock 's argument for `` specific performance '' . She says that the contract allows Shylock only to remove the flesh , not the `` blood '' , of Antonio ( see quibble ) . Thus , if Shylock were to shed any drop of Antonio 's blood , his `` lands and goods '' would be forfeited under Venetian laws . She tells him that he must cut precisely one pound of flesh , no more , no less ; she advises him that `` if the scale do turn , But in the estimation of a hair , Thou diest and all thy goods are confiscate . '' Defeated , Shylock concedes to accepting Bassanio 's offer of money for the defaulted bond , first his offer to pay `` the bond thrice '' , which Portia rebuffs , telling him to take his bond , and then merely the principal , which Portia also prevents him from doing on the ground that he has already refused it `` in the open court '' . She cites a law under which Shylock , as a Jew and therefore an `` alien '' , having attempted to take the life of a citizen , has forfeited his property , half to the government and half to Antonio , leaving his life at the mercy of the Duke . The Duke pardons Shylock 's life . Antonio asks for his share `` in use '' until Shylock 's death , when the principal will be given to Lorenzo and Jessica . At Antonio 's request , the Duke grants remission of the state 's half of forfeiture , but on the condition that Shylock convert to Christianity and bequeath his entire estate to Lorenzo and Jessica ( IV , i ) . Bassanio does not recognise his disguised wife , but offers to give a present to the supposed lawyer . First she declines , but after he insists , Portia requests his ring and Antonio 's gloves . Antonio parts with his gloves without a second thought , but Bassanio gives the ring only after much persuasion from Antonio , as earlier in the play he promised his wife never to lose , sell or give it . Nerissa , as the lawyer 's clerk , succeeds in likewise retrieving her ring from Gratiano , who does not see through her disguise . At Belmont , Portia and Nerissa taunt and pretend to accuse their husbands before revealing they were really the lawyer and his clerk in disguise ( V ) . After all the other characters make amends , Antonio learns from Portia that three of his ships were not stranded and have returned safely after all . Sources The forfeit of a merchant 's deadly bond after standing surety for a friend 's loan was a common tale in England in the late 16th century . In addition , the test of the suitors at Belmont , the merchant 's rescue from the `` pound of flesh '' penalty by his friend 's new wife disguised as a lawyer , and her demand for the betrothal ring in payment are all elements present in the 14th-century tale Il Pecorone by Giovanni Fiorentino , which was published in Milan in 1558 . Elements of the trial scene are also found in The Orator by Alexandre Sylvane , published in translation in 1596 . The story of the three caskets can be found in `` Gesta Romanorum '' , a collection of tales probably compiled at the end of the 13th century . Date and text The date of composition for The Merchant of Venice is believed to be between 1596 and 1598 . The play was mentioned by Francis Meres in 1598 , so it must have been familiar on the stage by that date . The title page of the first edition in 1600 states that it had been performed `` divers times '' by that date . Salerino 's reference to his ship the Andrew ( I , i,27 ) is thought to be an allusion to the Spanish ship St. Andrew , captured by the English at Cádiz in 1596 . A date of 1596–97 is considered consistent with the play 's style . The play was entered in the Register of the Stationers Company , the method at that time of obtaining copyright for a new play , by James Roberts on 22 July 1598 under the title The Merchant of Venice , otherwise called The Jew of Venice . On 28 October 1600 Roberts transferred his right to the play to the stationer Thomas Heyes ; Heyes published the first quarto before the end of the year . It was printed again in a pirated edition in 1619 , as part of William Jaggard 's so-called False Folio . ( Afterward , Thomas Heyes ' son and heir Laurence Heyes asked for and was granted a confirmation of his right to the play , on 8 July 1619 . ) The 1600 edition is generally regarded as being accurate and reliable . It is the basis of the text published in the 1623 First Folio , which adds a number of stage directions , mainly musical cues . Themes Shylock and the antisemitism debate The play is frequently staged today , but is potentially troubling to modern audiences due to its central themes , which can easily appear antisemitic . Critics today still continue to argue over the play 's stance on antisemitism . Shylock as a villain English society in the Elizabethan era has been described as `` judeophobic '' . English Jews had been expelled under Edward I in 1290 and were not permitted to return until 1656 under the rule of Oliver Cromwell . In Venice and in some other places , Jews were required to wear a red hat at all times in public to make sure that they were easily identified , and had to live in a ghetto protected by Christian guards . [ https : //www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Venice.html The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Venice ] On the Elizabethan stage , Jews were often presented in an Orientalist caricature , with hooked noses and bright red wigs , and were usually depicted as avaricious usurers ; an example is Christopher Marlowe 's play The Jew of Malta , which features a comically wicked Jewish villain called Barabas . They were usually characterised as evil , deceitful and greedy . Shakespeare 's play may be seen as a continuation of this tradition . The title page of the Quarto indicates that the play was sometimes known as The Jew of Venice in its day , which suggests that it was seen as similar to Marlowe 's The Jew of Malta . One interpretation of the play 's structure is that Shakespeare meant to contrast the mercy of the main Christian characters with the vengefulness of a Jew , who lacks the religious grace to comprehend mercy . Similarly , it is possible that Shakespeare meant Shylock 's forced conversion to Christianity to be a `` happy ending '' for the character , as , to a Christian audience , it saves his soul and allows him to enter Heaven . Regardless of what Shakespeare 's authorial intent may have been , the play has been made use of by antisemites throughout the play 's history . One must note that the end of the title in the 1619 edition `` With the Extreme Cruelty of Shylock the Jew ... '' must aptly describe how Shylock was viewed by the English public . The Nazis used the usurious Shylock for their propaganda . Shortly after Kristallnacht in 1938 , The Merchant of Venice was broadcast for propagandistic ends over the German airwaves . Productions of the play followed in Lübeck ( 1938 ) , Berlin ( 1940 ) , and elsewhere within the Nazi Territory . In a series of articles called Observer , first published in 1785 , British playwright Richard Cumberland created a character named Abraham Abrahams who is quoted as saying , `` I verily believe the odious character of Shylock has brought little less persecution upon us , poor scattered sons of Abraham , than the Inquisition itself . '' Cumberland later wrote a successful play , The Jew ( 1794 ) , in which his title character , Sheva , is portrayed sympathetically , as both a kindhearted and generous man . This was the first known attempt by a dramatist to reverse the negative stereotype that Shylock personified . The depiction of Jews in literature throughout the centuries bears the close imprint of Shylock . With slight variations much of English literature up until the 20th century depicts the Jew as `` a monied , cruel , lecherous , avaricious outsider tolerated only because of his golden hoard '' . Shylock as a sympathetic character Many modern readers and theatregoers have read the play as a plea for tolerance , noting that Shylock is a sympathetic character . They cite as evidence that Shylock 's `` trial '' at the end of the play is a mockery of justice , with Portia acting as a judge when she has no right to do so . The characters who berated Shylock for dishonesty resort to trickery in order to win . In addition , Shakespeare gives Shylock one of his most eloquent speeches : It is difficult to know whether the sympathetic reading of Shylock is entirely due to changing sensibilities among readers , or whether Shakespeare , a writer who created complex , multi-faceted characters , deliberately intended this reading . One of the reasons for this interpretation is that Shylock 's painful status in Venetian society is emphasised . To some critics , Shylock 's celebrated `` Hath not a Jew eyes ? '' speech redeems him and even makes him into something of a tragic figure ; in the speech , Shylock argues that he is no different from the Christian characters . Detractors note that Shylock ends the speech with a tone of revenge : `` if you wrong us , shall we not revenge ? '' Those who see the speech as sympathetic point out that Shylock says he learned the desire for revenge from the Christian characters : `` If a Christian wrong a Jew , what should his sufferance be by Christian example ? Why , revenge . The villainy you teach me , I will execute , and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction . '' Even if Shakespeare did not intend the play to be read this way , the fact that it retains its power on stage for audiences who may perceive its central conflicts in radically different terms is an illustration of the subtlety of Shakespeare 's characterisations . In the trial Shylock represents what Elizabethan Christians believed to be the Jewish desire for `` justice '' , contrasted with their obviously superior Christian value of mercy . The Christians in the courtroom urge Shylock to love his enemies , although they themselves have failed in the past . Harold Bloom explains that , although the play gives merit to both cases , the portraits are not even-handed : `` Shylock ’ s shrewd indictment of Christian hypocrisy [ delights us , but ] … Shakespeare ’ s intimations do not alleviate the savagery of his portrait of the Jew… '' Antonio , Bassanio Antonio 's unexplained depression — `` In sooth I know not why I am so sad '' — and utter devotion to Bassanio has led some critics to theorise that he is suffering from unrequited love for Bassanio and is depressed because Bassanio is coming to an age where he will marry a woman . In his plays and poetry Shakespeare often depicted strong male bonds of varying homosociality , which has led some critics to infer that Bassanio returns Antonio 's affections despite his obligation to marry : In his essay `` Brothers and Others '' , published in The Dyer 's Hand , W. H. Auden describes Antonio as `` a man whose emotional life , though his conduct may be chaste , is concentrated upon a member of his own sex . '' Antonio 's feelings for Bassanio are likened to a couplet from Shakespeare 's Sonnets : `` But since she pricked thee out for women 's pleasure , / Mine be thy love , and my love 's use their treasure . '' Antonio , says Auden , embodies the words on Portia 's leaden casket : `` Who chooseth me , must give and hazard all he hath . '' Antonio has taken this potentially fatal turn because he despairs , not only over the loss of Bassanio in marriage , but also because Bassanio can not requite what Antonio feels for him . Antonio 's frustrated devotion is a form of idolatry : the right to live is yielded for the sake of the loved one . There is one other such idolator in the play : Shylock himself . `` Shylock , however unintentionally , did , in fact , hazard all for the sake of destroying the enemy he hated ; and Antonio , however unthinkingly he signed the bond , hazarded all to secure the happiness of the man he loved . '' Both Antonio and Shylock , agreeing to put Antonio 's life at a forfeit , stand outside the normal bounds of society . There was , states Auden , a traditional `` association of sodomy with usury '' , reaching back at least as far as Dante , with which Shakespeare was likely familiar . ( Auden sees the theme of usury in the play as a comment on human relations in a mercantile society . ) Other interpreters of the play regard Auden 's conception of Antonio 's sexual desire for Bassanio as questionable . Michael Radford , director of the 2004 film version starring Al Pacino , explained that although the film contains a scene where Antonio and Bassanio actually kiss , the friendship between the two is platonic , in line with the prevailing view of male friendship at the time . Jeremy Irons , in an interview , concurs with the director 's view and states that he did not `` play Antonio as gay '' . Joseph Fiennes , however , who plays Bassanio , encouraged a homoerotic interpretation and , in fact , surprised Irons with the kiss on set , which was filmed in one take . Fiennes defended his choice , saying `` I would never invent something before doing my detective work in the text . If you look at the choice of language … you 'll read very sensuous language . That 's the key for me in the relationship . The great thing about Shakespeare and why he 's so difficult to pin down is his ambiguity . He 's not saying they 're gay or they 're straight , he 's leaving it up to his actors . I feel there has to be a great love between the two characters … there 's great attraction . I do n't think they have slept together but that 's for the audience to decide . '' Performance history The earliest performance of which a record has survived was held at the court of King James in the spring of 1605 , followed by a second performance a few days later , but there is no record of any further performances in the 17th century . In 1701 , George Granville staged a successful adaptation , titled The Jew of Venice , with Thomas Betterton as Bassanio . This version ( which featured a masque ) was popular , and was acted for the next forty years . Granville cut the clownish Gobbos in line with neoclassical decorum ; he added a jail scene between Shylock and Antonio , and a more extended scene of toasting at a banquet scene . Thomas Doggett was Shylock , playing the role comically , perhaps even farcically . Rowe expressed doubts about this interpretation as early as 1709 ; Doggett 's success in the role meant that later productions would feature the troupe clown as Shylock . In 1741 , Charles Macklin returned to the original text in a very successful production at Drury Lane , paving the way for Edmund Kean seventy years later ( see below ) . Arthur Sullivan wrote incidental music for the play in 1871 . Shylock on stage Jewish actor Jacob Adler and others report that the tradition of playing Shylock sympathetically began in the first half of the 19th century with Edmund Kean , and that previously the role had been played `` by a comedian as a repulsive clown or , alternatively , as a monster of unrelieved evil . '' Kean 's Shylock established his reputation as an actor . From Kean 's time forward , all of the actors who have famously played the role , with the exception of Edwin Booth , who played Shylock as a simple villain , have chosen a sympathetic approach to the character ; even Booth 's father , Junius Brutus Booth , played the role sympathetically . Henry Irving 's portrayal of an aristocratic , proud Shylock ( first seen at the Lyceum in 1879 , with Portia played by Ellen Terry ) has been called `` the summit of his career '' . Jacob Adler was the most notable of the early 20th century : Adler played the role in Yiddish-language translation , first in Manhattan 's Yiddish Theater District in the Lower East Side , and later on Broadway , where , to great acclaim , he performed the role in Yiddish in an otherwise English-language production . Kean and Irving presented a Shylock justified in wanting his revenge ; Adler 's Shylock evolved over the years he played the role , first as a stock Shakespearean villain , then as a man whose better nature was overcome by a desire for revenge , and finally as a man who operated not from revenge but from pride . In a 1902 interview with Theater magazine , Adler pointed out that Shylock is a wealthy man , `` rich enough to forgo the interest on three thousand ducats '' and that Antonio is `` far from the chivalrous gentleman he is made to appear . He has insulted the Jew and spat on him , yet he comes with hypocritical politeness to borrow money of him . '' Shylock 's fatal flaw is to depend on the law , but `` would he not walk out of that courtroom head erect , the very apotheosis of defiant hatred and scorn ? '' Some modern productions take further pains to show the sources of Shylock 's thirst for vengeance . For instance , in the 2004 film adaptation directed by Michael Radford and starring Al Pacino as Shylock , the film begins with text and a montage of how Venetian Jews are cruelly abused by bigoted Christians . One of the last shots of the film also brings attention to the fact that , as a convert , Shylock would have been cast out of the Jewish community in Venice , no longer allowed to live in the ghetto . Another interpretation of Shylock and a vision of how `` must he be acted '' appears at the conclusion of the autobiography of Alexander Granach , a noted Jewish stage and film actor in Weimar Germany ( and later in Hollywood and on Broadway ) . Adaptations and cultural references Film and TV versions The Shakespeare play has inspired several films . * 1914—silent film directed by Lois Weber and Phillips Smalley * * Weber , who also stars as Portia , became the first woman to direct a full-length feature film in America with this film . * * * 1916–The Merchant of Venice , a silent British film directed by Walter West for Broadwest . * * * 1923–The Merchant of Venice , a silent German film directed by Peter Paul Felner . * * * 1969–The Merchant of Venice , an unreleased 40-minute television film directed by and starring Orson Welles ; the film was completed , but the soundtrack for all but the first reel was stolen before it could be released . * * * 1972—British video-taped television version directed by Cedric Messina for the BBC 's Play of the Month series * * Cast includes Maggie Smith , Frank Finlay and Charles Gray and Christopher Gable * 1973—British video-taped television version directed by John Sichel * * The cast included Laurence Olivier as Shylock , Anthony Nicholls as Antonio , Jeremy Brett as Bassanio , Joan Plowright as Portia , Louise Purnell as Jessica . * * * 1980—A BBC video-taped version for the BBC Television Shakespeare directed by Jack Gold * * The cast includes Gemma Jones as Portia , Warren Mitchell as Shylock and John Nettles as Bassanio * * * 1996—A Channel 4 television film directed by Alan Horrox * * The cast included Paul McGann as Bassanio and Haydn Gwynne as Portia * * * 2001—A BBC television film directed by Trevor Nunn * * Royal National Theatre production starring Henry Goodman as Shylock * * * 2002—The Maori Merchant of Venice , directed by Don Selwyn

qb_4664--The_Merchant_of_Venice.txt

The name Jessica was invented by William Shakespeare for which of his plays?

Nestlé S.A. ( ; , , ) is a Swiss transnational food and drink company headquartered in Vevey , Vaud , Switzerland . It is the largest food company in the world measured by revenues , and ranked # 72 on the Fortune Global 500 in 2014 . Nestlé ’ s products include baby food , medical food , bottled water , breakfast cereals , coffee and tea , confectionery , dairy products , ice cream , frozen food , pet foods , and snacks . Twenty-nine of Nestlé ’ s brands have annual sales of over CHF1 billion ( about ) , including Nespresso , Nescafé , Kit Kat , Smarties , Nesquik , Stouffer ’ s , Vittel , and Maggi . Nestlé has 447 factories , operates in 194 countries , and employs around 339,000 people . It is one of the main shareholders of L ’ Oreal , the world ’ s largest cosmetics company . Nestlé was formed in 1905 by the merger of the Anglo-Swiss Milk Company , established in 1866 by brothers George Page and Charles Page , and Farine Lactée Henri Nestlé , founded in 1866 by Henri Nestlé ( born Heinrich Nestle ) . The company grew significantly during the First World War and again following the Second World War , expanding its offerings beyond its early condensed milk and infant formula products . The company has made a number of corporate acquisitions , including Crosse & Blackwell in 1950 , Findus in 1963 , Libby 's in 1971 , Rowntree Mackintosh in 1988 , and Gerber in 2007 . Nestlé has a primary listing on the SIX Swiss Exchange and is a constituent of the Swiss Market Index . It has a secondary listing on Euronext . In 2011 , Nestlé was listed No.1 in the Fortune Global 500 as the world ’ s most profitable corporation . With a market capitalisation of , Nestlé ranked No.11 in the FT Global 500 2014 . History Nestlé ’ s origins date back to 1866 , when two separate Swiss enterprises were founded that would later form the core of Nestlé . In the succeeding decades , the two competing enterprises aggressively expanded their businesses throughout Europe and the United States . In August 1867 Charles ( US consul in Switzerland ) and George Page , two brothers from Lee County , Illinois , USA , established the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company in Cham , Switzerland . Their first British operation was opened at Chippenham , Wiltshire , in 1873 . In September 1866 in Vevey , Henri Nestlé developed milk-based baby food , and soon began marketing it . The following year saw Daniel Peter begin seven years of work perfecting his invention , the milk chocolate manufacturing process . Nestlé was the crucial co-operation that Peter needed to solve the problem of removing all the water from the milk added to his chocolate and thus preventing the product from developing mildew . Henri Nestlé retired in 1875 but the company , under new ownership , retained his name as Société Farine Lactée Henri Nestlé . In 1877 Anglo-Swiss added milk-based baby foods to their products ; in the following year , the Nestlé Company added condensed milk to their portfolio , which made the firms direct and fierce rivals . In 1879 Nestle merged with milk chocolate inventor Daniel Peter . In 1904 François-Louis Cailler , Charles Amédée Kohler , Daniel Peter and Henri Nestlé participated in the creation and development of Swiss chocolate , marketing the first chocolate - milk Nestlé . In 1905 the companies merged to become the Nestlé and Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company , retaining that name until 1947 , when the name ‘ Nestlé Alimentana SA ’ was taken as a result of the acquisition of Fabrique de Produits Maggi SA ( founded 1884 ) and its holding company , Alimentana SA , of Kempttal , Switzerland . Maggi was a major manufacturer of soup mixes and related foodstuffs . The company ’ s current name was adopted in 1977 . By the early 1900s , the company was operating factories in the United States , the United Kingdom , Germany , and Spain . The First World War created demand for dairy products in the form of government contracts , and , by the end of the war , Nestlé ’ s production had more than doubled . Nestlé felt the effects of the Second World War immediately . Profits dropped from US $ 20 million in 1938 , to US $ 6 million in 1939 . Factories were established in developing countries , particularly in Latin America . Ironically , the war helped with the introduction of the company ’ s newest product , Nescafé ( `` Nestlé ’ s Coffee '' ) , which became a staple drink of the US military . Nestlé ’ s production and sales rose in the wartime economy . After the war , government contracts dried up , and consumers switched back to fresh milk . However , Nestlé ’ s management responded quickly , streamlining operations and reducing debt . The 1920s saw Nestlé ’ s first expansion into new products , with chocolate-manufacture becoming the company ’ s second most important activity . Louis Dapples was CEO till 1937 , when succeeded by Édouard Muller till his death in 1948 . The end of World War II was the beginning of a dynamic phase for Nestlé . Growth accelerated and numerous companies were acquired . In 1947 Nestlé merged with Maggi , a manufacturer of seasonings and soups . Crosse & Blackwell followed in 1950 , as did Findus ( 1963 ) , Libby ’ s ( 1971 ) and Stouffer ’ s ( 1973 ) . Diversification came with a shareholding in L ’ Oreal in 1974 . In 1977 , Nestlé made its second venture outside the food industry , by acquiring Alcon Laboratories Inc . In the 1980s , Nestlé ’ s improved bottom line which allowed the company to launch a new round of acquisitions . Carnation was acquired for $ 3 billion in 1984 and brought the evaporated milk brand , as well as Coffee-Mate and Friskies to Nestlé . The confectionery company Rowntree Mackintosh was acquired in 1988 for $ 4.5 billion , which brought brands such as Kit Kat , Smarties and Aero . The first half of the 1990s proved to be favourable for Nestlé . Trade barriers crumbled , and world markets developed into more or less integrated trading areas . Since 1996 , there have been various acquisitions , including San Pellegrino ( 1997 ) , Spillers Petfoods ( 1998 ) , and Ralston Purina ( 2002 ) . There were two major acquisitions in North America , both in 2002 – in June , Nestlé merged its US ice cream business into Dreyer 's , and in August a acquisition was announced of Chef America , the creator of Hot Pockets . In the same time-frame , Nestlé entered in a joint bid with Cadbury and came close to purchasing the iconic American company Hershey 's , one of its fiercest confectionery competitors , but the deal eventually fell through . Another recent purchase included the Jenny Craig weight-loss program , for . Nestlé sold the Jenny Craig business unit to North Castle Partners in 2013 . In December 2005 , Nestlé bought the Greek company Delta Ice Cream for €240million . In January 2006 , it took full ownership of Dreyer ’ s , thus becoming the world ’ s largest ice cream maker , with a 17.5 % market share . In November 2006 , Nestlé purchased the Medical Nutrition division of Novartis Pharmaceutical for , also acquiring , in 2007 , the milk-flavoring product known as Ovaltine . In April 2007 , returning to its roots , Nestlé bought US baby-food manufacturer Gerber for . In December 2007 , Nestlé entered into a strategic partnership with a Belgian chocolate maker , Pierre Marcolini . Nestlé agreed to sell its controlling stake in Alcon to Novartis on 4 January 2010 . The sale was to form part of a broader offer , by Novartis , for full acquisition of the world ’ s largest eye-care company . On 1 March 2010 , Nestlé concluded the purchase of Kraft Foods 's North American frozen pizza business for . Since 2010 , Nestle has been working to transform itself into a nutrition , health and wellness company in an effort to combat declining confectionery sales and the threat of expanding government regulation of such foods . This effort is being led through the Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences under the direction of Ed Baetge . The Institute aims to develop “ a new industry between food and pharmaceuticals ” by creating foodstuffs with preventative and corrective health properties that would replace pharmaceutical drugs from pill bottles . The Health Science branch has already produced several products , such as drinks and protein shakes meant to combat malnutrition , diabetes , digestive health , obesity and other diseases . In July 2011 , Nestlé SA agreed to buy 60 percent of Hsu Fu Chi International Ltd. for about . On 23 April 2012 , Nestlé agreed to acquire Pfizer Inc. 's infant-nutrition , formerly Wyeth Nutrition , unit for , topping a joint bid from Danone and Mead Johnson . In February 2013 , Nestlé Health Science bought Pamlab , which makes medical foods based on L-methylfolate targeting depression , diabetes and memory loss . In February 2014 , Nestlé sold its PowerBar sports nutrition business to Post Holdings , Inc. Later , in November 2014 , Nestlé announced that it was exploring strategic options for its frozen food subsidiary , Davigel . In recent years , Nestlé Health Science has made several acquisitions . It acquired Vitaflo , which makes clinical nutritional products for people with genetic disorders ; CM & D Pharma Ltd. , a company that specialises in the development of products for patients with chronic conditions like kidney disease ; and Prometheus Laboratories , a firm specialising in treatments for gastrointestinal diseases and cancer . It also holds a minority stake in Vital Foods , a New Zealand-based company that develops kiwifruit-based solutions for gastrointestinal conditions . In December 2014 , Nestlé announced that it was opening 10 skin care research centres worldwide , deepening its investment in a faster-growing market for healthcare products . That year , Nestlé spend about $ 350 million on dermatology research and development . The first of the research hubs , Nestlé Skin Health Investigation , Education and Longevity Development ( SHIELD ) centres , will open mid 2015 in New York , followed by Hong Kong and São Paulo , and later others in North America , Asia and Europe . The initiative is being launched in partnership with the Global Coalition on Aging ( GCOA ) , a consortium that includes companies such as Intel and Bank of America . Products Nestlé has 64 brands , with a wide range of products across a number of markets , including coffee , bottled water , milkshakes and other beverages , breakfast cereals , infant foods , performance and healthcare nutrition , seasonings , soups and sauces , frozen and refrigerated foods , and pet food . Corporate affairs Nestlé is the biggest food company in the world , with a market capitalisation of roughly 231 billion Swiss francs , which is more than US $ 247 billion as of May 2015 . In 2014 , consolidated sales were CHF 91.61 billion and net profit was CHF 14.46billion . Research and development investment was CHF 1.63billion . * Sales per category in CHF * * 20.3 billion powdered and liquid beverages * * 16.7 billion milk products and ice cream * * 13.5 billion prepared dishes and cooking aids * * 13.1 billion nutrition and health science * * 11.3 billion petcare * * 9.6 billion confectionery * * 6.9 billion water * Percentage of sales by geographic area breakdown * * 43 % from Americas * * 28 % from Europe * * 29 % from Asia , Oceania and Africa According to a 2015 global survey of online consumers by the Reputation Institute , Nestlé has a reputation score of 74.5 on a scale of 1100 . Joint ventures Joint ventures include : * Cereal Partners Worldwide with General Mills ( 50 % /50 % ) * Beverage Partners Worldwide with The Coca-Cola Company ( 50 % /50 % ) * Lactalis Nestlé Produits Frais with Lactalis ( 40 % /60 % ) * Nestlé Colgate-Palmolive with Colgate-Palmolive ( 50 % /50 % ) * Nestlé Indofood Citarasa Indonesia with Indofood ( 50 % /50 % ) * Nestlé Snow with Snow Brand Milk Products ( 50 % /50 % ) * Nestlé Modelo with Grupo Modelo * Dairy Partners America Brasil with Fonterra ( 51 % /49 % ) Safety of food products Maggi noodles In May 2015 , Food Safety Regulators from the Uttar Pradesh , India found that samples of Nestlé 's leading noodles Maggi had up to 17 times beyond permissible safe limits of lead in addition to monosodium glutamate . On 3 June 2015 , New Delhi Government banned the sale of Maggi in New Delhi stores for 15 days because it found lead and monosodium glutamate in the eatable beyond permissible limit . The Gujarat FDA on 4 June 2015 banned the noodles for 30 days after 27 out of 39 samples were detected with objectionable levels of metallic lead , among other things . Some of India 's biggest retailers like Future Group , Big Bazaar , Easyday and Nilgiris have imposed a nationwide ban on Maggi . Thereafter multiple state authorities in India found unacceptable amount of lead and it has been banned in more than 5 other states in India . On 5 June 2015 , Food Safety and Standards Authority of India ( FSSAI ) orders banned all nine approved variants of Maggi instant noodles from India , terming them `` unsafe and hazardous '' for human consumption . In June 2015 Nepal indefinitely banned Maggi over concerns about lead levels in the product . On the same day Food Safety Agency , United Kingdom has launched an investigation to find levels of lead in Maggi . Maggi noodles has been withdrawn in five African nations- Kenya , Uganda , Tanzania , Rwanda and South Sudan by a super-market chain after a complaint by the Consumer Federation of Kenya , as a reaction to the ban in India . On 3 June 2015 , Nestlé India 's shares fell down 11 % due to the incident . Continuously on the second day , Nestlé 's share fell down by 3 % over concerns related to its safety standards . As of August 2015 , India 's government made public that it was seeking damages of nearly $ 100 million from Nestlé India for `` unfair trade practices '' following the June ban on Maggi noodles . The 6,400 million rupee suit was filed with the National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission ( NCDRC ) , regarded as the country 's top consumer court , but was settled on 13 August 2015 . The court ruled that the government ban on the Nestlé product was both `` arbitrary '' and had violated the `` principles of natural justice . '' Although Nestlé was not ordered to pay the fine requested in the government 's suit , the court ruled that the Maggi noodle producers must `` send five samples from each batch of Maggi [ noodles ] for testing to three labs and only if the lead is found to be lower than permitted will they start manufacturing and sale again . '' Although the tests have yet to take place , Nestlé has already destroyed 400 million packets of Maggi products . Although the ban has been repealed by the Government of India , with effect from the end of 2015 , a few states still needs to lift their versions of the ban , after newer tests . Milk products and baby food In late September 2008 , the Hong Kong government found melamine in a Chinese-made Nestlé milk product . Six infants died from kidney damage , and a further 860 babies were hospitalised . The Dairy Farm milk was made by Nestlé 's division in the Chinese coastal city Qingdao . Nestlé affirmed that all its products were safe and were not made from milk adulterated with melamine . On 2 October 2008 , the Taiwan Health ministry announced that six types of milk powders produced in China by Nestlé contained low-level traces of melamine , and were `` removed from the shelves '' . In another incident weevils and fungus were found in Cerelac baby food . Nestlé has implemented initiatives to prevent contamination and utilizes what it calls a “ factory and farmers ” model that eliminates the middleman . Farmers bring milk directly to a network of Nestlé-owned collection centers , where a computerized system samples , tests , and tags each batch of milk . To reduce further the risk of contamination at the source , the company provides farmers with continuous training and assistance in cow selection , feed quality , storage , and other areas . In 2014 , the company opened the Nestlé Food Safety Institute ( NFSI ) in Beijing that will help meet China ’ s growing demand for healthy and safe food , one of the top three concerns among Chinese consumers . The NFSI will work closely with authorities to help provide the scientific foundation for food-safety policies and standards . Support will include early management of food-safety issues and collaboration with local universities , research institutes and government agencies on food-safety . Cookie dough In June 2009 , an outbreak of E. coli O157 : H7 was linked to Nestlé 's refrigerated cookie dough originating in a plant in Danville , Virginia . In the US , it caused sickness in more than 50 people in 30 states , half of whom required hospitalisation . Following the outbreak , Nestlé voluntarily recalled 30,000 cases of the cookie dough . The cause was determined to be contaminated flour obtained from a raw material supplier . When operations resumed , the flour used was heat-treated to kill bacteria . Sponsorships Animation In 1993 , plans were made to update and modernise the overall tone of Walt Disney 's EPCOT Center , including a major refurbishment of The Land pavilion . Kraft Foods withdrew its sponsorship on 26 September 1993 , with Nestlé taking its place . Co-financed by Nestlé and the Walt Disney World Resort , a gradual refurbishment of the pavilion began on 27 September 1993 . In 2003 , Nestlé renewed its sponsorship of The Land ; however , it was under agreement that Nestlé would oversee its own refurbishment to both the interior and exterior of the pavilion . Between 2004 and 2005 , the pavilion underwent its second major refurbishment . Nestlé ’ s withdrawal from the Land dates back from 2009 . [ http : //disneyparkhistory.com/the-land.html The Land - Disney Park History ] Music festivals On 5 August 2010 , Nestlé and the Beijing Music Festival signed an agreement to extend by three years Nestlé 's sponsorship of this international music festival . Nestlé has been an extended sponsor of the Beijing Music Festival for 11 years since 2000 . The new agreement will continue the partnership through 2013 . Nestlé has partnered the prestigious Salzburg Festival in Austria for 20 years . In 2011 , Nestlé renewed its sponsorship of the Salzburg Festival until 2015 . Together , they have created the `` Nestlé and Salzburg Festival Young Conductors Award , '' an initiative that aims to discover young conductors globally and to contribute to the development of their careers . Sports Nestlé 's sponsorship of the Tour de France began in 2001 and the agreement was extended in 2004 , a move which demonstrated the company ’ s interest in the Tour . In July 2009 , Nestlé Waters and the organisers of the Tour de France announced that their partnership will continue until 2013 . The main promotional benefits of this partnership will spread on four key brands from Nestlé 's product portfolio : Vittel , Powerbar , Nesquik or Ricore . In 2014 , Nestlé Waters sponsored the UK leg of the Tour de France through its Buxton Natural Mineral Water brand . In 2002 Nestlé announced it was main sponsor for the Great Britain Lionesses Women 's rugby league team for the team 's second tour of Australia with its Munchies product . On 27 January 2012 , the International Association of Athletics Federations announced that Nestlé will be the main sponsor for the further development of IAAF 's Kids ' Athletics Programme , which is one of the biggest grassroots development programmes in the world of sports . The five-year sponsorship started in January 2012 . On 11 February 2016 , Nestlé decided to withdraw its sponsorship of the IAAF 's Kids ' Athletics Programmes because of doping and corruption allegations against the IAAF . Nestlé followed suit after other large sponsors , including Adidas , also stopped supporting the IAAF . Nestlé supports the Australian Institute of Sport ( AIS ) on a number of nutrition and fitness fronts , funding a Fellowship position in AIS Sports Nutrition ; nutrition activities in the AIS Dining Hall ; research activities ; and the development of education resources for use at the AIS and in the public domain . Controversy and criticisms Nestlé baby formula boycott A boycott was launched in the United States on 7 July 1977 , against the Swiss-based Nestlé corporation . It spread in the United States , and expanded into Europe in the early 1980s . It was prompted by concern about Nestlé 's `` aggressive marketing '' of breast milk substitutes , particularly in less economically developed countries ( LEDCs ) , largely among the poor . The boycott was officially suspended in the U.S. in 1984 , after Nestlé agreed to follow an international marketing code endorsed by the World Health Organization . The boycott was also ended in the UK by several organisations including the General Synod of the Church of England in July 1994 , the Royal College of Midwives in July 1997 , and the Methodist Ethical Investment Committee in November 2005 and the Reformed Churches in November 2011 as a result of the company ’ s inclusion in the responsible investment index FTSE4Good Responsible Investment Index . Since 2011 , Nestlé is the only infant formula manufacturer to have met the 104 criteria on the marketing of breastmilk substitutes ( FTSE4Good BMS Criteria ) of the FTSE4Good Responsible Investment Index . Nestlé ’ s inclusion in the index is based on results of independent and transparent verifications conducted by Pricewaterhouse Coopers every 18 months . Every year since 2009 , Bureau Veritas - one of the world ’ s leading verification and auditing firm - conducts independent assurance of compliance with the Nestlé Policy and Instructions for Implementation of the WHO International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes . Their Assurance Statements are transparently available in the public domain . In May 2011 , the debate over Nestlé 's unethical marketing of infant formula was relaunched in the Asia-Pacific region . Nineteen leading Laos-based international NGOs , including Save the Children , Oxfam , CARE International , Plan International and World Vision have launched a boycott of Nestlé and written an open letter to the company . Among other unethical practices , the NGOs criticised the lack of labelling in Laos and the provision of incentives to doctors and nurses to promote the use of infant formula . In November 2011 , Bureau Veritas , commissioned by Nestlé S.A. to provide independent assurance of Nestlé Indochina ’ s compliance with the Nestlé policy for the implementation of the World Health Organisation ( WHO ) International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes ( 1981 ) . There were no significant evidence that indicated Nestlé Indochina was systematically operating in violation of the WHO Code and Lao PDR Decree in Lao PDR . The presence of promotional materials in retail units constituted a non-conformance and Bureau Veritas recommended that the Nestlé ’ s Policy and Procedures Manual on the Marketing of breastmilk substitutes be reviewed and updated to ensure consistency against the more stringent requirements of the Lao PDR Decree . Ernest W. Lefever and the Ethics and Public Policy Center were criticized for accepting a $ 25,000 contribution from Nestlé while the organization was in the process of developing a report investigating medical care in developing nations which was never published , in an alleged deal to minimize Nestlé 's marketing of infant formula in many of these countries . Bottled water At the second World Water Forum , Nestlé and other corporations persuaded the World Water Council to change its statement so as to reduce access to drinking water from a `` right '' to a `` need . '' Nestlé chairman and former CEO Peter Brabeck-Letmathe stated that `` access to water should not be a public right . '' Nestlé continues to take control of aquifers and bottle their water for profit . Peter Brabeck-Letmathe has later changed his statement . Ethiopian debt ( 2002 ) In 2002 , Nestlé demanded that the nation of Ethiopia repay US $ 6 million of debt to the company . Ethiopia was suffering a severe famine at the time . Nestlé backed down from its demand after more than 8,500 people complained via e-mail to the company about its treatment of the Ethiopian government . The company agreed to re-invest any money it received from Ethiopia back into the country . In 2003 , Nestlé agreed to accept an offer of $ 1.5 million , and donated the money to three active charities in Ethiopia : the Red Cross , Caritas and UNHCR . Child labour In 2005 , after the cocoa industry had not met the Harkin–Engel Protocol deadline for certifying the worst forms of child labour ( according to the International Labour Organization 's Convention 182 ) had been eliminated from cocoa production , the International Labor Rights Fund filed a lawsuit in 2005 under the Alien Tort Claims Act against Nestlé and others on behalf of three Malian children . The suit alleged the children were trafficked to Ivory Coast , forced into slavery , and experienced frequent beatings on a cocoa plantation . In September 2010 , the US District Court for the Central District of California determined corporations can not be held liable for violations of international law and dismissed the suit . The case was appealed to the US Court of Appeals . The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision . In 2016 , the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear Nestle 's appeal of the Ninth Circuit 's decision . The 2010 documentary The Dark Side of Chocolate brought attention to purchases of cocoa beans from Ivorian plantations that use child slave labour . The children are usually 12 to 15 years old , and some are trafficked from nearby countries . The first allegations that child slavery is used in cocoa production appeared in 1998 . In late 2000 , a BBC documentary reported the use of enslaved children in the production of cocoa in West Africa . Other media followed by reporting widespread child slavery and child trafficking in the production of cocoa . In September 2001 , Bradley Alford , Chairman and CEO of Nestlé USA , signed the Harkin–Engel Protocol ( commonly called the Cocoa Protocol ) , an international agreement aimed at ending child labour in the production of cocoa . In 2012 , Nestlé became the first company in the food industry to join the Fair Labor Association ( FLA ) . This followed collaborations with the FLA on special projects to assess labor conditions and compliance risks throughout Nestlé ’ s supply chain of hazelnuts and cocoa . As a Participating Company , Nestlé has committed to ten Principles of Fair Labor and Responsible Sourcing , and to upholding the FLA Workplace Code of Conduct throughout their supply chains , starting with farms . The 2014 Assessments of Shared Hazelnut Supply Chain In Turkey published by the Fair Labor Association identified `` a total of 46 child workers younger than 15 years '' as well as `` a total of 83 young workers ( between 15 and 18

odql_14480--Nestlé.txt

Kit Kat is manufactured throughout the world by Nestle except in the USA, which company makes it under license there?

`` Would n't It Be Nice '' is a song written by Brian Wilson , Tony Asher , and Mike Love for American rock band the Beach Boys , released as the opening track on their 1966 album Pet Sounds . The song was also released as a single two months after the album 's release with `` God Only Knows '' as its B-side . In other countries , the sides were flipped , with `` Would n't It Be Nice '' as the single 's B-side . Its lyrics describe a couple in love lamenting about being too young to run off to get married , fantasizing about how nice it would be if they were adults . Like other tracks for Pet Sounds , Wilson constructed the song 's symphonic Wall of Sound arrangement using a variety of instruments not normally associated with popular music of its time , including accordions and a detuned twelve-string guitar . The music contains classical music devices that are unusual for a rock song , such as bitonality and ritardando . After recording the instrumental track , the Beach Boys overdubbed their voices to Wilson 's exact specifications . Love was not originally listed as co-writer , and only received his credit after a 1990s court case . In 2006 , Pitchfork Media placed `` Would n't It Be Nice '' at number 7 on its list of `` The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s '' . Background Tony Asher credits the song 's idea to Brian Wilson : `` The innocence of the situation — being too young to get married — seemed to be immensely appealing to him . '' Wilson composed the music , while the lyrics were written almost entirely by Asher over the course of one or two days . Mike Love 's single contribution was the ending couplet `` Good night my baby / sleep tight my baby '' . Love 's contributions are disputed by some . He has claimed that he revised or added other lyrics beyond the ending tag , while Asher asserted it was not possible due to Love 's absence during songwriting sessions . Since he was touring with the group in Japan while the Pet Sounds album was being composed , Love 's attorney proposed that it may have been possible that Brian consulted Love by telephone during occasional bathroom breaks . Asher , believing the argument was `` so absurd , '' responded with incredulity . Love did not receive an official co-writing credit on the song until after 1994 . Composition Earlier Beach Boys song celebrated adolescent fun and teenage love ; `` Would n't It Be Nice '' subverts this convention in its very first lyric : `` would n't it be nice if we were older '' . In the Endless Harmony documentary , Wilson described the song as `` what children everywhere go through ... would n't it be nice if we were older , or could run away and get married '' . Wilson added in 1996 , `` 'Would n't It Be Nice ' was not a real long song , but it 's a very 'up ' song . It expresses the frustrations of youth , what you ca n't have , what you really want and you have to wait for it . '' The song expresses `` the need to have the freedom to live with somebody , '' according to Brian . `` The idea is , the more we talk about it , the more we want it , but let 's talk about it anyway . Let 's talk it over , let 's talk about what we might have if we really got down to it . '' Asher has said that Wilson was `` constantly looking for topics that kids could relate to . Even though he was dealing in the most advanced score-charts and arrangements , he was still incredibly conscious of this commercial thing . This absolute need to relate . '' Music journalist Nick Kent responds : `` Would n't It Be Nice '' begins with an eight-beat introduction in the key of A major . Following a single drum hit , the song shifts to the remote flat submediant key of F. Classical composer John Adams called this key change `` nothing new in the classical or jazz world , but appearing here in the context of a standard rock-and-roll song , it felt novel and fresh . More than any other songwriter of that era , Brian Wilson understood the value of harmonic surprise . '' One section is bitonal through a bassline playing in D major . This feature was mistaken as an error by bassist Lyle Ritz , as he explains : `` [ The ] rest of the band was in another key . I knew that was wrong . So during a break , I looked at everybody else 's music to see if it was a mistake . Because you ca n't do that . But he [ Brian ] pulled it off . '' The song uses a ritardando before its bridge , a device that does n't often appear in pop music , but does in classical music . When the bridge is entered , the song modulates down a minor third from F to D major ; this same key change from F to D also occurs in `` Let 's Go Away for Awhile '' , another Wilson composition from Pet Sounds . Recording The instrumental track was recorded at Gold Star Studios on January 22 , 1966 . The session was engineered by Larry Levine and produced by Brian Wilson . It took 21 takes of recording the instrumental track before Brian deemed it the master . The musicians present on that day were a group of Los Angeles session players commonly referred to as The Wrecking Crew . Wilson says , `` Listen for the rockin ' accordions and the ethereal guitars in the introduction . Tony and I had visualized a scene . We had a feeling in our hearts , like a vibration . We put it into music , and it found its way onto tape . We really felt good about that record . '' The vocals were recorded over two sessions at Columbia engineered by Ralph Balantin . The first vocal session took place on March 10 , which also saw vocal work on `` I 'm Waiting for the Day '' , `` God Only Knows '' and `` I Just Was n't Made for These Times '' . The next session around a month later on April 11 was most likely the session at which the lead vocal for the song was recorded . Vocals for `` God Only Knows '' were also worked on at that particular session . The backing vocal sessions were problematic , as Bruce Johnston recalled , `` We re-recorded our vocals so many times , [ but ] the rhythm was never right . We would slave at Western for a few days , singing this thing , and [ Brian would say ] , 'No , it 's not right , it 's not right . ' One time , he had a 4-track Scully [ tape recorder ] sent to his home , but that did n't really work out . '' During sessions , Brian taught brother Dennis Wilson a recording technique involving cupping his hands over his mouth , elaborating : `` Well , he had a lot of trouble singing on mike . He just did n't really know how to stay on mike . He was a very nervous boy . Very nervous person . So I taught him a trick , how to record and he said , 'Hey Brian . That works great . Thank you ! ' And I said , 'It 's okay , Dennis : He was really happy . I showed him—not how to sing , but I showed him a way to get the best out of himself—just 'cup ' singing . '' Release history On July 18 , `` Would n't It Be Nice '' was released backed with `` God Only Knows '' in the United States , which was the third single from the Pet Sounds album , released two months before . It entered the Billboard chart on July 30 and remained there for 11 weeks , peaking at number 8 in September 1966 . The single also peaked at number 7 on the Cashbox chart and # 5 in Record World . It also peaked at number 4 on Canada 's RPM national chart . In Australia , the song was released in August 1966 . It entered the charts on August 24 at number 39 and spent 17 weeks on the charts , peaking at number 2 . In New Zealand , the single peaked at number 12 . In the United Kingdom , the song was released in July 1966 as the B-side of `` God Only Knows '' , which reached number 2 . The song was reissued in November 1966 in the UK on the God Only Knows EP . In July 1976 It was reissued again in the UK as the B-side of the re-issued `` Good Vibrations '' single . The single peaked at number 18 . Variations Live versions appear on two of the band 's live albums . The 1970 release Live In London and the 1973 release The Beach Boys in Concert , the former was released as a single . On the 1986 Made in U.S.A. compilation , an alternate version with different vocals was used . That same version was also released on the 1989 Beach Boys album Still Cruisin ' . In June 1990 , a different recording of the song from 1966 that had appeared on the 1989 Still Cruisin ' album was released in the United Kingdom as a single with the B-side featuring a `` Beach Boys Medley '' as well as the original recording of `` I Get Around '' , which had also been released on the Still Cruisin album . The song appears on several occasions from different stages of the recording process and in different formats on The Pet Sounds Sessions box set , including the song in its original monophonic mix ; the first ever original stereo mix of the song , which was remastered by Mark Linett ; over seven minutes of highlights from the tracking date , which documents the progress of the recording of the instrumental track ; the finished instrumental track ; the stereo track with the background vocals ; an a cappella mix of the song ; and two alternate mixes of the song one of which has a slight difference lyrically . In it , the song begins with the line `` would n't it be nice to live together , in the kind of world where we belong '' , instead of the finished version of the song which opens with the line `` would n't it be nice if we were older , then we would n't have to wait so long '' and follows with the aforementioned lyric . The 2001 stereo remix of the song restores Mike Love 's original bridge vocal , utilizing a mono mix , which causes slight phasing and sound quality issues . The full recording of the instrumental track with all 21 takes can be heard on the bootleg Sea Of Tunes Unsurpassed Masters series Vol . 13 box set . Chart performance ; Weekly singles charts Personnel Sourced from liner notes included with the 1999 mono/stereo reissue of Pet Sounds , except where otherwise noted . ; The Beach Boys * Brian Wilson – lead vocals * Mike Love – lead and backing vocals * Al Jardine – backing vocals * Bruce Johnston – backing vocals * Carl Wilson – backing vocals * Dennis Wilson – backing vocals ; Additional musicians and production staff Cover versions

odql_14755--Wouldn't_It_Be_Nice.txt

"""Wouldn't it be nice"", ""God only knows"" and ""Sloop John B"" were songs from which 1966 album?"

Bryan Ferry CBE ( born 26 September 1945 in Washington , County Durham , England ) is an English singer , songwriter and musician . His vocal style has been described as an `` elegant , seductive croon '' . He also established a distinctive image and sartorial style ; according to The Independent , in common with his contemporary David Bowie , he influenced a generation with both his music and his appearance . Ferry came to prominence as the lead vocalist and principal songwriter with the glam art rock band Roxy Music , achieving three number one albums and ten top ten singles in the UK between 1972 and 1982 . Their singles included `` Virginia Plain '' , `` Street Life '' , `` Love is the Drug '' , `` Dance Away '' , `` Angel Eyes '' , `` Over You '' , `` Oh Yeah '' , `` Jealous Guy '' and `` More Than This '' . Ferry began his solo career in 1973 . His solo hits included `` A Hard Rain 's a- Gon na Fall '' , `` Let 's Stick Together '' , and `` This Is Tomorrow '' . After disbanding Roxy Music , Ferry concentrated on his solo career , releasing further singles such as `` Slave to Love '' , and `` Do n't Stop the Dance '' . As well as being a prolific songwriter himself , Ferry has also gained attention for his many cover versions of other artists ' songs and for his re-working of standards , especially from the Great American Songbook , in albums such as These Foolish Things ( 1973 ) , Another Time , Another Place ( 1974 ) , and As Time Goes By ( 1999 ) . When his sales as a solo artist and as a member of Roxy Music are combined , Ferry has sold over 30 million albums worldwide . Early life Bryan Ferry was born in Washington , County Durham , into a working-class family ( his father , Fred Ferry , was a farm labourer who also looked after pit ponies ) , Ferry attended Washington Grammar-Technical School ( now called Washington School ) on Spout Lane from 1957 and achieved nine O levels . Among his classmates was Everton footballer Howard Kendall . Ferry later studied fine art at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne from 1964–68 , under Richard Hamilton for one year . His contemporaries included Tim Head and Nick de Ville . During this period Ferry was a member of the student band the City Blues . Ferry became a pottery teacher at Holland Park School in London . Ferry formed the band the Banshees and , later , together with Graham Simpson and John Porter , the band the Gas Board . Ferry moved to London in 1968 with the intention of pursuing a career in music . Career Roxy Music and solo years ( 1971–1983 ) Ferry formed Roxy Music with a group of friends and acquaintances , beginning with Graham Simpson , in November 1970 . The line-up expanded to include saxophonist/oboist Andy Mackay and his acquaintance Brian Eno , who owned tape recorders and played Mackay 's synthesiser . Other early members included timpanist Dexter Lloyd and ex-Nice guitarist David O'List , who were replaced respectively by Paul Thompson and Phil Manzanera before the band recorded its first album ( early Peel Sessions for the UK 's BBC Radio 1 feature O'List 's playing ) . Roxy Music 's first hit , `` Virginia Plain '' , made the UK Top 5 in 1972 , and was followed up with several hit singles and albums , with Ferry as their lead vocalist and occasional instrumentalist ( he taught himself the piano in his mid-twenties ) and Eno contributing synthesiser backing . After their second album , Brian Eno left Roxy Music , leaving Ferry its undisputed leader . Ferry had already started a parallel solo career in 1973 , initially performing cover versions of old standards on albums such as These Foolish Things ( 1973 ) and Another Time , Another Place ( 1974 ) , both of which reached the UK Top 5 . After the concert tour in support of their fifth studio album , Siren , Roxy Music temporarily disbanded in 1976 though band members Paul Thompson , Phil Manzanera and Eddie Jobson took part in recording Ferry 's subsequent solo material . In 1976 Ferry covered a song by the Beatles , `` She 's Leaving Home '' for the transitory musical documentary All This and World War II . He went on to release three solo albums during this period , Let 's Stick Together ( 1976 ) , In Your Mind ( 1977 ) and The Bride Stripped Bare ( 1978 ) . All three albums reached the UK Top 20 , but by this time his career had begun to wane . Roxy Music reconvened in 1979 , with Ferry , Manzanera , Thompson and Mackay ( Jobson was no longer a member ) . The band recorded the albums Manifesto ( 1979 ) , Flesh + Blood ( 1980 ) and Avalon ( 1982 ) , the latter two reaching number one in the UK album charts . The band also achieved their first and only UK number one single , `` Jealous Guy '' , released in 1981 as a posthumous tribute to its author John Lennon who had been murdered some months earlier . It was the only one of their singles not to be written or co-written by Ferry . After lengthy tours to promote the Avalon album in 1982 , Ferry decided to put Roxy Music on hold and continue as a solo artist . After Roxy Music ( 1984–2001 ) Ferry continued to record as a solo artist , and released his sixth solo album , Boys and Girls , in 1985 . The album reached number one in the UK , his first and only solo recording to do so , and also became his biggest selling album in the US . In July 1985 , Ferry performed at the London Live Aid show , accompanied by the guitarist David Gilmour , of Pink Floyd . He was hit with technical difficulties on sound , the drummer 's drumstick broke at the start of the first song `` Sensation '' and Gilmour 's Fender Stratocaster went dead , so he had to switch to his candy-apple red Stratocaster for the rest of the performance . The difficulties in sound were overcome for `` Slave to Love '' , as featured in the films Bitter Moon and 9½ Weeks , and `` Jealous Guy '' . As with other successful Live Aid acts , his then current album , Boys and Girls , remained in the UK chart for almost a year . After the Avalon promotional tours , Ferry was rather reluctant to return to live touring on the road ; however , a change of management persuaded him to try touring again in 1988 to promote the previous year 's Bête Noire release . Following the tour , Ferry teamed up again with Brian Eno for Mamouna ( collaborating with Robin Trower on guitar and as producer ) . The album took more than five years to produce , and was created under the working title Horoscope . During production , Ferry simultaneously recorded and released another covers album , Taxi in 1993 , which proved to be a greater commercial and critical success than Mamouna would be when it was finally released in 1994 . In 1996 Ferry performed the song `` Dance With Life '' for the Phenomenon soundtrack , which was written by Bernie Taupin and Martin Page . In 1999 Ferry appeared with Alan Partridge ( played by Steve Coogan ) on BBC 's Comic Relief . After taking some time off from music , Ferry returned in 1999 when he released an album of 1930s songs , As Time Goes By , which was nominated for a Grammy Award . Roxy Music reunion 2001 and after Ferry , Manzanera , Mackay and Thompson re-reformed Roxy Music in 2001 and toured extensively for a couple of years , though the band did not record any new material . In 2002 with the help of Manzanera and Thompson , Ferry returned with his next studio album , Frantic , which featured several tracks written with David A. Stewart as well as a collaboration with Brian Eno . The album was a mix of new original material and covers – something that Ferry had not attempted on a solo album since The Bride Stripped Bare in 1978 . In 2003 Ferry provided the entertainment for the Miss World contest . In 2004 , he starred in the short film The Porter . In 2005 it was confirmed that Roxy Music ( Ferry , Eno , Mackay , Manzanera and Thompson ) would be performing further shows at that year 's Isle of Wight festival and that they would also be recording a further album of new and original songs , with no indication of when such a project would reach completion . Brian Eno confirmed that he has worked in the studio with Roxy Music once more and has co-written songs for the new album . However , Ferry later debunked the idea of a new Roxy Music album and stated that the material from these sessions will most likely be released as part of his next solo album , and that `` I do n't think we 'll record as Roxy again . '' In October 2006 , Ferry signed a contract with the British retailer Marks and Spencer to model their `` Autograph '' men 's clothing range . In March 2007 he released the album Dylanesque , a tribute album to Bob Dylan with backing vocals from the McDonald sisters Tara McDonald & Anna McDonald . The album charted in the UK Top 10 , and Ferry undertook a UK tour . On 7 October 2008 Ferry was honoured as a BMI Icon at the annual BMI London Awards . He joined past Icons including Peter Gabriel , Ray Davies , Steve Winwood , and Van Morrison , amongst others . In 2009 Ferry provided vocals on DJ Hell 's record , U Can Dance . A new version of the track was recorded for Ferry 's new studio album , Olympia , released in October 2010 . The album contained the material he had been recorded with his former Roxy Music band members , and also featured an impressive cast of other musicians such as Nile Rodgers , David A. Stewart , Scissor Sisters , Groove Armada , Michael `` Flea '' Balzary , Johnny Greenwood and David Gilmour , and also featured model Kate Moss on the front cover . Despite this , and being released in multiple `` deluxe '' editions ( one including a large format hardback book ) , the album was not a commercial success in comparison to Ferry 's previous studio albums , barely making the UK Top 20 and dropping out of the chart altogether after only three weeks . Ferry also provided vocals for the song `` Shameless '' on Groove Armada 's 2010 album Black Light . The album received a nomination for the 53rd Grammy Awards in the category Best Electronic/Dance Album . In June 2011 , Ferry was made a CBE in the Queen 's Birthday Honours for his contribution to the British music industry . On 26 November 2012 , he released a new album entitled The Jazz Age with the Bryan Ferry Orchestra . The album features new jazz renditions of some of Ferry 's older hits ( from both his solo discography and with Roxy Music ) . However , the album was a commercial failure , peaking at No . 50 on the UK Albums Chart , the lowest of Ferry 's career . However , film director Baz Luhrmann asked to use Ferry 's song `` Love Is The Drug '' from The Jazz Age album for the 2013 film The Great Gatsby . This resulted in a collaboration with The Bryan Ferry Orchestra to do several jazz pieces throughout the movie , which was released as a separate album titled The Great Gatsby – The Jazz Recordings ( A Selection of Yellow Cocktail Music ) . Ferry began touring with The Bryan Ferry Orchestra in 2013 , including a performance at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival which was opened by Luhrmann 's Great Gatsby film . On 9 January 2014 , it was announced that Bryan Ferry would perform at the Coachella Valley Music Festival on 11 and 18 April 2014 . In 2014 , Ferry collaborated with the Norwegian DJ/producer Todd Terje , providing vocals on a cover version of `` Johnny and Mary '' ( originally recorded by Robert Palmer ) . The track was released as a single and appeared on Terje 's album It 's Album Time . In June 2014 , Ferry appeared at the 2014 Glastonbury Festival . In November 2014 , Ferry released a new album entitled Avonmore , featuring original material and two cover songs ( including the aforementioned `` Johnny and Mary '' with Todd Terje ) . The same month , he was diagnosed with acute laryngitis and on medical advice was declared unfit to perform the remaining dates of his current European tour . Concerts were cancelled from 29 November 2014 in Hamburg up to and including 11 December 2014 in Brussels , though the dates were rescheduled for 2015 . Personal life Several of the women Ferry had been involved with have appeared as cover models on the Roxy Music albums . Ferry dated the French singer and model Amanda Lear , who was photographed with a black jaguar for the cover of the For Your Pleasure album . She later went on to date David Bowie . Ferry then began a relationship with model Jerry Hall . Ferry first met Hall when she posed for the Roxy Music album cover for Siren in Wales during the summer of 1975 . Hall 's autobiography Tall Tales ( 1985 ) describes the photo session , and she elaborates on how the blue body paint she wore to look like a mythical siren would not wash off ; Hall says that Ferry took her back to his house , claiming he would help her to remove the paint . Her stay at Ferry 's Holland Park ( London ) home , following the album cover photo shoot , marked the start of their affair . Hall and Ferry lived together , sharing homes in London and in the Bel Air district of Los Angeles , and Hall also appeared in some of Ferry 's music videos , including `` Let 's Stick Together '' and `` The Price of Love '' ( both 1976 ) . Their relationship ended when she left him for Mick Jagger in late 1977 . Ferry rarely talks about Jerry Hall , but fans have often speculated that his song `` Kiss and Tell '' from his album Bête Noire ( 1987 ) was Ferry 's response to Hall 's tell-all book about their relationship published a couple of years earlier . Additionally , Ferry 's 1978 solo album The Bride Stripped Bare is widely believed to contain allusions to his break-up with Hall—particularly the song `` When She Walks in the Room '' . Ferry 's original songs on the album were in fact written some time before the relationship ended , although it was recorded afterwards . On 26 June 1982 , Ferry married London socialite and model Lucy Helmore ( 14 years his junior ) , who had become pregnant with their child Otis ( b . 1 November 1982 ) . Although her face is not seen , Helmore was the model on the front cover of Roxy Music 's album Avalon ( 1982 ) , released a month before their wedding . The couple had three more sons , Isaac , Tara , and Merlin . After they married , Helmore helped Ferry to kick a cocaine habit , and she herself attended Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous in the mid-1990s . In 2000 , the whole Ferry family were on British Airways Flight 2069 to Nairobi when a deranged passenger forced his way into the cockpit , attacked the pilot and caused the plane to lurch downward . Maintaining his composure in a frantic situation , Ferry took the time to berate one of his sons for using bad language during the incident . A crash was prevented when the assailant was eventually overcome . Ferry 's son , Otis , has become known in the British media for his pro-hunting political activities . He has been arrested and charged several times for activities relating to hunting , one of which led to a conviction . In 2004 , Otis was among pro-hunt campaigners who stormed into the chambers of the House of Commons during a debate on the banning of hunting . He was charged with disorderly conduct . Otis is also a joint master of the South Shropshire hunt . Ferry 's second son , Isaac , was suspended from Eton College for sending abusive e-mails to an anti-hunting campaigner . By 2008 , Ferry 's son Tara was performing in a rock band called Rubber Kiss Goodbye and was about to start studying at the Chelsea College of Art and Design . By 2008 , Merlin was studying for `` A '' Levels at Marlborough College , and now plays guitar in his band Voltorb . Ferry 's children have also contributed to his 2010 album Olympia . Tara played drums on several tracks , Merlin played guitar on one track , and Isaac was the producer of the album 's artwork . Tara also toured with Ferry ( and Roxy Music ) on the band 's 2011 For Your Pleasure tour , performing additional drums . Ferry and Helmore split in the early 2000s following an affair she had , and they divorced in 2003 . After their separation , British newspapers photographed Ferry with Katie Turner , 35 years his junior , naming her as his new 'girlfriend ' . Ferry and Turner met while she worked as one of the dancers on Roxy Music 's concert tour in 2001 ( and is featured on the DVD of the 2001 Hammersmith Odeon Show ) . She went on to appear with Ferry on several TV shows to promote the Frantic album , and also performed on the Frantic tour in 2002 . After their break-up , Ferry had a relationship with British socialite Lady Emily Compton . In 2006 he resumed his relationship with Katie Turner for some time . Ferry began a relationship with Amanda Sheppard , an ex-girlfriend of one of his sons . Sheppard worked in public relations until she quit her job in 2009 after Ferry offered to support her financially . In early January 2012 , Ferry married Sheppard in a private ceremony on the Turks and Caicos Islands . In August 2013 , it was reported that the couple were to separate after 19 months of marriage . Ferry was estimated to have a fortune of £30 million in the Sunday Times Rich List of 2010 . Nazi controversy In 2007 , a controversy arose after Ferry praised the imagery and iconography of the Nazi régime in an interview with the German newspaper , Welt am Sonntag . Ferry stated the way that the Nazis staged themselves and presented themselves , my Lord ! ... I 'm talking about the films of Leni Riefenstahl ... And the buildings of Albert Speer and the mass marches and the flags—just fantastic . Really beautiful . In the same interview Ferry was also reported to have referred to his West London recording studio as `` The Führerbunker '' ( Adolf Hitler 's bunker during World War II ) . Ferry 's comments caused considerable controversy in the media and , in the following month he made a public apology , stating I apologise unreservedly for any offence caused by my comments on Nazi iconography , which were solely made from an art history perspective . I , like every right-minded individual , find the Nazi régime , and all it stood for , evil and abhorrent . At the time of the controversy , Ferry was contracted to the British retailer Marks & Spencer to model their `` Autograph '' menswear line . However , despite Ferry 's public apology for his comments , Marks & Spencer opted to sever their ties with him . Political views In 2008 Ferry alluded to support for the UK Conservative Party ; referring to himself as `` conservative by nature '' , but essentially apolitical . Without elaborating , he stated he was `` proud '' of his son Otis and declared the then Labour Government 's ban on fox hunting as `` futile '' . He also alluded to an opposition to `` left-wing bitterness '' and the spectre of `` political correctness '' , but the model of free speech he cited was the anarchic 1970s , and not the Thatcher era , or a more distant past . In a 2009 interview , Ferry stated : I would support a Cameron government . I have met him , and he 's a bright guy . I hope they do well . I do n't like the way the present Government has done things , most of all putting my son in prison for four and a half months , totally unlawfully ... and that 's not just my opinion : judges , all sorts , have said it was a stitch-up . It was politically motivated . The poor lad just wants to live the traditional country life . Ferry is a supporter of the Countryside Alliance and has played concerts to raise funds for the organisation . In August 2014 , Ferry was one of 200 public figures who signed a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September 's referendum on that issue . In other media In 1985 , Ferry contributed the song `` Is Your Love Strong Enough ? '' to the Ridley Scott-Tom Cruise film Legend . The song ( featuring guitar work by David Gilmour ) plays during the end credits of the US theatrical release , and was released with the Tangerine Dream version of the soundtrack on CD ( although this is out of print and rare ) . A promotional music video was created , integrating Ferry and Gilmour into scenes from the film ; this is included as a bonus in the 2002 `` Ultimate Edition '' DVD release . The song was later covered by How To Destroy Angels for the soundtrack to the 2011 US version of The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo . Acting As an actor , Ferry appeared in Neil Jordan 's 2005 film Breakfast on Pluto as the character 'Mr . Silky String ' . He also cameoed in the fourth episode of the French television mini-series Petit déjeuner compris in 1980 , playing himself . Discography Studio albums * These Foolish Things ( October 1973 , UK # 5 ) * Another Time , Another Place ( July 1974 , UK # 4 ) * Let 's Stick Together ( September 1976 , UK No . 19 , US No . 160 , Nor # 19 ) * In Your Mind ( February 1977 , UK No . 5 , US No . 126 , Aus No . 1 , Nor # 12 ) * The Bride Stripped Bare ( April 1978 , UK No . 13 , US # 159 ) * Boys and Girls ( June 1985 , UK No . 1 , US No . 63 , Nor # 3 ) * Bête Noire ( November 1987 , UK No . 9 , US No . 63 , Nor # 10 ) * Taxi ( 13 April 1993 , UK No . 2 , US No . 79 , Nor # 12 ) * Mamouna ( 5 September 1994 , UK No . 11 , US No . 94 , Nor # 12 ) * As Time Goes By ( 15 October 1999 , UK No . 16 , US No . 199 , Nor # 23 ) * Frantic ( 18 May 2002 , UK No . 6 , US No . 189 , Nor # 4 ) * Dylanesque ( 5 March 2007 , UK No . 5 , US No . 117 , Nor # 19 ) * Olympia ( 26 October 2010 , UK No . 19 , US No . 71 , Nor # 16 ) * The Jazz Age ( 26 November 2012 , UK # 50 ) * Avonmore ( 17 November 2014 , UK No . 19 , US # 72 ) Sources * Bracewell , Michael . Roxy Music : Bryan Ferry , Brian Eno , Art , Ideas , and Fashion ( Da Capo Press , 2005 ) . ISBN 0-306-81400-5 * Buckley , David . The Thrill of It All : The Story of Bryan Ferry & Roxy Music ( Chicago Review Press , 2005 ) . ISBN 1-55652-574-5 * Rigby , Jonathan . Roxy Music : Both Ends Burning ( Reynolds & Hearn , 2005 ; revised edition 2008 ) . ISBN 1-903111-80-3 * Stump , Paul . Unknown Pleasures : A Cultural Biography of Roxy Music ( Quartet Books , 1998 ) . ISBN 0-7043-8074-9

qb_6665--Bryan_Ferry.txt

Bryan Ferry was the lead singer of which 1970’s band?

Robert Anson Heinlein ( ; July 7 , 1907 – May 8 , 1988 ) was an American science-fiction writer . Often called the `` dean of science fiction writers '' , he was an influential and controversial author of the genre in his time . Heinlein became one of the first science-fiction writers to break into mainstream magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post in the late 1940s . He was one of the best-selling science-fiction novelists for many decades , and he , Isaac Asimov , and Arthur C. Clarke are often considered to be the `` Big Three '' of science fiction authors . A notable writer of science-fiction short stories , Heinlein was one of a group of writers who came to prominence under the editorship of John W. Campbell , Jr. at his Astounding Science Fiction magazine—though Heinlein denied that Campbell influenced his writing to any great degree . Within the framework of his science-fiction stories , Heinlein repeatedly addressed certain social themes : the importance of individual liberty and self-reliance , the obligation individuals owe to their societies , the influence of organized religion on culture and government , and the tendency of society to repress nonconformist thought . He also speculated on the influence of space travel on human cultural practices . Heinlein was named the first Science Fiction Writers Grand Master in 1974 . He won Hugo Awards for four of his novels ; in addition , fifty years after publication , three of his works were awarded `` Retro Hugos '' —awards given retrospectively for works that were published before the Hugo Awards came into existence . In his fiction , Heinlein coined terms that have become part of the English language , including `` grok '' , `` waldo '' , and `` speculative fiction '' , as well as popularizing existing terms like `` TANSTAAFL '' , `` pay it forward '' , and `` space marine '' . He also anticipated mechanical Computer Aided Design with `` Drafting Dan '' and described a modern version of a waterbed in his novel The Door into Summer , though he never patented or built one . In the first chapter of the novel Space Cadet he anticipated the cell-phone , 35 years before Motorola invented the technology . Several of Heinlein 's works have been adapted for film and television . Life Birth and childhood Heinlein was born on July 7 , 1907 to Rex Ivar Heinlein ( an accountant ) and Bam Lyle Heinlein , in Butler , Missouri . He was a 6th-generation German-American : a family tradition had it that Heinleins fought in every American war starting with the War of Independence . His childhood was spent in Kansas City , Missouri . The outlook and values of this time and place ( in his own words , `` The Bible Belt '' ) had a definite influence on his fiction , especially his later works , as he drew heavily upon his childhood in establishing the setting and cultural atmosphere in works like Time Enough for Love and To Sail Beyond the Sunset . Navy Heinlein 's experience in the U.S. Navy exerted a strong influence on his character and writing . He graduated from the U.S . Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland with the class of 1929 and went on to serve as an officer in the Navy . He was assigned to the new aircraft carrier in 1931 , where he worked in radio communications , then in its earlier phases , with the carrier 's aircraft . The captain of this carrier was Ernest J . King , who later served as the Chief of Naval Operations and Commander-in-Chief , U.S. Fleet during World War II . Heinlein was frequently interviewed during his later years by military historians who asked him about Captain King and his service as the commander of the U.S. Navy 's first modern aircraft carrier . Heinlein also served aboard the destroyer in 1933 and 1934 , reaching the rank of lieutenant . His brother , Lawrence Heinlein , served in the U.S. Army , the U.S. Air Force , and the Missouri National Guard , and he rose to the rank of major general in the National Guard . In 1929 , Heinlein married Elinor Curry of Kansas City in Los Angeles , and their marriage lasted about a year . His second marriage in 1932 to Leslyn MacDonald ( 1904–1981 ) lasted for 15 years . MacDonald was , according to the testimony of Heinlein 's Navy buddy , Caleb 'Cab ' Lansing , `` astonishingly intelligent , widely read , and extremely liberal , though a registered Republican , '' while Isaac Asimov later recalled that Heinlein was , at the time , `` a flaming liberal '' .Isaac Asimov , I , Asimov . ( See section : Politics of Robert Heinlein . ) California In 1934 , Heinlein was discharged from the Navy due to pulmonary tuberculosis . During a lengthy hospitalization , he developed a design for a waterbed . After his discharge , Heinlein attended a few weeks of graduate classes in mathematics and physics at the University of California at Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , but he soon quit either because of his health or from a desire to enter politics . Heinlein supported himself at several occupations , including real estate sales and silver mining , but for some years found money in short supply . Heinlein was active in Upton Sinclair 's socialist End Poverty in California movement in the early 1930s . When Sinclair gained the Democratic nomination for Governor of California in 1934 , Heinlein worked actively in the campaign . Heinlein himself ran for the California State Assembly in 1938 , but he was unsuccessful . Author While not destitute after the campaign—he had a small disability pension from the Navy—Heinlein turned to writing in order to pay off his mortgage . His first published story , `` Life-Line '' , was printed in the August 1939 issue of Astounding Science-Fiction . Originally written for a contest , it was instead sold to Astounding for significantly more than the contest 's first-prize payoff . Another Future History story , `` Misfit '' , followed in November . Heinlein was quickly acknowledged as a leader of the new movement toward `` social '' science fiction . In California he hosted the Mañana Literary Society , a 1940-41 series of informal gatherings of new authors . He was the guest of honor at Denvention , the 1941 Worldcon , held in Denver . During World War II , he did aeronautical engineering for the U.S. Navy , also recruiting Isaac Asimov and L. Sprague de Camp to work at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in Pennsylvania . As the war wound down in 1945 , Heinlein began re-evaluating his career . The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , along with the outbreak of the Cold War , galvanized him to write nonfiction on political topics . In addition , he wanted to break into better-paying markets . He published four influential short stories for The Saturday Evening Post magazine , leading off , in February 1947 , with `` The Green Hills of Earth '' . That made him the first science fiction writer to break out of the `` pulp ghetto '' . In 1950 , the movie Destination Moon—the documentary-like film for which he had written the story and scenario , co-written the script , and invented many of the effects—won an Academy Award for special effects . Also , he embarked on a series of juvenile S.F . novels for the Charles Scribner 's Sons publishing company that went from 1947 through 1959 , at the rate of one book each autumn , in time for Christmas presents to teenagers . He also wrote for Boys ' Life in 1952 . At the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard he had met and befriended a chemical engineer named Virginia `` Ginny '' Gerstenfeld . After the war , her engagement having fallen through , she moved to UCLA for doctoral studies in chemistry , and made contact again . As his second wife 's alcoholism gradually spun out of control , Heinlein moved out and the couple filed for divorce . Heinlein 's friendship with Virginia turned into a relationship and on October 21 , 1948 — shortly after the decree nisi came through — they married in the town of Raton , New Mexico shortly after having set up house in Colorado . They would remain married until Heinlein 's death . As Heinlein 's increasing success as a writer resolved their initial financial woes , they had a house custom built with various innovative features , later described in an article in Popular Mechanics . In 1965 , after various chronic health problems of Virginia 's were traced back to altitude sickness , they moved to Santa Cruz , California , at sea level , while they were building a new residence in the adjacent village of Bonny Doon , California . Their unique circular California house—which like their Colorado house , he designed along with Virginia and then built himself—is on Bonny Doon Road . Ginny undoubtedly served as a model for many of his intelligent , fiercely independent female characters . She was a chemist , rocket test engineer , and held a higher rank in the Navy than Heinlein himself . She was also an accomplished college athlete , earning four letters . In 1953–1954 , the Heinleins voyaged around the world ( mostly via ocean liners and cargo liners , as Ginny detested flying ) , which Heinlein described in Tramp Royale , and which also provided background material for science fiction novels set aboard spaceships on long voyages , such as Podkayne of Mars and Friday . Ginny acted as the first reader of his manuscripts . Isaac Asimov believed that Heinlein made a swing to the right politically at the same time he married Ginny . The Heinleins formed the small `` Patrick Henry League '' in 1958 , and they worked in the 1964 Barry Goldwater Presidential campaign . Heinlein had used topical materials throughout his juvenile series beginning in 1947 , but in 1959 , his novel Starship Troopers was considered by the editors and owners of Scribner 's to be too controversial for one of its prestige lines , and it was rejected . Heinlein found another publisher ( Putnam ) , feeling himself released from the constraints of writing novels for children , and he began to write `` my own stuff , my own way '' , and he wrote a series of challenging books that redrew the boundaries of science fiction , including Stranger in a Strange Land ( 1961 ) and The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress ( 1966 ) . Later life and death Beginning in 1970 , Heinlein had a series of health crises , broken by strenuous periods of activity in his hobby of stonemasonry . ( In a private correspondence , he referred to that as his `` usual and favorite occupation between books . '' ) The decade began with a life-threatening attack of peritonitis , recovery from which required more than two years , and treatment of which required multiple transfusions of Heinlein 's rare blood type , A2 negative . [ https : //fee.org/articles/robert-a-heinleins-soaring-spirit-of-liberty/ Robert A. Heinlein 's Soaring Spirit of Liberty ] , by Jim Powell , at the Foundation for Economic Education ; published July 1 , 1997 ; retrieved April 13 , 2016 As soon as he was well enough to write again , he began work on Time Enough for Love ( 1973 ) , which introduced many of the themes found in his later fiction . In the mid-1970s , Heinlein wrote two articles for the Britannica Compton Yearbook . He and Ginny crisscrossed the country helping to reorganize blood donation in the United States in an effort to assist the system which had saved his life , and he was the guest of honor at the Worldcon for the third time at MidAmeriCon in Kansas City , Missouri , in 1976 . While vacationing in Tahiti in early 1978 , he suffered a transient ischemic attack . Over the next few months , he became more and more exhausted , and his health again began to decline . The problem was determined to be a blocked carotid artery , and he had one of the earliest known carotid bypass operations to correct it . Heinlein and Virginia had been smokers , and smoking appears often in his fiction , as do fictitious strikable self-lighting cigarettes . In 1980 Robert Heinlein was a member of the Citizens Advisory Council on National Space Policy , chaired by Jerry Pournelle , which met at the home of SF writer Larry Niven to write space policy papers for the incoming Reagan Administration . Members included Buzz Aldrin , General Daniel Graham , rocket engineer Max Hunter , North American VP and Space Shuttle manager George Merrick , and other aerospace industry leaders . Policy recommendations from the Council included ballistic missile defense concepts which were later transformed into what was called the Strategic Defense Initiative by those who favored it , and `` Star Wars '' as a term of derision coined by Senator Ted Kennedy . Heinlein contributed to the Council contribution to the Reagan `` Star Wars '' speech of Spring 1983 . Asked to appear before a Joint Committee of the U.S. House and Senate that year , he testified on his belief that spin-offs from space technology were benefiting the infirm and the elderly . Heinlein 's surgical treatment re-energized him , and he wrote five novels from 1980 until he died in his sleep from emphysema and heart failure on May 8 , 1988 . At that time , he had been putting together the early notes for another World as Myth novel . Several of his other works have been published posthumously . After his death , his wife Virginia Heinlein issued a compilation of Heinlein 's correspondence and notes into a somewhat autobiographical examination of his career , published in 1989 under the title Grumbles from the Grave . Heinlein 's archive is housed by the Special Collections department of McHenry Library at the University of California at Santa Cruz . The collection includes manuscript drafts , correspondence , photographs and artifacts . A substantial portion of the archive has been digitized and it is available online through the Robert A. and Virginia Heinlein Archives . Works Heinlein published 32 novels , 59 short stories , and 16 collections during his life . Four films , two television series , several episodes of a radio series , and a board game have been derived more or less directly from his work . He wrote a screenplay for one of the films . Heinlein edited an anthology of other writers ' SF short stories . Three nonfiction books and two poems have been published posthumously . For Us , The Living : A Comedy of Customs was published posthumously in 2003 ; Variable Star , written by Spider Robinson based on an extensive outline by Heinlein , was published in September 2006 . Four collections have been published posthumously . Series Over the course of his career Heinlein wrote three somewhat overlapping series . * Future History series * Lazarus Long series * The Heinlein juveniles Early work , 1939–1958 Heinlein began his career as a writer of stories for Astounding Science Fiction , a highly respected science fiction magazine , which was edited by John Campbell . The science fiction writer Frederik Pohl has described Heinlein as `` that greatest of Campbell-era sf writers '' . Isaac Asimov said that , from the time of his first story , it was accepted that Heinlein was the best science fiction writer in existence , adding that he would hold this title through his lifetime . Alexei and Cory Panshin noted that Heinlein 's impact was immediately felt . In 1940 , the year after selling 'Life-Line ' to Campbell , he wrote three short novels , four novelettes , and seven short stories . They went on to say that `` No one ever dominated the science fiction field as Bob did in the first few years of his career . '' Alexei expresses awe in Heinlein 's ability to show readers a world so drastically different from the one we live in now , yet have so many similarities . He says that `` We find ourselves not only in a world other than our own , but identifying with a living , breathing individual who is operating within its context , and thinking and acting according to its terms . '' The first novel that Heinlein wrote , For Us , The Living : A Comedy of Customs ( 1939 ) , did not see print during his lifetime , but Robert James tracked down the manuscript and it was published in 2003 . Though some regard it as a failure as a novel , considering it little more than a disguised lecture on Heinlein 's social theories , some readers took a very different view . In a review of it , John Clute wrote : `` I 'm not about to suggest that if Heinlein had been able to publish [ such works ] openly in the pages of Astounding in 1939 , SF would have gotten the future right ; I would suggest , however , that if Heinlein , and his colleagues , had been able to publish adult SF in Astounding and its fellow journals , then SF might not have done such a grotesquely poor job of prefiguring something of the flavor of actually living here at the onset of 2004 . '' For Us , the Living was intriguing as a window into the development of Heinlein 's radical ideas about man as a social animal , including his interest in free love . The root of many themes found in his later stories can be found in this book . It also contained much material that could be considered background for his other novels , including a detailed description of the protagonist 's treatment to avoid being banned to Coventry ( a lawless land in the Heinlein mythos where unrepentant law-breakers are exiled ) . It appears that Heinlein at least attempted to live in a manner consistent with these ideals , even in the 1930s , and had an open relationship in his marriage to his second wife , Leslyn . He was also a nudist ; nudism and body taboos are frequently discussed in his work . At the height of the Cold War , he built a bomb shelter under his house , like the one featured in Farnham 's Freehold . After For Us , The Living , Heinlein began selling ( to magazines ) first short stories , then novels , set in a Future History , complete with a time line of significant political , cultural , and technological changes . A chart of the future history was published in the May 1941 issue of Astounding . Over time , Heinlein wrote many novels and short stories that deviated freely from the Future History on some points , while maintaining consistency in some other areas . The Future History was eventually overtaken by actual events . These discrepancies were explained , after a fashion , in his later World as Myth stories . Heinlein 's first novel published as a book , Rocket Ship Galileo , was initially rejected because going to the moon was considered too far out , but he soon found a publisher , Scribner 's , that began publishing a Heinlein juvenile once a year for the Christmas season . Eight of these books were illustrated by Clifford Geary in a distinctive white-on-black scratchboard style . Some representative novels of this type are Have Space Suit—Will Travel , Farmer in the Sky , and Starman Jones . Many of these were first published in serial form under other titles , e.g. , Farmer in the Sky was published as Satellite Scout in the Boy Scout magazine Boys ' Life . There has been speculation that Heinlein 's intense obsession with his privacy was due at least in part to the apparent contradiction between his unconventional private life and his career as an author of books for children , but For Us , The Living also explicitly discusses the political importance Heinlein attached to privacy as a matter of principle . The novels that Heinlein wrote for a young audience are commonly called `` the Heinlein juveniles '' , and they feature a mixture of adolescent and adult themes . Many of the issues that he takes on in these books have to do with the kinds of problems that adolescents experience . His protagonists are usually very intelligent teenagers who have to make their way in the adult society they see around them . On the surface , they are simple tales of adventure , achievement , and dealing with stupid teachers and jealous peers . Heinlein was a vocal proponent of the notion that juvenile readers were far more sophisticated and able to handle more complex or difficult themes than most people realized . His juvenile stories often had a maturity to them that made them readable for adults . Red Planet , for example , portrays some very subversive themes , including a revolution in which young students are involved ; his editor demanded substantial changes in this book 's discussion of topics such as the use of weapons by children and the misidentified sex of the Martian character . Heinlein was always aware of the editorial limitations put in place by the editors of his novels and stories , and while he observed those restrictions on the surface , was often successful in introducing ideas not often seen in other authors ' juvenile SF . In 1957 , James Blish wrote that one reason for Heinlein 's success `` has been the high grade of machinery which goes , today as always , into his story-telling . Heinlein seems to have known from the beginning , as if instinctively , technical lessons about fiction which other writers must learn the hard way ( or often enough , never learn ) . He does not always operate the machinery to the best advantage , but he always seems to be aware of it . '' 1959–1960 Heinlein decisively ended his juvenile novels with Starship Troopers ( 1959 ) , a controversial work and his personal riposte to leftists calling for President Dwight D. Eisenhower to stop nuclear testing in 1958 . `` The `` Patrick Henry '' ad shocked 'em , '' he wrote many years later . `` Starship Troopers outraged 'em . '' Starship Troopers is a coming-of-age story about duty , citizenship , and the role of the military in society . The book portrays a society in which suffrage is earned by demonstrated willingness to place society 's interests before one 's own , at least for a short time and often under onerous circumstances , in government service ; in the case of the protagonist , this was military service . Later , in Expanded Universe , Heinlein said that it was his intention in the novel that service could include positions outside strictly military functions such as teachers , police officers , and other government positions . This is presented in the novel as an outgrowth of the failure of unearned suffrage government and as a very successful arrangement . In addition , the franchise was only awarded after leaving the assigned service , thus those serving their terms—in the military , or any other service—were excluded from exercising any franchise . Career military were completely disenfranchised until retirement . The name Starship Troopers was licensed for an unrelated , B movie script called Bug Hunt at Outpost Nine , which was then retitled to benefit from the book 's credibility . [ http : //www.fangoria.com/new/fango-flashback-starship-troopers-1997/ Fango Flashback : `` STARSHIP TROOPERS '' ( 1997 ) ] Verhoeven went returned to genre territory , optioning a script from his ROBOCOP collaborator Ed Neumeier entitled BUG HUNT AT OUTPOST 9 and refashioning it with elements from Robert Heinlein ’ s STARSHIP TROOPERS . A loose adaptation at best , Verhoeven saw the potential in another science-fiction satire and pursued it head-on The resulting film , entitled Starship Troopers ( 1997 ) , which was written by Ed Neumeier and directed by Paul Verhoeven , had little relationship to the book , beyond the inclusion of character names , the depiction of space marines , and the concept of suffrage earned by military service . Fans of Heinlein were critical of the movie , which they considered a betrayal of Heinlein 's philosophy , presenting the society in which the story takes place as fascist . Christopher Weuve , an admirer of Heinlein , has said that the society depicted in the film showed only a superficial resemblance to the society that Heinlein describes in his book . Weuve summed up his critique of the film as follows . First , `` while the Terran Federation in Starship Troopers [ the novel ] is specifically stated to be a representative democracy , Ed Neumeier decided to make the government into a fascist state ... Second , the book was multiracial , but not so the movie : all the non-Anglo characters from the book have been replaced by characters who look like they stepped out of the Aryan edition of GQ ... Third , there is real element of sadism present in the movie which simply is n't present in the book . '' Likewise , the powered armor technology that is not only central to the book , but became a standard subgenre of science fiction thereafter , is completely absent in the movie , where the characters use World War II-technology weapons and wear light combat gear little more advanced than that . [ http : //thehollywoodinterview.blogspot.com/2010/09/paul-verhoeven-starship-troopers.html How Did Verhoeven Manage to Ruin Starship Troopers So Completely ? ] In the book , Robert Heinlein invented the modern , `` Mech Warrior / Battletech '' armor ( though it 's grown a lot since ) . This idea is now one of the most popular game/toy/merchandising techniques around . It was essential to the book , which was about the life of a hero in the MECHANIZED infantry . A very big deal is made of this , and it 's essential to much of the plot and all of the action . In Verhoeven 's movie of the same name , there is no battle armor . This is not because of budgetary constraints , as one can see from the ridiculously complex and expensive `` bug '' scenes ... adding simple mechanized armor would have been little extra expense , especially considering that it may have made some scenes cheaper ( no need to integrate real people with the bugs , less expensive scenery ) , and that the armor was more important to the story than the bugs According to Verhoeven , this , and the fascist tone of the book , reflected his own experience in the Nazi-occupied Netherlands during World War II . [ http : //thehollywoodinterview.blogspot.com/2010/09/paul-verhoeven-starship-troopers.html Paul Verhoeven : The `` Starship Troopers '' Hollywood Flashback Interview ] It was an attempt to upgrade the old style Fox Movietone newsreels ... and Third Reich propaganda films and even my old Marines documentaries that I did , because a lot of that was promotion and propaganda as well ... That 's why the relationship to the second world war is so important to me because it was probably the last war , and one of the few wars in history , where you can make the argument that it was good In fact , Verhoeven had not even read the book , attempting to after he bought the rights to add to his existing movie , and disliking it : `` I stopped after two chapters because it was so boring ... It is really quite a bad book . I asked Ed Neumeier to tell me the story because I just could n't read the thing '' . [ http : //www.empireonline.com/features/paul-verhoeven Empire ] '' I stopped after two chapters because it was so boring , '' says Verhoeven of his attempts to read Heinlein 's opus . `` It is really quite a bad book . I asked Ed Neumeier to tell me the story because I just could n't read the thing . It 's a very right-wing book . And with the movie we tried , and I think at least partially succeeded , in commenting on

qg_3941--Robert_A._Heinlein.txt

Starship Troopers, Stranger in a Strange Land, The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, The Cat Who Walks Through Walls

`` The Forgotten Prisoners '' is an article by Peter Benenson published in The Observer on 28 May 1961 . Citing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights articles 18 and 19 , it announced a campaign on `` Appeal for Amnesty , 1961 '' and called for `` common action '' . The article also launched the book Persecution 1961 and its stories of doctor Agostinho Neto , philosopher Constantin Noica , lawyer Antonio Amat and Ashton Jones and Patrick Duncan . Benenson reputedly wrote his article after having learnt that two Portuguese students from Coimbra were imprisoned in Portugal for raising a toast to freedom . The article was reprinted in newspapers across the world and provoked a flood of responses from the readers , marshalling groups in several countries to examine human rights abuses . While , in 2015 , the original story still remains to be verified , the appeal marks the beginning of Amnesty International , founded in London the same year following the publication after Benenson enlisted a Tory , a Liberal and a Labour MP .

sfq_20421--The_Forgotten_Prisoners.txt

Which charity was founded in London in 1961 following the publication of the article 'The Forgotten Prisoners' in 'The Observer'?

Russia ( ; ) , also officially known as the Russian Federation ( ) , is a sovereign state in northern Eurasia . At 17075200 km2 , Russia is the largest country in the world , covering more than one eighth of Earth 's inhabited land area , and the ninth most populous , with over 146.6 million people at the end of March 2016 . Extending across the entirety of northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe , Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms . From northwest to southeast , Russia shares land borders with Norway , Finland , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania and Poland ( both with Kaliningrad Oblast ) , Belarus , Ukraine , Georgia , Azerbaijan , Kazakhstan , China , Mongolia , and North Korea . It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait . The nation 's history began with that of the East Slavs , who emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD . Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants , the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century . In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire , beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium . Rus ' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states ; most of the Rus ' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century . The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities , achieved independence from the Golden Horde , and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus ' . By the 18th century , the nation had greatly expanded through conquest , annexation , and exploration to become the Russian Empire , which was the third largest empire in history , stretching from Poland in Europe to Alaska in North America . Following the Russian Revolution , the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , the world 's first constitutionally socialist state . The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II , and emerged as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War . The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century , including the world 's first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space . By the end of 1990 , the Soviet Union had the world 's second largest economy , largest standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction . Following the partition of the Soviet Union in 1991 , fourteen independent republics emerged from the USSR ; as the largest , most populous , and most economically developed republic , the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as the continuing legal personality and sole successor state of the Soviet Union . It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic . The Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015 . Russia 's extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world , making it one of the leading producers of oil and natural gas globally . The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction . Russia is a great power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council , as well as a member of the G20 , the Council of Europe , the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) , the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation ( SCO ) , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe ( OSCE ) , and the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , as well as being the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ) , the Collective Security Treaty Organization ( CSTO ) and one of the five members of the Eurasian Economic Union ( EEU ) , along with Armenia , Belarus , Kazakhstan , and Kyrgyzstan . Etymology The name Russia is derived from Rus , a medieval state populated mostly by the East Slavs . However , this proper name became more prominent in the later history , and the country typically was called by its inhabitants `` Русская Земля '' ( russkaja zemlja ) , which can be translated as `` Russian Land '' or `` Land of Rus ' '' . In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it , it is denoted as Kievan Rus ' by modern historiography . The name Rus itself comes from Rus people , a group of Varangians ( possibly Swedish Vikings ) who founded the state of Rus ( Русь ) . An old Latin version of the name Rus ' was Ruthenia , mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus ' that were adjacent to Catholic Europe . The current name of the country , Россия ( Rossija ) , comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus ' , Ρωσσία Rossía—spelt Ρωσία ( Rosía ) in Modern Greek . The standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is `` Russians '' . History Prehistory Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic-Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic . In classical antiquity , the Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia . Beginning in the 8th century BC , Ancient Greek traders brought their civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria . The Romans settled on the western part of the Caspian Sea , where their empire stretched towards the east . In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD a semi-legendary Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in Southern Russia until it was overrun by Huns . Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD , the Bosporan Kingdom , a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greek colonies , was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes , such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars . A Turkic people , the Khazars , ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas until the 10th century . The ancestors of modern Russians are the Slavic tribes , whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pinsk Marshes . The East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves : one moving from Kiev toward present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk toward Novgorod and Rostov . From the 7th century onwards , the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia and assimilated the native Finno-Ugric peoples , including the Merya , the Muromians , and the Meshchera . Kievan Rus ' The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians , the traders , warriors and settlers from the Baltic Sea region . Primarily they were Vikings of Scandinavian origin , who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas . According to the Primary Chronicle , a Varangian from Rus ' people , named Rurik , was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862 . In 882 his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev , which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars , founding Kievan Rus ' . Oleg , Rurik 's son Igor and Igor 's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule , destroyed the Khazar khaganate and launched several military expeditions to Byzantium and Persia . In the 10th to 11th centuries Kievan Rus ' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe . The reigns of Vladimir the Great ( 980–1015 ) and his son Yaroslav the Wise ( 1019–1054 ) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev , which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code , the Russkaya Pravda . In the 11th and 12th centuries , constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes , such as the Kipchaks and the Pechenegs , caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer , heavily forested regions of the north , particularly to the area known as Zalesye . The age of feudalism and decentralization was marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik Dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus ' collectively . Kiev 's dominance waned , to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east , Novgorod Republic in the north-west and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west . Ultimately Kievan Rus ' disintegrated , with the final blow being the Mongol invasion of 1237–40 that resulted in the destruction of Kiev and the death of about half the population of Rus ' . The invading Mongol elite , together with their conquered Turkic subjects ( Cumans , Kipchaks , Bulgars ) , became known as Tatars , forming the state of the Golden Horde , which pillaged the Russian principalities ; the Mongols ruled the Cuman-Kipchak confederation and Volga Bulgaria ( modern-day southern and central expanses of Russia ) for over two centuries . Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the Kingdom of Poland , while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod Republic , two regions on the periphery of Kiev , established the basis for the modern Russian nation . The Novgorod together with Pskov retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the Mongol yoke and were largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country . Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky , Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240 , as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle of the Ice in 1242 , breaking their attempts to colonize the Northern Rus ' . Grand Duchy of Moscow The most powerful state to eventually arise after the destruction of Kievan Rus ' was the Grand Duchy of Moscow ( `` Muscovy '' in the Western chronicles ) , initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal . While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance , Moscow began to assert its influence in the Central Rus ' in the early 14th century , gradually becoming the leading force in the process of the Rus ' lands ' reunification and expansion of Russia . Moscow 's last rival , the Novgorod Republic , prospered as the chief fur trade center and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League . Times remained difficult , with frequent Mongol-Tatar raids . Agriculture suffered from the beginning of the Little Ice Age . As in the rest of Europe , plague was a frequent occurrence between 1350 and 1490 . However , because of the lower population density and better hygiene—widespread practicing of banya , a wet steam bath—the death rate from plague was not as severe as in Western Europe , and population numbers recovered by 1500 . Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow and helped by the Russian Orthodox Church , the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 . Moscow gradually absorbed the surrounding principalities , including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod . Ivan III ( `` the Great '' ) finally threw off the control of the Golden Horde and consolidated the whole of Central and Northern Rus ' under Moscow 's dominion , He was also the first to take the title `` Grand Duke of all the Russias '' . After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 , Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire . Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina , the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI , and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own , and eventually Russia 's , coat-of-arms . Tsardom of Russia In development of the Third Rome ideas , the Grand Duke Ivan IV ( the `` Terrible '' ) was officially crowned the first Tsar ( `` Caesar '' ) of Russia in 1547 . The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws ( Sudebnik of 1550 ) , established the first Russian feudal representative body ( Zemsky Sobor ) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions . During his long reign , Ivan the Terrible nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates ( parts of the disintegrated Golden Horde ) : Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River , and the Siberian Khanate in southwestern Siberia . Thus , by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a multiethnic , multidenominational and transcontinental state . However , the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of Poland , Lithuania , and Sweden for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade . At the same time , the Tatars of the Crimean Khanate , the only remaining successor to the Golden Horde , continued to raid Southern Russia . In an effort to restore the Volga khanates , Crimeans and their Ottoman allies invaded central Russia and were even able to burn down parts of Moscow in 1571 . But in the next year the large invading army was thoroughly defeated by Russians in the Battle of Molodi , forever eliminating the threat of an Ottoman–Crimean expansion into Russia . The slave raids of Crimeans , however , did not cease until the late 17th century though the construction of new fortification lines across Southern Russia , such as the Great Abatis Line , constantly narrowed the area accessible to incursions . The death of Ivan 's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik Dynasty in 1598 , and in combination with the famine of 1601–03 led to civil war , the rule of pretenders , and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century . The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied parts of Russia , including Moscow . In 1612 , the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps , led by two national heroes , merchant Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky . The Romanov Dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of Zemsky Sobor , and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis . Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century , which was the age of Cossacks . Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities , resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World . In 1648 , the peasants of Ukraine joined the Zaporozhian Cossacks in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania during the Khmelnytsky Uprising in reaction to the social and religious oppression they had been suffering under Polish rule . In 1654 , the Ukrainian leader , Bohdan Khmelnytsky , offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar , Aleksey I. Aleksey 's acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War . Finally , Ukraine was split along the Dnieper River , leaving the western part , right-bank Ukraine , under Polish rule and the eastern part ( Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev ) under Russian rule . Later , in 1670–71 , the Don Cossacks led by Stenka Razin initiated a major uprising in the Volga Region , but the Tsar 's troops were successful in defeating the rebels . In the east , the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory . Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes , and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in Eastern Siberia , on the Chukchi Peninsula , along the Amur River , and on the Pacific coast . In 1648 , the Bering Strait between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnyov . Imperial Russia Under Peter the Great , Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 and became recognized as a world power . Ruling from 1682 to 1725 , Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War , forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria ( two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles ) , as well as Estland and Livland , securing Russia 's access to the sea and sea trade . On the Baltic Sea Peter founded a new capital called Saint Petersburg , later known as Russia 's `` Window to Europe '' . Peter the Great 's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia . The reign of Peter I 's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–62 saw Russia 's participation in the Seven Years ' War ( 1756–63 ) . During this conflict Russia annexed East Prussia for a while and even took Berlin . However , upon Elisabeth 's death , all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia . Catherine II ( `` the Great '' ) , who ruled in 1762–96 , presided over the Age of Russian Enlightenment . She extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the Partitions of Poland , pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe . In the south , after successful Russo-Turkish Wars against Ottoman Turkey , Catherine advanced Russia 's boundary to the Black Sea , defeating the Crimean Khanate . As a result of victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars , by the first half of the 19th century Russia also made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia and the North Caucasus , forcing the former to irrevocably cede what is nowadays Georgia , Dagestan , Azerbaijan and Armenia to Russia . This continued with Alexander I 's ( 1801–25 ) wresting of Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812 . At the same time , Russians colonized Alaska and even founded settlements in California , such as Fort Ross . In 1803–1806 , the first Russian circumnavigation was made , later followed by other notable Russian sea exploration voyages . In 1820 a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica . In alliances with various European countries , Russia fought against Napoleon 's France . The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon 's power in 1812 failed miserably as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders , in which more than 95 % of the pan-European Grande Armée perished . Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly , the Russian army ousted Napoleon from the country and drove through Europe in the war of the Sixth Coalition , finally entering Paris . Alexander I headed Russia 's delegation at the Congress of Vienna that defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe . The officers of the Napoleonic Wars brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia with them and attempted to curtail the tsar 's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825 . At the end of the conservative reign of Nicolas I ( 1825–55 ) , a zenith period of Russia 's power and influence in Europe was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War . Between 1847 and 1851 , about one million people died of Asiatic cholera . Nicholas 's successor Alexander II ( 1855–81 ) enacted significant changes in the country , including the emancipation reform of 1861 . These Great Reforms spurred industrialization and modernized the Russian army , which had successfully liberated Bulgaria from Ottoman rule in the 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War . The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia . Alexander II was killed in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists , and the reign of his son Alexander III ( 1881–94 ) was less liberal but more peaceful . The last Russian Emperor , Nicholas II ( 1894–1917 ) , was unable to prevent the events of the Russian Revolution of 1905 , triggered by the unsuccessful Russo-Japanese War and the demonstration incident known as Bloody Sunday . The uprising was put down , but the government was forced to concede major reforms , including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly , the legalization of political parties , and the creation of an elected legislative body , the State Duma of the Russian Empire . The Stolypin agrarian reform led to a massive peasant migration and settlement into Siberia . More than four million settlers arrived in that region between 1906 and 1914 . In 1914 , Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary 's declaration of war on Russia 's ally Serbia , and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies . In 1916 , the Brusilov Offensive of the Russian Army almost completely destroyed the military of Austria-Hungary . However , the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war , high casualties , and rumors of corruption and treason . All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917 , carried out in two major acts . Revolution and Russian Republic The February Revolution forced Nicholas II to abdicate ; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed in Yekaterinburg during the Russian Civil War . The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government . An alternative socialist establishment existed alongside , the Petrograd Soviet , wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants , called Soviets . The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country , instead of resolving it . Eventually , the October Revolution , led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin , overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the Soviets , leading to the creation of the world 's first socialist state . Soviet Russia and civil war Following the October Revolution , a civil war broke out between the anti-Communist White movement and the new Soviet regime with its Red Army . Bolshevist Russia lost its Ukrainian , Polish , Baltic , and Finnish territories by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I . The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-Communist forces . In the meantime both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other , known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror . By the end of the civil war , Russia 's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged . Millions became White émigrés , and the Povolzhye famine of 1921 claimed up to 5 million victims . Soviet Union The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( called Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic at the time ) , together with the Ukrainian , Byelorussian , and Transcaucasian Soviet Socialist Republics , formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) , or Soviet Union , on 30 December 1922 . Out of the 15 republics that would make up the USSR , the largest in size and over half of the total USSR population was the Russian SFSR , which came to dominate the union for its entire 69-year history . Following Lenin 's death in 1924 , a troika was designated to govern the Soviet Union . However , Joseph Stalin , an elected General Secretary of the Communist Party , managed to suppress all opposition groups within the party and consolidate power in his hands . Leon Trotsky , the main proponent of world revolution , was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929 , and Stalin 's idea of Socialism in One Country became the primary line . The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge , a period of mass repressions in 1937–38 , during which hundreds of thousands of people were executed , including original party members and military leaders accused of coup d'état plots . Under Stalin 's leadership , the government launched a planned economy , industrialisation of the largely rural country , and collectivization of its agriculture . During this period of rapid economic and social change , millions of people were sent to penal labor camps , including many political convicts for their opposition to Stalin 's rule ; millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union . The transitional disorganisation of the country 's agriculture , combined with the harsh state policies and a drought , led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933 . The Soviet Union , though with a heavy price , was transformed from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time . The Appeasement policy of Great Britain and France towards Adolf Hitler 's annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia did not stem an increase in the power of Nazi Germany and initiated a threat of war to the Soviet Union . Around the same time , the Third Reich allied with the Empire of Japan , a rival of the USSR in the Far East and an open enemy of the USSR in the Soviet–Japanese Border Wars in 1938–39 . In August 1939 , after another failure of attempts to establish an anti-Nazi alliance with Britain and France , the Soviet government decided to improve relations with Germany by concluding the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact , pledging non-aggression between the two countries and dividing Eastern Europe into their respective spheres of influence . While Hitler conquered Poland and France and other countries acted on a single front at the start of World War II , the USSR was able to build up its military and claim some of the former territories of the Russian Empire , Western Ukraine , Hertza region and Northern Bukovina as a result of the Soviet invasion of Poland , Winter War , occupation of the Baltic states and Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina . On 22 June 1941 , Nazi Germany broke the non-aggression treaty and invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history , opening the largest theater of World War II . Although the German army had considerable early success , their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow . Subsequently , the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–43 , and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943 . Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad , in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces , and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths , but never surrendered . Under Stalin 's administration and the leadership of such commanders as Georgy Zhukov and Konstantin Rokossovsky , Soviet forces took Eastern Europe in 1944–45 and captured Berlin in May 1945 . In August 1945 the Soviet Army ousted the Japanese from China 's Manchukuo and North Korea , contributing to the allied victory over Japan . The 1941–45 period of World War II is known in Russia as the `` Great Patriotic War '' . The Soviet Union together with the United States , the United Kingdom and China were considered as the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II and later became the Four Policemen which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council . During this war , which included many of the most lethal battle operations in human history , Soviet military and civilian deaths were 10.6 million and 15.9 million respectively , accounting for about a third of all World War II casualties . The full demographic loss to the Soviet peoples was even greater . The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–47 but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledged military superpower on the continent . After the war , Eastern and Central Europe including East Germany and part of Austria was occupied by Red Army according to the Potsdam Conference . Dependent socialist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states . Becoming the world 's second nuclear weapons power , the USSR established the Warsaw Pact alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance , known as the Cold War , with the United States and NATO . The Soviet Union supported revolutionary movements across the world , including the newly formed People 's Republic of China , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea and , later

qw_9487--Russia.txt

In the 18th century, the capital of Russia was moved from Moscow to where?

George II ( George Augustus ; ; 30 October / 9 November 1683 – 25 October 1760 ) was King of Great Britain and Ireland , Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg ( Hanover ) and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 ( O.S . ) until his death . George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain : he was born and brought up in northern Germany . His grandmother , Sophia of Hanover , became second in line to the British throne after about fifty Catholics higher in line were excluded by the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707 , which restricted the succession to Protestants . After the deaths of Sophia and Anne , Queen of Great Britain , in 1714 , his father George I , Elector of Hanover , inherited the British throne . In the first years of his father 's reign as king , George was associated with opposition politicians , until they rejoined the governing party in 1720 . As king from 1727 , George exercised little control over British domestic policy , which was largely controlled by the Parliament of Great Britain . As elector , he spent twelve summers in Hanover , where he had more direct control over government policy . He had a difficult relationship with his eldest son , Frederick , who supported the parliamentary opposition . During the War of the Austrian Succession , George participated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743 , and thus became the last British monarch to lead an army in battle . In 1745 , supporters of the Catholic claimant to the British throne , James Francis Edward Stuart ( `` The Old Pretender '' ) , led by James 's son Charles Edward Stuart ( `` The Young Pretender '' or `` Bonnie Prince Charlie '' ) , attempted and failed to depose George in the last of the Jacobite rebellions . Frederick died unexpectedly in 1751 , nine years before his father , and so George II was ultimately succeeded by his grandson , George III . For two centuries after George II 's death , history tended to view him with disdain , concentrating on his mistresses , short temper and boorishness . Since then , most scholars have reassessed his legacy and conclude that he held and exercised influence in foreign policy and military appointments . Early life George was born in the city of Hanover in Germany , and was the son of George Louis , Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg ( later King George I of Great Britain ) , and his wife , Sophia Dorothea of Celle . Both of George 's parents committed adultery , and in 1694 their marriage was dissolved on the pretext that Sophia had abandoned her husband . She was confined to Ahlden House and denied access to her two children , George and his sister Sophia Dorothea of Hanover , who probably never saw their mother again . George spoke only French , the language of diplomacy and the court , until the age of four , after which he was taught German by one of his tutors , Johann Hilmar Holstein . In addition to French and German , he was also schooled in English and Italian , and studied genealogy , military history and battle tactics with particular diligence . George 's second cousin once removed , Queen Anne , ascended the thrones of England , Scotland and Ireland in 1702 . She had no surviving children , and by the Act of Settlement 1701 the English Parliament designated Anne 's closest Protestant blood relations , George 's grandmother Sophia and her descendants , as Anne 's heirs in England and Ireland . Consequently , after his grandmother and father , George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms . He was naturalized as an English subject in 1705 by the Sophia Naturalization Act , and in 1706 he was made a Knight of the Garter and created Duke and Marquess of Cambridge , Earl of Milford Haven , Viscount Northallerton and Baron Tewkesbury in the Peerage of England . England and Scotland united in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain , and jointly accepted the succession as laid down by the English Act of Settlement . Marriage George 's father did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he had , and wanted him to have the opportunity of meeting his bride before any formal arrangements were made . Negotiations from 1702 for the hand of Princess Hedvig Sophia of Sweden , Dowager Duchess and regent of Holstein-Gottorp , came to nothing . In June 1705 , under the false name of `` Monsieur de Busch '' , George visited the Ansbach court at their summer residence in Triesdorf to investigate incognito a marriage prospect : Caroline of Ansbach , the former ward of his aunt Queen Sophia Charlotte of Prussia . The English envoy to Hanover , Edmund Poley , reported that George was so taken by `` the good character he had of her that he would not think of anybody else '' . A marriage contract was concluded by the end of July . On 22 August / 2 September 1705 Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding , which was held the same evening in the chapel at Herrenhausen.Van der Kiste , p. 17 . George was keen to participate in the war against France in Flanders , but his father refused permission for him to join the army in an active role until he had a son and heir . In early 1707 , George 's hopes were fulfilled when Caroline gave birth to a son , Frederick . In July , Caroline fell seriously ill with smallpox , and George caught the infection after staying by her side devotedly during her illness . They both recovered . In 1708 , George participated in the Battle of Oudenarde in the vanguard of the Hanoverian cavalry ; his horse and a colonel immediately beside him were killed , but George survived unharmed . The British commander , Marlborough , wrote that George `` distinguished himself extremely , charging at the head of and animating by his example [ the Hanoverian ] troops , who played a good part in this happy victory '' . Between 1709 and 1713 , George and Caroline had three more children , all girls : Anne , Amelia , and Caroline . By 1714 , Queen Anne 's health had declined , and British Whigs , politicians who supported the Hanoverian succession , thought it prudent for one of the Hanoverians to live in England , to safeguard the Protestant succession on Anne 's death . As George was a peer of the realm ( as Duke of Cambridge ) , it was suggested that he be summoned to Parliament to sit in the House of Lords . Both Anne and George 's father refused to support the plan , although George , Caroline and Sophia were all in favour . George did not go . Within the year , both Sophia and Anne were dead , and George 's father was king . Prince of Wales Quarrel with the king George and his father sailed for England from The Hague on 16/27 September 1714 and arrived at Greenwich two days later . The following day , they formally entered London in a ceremonial procession . George was given the title of Prince of Wales . Caroline followed her husband to Britain in October with their daughters , while Frederick remained in Hanover to be brought up by private tutors . London was like nothing George had seen before : it was 50 times larger than Hanover , and the crowd was estimated at up to one and a half million spectators . George courted popularity with voluble expressions of praise for the English , and claimed that he had no drop of blood that was not English . In July 1716 , the king returned to Hanover for six months , and George was given limited powers , as `` Guardian and Lieutenant of the Realm '' , to govern in his father 's absence . He made a royal progress through Chichester , Havant , Portsmouth and Guildford in southern England . Spectators were allowed to see him dine in public at Hampton Court Palace . An attempt on his life at Drury Lane Theatre , in which one person was shot dead before the assailant was brought under control , boosted his high public profile . His father distrusted or was jealous of George 's popularity , which contributed to the development of a poor relationship between them . The birth in 1717 of George 's second son , Prince George William , proved to be a catalyst for a family quarrel ; the king , supposedly following custom , appointed the Lord Chamberlain , the Duke of Newcastle , as one of the baptismal sponsors of the child . The king was angered when George , who disliked Newcastle , verbally insulted the duke at the christening , which the duke misunderstood as a challenge to a duel . George and Caroline were temporarily confined to their apartments on the order of the king , who subsequently banished his son from St James 's Palace , the king 's residence . The Prince and Princess of Wales left court , but their children remained in the care of the king . George and Caroline missed their children , and were desperate to see them . On one occasion they secretly visited the palace without the approval of the king ; Caroline fainted and George `` cried like a child '' . The king partially relented and permitted them to visit once a week , though he later allowed Caroline unconditional access . The following February , George William died , with his father by his side . Political opposition Banned from the palace and shunned by his own father , for the next several years the Prince of Wales was identified with opposition to George I 's policies , which included measures designed to increase religious freedom in Great Britain and expand Hanover 's German territories at the expense of Sweden . His new London residence , Leicester House , became a frequent meeting place for his father 's political opponents , including Sir Robert Walpole and Viscount Townshend , who had left the government in 1717 . The king visited Hanover again from May to November 1719 . Instead of appointing George to the guardianship , he established a regency council . In 1720 , Walpole encouraged the king and his son to reconcile , for the sake of public unity , which they did half-heartedly . Walpole and Townshend returned to political office , and rejoined the ministry . George was soon disillusioned with the terms of the reconciliation ; his three daughters who were in the care of the king were not returned and he was still barred from becoming regent during the king 's absences . He came to believe that Walpole had tricked him into the rapprochement as part of a scheme to regain power . Over the next few years , he and Caroline lived quietly , avoiding overt political activity . They had three more children : William , Mary and Louisa , who were brought up at Leicester House and Richmond Lodge , George 's summer residence . In 1721 , the economic disaster of the South Sea Bubble allowed Walpole to rise to the pinnacle of government . Walpole and his Whig Party were dominant in politics , as the king feared that the Tories would not support the succession laid down in the Act of Settlement . The power of the Whigs was so great that the Tories would not come to hold power for another half-century . Early reign George I died on 11/22 June 1727 during one of his visits to Hanover , and George II succeeded him as king and elector at the age of 43 . The new king decided not to travel to Germany for his father 's funeral , which far from bringing criticism led to praise from the English who considered it proof of his fondness for England.Van der Kiste , p. 97 . He suppressed his father 's will because it attempted to split the Hanoverian succession between George II 's future grandsons rather than vest all the domains ( both in Britain and Hanover ) in a single person . Both British and Hanoverian ministers considered the will unlawful , as George I did not have the legal power to determine the succession personally . Critics supposed that George II hid the will to avoid paying out his father 's legacies . George II was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 11/22 October 1727 . The composer George Frideric Handel was commissioned to write four new anthems for the coronation , including Zadok the Priest . It was widely believed that George would dismiss Walpole , who had distressed him by joining his father 's government , and replace him with Sir Spencer Compton . George asked Compton , rather than Walpole , to write his first speech as king for him , but Compton asked Walpole to draft it . Caroline advised George to retain Walpole , who continued to gain royal favour by securing a generous civil list ( a fixed annual amount set by Parliament for the king 's official expenditure ) of £800,000 . Walpole commanded a substantial majority in Parliament and George had little choice but to retain him or risk ministerial instability . Compton was ennobled as Lord Wilmington the following year . Walpole directed domestic policy , and after the resignation of his brother-in-law Townshend in 1730 also controlled George 's foreign policy . Historians generally believe that George played an honorific role in Britain , and closely followed the advice of Walpole and senior ministers who made the major decisions . Although the king was eager for war in Europe , his ministers were more cautious . The Anglo-Spanish War was brought to an end , and George unsuccessfully pressed Walpole to join the War of the Polish Succession on the side of the German states . In April 1733 , Walpole withdrew an unpopular excise bill that had gathered strong opposition , including from within his own party . George lent support to Walpole by dismissing the bill 's opponents from their court offices . Family problems George II 's relationship with his son and heir apparent , Frederick , Prince of Wales , worsened during the 1730s . Frederick had been left behind in Germany when his parents came to England , and they had not met for 14 years . In 1728 , he was brought to England , and swiftly became a figurehead of the political opposition . When George visited Hanover in the summers of 1729 , 1732 and 1735 , he left his wife to chair the regency council in Britain rather than his son . Meanwhile , rivalry between George II and his brother-in-law Frederick William I of Prussia led to tension along the Prussian–Hanoverian border , which eventually culminated in the mobilization of troops in the border zone and suggestions of a duel between the two kings . Negotiations for a marriage between the Prince of Wales and Frederick William 's daughter Wilhelmine dragged on for years but neither side would make the concessions demanded by the other , and the idea was shelved . Instead , the prince married Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha in April 1736 . In May 1736 , George returned to Hanover , which resulted in unpopularity in England ; a satirical notice was even pinned to the gates of St James 's Palace decrying his absence . `` Lost or strayed out of this house '' , it read , `` a man who has left a wife and six children on the parish . '' The king made plans to return in the face of inclement December weather ; when his ship was caught in a storm , gossip swept London that he had drowned . Eventually , in January 1737 , he arrived back in England . Immediately he fell ill , with piles and a fever , and withdrew to his bed . The Prince of Wales put it about that the king was dying , with the result that George insisted on getting up and attending a social event to disprove the gossip-mongers . When the Prince of Wales applied to Parliament for an increase in his allowance , an open quarrel broke out . The king , who had a reputation for meanness , offered a private settlement , which Frederick rejected . Parliament voted against the measure , but George reluctantly increased his son 's allowance on the advice of Walpole . Further friction between them followed when Frederick excluded the king and queen from the birth of his daughter in July 1737 by bundling his wife , who was in labour , into a coach and driving off in the middle of the night . George banished him and his family from the royal court , much like the punishment his own father had brought upon him with the exception that he allowed Frederick to retain custody of his children . Soon afterwards , George 's wife Caroline died on 20 November 1737 ( O.S . ) . He was deeply affected by her death , and to the surprise of many displayed `` a tenderness of which the world thought him before utterly incapable '' . On her deathbed she told her sobbing husband to remarry , to which he replied , `` Non , j'aurai des maîtresses ! '' ( French for `` No , I shall have mistresses ! `` ) . It was common knowledge that George had already had mistresses during his marriage , and he had kept Caroline informed about them . Henrietta Howard , later Countess of Suffolk , had moved to Hanover with her husband during the reign of Queen Anne , and she had been one of Caroline 's women of the bedchamber . She was his mistress from before the accession of George I until November 1734 . She was followed by Amalie von Wallmoden , later Countess of Yarmouth , whose son , Johann Ludwig von Wallmoden , may have been fathered by George . Johann Ludwig was born while Amalie was still married to her husband , and George did not acknowledge him publicly as his own son . War and rebellion Against Walpole 's wishes , but to George 's delight , Britain reopened hostilities with Spain in 1739 . Britain 's conflict with Spain , the War of Jenkins ' Ear , became part of the War of the Austrian Succession when a major European dispute broke out upon the death of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in 1740 . At issue was the right of Charles 's daughter , Maria Theresa , to succeed to his Austrian dominions . George spent the summers of 1740 and 1741 in Hanover , where he was more able to intervene directly in European diplomatic affairs in his capacity as elector . Prince Frederick campaigned actively for the opposition in the British general election , 1741 , and Walpole was unable to secure a stable majority . Walpole attempted to buy off the prince with the promise of an increased allowance and offered to pay off his debts , but Frederick refused . With his support eroded , Walpole retired in 1742 after over 20 years in office . He was replaced by Spencer Compton , Lord Wilmington , whom George had originally considered for the premiership in 1727 . Lord Wilmington , however , was a figurehead ; actual power was held by others , such as Lord Carteret , George 's favourite minister after Walpole . When Wilmington died in 1743 , Henry Pelham took his place at the head of the government . The pro-war faction was led by Carteret , who claimed that French power would increase if Maria Theresa failed to succeed to the Austrian throne . George agreed to send 12,000 hired Hessian and Danish mercenaries to Europe , ostensibly to support Maria Theresa . Without conferring with his British ministers , George stationed them in Hanover to prevent enemy French troops from marching into the electorate . The British army had not fought in a major European war in over 20 years , and the government had badly neglected its upkeep . George had pushed for greater professionalism in the ranks , and promotion by merit rather than by sale of commissions , but without much success . An allied force of Austrian , British , Dutch , Hanoverian and Hessian troops engaged the French at the Battle of Dettingen on 16/27 June 1743 . George personally accompanied them , leading them to victory , thus becoming the last British monarch to lead troops into battle . Though his actions in the battle were admired , the war became unpopular with the British public , who felt that the king and Carteret were subordinating British interests to Hanoverian ones . Carteret lost support , and to George 's dismay resigned in 1744 . Tension grew between the Pelham ministry and George , as he continued to take advice from Carteret and rejected pressure from his other ministers to include William Pitt the Elder in the Cabinet , which would have broadened the government 's support base . The king disliked Pitt because he had previously opposed government policy and attacked measures seen as pro-Hanoverian . In February 1746 , Pelham and his followers resigned . George asked Lord Bath and Carteret to form an administration , but after less than 48 hours they returned the seals of office , unable to secure sufficient parliamentary support . Pelham returned to office triumphant , and George was forced to appoint Pitt to the ministry . George 's French opponents encouraged rebellion by the Jacobites , the supporters of the Roman Catholic claimant to the British throne , James Francis Edward Stuart , often known as the Old Pretender . Stuart was the son of James II , who had been deposed in 1688 and replaced by his Protestant relations . Two prior rebellions in 1715 and 1719 had failed . In July 1745 , the Old Pretender 's son , Charles Edward Stuart , popularly known as Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender , landed in Scotland , where support for his cause was highest . George , who was summering in Hanover , returned to London at the end of August . The Jacobites defeated British forces in September at the Battle of Prestonpans , and then moved south into England . The Jacobites failed to gain further support , and the French reneged on a promise of help . Losing morale , the Jacobites retreated back into Scotland . On 16/27 April 1746 , Charles faced George 's military-minded son Prince William , Duke of Cumberland , in the Battle of Culloden , the last pitched battle fought on British soil . The ravaged Jacobite troops were routed by the government army . Charles escaped to France , but many of his supporters were caught and executed . Jacobitism was all but crushed ; no further serious attempt was made at restoring the House of Stuart . The War of the Austrian Succession continued until 1748 , when Maria Theresa was recognized as Archduchess of Austria . The peace was celebrated by a fête in Green Park , London , for which Handel composed Music for the Royal Fireworks . Later life In the general election of 1747 , the Prince of Wales again campaigned actively for the opposition but Pelham 's party won easily . Like his father before him , the Prince entertained opposition figures at his house in Leicester Square . When the Prince of Wales died suddenly in 1751 , his eldest son , Prince George , became heir apparent . The king commiserated with the Dowager Princess of Wales and wept with her . As her son would not reach the age of majority until 1756 , a new British Regency Act was passed to make her regent , assisted by a council led by the Duke of Cumberland , in case of George II 's death . The king also made a new will , which provided for Cumberland to be sole regent in Hanover . After the death of his daughter Louisa at the end of the year , George lamented , `` This has been a fatal year for my family . I lost my eldest son – but I am glad of it ... Now [ Louisa ] is gone . I know I did not love my children when they were young : I hated to have them running into my room ; but now I love them as well as most fathers . '' Seven Years ' War In 1754 , Pelham died , to be succeeded by his elder brother , the Duke of Newcastle . Hostility between France and Britain , particularly over the colonization of North America , continued . Fearing a French invasion of Hanover , George aligned himself with Prussia , the enemy of Austria . Russia and France allied with their former enemy Austria . A French invasion of the British-held island of Minorca led to the outbreak of the Seven Years ' War in 1756 . Public disquiet over British failures at the start of the conflict led to the resignation of Newcastle and the appointment of the Duke of Devonshire as prime minister and William Pitt the Elder as Secretary of State for the Southern Department . In April the following year , George dismissed Pitt , in an attempt to construct an administration more to his liking . Over the succeeding three months attempts to form another stable ministerial combination failed . In June , James Waldegrave , 2nd Earl Waldegrave , held the seals of office for only four days . By the start of July , Pitt was recalled , and the Duke of Newcastle returned as prime minister . As Secretary of State , Pitt guided policy relating to the war . Great Britain , Hanover and Prussia and their allies Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel were pitted against other European powers , including France , Austria , Russia , Sweden and Saxony . The war involved multiple theatres from Europe to North America and India , where British dominance increased with the victories of Robert Clive over French forces and their allies at the Battle of Arcot and the Battle of Plassey . George 's son the Duke of Cumberland commanded the king 's troops in northern Germany . In 1757 , Hanover was invaded and George gave Cumberland full powers to conclude a separate peace . By September , however , he was furious at Cumberland 's negotiated settlement , which he felt greatly favoured the French . George said his son had `` ruined me and disgraced himself '' . Cumberland , by his own choice , resigned his military offices , and George revoked the peace deal on the grounds that the French had infringed it by disarming Hessian troops after the ceasefire . In the annus mirabilis of 1759 British forces captured Quebec and Guadeloupe . A French plan to invade Britain was defeated following naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay , and a resumed French advance on Hanover was halted by a joint British–Hanoverian force at the Battle of Minden . Death By October 1760 , George II was blind in one eye , and hard of hearing . On the morning of 25 October , he rose as usual at 6:00 am , drank a cup of hot chocolate , and went to his close stool , alone . After a few minutes , his valet heard a loud crash . He entered the room to find the king on the floor . The king was lifted into his bed , and Princess Amelia was sent for , but before she reached him , he was dead . At the age of nearly 77 , he had lived longer than any of his English predecessors . A post-mortem revealed that the right ventricle of the king 's heart had ruptured as the result of an incipient aortic aneurysm . George II was succeeded by his grandson George III , and was buried on 11 November in Westminster Abbey . He left instructions for the sides of his and his wife 's coffins to be removed so that their remains could mingle . Legacy George donated the royal library to the British Museum in 1757 , four years after the museum 's

sfq_15725--George_II_of_Great_Britain.txt

Which choral work by Handel, still used at coronations, was written originally for the Coronation of King George II in 1727?

Prince William Augustus ( 26 April 1721 [ N.S . ] – 31 October 1765 ) , was the third and youngest son of George II of Great Britain and Caroline of Ansbach , and Duke of Cumberland from 1726 . He is best remembered for his role in putting down the Jacobite Rising at the Battle of Culloden in 1746 , which made him immensely popular throughout Britain . He is often referred to by the nickname given to him by his English Tory opponents : 'Butcher ' Cumberland . Despite his triumph at Culloden , he had a largely unsuccessful military career . Following the Convention of Klosterzeven in 1757 , he never held active military command and switched his attentions to politics and horse racing . Early life William was born in Leicester House , in Leicester Fields ( now Leicester Square ) , Westminster , London , where his parents had moved after his grandfather , George I , accepted the invitation to ascend the British throne . His godparents included the King and Queen in Prussia ( his paternal aunt ) , but they apparently did not take part in person and were presumably represented by proxy . On 27 July 1726 , at only five years old , he was created Duke of Cumberland , Marquess of Berkhamstead in the County of Hertford , Earl of Kennington in the County of Surrey , Viscount of Trematon in the County of Cornwall , and Baron of the Isle of Alderney . The young prince was educated well ; his mother appointed Edmond Halley as a tutor . Another of his tutors ( and occasional proxy for him ) was his mother 's favourite Andrew Fountaine . At Hampton Court Palace , apartments were designed specially for him by William Kent . William 's elder brother Frederick , Prince of Wales , proposed dividing the king 's dominions . Frederick would get Britain , while William would get Hanover . This proposal came to nothing . Early military career From childhood , he showed physical courage and ability , and became his parents ' favourite . He was enrolled in the 2nd Foot Guards and made a Knight of the Bath aged four.Van der Kiste , p. 78 He was intended , by the King and Queen , for the office of Lord High Admiral , and , in 1740 , he sailed , as a volunteer , in the fleet under the command of Sir John Norris , but he quickly became dissatisfied with the Navy , and , instead secured the post of colonel of the First Regiment of Foot Guards on 20 February 1741 . War of the Austrian Succession In December 1742 , he became a major-general , and , the following year , he first saw active service in Germany . George II and the `` martial boy '' shared in the glory of the Battle of Dettingen ( 27 June 1743 ) , where Cumberland was wounded in the leg by a musket ball . After the battle he was made a lieutenant general . In 1745 , Cumberland was given the honorary title of Captain-General of the British land forces and in Flanders became Commander-in-Chief of the allied British , Hanoverian , Austrian and Dutch troops despite his inexperience . He initially planned to take the offensive against the French , in a move he hoped would lead to the capture of Paris , but was persuaded by his advisors that this was impossible given the vast numerical superiority of the enemy . As it became clear that the French intention was to take Tournai , Cumberland advanced to the relief of the town , which was besieged by Marshal Saxe . In the resulting Battle of Fontenoy on 11 May 1745 , the Allies were defeated by the French . Saxe had picked the battleground on which to confront the British , and filled the nearby woods with French marksmen . Cumberland ignored the threat of the woods when drawing up his battle plans , and instead concentrated on seizing the town of Fontenoy and attacking the main French army nearby . Despite a concerted Anglo-Hanoverian attack on the French centre , which led many to believe the Allies had won , the failure to clear the woods and of the Dutch forces to capture Fontenoy forced Cumberland 's force onto the retreat . Following the battle Cumberland was frequently criticised for his tactics , particularly the failure to occupy the woods . In the wake of the battle , Cumberland was forced to retreat to Brussels and was unable to prevent the fall of Ghent , Bruges and Ostend . Jacobite rebellion – `` The Forty-Five '' As the leading British general of the day , he was chosen to put a decisive stop to Charles Edward Stuart , a direct descendant of James VII of Scotland and II of England ( James VII/II was the last Stuart king on the male line ) , in the Jacobite rising of 1745 . His appointment was popular , and caused morale to soar amongst the public and troops loyal to King George . Recalled from Flanders , Cumberland proceeded with preparations for quelling the Stuart ( Jacobite ) uprising . The Jacobite army had advanced southwards into England , hoping that English Jacobites would rise and join them . However , after receiving only limited support such as the Manchester Regiment , the followers of Charles decided to withdraw to Scotland.Pollard p.41-42 Cumberland joined the Midland army under Ligonier , and began pursuit of the enemy , as the Stuarts retreated northwards from Derby . On reaching Penrith , the advanced portion of his army was repulsed on Clifton Moor in December 1745 , and Cumberland became aware that an attempt to overtake the retreating Highlanders would be hopeless . Carlisle was retaken , and he was recalled to London , where preparations were in hand to meet a suspected French invasion . The defeat of his replacement as commander , Henry Hawley , roused the fears of the English people in January 1746 , when , under a hail of pistol fire , `` eighty dragoons fell dead upon the spot '' at Falkirk Muir . Culloden Arriving in Edinburgh on 30 January 1746 , he at once proceeded in search of Charles . He made a detour to Aberdeen , where he spent some time training the well-equipped forces now under his command for the next stage of the conflict in which they were about to engage . He trained his troops to hold their fire until the enemy came within effective firing range , fire once , and then bayonet the man to the right thereby catching the enemy under their lifted sword arm . On 8 April 1746 , he set out from Aberdeen for Inverness , and , on 16 April , he fought the decisive Battle of Culloden , in which the Stuart forces were completely destroyed . Cumberland ordered his troops to show no quarter against any remaining Jacobite rebels ( French Army personnel , including those who were British- or Irish-born , were treated as legitimate combatants ) . His troops traversed the battlefield and stabbed any of the rebel soldiers who were still alive.Thompson , p.519 When Cumberland learned that a wounded soldier lying at his feet belonged to the opposing cause he instructed a major to shoot him ; when the major ( James Wolfe ) refused to do so , Cumberland commanded a private soldier to complete the required duty . The British Army then embarked upon the so-called 'pacification ' of Jacobite areas of the highlands . All those the troops believed to be 'rebels ' were killed , as were non-combatants ; 'rebellious ' settlements were burned and livestock was confiscated on a large scale . Over a hundred Jacobites were hanged . Women were imprisoned and droves of people were sent by ship to London for trial and as the journey took up to 8 months many of them died on the way . `` Butcher Cumberland '' Following Culloden , Cumberland was nicknamed `` Sweet William '' by his Whig supporters and `` The Butcher '' by his Tory opponents the latter being a taunt first recorded in the City of London and used for political purposes in England . Cumberland 's own brother , the Prince of Wales ( who had been refused permission to take a military role on his father 's behalf ) , seems to have encouraged the virulent attacks upon the Duke . Cumberland preserved the strictest discipline in his camp . He was inflexible in the execution of what he deemed to be his duty , without favour to any man . In only a few cases he exercised his influence in favour of clemency . The Duke 's victorious efforts were acknowledged by his being voted an income of £25,000 per annum over and above his money from the civil list . A thanksgiving service was held at St Paul 's Cathedral , that included the first performance of Handel 's oratorio Judas Maccabaeus , composed especially for Cumberland , which contains the anthem `` See the Conquering Hero Comes '' . Return to the Continent The Duke took no part in the Flanders campaign of 1746 , during which the French made huge advances capturing Brussels and defeating the Allies at Rocoux . In 1747 , Cumberland returned to the Continent and he again opposed the still-victorious Marshal Saxe and received a heavy defeat at the Battle of Lauffeld , or Val , near Maastricht , on 2 July 1747 . This and the fall of Bergen-op-Zoom compelled the two sides to the negotiating table and in 1748 the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was concluded and Cumberland returned home . Peacetime Cumberland 's unpopularity , which had steadily increased since Culloden , interfered greatly with his success in politics , and when the death of the Prince of Wales brought the latter 's son , a minor , next in succession to the throne , the Duke was not able to secure for himself the contingent regency . As a compromise , the regency was vested in the Dowager Princess of Wales , who considered him an enemy , but her powers were curtailed and she was to be advised by a committee of twelve men , headed by Cumberland . Seven Years ' War In 1757 , the Seven Years ' War having broken out , Cumberland was placed at the head of the Hanoverian Army of Observation , a force of German allies paid for by Britain which intended to defend Hanover from a French attack . At the Battle of Hastenbeck , near Hamelin , on 26 July 1757 , Cumberland 's army was defeated by the superior forces of d'Estrées . Despite seemingly having the advantage towards the end of the battle , Cumberland 's forces began to retreat . Within a short time discipline had collapsed , and Cumberland 's army headed northwards in total disorder . Cumberland hoped that the Royal Navy might bring him reinforcements and supplies which would allow him to regroup and counterattack , but the British mounted an expedition to Rochefort instead , despite suggestions that it should be sent to aid Cumberland . By September 1757 Cumberland and his forces had retreated to the fortified town of Stade on the North Sea coast . The King gave him discretionary powers to negotiate a separate peace . Hemmed in by the French , under Richelieu , he agreed to Convention of Klosterzeven , under which Cumberland 's army was to be disbanded and much of Hanover was occupied by French forces , at the Zeven , on 8 September 1757 . On Cumberland 's return to London he was treated badly by his father despite the fact that he had previously been given permission to negotiate such an agreement . When they met George II remarked `` Here is my son who has ruined me and disgraced himself '' . In response , Cumberland resigned all the military and public offices he held and retired into private life . Final years Cumberland 's final years were lived out during the first years of the reign of his nephew , George III , who acceded to the throne on the death of William 's father on 25 October 1760 : Cumberland became a very influential advisor to the King and was instrumental in establishing the First Rockingham Ministry . Cabinet meetings were held either at Cumberland Lodge , his home in Windsor , or at Upper Grosvenor Street , his house in London . Cumberland never fully recovered from his wound at Dettingen , and was obese . In August 1760 , he suffered a stroke and , on 31 October 1765 , he died at Upper Grosvenor Street in London . He was buried beneath the floor of the nave of the Henry VII Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey . He died unmarried . Titles , styles , honours and arms Titles and styles * 26 April 1721 – 27 July 1726 : His Royal Highness Prince William * 27 July 1726 – 31 October 1765 : His Royal Highness The Duke of Cumberland The Duke 's full style as proclaimed at his funeral by Garter King-of-Arms was : `` the [ ... ] most High , most Mighty , and most Illustrious Prince William Augustus , Duke of Cumberland , and Duke of Brunswick and Lunenburgh , Marquess of Berkhamstead , Earl of Kennington , Viscount Trematon , Baron of the Isle of Alderney , Knight of the most Noble Order of the Garter , and First and Principal Companion of the most Honourable Order of the Bath , third Son of His late most Excellent Majesty King George the Second '' . Honours British Honours * KG : Knight of the Garter , 1730 * KB : Knight of the Bath , 1725 * PC : Privy Counsellor , 1742 Academic * 1751–1765 : Chancellor of Trinity College , Dublin Arms On 20 July 1725 , as a grandchild of the sovereign , William was granted use of the arms of the realm , differenced by a label argent of five points , the centre point bearing a cross gules , the first , second , fourth and fifth each bearing a canton gules . On 30 August 1727 , as a child of the sovereign , William 's difference changed to a label argent of three points , the centre point bearing a cross gules . Legacy Prince William County , Virginia is named for him , as well as Cumberland County , Maine and Cumberland County , North Carolina . Various other places in the American colonies were named after him , including the Cumberland River , the Cumberland Gap and the Cumberland Mountains . In 2005 he was selected by the BBC History Magazine as the 18th century 's worst Briton . There is a memorial Obelisk to the Duke 's military services in Windsor Great park . It is inscribed `` THIS OBELISK RAISED BY COMMAND OF KING GEORGE THE SECOND COMMEMORATES THE SERVICES OF HIS SON WILLIAM DUKE OF CUMBERLAND THE SUCCESS OF HIS ARMS AND THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FATHER THIS TABLET WAS INSCRIBED BY HIS MAJESTY KING WILLIAM THE FOURTH '' . According to a local park guide , the Obelisk was originally inscribed `` Culloden '' but Queen Victoria had `` Culloden '' removed . An equestrian statue of the Duke was erected in London 's Cavendish Square in 1770 , but was removed in 1868 since by that time the 'butcher of Culloden ' was generally reviled . The original plinth remained . Ancestors

qw_10885--Prince_William,_Duke_of_Cumberland.txt

What was the scene of the final defeat of the Jacobites under Charles Edward by forces under the command of the Duke of Cumberland on 16 April 1746?

Gwyneth Kate Paltrow ( ; born September 27 , 1972 ) is an American actress , singer , and food writer . She gained early notice for her work in films such as the thriller Seven ( 1995 ) and the period drama Emma ( 1996 ) . Following starring roles in the romantic comedy-drama Sliding Doors ( 1998 ) and the thriller A Perfect Murder ( 1998 ) , Paltrow garnered worldwide recognition through her performance in Shakespeare in Love ( 1998 ) , for which she won an Academy Award , a Golden Globe Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards . Paltrow has portrayed supporting , as well as lead roles , in films such as The Talented Mr. Ripley ( 1999 ) , The Royal Tenenbaums ( 2001 ) , Shallow Hal ( 2001 ) , and Proof ( 2005 ) , for which she earned a Golden Globe nomination . Since 2008 , she has portrayed Pepper Potts , the female lead of the Iron Man franchise in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , in Iron Man ( 2008 ) , Iron Man 2 ( 2010 ) , The Avengers ( 2012 ) , and Iron Man 3 ( 2013 ) . Paltrow also won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series in 2011 for her role as Holly Holliday on the Fox hit TV show Glee , her first and so far only foray into television acting , in the episode `` The Substitute '' . Paltrow reprised this role four more times throughout the show 's run . Following relationships with Brad Pitt and Ben Affleck , Paltrow married Chris Martin , the lead vocalist of Coldplay , in 2003 ; they have two children . They announced their separation in March 2014 and divorced in July 2016 . Paltrow has been dating Glee and American Horror Story co-creator Brad Falchuk since August 2014 . Paltrow has been the face of Estée Lauder 's Pleasures perfume since 2005 . She is also the face of American fashion brand Coach , owner of a lifestyle company , and author of two cookbooks . Early life and education Paltrow was born in Los Angeles , the daughter of actress Blythe Danner and film producer/director Bruce Paltrow . Her father was Jewish and her mother is from a Christian background , and Paltrow was raised with `` both Jewish and Christian holidays '' ( her brother had a Bar Mitzvah ceremony ) . Her father 's Ashkenazi Jewish family immigrated from Belarus and Poland , while her mother has Pennsylvania Dutch ( German ) , and some white Barbadian ( English ) , ancestry . Paltrow 's paternal great-great-grandfather , was a rabbi in Nowogród , Poland , and a descendant of a the well known `` Paltrowicz '' family of rabbis from Kraków , whose best known descendant is R. David HaLevi Segal . Paltrow 's younger brother is director and screenwriter Jake Paltrow . Her half-cousin is actress Katherine Moennig ( through her mother ) . She is a second cousin of former U.S. Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords ( AZ-08 ) ( through her father ) . Her uncle is opera singer and actor Harry Danner . Paltrow was raised in Santa Monica , where she attended Crossroads School before enrolling in the Spence School , a private girls ' school in New York City . Later , she briefly studied anthropology at the University of California , Santa Barbara , before dropping out to act . She is an `` adopted daughter '' of Talavera de la Reina ( Spain ) , where at 15 she spent a year as an exchange student and learned to speak Spanish . Career 1989–95 : Early acting work Her acting debut was in High ( 1989 ) , a TV film her father directed , and after spending several summers watching her mother perform at the Williamstown Theatre Festival in Massachusetts , Paltrow made her professional stage debut there in 1990 . Her film debut followed with Shout ( 1991 ) , starring John Travolta ; and she was cast by Steven Spielberg in his film Hook ( 1991 ) as the young Wendy Darling . Paltrow 's next roles were in the made-for-television movies Cruel Doubt ( 1992 ) and Deadly Relations ( 1993 ) . Her first plum feature film role was in the noir drama Flesh and Bone ( 1993 ) as the much-younger girlfriend of James Caan . In 1995 , she played Brad Pitt 's wife in the hit thriller Se7en . Her performance earned her a Satellite Award nomination . Also in 1995 , she appeared in Moonlight and Valentino and Jefferson in Paris . 1996–2001 : Breakthrough and film stardom In 1996 , Paltrow played the title character in Emma to critical acclaim , particularly in the United Kingdom , where her perfection of the English accent was appreciated . She had leading roles in several films throughout 1998 , including Sliding Doors and the adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel Great Expectations with Ethan Hawke , Robert De Niro , Anne Bancroft and Chris Cooper . She also appeared in two thrillers , Hush , opposite Jessica Lange , and A Perfect Murder , inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's 1954 film , Dial M for Murder . In the latter film , Paltrow starred opposite Michael Douglas , playing Emily Taylor , who was based on Grace Kelly 's character from the original film , though the film was met with mixed reviews . She was also considered for the role of Rose DeWitt Bukater in the 1997 film Titanic . In 1998 , Paltrow starred in Shakespeare in Love , portraying the fictional lover of William Shakespeare , played by Joseph Fiennes . The film earned US $ 289 million in box office receipts , and Paltrow gained critical acclaim for her portrayal . Entertainment Weekly commented , `` Best of all is Gwyneth Paltrow , who , at long last , has a movie to star in that 's as radiant as she is . '' The New York Times summed up her performance as Viola thus : `` Gwyneth Paltrow , in her first great , fully realized starring performance , makes a heroine so breathtaking that she seems utterly plausible as the playwright 's guiding light . '' The award-winning Shakespeare in Love earned Paltrow the award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role from the Screen Actors Guild , the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress and the Academy Award for Best Actress , among other honors . Her Pink Ralph Lauren dress worn at the 71st Academy Awards in collecting her Oscar was extremely popular and was credited for bringing pink back into fashion . In 1999 , Paltrow co-starred alongside Jude Law , Matt Damon and Cate Blanchett in The Talented Mr. Ripley , which earned $ 80 million domestically and received positive reviews . She showcased her singing ability in 2000 's Duets , which was directed by her father and co-starred singer Huey Lewis . The same year , Paltrow co-starred with Ben Affleck in the romantic drama Bounce as Abby Janello . In 2001 , she played Margot Tenenbaum as part of an ensemble cast in the Wes Anderson film The Royal Tenenbaums and starred with Jack Black in the comedy Shallow Hal , where she had to wear a specially designed 25-pound fatsuit and heavy make-up . 2002–07 : Career slowdown and hiatus Since the Oscar for Shakespeare in Love , Paltrow 's film career has been less noteworthy and critical acclaim has waned . She said she was unequipped for the pressure , leading to several bad movie choices , agreeing with peers who believe the win is , in some ways , a curse . During this time , Paltrow rarely appeared in films , having taken a hiatus to raise her two children . In The Guardian , she said she divided her career into movies for love and films for money : The Royal Tenenbaums , Proof , and Sylvia fell into the former category , while she signed on to View from the Top and Shallow Hal for the latter . In 2004 , she starred in the science-fiction film Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow opposite Jude Law . The same year , she was recognized as an outstanding woman in entertainment by Women in Film Los Angeles with the Crystal Award . In 2005 , she starred in the film Proof as the depressed daughter of a brilliant , eccentric mathematician . The movie was based on the play of the same name , in which Paltrow also played the same character at London 's Donmar Warehouse in 2002 . For her film performance , Paltrow earned her second Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama . In 2006 , she had small roles in Running With Scissors and Infamous , in which she sang Cole Porter 's `` What Is This Thing Called Love ? `` . 2008–present : Iron Man and career rejuvination In 2008 , she appeared in the superhero film Iron Man as Pepper Potts , Tony Stark 's personal assistant , closest friend , and budding love interest . Iron Man was Paltrow 's highest-grossing film to date , earning more than $ 585,000,000 worldwide , until she reprised her role as Potts in Joss Whedon 's 2012 superhero film , The Avengers , which grossed more than $ 1 billion worldwide . Paltrow said she was hesitant to appear in a big-budget project but she was won over by Robert Downey , Jr. , the film 's lead , and director Jon Favreau . She recalled a conversation with Downey , saying : In 2010 , Paltrow reprised her role in the sequel to Iron Man , Iron Man 2 . Later in 2010 , she appeared in the musical Country Strong and recorded the song Country Strong for the film 's soundtrack . The song was released to country radio in August 2010 . At the 83rd Academy Awards , Paltrow performed another song from the movie , `` Coming Home , '' which was nominated for Best Original Song . Paltrow also appeared in Fox 's Glee , as substitute teacher Holly Holliday , who fills in for Matthew Morrison 's character when he falls ill . In her first episode , `` The Substitute , '' she sang `` Nowadays '' from the musical Chicago with Lea Michele , CeeLo Green 's `` Forget You '' , and a mash-up of `` Singin ' In the Rain '' and Rihanna 's `` Umbrella '' with Morrison and the rest of the cast . She later performed `` Forget You '' with CeeLo Green himself and several puppet characters provided by The Jim Henson Company at the 2011 Grammy Awards . She reprised her role twice more that season , performing `` Do You Wan na Touch Me ( Oh Yeah ) '' by Gary Glitter , an acoustic version of `` Landslide '' by Fleetwood Mac , `` Kiss '' by Prince , and Adele 's `` Turning Tables '' . In 2011 , Paltrow appeared in the Steven Soderbergh thriller Contagion , in which she was part of an ensemble cast , including Kate Winslet , Marion Cotillard and her The Talented Mr. Ripley co-stars Matt Damon and Jude Law . The movie opened at number 1 at the US Box Office Weekend and received positive reviews . In 2012 she starred in the independent romantic comedy Thanks for Sharing with Mark Ruffalo and reprised her role as Pepper Potts in the film The Avengers , which broke records as the highest grossing U.S. opening weekend film of all time . It was confirmed that Paltrow will star as Dora Maar in Carlos Saura 's Spanish film 33 días alongside Antonio Banderas as Pablo Picasso . The film began shooting in late 2012 , for a 2013 release . In April 2013 , Paltrow was named People magazine 's annual `` Most Beautiful Woman '' . In 2015 , she co-starred in the film Mortdecai , alongside Johnny Depp , Olivia Munn , and Paul Bettany . Paltrow was also featured on the track `` Everglow '' , which was included in Coldplay 's seventh studio album A Head Full of Dreams ( 2015 ) . Other projects Paltrow is a Save the Children artist ambassador , raising awareness about World Pneumonia Day . She is on the board of the Robin Hood Foundation , a charitable organization that works to alleviate poverty in New York City . In February 2009 , Paltrow received a Grammy nomination for her reading of the classic bear books of author Bill Martin , Jr . Paltrow had her singing debut in the 2000 film Duets , in which she performed a cover version of Smokey Robinson 's `` Cruisin ' '' . The song was released as a single . The song went to number one in Australia , while Paltrow 's rendition of the Kim Carnes classic `` Bette Davis Eyes '' reached number three . In the 2006 film Infamous , she sang `` What Is This Thing Called Love '' . On September 27 , 2006 , Paltrow sang with rapper Jay-Z during his concert at Royal Albert Hall . She sang the chorus for `` Song Cry '' , from the rapper 's album Blueprint . In an interview , she said she would be at the concert but not that she would perform . She was quoted as saying `` I 'm a Jay-Z fan . He 's my best friend . '' In May 2005 , Paltrow became the face of Estée Lauder 's Pleasures perfume . She appeared in Chicago on August 17 , 2007 , to sign bottles of the perfume , and on July 8 , 2008 , she promoted Lauder 's Sensuous perfume in New York with the company 's three other models . Estée Lauder donates a minimum of $ 500,000 of sales of items from the 'Pleasures Gwyneth Paltrow ' collection to breast cancer research . In 2006 , she became the face for Bean Pole International , a Korean fashion brand . In April 2009 , Paltrow narrated Brown Bear & Friends , the first of several children 's audiobooks that she would narrate by Bill Martin . The Brown Bear & Friends audiobook received a Grammy nomination in 2009 for Best Spoken Word Album for Children . Since , she has also narrated Bill Martin 's Brown Bear , Brown Bear , What Do You See ? , Baby Bear , Baby Bear , What Do You See ? , Panda Bear , Panda Bear , What Do You See ? , and Polar Bear , Polar Bear , What Do You Hear ? In 2014 , Paltrow partnered with Blo Blow Bar , teaming up with the brand 's creative branch . In October 2014 , she hosted a Democratic fundraiser attended by President Barack Obama at her private residence in Los Angeles . In 2015 , Paltrow announced plans to build a private club called The Arts Club at the former Hustler Store location Food writing and Goop In October 2007 , Paltrow signed for the PBS television series Spain ... on the Road Again , which showcases the food and culture of Spain . In September 2008 , she launched the weekly lifestyle newsletter Goop , encouraging readers to 'nourish the inner aspect ' . The website 's title is derived from her initials . Each week , the newsletter focuses on an action : Make , Go , Get , Do , Be , and See . In 2008 , she co-wrote the book Spain ... A Culinary Road Trip with Mario Batali . In 2011 , she wrote a book titled My Father 's Daughter : Delicious , Easy Recipes Celebrating Family and Togetherness . That same year she penned the book Notes From the Kitchen Table . Two years later she published a book titled It 's All Good : Delicious Easy Recipes That Will Make You Look Good and Feel Great . That year she wrote a foreword for a book by Ross Matthews , Man Up ! Tales of My Delusional Self-Confidence . Personal life At the age of 24 , Paltrow was engaged to actor Brad Pitt , whom she dated from 1994 to 1997 . The engagement was called off , according to Paltrow , because she was not ready for marriage , and she later felt responsible for hurting Pitt since she was `` such a mess '' during that time in her life . Paltrow has since said that , as this was her first high-profile relationship with another celebrity , it taught her the need for public discretion about her romantic life ; she told Biography magazine , `` I said things about being in a relationship [ with Brad Pitt ] that felt wrong to me even as I was saying them . '' Paltrow had an on-off three-year relationship with actor Ben Affleck from 1997 to late 2000 . They first broke up in early 1999 but , soon after their breakup , Paltrow persuaded Affleck to star in the film Bounce with her ; during the making of the film , which was shot in mid-1999 , the couple started dating again and eventually broke up in October 2000 . In October 2002 , Paltrow met Chris Martin of the British rock group Coldplay backstage three weeks after the death of her father , Bruce Paltrow . They married on December 5 , 2003 , in a ceremony at a hotel in Southern California . Paltrow and Martin have two children together : daughter Apple Blythe Alison Martin ( b . 2004 ) and son Moses Bruce Anthony Martin ( b . 2006 ) . Paltrow explained Apple 's unusual first name on Oprah , saying : `` It sounded so sweet and it conjured such a lovely picture for me – you know , apples are so sweet and they 're wholesome and it 's biblical – and I just thought it sounded so lovely and ... clean ! And I just thought , 'Perfect ! ' . '' She explained her son 's first name came from the song , `` Moses '' , that her husband wrote for her before their wedding . Paltrow 's father came from a long line of influential Eastern European rabbis , and that inspired Paltrow to raise her daughter and son in a Jewish environment . Paltrow cut down on work after becoming a mother . She also suffered from postpartum depression after the 2006 birth of her son . In March 2014 , Paltrow announced that she and Martin had separated after ten years of marriage , describing the process as `` conscious uncoupling '' . In April 2015 , Paltrow filed for divorce from Chris Martin . A judge finalized their divorce on July 15 , 2016 . In 2013 , The New York Times reported Paltrow to be a practitioner of Transcendental Meditation . In August 2014 , Paltrow started dating Glee co-creator Brad Falchuk , whom she met whilst filming the series in 2010 , 2011 , and 2014 . Stalking incidents In 2000 , one Dante Soiu was charged after allegedly sending Paltrow sex toys and hundreds of unsolicited letters , many of a sexual nature ; he pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity and was confined to a mental institution for several years . In 2015 , Soiu was arrested after sending Paltrow dozens of packages and letters between 2009 and 2015 , including a cookbook , earrings , second-hand clothes , a letter making a reference to Paltrow `` bowing to death , '' and another professing his desire to marry her . The trial took place in February 2016 . Soiu admitted sending the letters , testifying that `` he wanted his messages to show her [ his ] unconditional love and friendship . '' Paltrow testified : `` I felt very upset by it . It defied logic , and I found it very , very upsetting , '' Following jury deliberations , Soiu was acquitted of the charges on February 17 . Filmography Film Television Discography Singles Featured singles Other album appearances Music videos Published works * * * Awards and nominations

dpql_647--Gwyneth_Paltrow.txt

To whom is Gwyneth Paltrow married?

A mistress is a relatively long-term female lover and companion who is not married to her partner , especially when her partner is married . Generally , the relationship is stable and at least semi-permanent , but the couple does not live together openly and the relationship is usually , but not always , secret . There is often also the implication ( if not the fact ) that the mistress is `` kept '' i.e . that her lover is paying for some ( and sometimes all ) of her living expenses . The term `` mistress '' was originally used as a neutral feminine counterpart to `` mister '' or `` master '' . Definition Historically the term has denoted a `` kept woman '' , who was maintained in a comfortable ( or even lavish ) lifestyle by a wealthy man so that she will be available for his sexual pleasure . Such a woman could move between the roles of a mistress and a courtesan depending on her situation and environment . In modern times , however , the word `` mistress '' is used primarily to refer to the female lover of a man who is married to another woman ; in the case of an unmarried man , it is usual to speak of a `` girlfriend '' or `` partner '' . Historically , a man `` kept '' a mistress . As the term implies , he was responsible for her debts and provided for her in much the same way as he did his wife , although not legally bound to do so . In more recent times , it is more likely that the mistress has a job of her own , and is less , if at all , financially dependent on the man . A mistress is not a prostitute : while a mistress , if `` kept '' , may , in some sense , be exchanging sex for money , the principal difference is that a mistress has sex with fewer men and there is not so much of a direct quid pro quo between the money and the sex act . There is usually an emotional and possibly social relationship between a man and his mistress , whereas the relationship to a prostitute is predominantly sexual . It is also important that the `` kept '' status follows the establishment of a relationship of indefinite term as opposed to the agreement on price and terms established prior to any activity with a prostitute . History The historically best known and most-researched mistresses are the royal mistresses of European monarchs , for example , Agnès Sorel , Diane de Poitiers , Barbara Villiers , Nell Gwyn and Madame de Pompadour . The keeping of a mistress in Europe was not confined to royalty and nobility but permeated down through the social ranks , essentially to any man who could afford to do so . Any man who could afford a mistress could have one ( or more ) , regardless of social position . A wealthy merchant or a young noble might have a kept woman . Being a mistress was typically an occupation for a younger woman who , if she were fortunate , might go on to marry her lover or another man of rank . The ballad `` The Three Ravens '' ( published in 1611 , but possibly older ) extolls the loyal mistress of a slain knight , who buries her dead lover and then dies of the exertion , as she was in an advanced stage of pregnancy . It is noteworthy that the ballad-maker assigned this role to the knight 's mistress ( `` leman '' was the term common at the time ) rather than to his wife . In the courts of Europe , particularly Versailles and Whitehall in the 17th and 18th centuries , a mistress often wielded great power and influence . A king might have numerous mistresses but have a single `` favourite mistress '' or `` official mistress '' ( in French , `` maîtresse en titre '' ) , as with Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour . The mistresses of both Louis XV ( especially Madame de Pompadour ) and Charles II were often considered to exert great influence over their lovers , the relationships being open secrets . Other than wealthy merchants and kings , Alexander VI is but one example of a Pope who kept mistresses . While the extremely wealthy might keep a mistress for life ( as George II of England did with `` Mrs Howard '' , even after they were no longer romantically linked ) , such was not the case for most kept women . In 1736 , when George II was newly ascendant , Henry Fielding ( in Pasquin ) has his Lord Place say , `` …but , miss , every one now keeps and is kept ; there are no such things as marriages now-a-days , unless merely Smithfield contracts , and that for the support of families ; but then the husband and wife both take into keeping within a fortnight . '' Occasionally the mistress is in a superior position both financially and socially to her lover . As a widow , Catherine the Great was known to have been involved with several successive men during her reign ; but , like many powerful women of her era , in spite of being a widow free to marry , she chose not to share her power with a husband , preferring to maintain absolute power alone . In literature , D. H. Lawrence 's work Lady Chatterley 's Lover portrays a situation where a woman becomes the mistress of her husband 's gamekeeper . Until recently , a woman 's taking a socially inferior lover was considered much more shocking than the reverse situation . 20th century During the 20th century , as many women became better educated and more able to support themselves , fewer women found satisfaction in the position of being a mistress and were more likely to be in relationships with unmarried men . As divorce became more socially acceptable , it was easier for men to divorce their wives and marry the women who , in earlier years , might have been their mistresses . The practice of having a mistress continued among some married men , especially the wealthy . Occasionally , men married their mistresses . The late Sir James Goldsmith , on marrying his mistress , Lady Annabel Birley , declared , `` When you marry your mistress , you create a job vacancy . `` Rees , Nigel ( ed . ) Cassell Companion to Quotations ( 1997 ) ISBN 0-304-34848-1 There is some dispute about the exact wording . [ http : //www.saidwhat.co.uk/quotes/business/james_goldsmith/a man is not allowed to marry his mistress_5100 Quotesmith ] has it as `` When a man marries his mistress it creates a job opportunity . '' [ http : //wayback.archive.org/web/20070312201942/http : //www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-19722917.html John Simon 's obituary of Goldsmith ] in the National Review ( 1 September 1997 ) says this : Women adored him and he adored women . He married three times and had numerous mistresses . ( Yet another Jimmyism : 'When you marry your mistress you create a job vacancy . ' ) He was loyal , in his own way , to all of them , and all of them were loyal to him . He had eight children by four different women , and never have I seen a more closely knit family . Male equivalent For male mistress , the more general term `` lover '' can be used , but it does not carry the same implications . `` Paramour '' is sometimes used , but this term can apply to either partner in an illicit relationship , so it is not exclusively male . If the man is being financially supported , especially by a wealthy older woman or man , he is a kept man . Misteress is defined by Urban Dictionary as a `` A man other than her husband with whom a married woman has an ongoing sexual relationship '' . However , Misteress is differently suggested to be the married male who has a mistress . Manstress is also defined in Urban Dictionary as a woman 's man on the side . In 18th and 19th-century Italy , the terms cicisbeo and cavalier servente were used to describe a man who was the professed gallant and lover of a married woman . Another word that has been used for a male mistress is gigolo , though this carries connotations of brief duration and expectation of payment , i.e. , prostitution . In literature In both John Cleland 's Fanny Hill and Daniel Defoe 's Moll Flanders , as well as in countless novels of feminine peril , the distinction between a `` kept woman '' and a prostitute is all-important . Apologists for the practice of mistresses referred to the practice in the ancient Near East of keeping a concubine ; they frequently quoted verses from the Old Testament to show that mistress-keeping was an ancient practice that was , if not acceptable , at least understandable . John Dryden , in Annus Mirabilis , suggested that the king 's keeping of mistresses and production of bastards was a result of his abundance of generosity and spirit . In its more sinister form , the theme of being `` kept '' is never far from the surface in novels about women as victims in the 18th century in England , whether in the novels of Eliza Haywood or Samuel Richardson ( whose heroines in Pamela and Clarissa are both put in a position of being threatened with sexual degradation and being reduced to the status of a kept object ) . With the Romantics of the early 19th century , the subject of `` keeping '' becomes more problematic , in that a non-marital sexual union can occasionally be celebrated as a woman 's free choice and a noble alternative . Maryann Evans ( better known as George Eliot ) defiantly lived `` in sin '' with a married man , partially as a sign of her independence of middle-class morality . Her independence required that she not be `` kept . '' Charlotte Brontë 's novel Jane Eyre ( 1848 ) presents impassioned arguments on both sides of this question , as Rochester , unable to be free of his insane wife , tries to persuade Jane Eyre to live with him , which she resists . Margaret Mitchell 's novel Gone with the Wind ( 1936 ) also implies that Scarlett O'Hara should be the mistress of Rhett Butler , which was thought of as prostitution by Scarlett as she said she would be no better than Belle Watling .

qb_2899--Mistress_(lover).txt

Madame de Pompadour and Madame du Barry were mistresses of which French King?

The Independent State of Samoa ( , ) , commonly known as Samoa ( ) and formerly known as Western Samoa , is a Unitary Parliamentary Republic with eleven administrative divisions . The two main islands are Savai ' i and Upolu with four smaller islands surrounding the landmasses . The capital city is Apia . The Lapita people discovered and settled the Samoan islands around 3,500 years ago . They developed a unique language and cultural identity . Samoa was admitted to the United Nations on 15 December 1976 . The entire island group , which includes American Samoa , was called `` Navigator Islands '' by European explorers before the 20th century because of the Samoans ' seafaring skills . Official languages are English and Samoan ( Gagana Fa'asāmoa ) , which is also spoken in American Samoa . History The oldest date so far for remains in Samoa has been calculated by New Zealand scientists to a likely true age of circa 3,000 years ago from a Lapita site at Mulifanua during the 1970s . The origins of the Samoans are closely studied in modern research about Polynesia in various scientific disciplines such as genetics , linguistics and anthropology . Scientific research is ongoing , although a number of different theories exist ; including one proposing that the Samoans originated from Austronesian predecessors during the terminal eastward Lapita expansion period from Southeast Asia and Melanesia between 2,500 and 1,500 BCE . The Samoan origins are currently being reassessed due to new scientific evidence and carbon dating findings from 2003 and onwards . Intimate sociocultural and genetic ties were maintained between the eastern Lapita colonies and the archaeological record supports oral tradition and native genealogies that indicate inter-island voyaging and intermarriage between prehistoric Samoans , Fijians , and Tongans . Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century . Jacob Roggeveen , a Dutchman , was the first known European to sight the Samoan islands in 1722 . This visit was followed by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville , who named them the Navigator Islands in 1768 . Contact was limited before the 1830s , which is when English missionaries and traders began arriving . Mission work in Samoa had begun in late 1830 by John Williams , of the London Missionary Society arriving in Sapapali ' i from The Cook Islands and Tahiti . According to Barbara A . West , `` The Samoans were also known to engage in ‘ headhunting ' , a ritual of war in which a warrior took the head of his slain opponent to give to his leader , thus proving his bravery . '' However , Robert Louis Stevenson , who lived in Samoa from 1889 until his death in 1894 , wrote in A Footnote to History : Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa , `` … the Samoans are gentle people . '' The Germans in particular began to show great commercial interest in the Samoan Islands , especially on the island of Upolu , where German firms monopolised copra and cocoa bean processing . The United States laid its own claim and formed alliances with local native chieftains , most conspicuously on the islands of Tutuila and Manu ' a . Britain also sent troops to protect British business enterprise , harbour rights , and consulate office . This was followed by an eight-year civil war , during which each of the three powers supplied arms , training and in some cases combat troops to the warring Samoan parties . The Samoan crisis came to a critical juncture in March 1889 when all three colonial contenders sent warships into Apia harbour , and a larger-scale war seemed imminent . A massive storm on 15 March 1889 damaged or destroyed the warships , ending the military conflict . The Second Samoan Civil War reached a head in 1898 when Germany , the United Kingdom , and the United States were locked in dispute over who should control the Samoa Islands . The Siege of Apia occurred in March 1899 . Samoan forces loyal to Prince Tanu were besieged by a larger force of Samoan rebels loyal to Mata'afa Iosefo . Supporting Prince Tanu were landing parties from four British and American warships . After several days of fighting , the Samoan rebels were finally defeated . American and British warships shelled Apia on 15 March 1899 , including the USS Philadelphia . Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States quickly resolved to end the hostilities and divided the island chain at the Tripartite Convention of 1899 , signed at Washington on 2 December 1899 with ratifications exchanged on 16 February 1900.Ryden , George Herbert . The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa . New York : Octagon Books , 1975 . ( Reprint by special arrangement with Yale University Press . Originally published at New Haven : Yale University Press , 1928 ) , p. 574 The eastern island-group became a territory of the United States ( the Tutuila Islands in 1900 and officially Manu ' a in 1904 ) and was known as American Samoa . The western islands , by far the greater landmass , became German Samoa . The United Kingdom had vacated all claims in Samoa and in return received ( 1 ) termination of German rights in Tonga , ( 2 ) all of the Solomon Islands south of Bougainville , and ( 3 ) territorial alignments in West Africa . German Samoa ( 1900–1914 ) The German Empire governed the western Samoan islands from 1900 to 1914 . “ Over all , the period of German rule was the most progressive , economically , that the country has experienced. ” Wilhelm Solf was appointed the colony ’ s first governor . His actions and conduct became “ … paternal , fair and absolute. ” In 1908 , when the non-violent Mau a Pule resistance movement arose , Solf did not hesitate to banish the Mau leader Lauaki Namulauulu Mamoe to Saipan in the German Northern Mariana Islands . The German colonial administration governed on the principle “ there was only one government in the islands ” , Thus , there was no Samoan Tupu ( king ) , nor an alii sili ( similar to a governor ) , but two Fautua ( advisors ) were appointed by the colonial government . Tumua and Pule ( traditional governments of Upolu and Savaii ) were for a time silent ; all decisions on matters affecting lands and titles were under the control of the colonial Governor . In the first month of World War I , on 29 August 1914 , troops of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force landed unopposed on 'Upolu and seized control from the German authorities , following a request by Great Britain for New Zealand to perform their `` great and urgent imperial service '' . New Zealand rule ( 1914–1962 ) From the end of World War I until 1962 , New Zealand controlled Samoa as a Class C Mandate under trusteeship through the League of Nations , then through the United Nations . There followed a series of New Zealand administrators who were responsible for two major incidents . In the first incident , approximately one fifth of the Samoan population died in the influenza epidemic of 1918–1919 . Between 1919 and 1962 , Samoa was administered by the Department of External Affairs , a government department which had been specially created to oversee New Zealand 's Island Territories and Samoa . In 1943 , this Department was renamed the Department of Island Territories after a separate Department of External Affairs was created to conduct New Zealand 's foreign affairs . In 1919 , the Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Epidemic concluded that there had been no epidemic of pneumonic influenza in Western Samoa before the arrival of the SS Talune from Auckland on 7 November 1918 . The NZ administration allowed the ship to berth in breach of quarantine ; within seven days of this ship 's arrival , influenza became epidemic in Upolu and then spread rapidly throughout the rest of the territory . The second major incident arose out of an initially peaceful protest by the Mau ( which literally translates as `` strongly held opinion '' ) , a non-violent popular movement which had its beginnings in the early 1900s on Savai ' i , led by Lauaki Namulauulu Mamoe , an orator chief deposed by Solf . In 1909 , Lauaki was exiled to Saipan and died en route back to Samoa in 1915 . By 1918 , Samoa had a population of some 38,000 Samoans and 1,500 Europeans . However , Samoans greatly resented New Zealand 's colonial rule , and blamed inflation and the catastrophic 1918 flu epidemic on its misrule . By the late 1920s the resistance movement against colonial rule had gathered widespread support . One of the Mau leaders was Olaf Frederick Nelson , a half Samoan and half Swedish merchant . Nelson was eventually exiled during the late 1920s and early 1930s , but he continued to assist the organisation financially and politically . In accordance with the Mau 's non-violent philosophy , the newly elected leader , High Chief Tupua Tamasese Lealofi , led his fellow uniformed Mau in a peaceful demonstration in downtown Apia on 28 December 1929 . The New Zealand police attempted to arrest one of the leaders in the demonstration . When he resisted , a struggle developed between the police and the Mau . The officers began to fire randomly into the crowd and a Lewis machine gun , mounted in preparation for this demonstration , was used to disperse the demonstrators . Chief Tamasese was shot from behind and killed while trying to bring calm and order to the Mau demonstrators , screaming `` Peace , Samoa '' . Ten others died that day and approximately 50 were injured by gunshot wounds and police batons . That day would come to be known in Samoa as Black Saturday . The Mau grew , remaining steadfastly non-violent , and expanded to include the highly influential women 's branch . Independence ( 1962 ) After repeated efforts by the Samoan independence movement , the New Zealand Western Samoa Act 1961 of 24 November 1961 granted Samoa independence effective 1 January 1962 , upon which the Trusteeship Agreement terminated . Samoa also signed a friendship treaty with New Zealand . Samoa , the first small-island country in the Pacific to become independent , joined the Commonwealth of Nations on 28 August 1970 . While independence was achieved at the beginning of January , Samoa annually celebrates 1 June as its independence day . Travel writer Paul Theroux noted marked differences between the societies in Western Samoa and American Samoa in 1992 . In July 1997 , the government amended the constitution to change the country 's name from Western Samoa to Samoa . American Samoa protested against the move , asserting that the change diminished its own identity . In 2002 , New Zealand 's prime minister Helen Clark formally apologised for New Zealand 's role in the events of 1918 and 1929 . 21st century On 7 September 2009 , the government changed the driving orientation for motorists : Samoans now drive on the left side of the road . This brought Samoa into line with many other countries in the region . Samoa thus became the first country in the 21st century to switch to driving on the left . At the end of December 2011 , Samoa jumped forward by one day , omitting 30 December from the local calendar , when the nation moved to the west of the International Date Line . This change aimed to help the nation boost its economy in doing business with Australia and New Zealand . Before this change , Samoa was 21 hours behind Sydney , but the change means it is now three hours ahead . The previous time zone , agreed on 4 July 1892 , operated in line with American traders based in California . Politics The 1960 constitution , which formally came into force with independence from New Zealand in 1962 , builds on the British pattern of parliamentary democracy , modified to take account of Samoan customs . The national modern Government of Samoa is referred to as the Malo . Fiame Mata'afa Faumuina Mulinu ’ u II , one of the four highest-ranking paramount chiefs in the country , became Samoa 's first Prime Minister . Two other paramount chiefs at the time of independence were appointed joint heads of state for life . Tupua Tamasese Mea'ole died in 1963 , leaving Malietoa Tanumafili II sole head of state until his death on 11 May 2007 , upon which Samoa changed from a constitutional monarchy to a parliamentary republic de facto . The next Head of State , Tuiatua Tupua Tamasese Efi , was elected by the legislature on 17 June 2007 for a fixed five-year term , and was re-elected unopposed in July 2012 . The unicameral legislature ( the Fono ) consists of 49 members serving 5-year terms . Forty-seven are matai title-holders elected from territorial districts by Samoans ; the other two are chosen by non-Samoans with no chiefly affiliation on separate electoral rolls . Universal suffrage was adopted in 1990 , but only chiefs ( matai ) may stand for election to the Samoan seats . There are more than 25,000 matais in the country , about 5 % of whom are women . The prime minister , chosen by a majority in the Fono , is appointed by the head of state to form a government . The prime minister 's choices for the 12 cabinet positions are appointed by the head of state , subject to the continuing confidence of the Fono . Prominent women in Samoan politics include the late Laulu Fetauimalemau Mata'afa ( 1928–2007 ) from Lotofaga constituency , the wife of Samoa 's first prime minister . Their daughter Fiame Naomi Mata'afa is a paramount chief and a long-serving senior member of cabinet . Other women in politics include Samoan scholar and eminent professor Aiono Fanaafi Le Tagaloa , orator-chief Matatumua Maimoana and Safuneitu'uga Pa'aga Neri ( the Minister of Communication and Technology ) . The judicial system incorporates English common law and local customs . The Supreme Court of Samoa is the court of highest jurisdiction . Its chief justice is appointed by the head of state upon the recommendation of the prime minister . Administrative divisions Samoa comprises eleven itūmālō ( political districts ) . These are the traditional eleven districts that were established well before Europeans arrived . Each district has its own constitutional foundation ( faavae ) based on the traditional order of title precedence found in each district 's faalupega ( traditional salutations ) . The capital village of each district administers and coordinates the affairs of the district and confers each district 's paramount title , amongst other responsibilities . For example , the District of A'ana has its capital at Leulumoega . The paramount title of A'ana is the TuiA'ana . The orator group which confers this title – the Faleiva ( House of Nine ) – is based at Leulumoega . This is also the same for the other districts . In the district of Tuamasaga , the paramount title of the district – the Malietoa title – is conferred by the FaleTuamasaga based in Afega . 1 2 3 Geography Samoa is located south of the equator , about halfway between Hawaii and New Zealand in the Polynesian region of the Pacific Ocean . The total land area is 2,842 km² ( 1,097 sq mi ) , consisting of the two large islands of Upolu and Savai ' i which account for 99 % of the total land area , and eight small islets . These are the three islets in the Apolima Strait ( Manono Island , Apolima and Nu'ulopa ) , the four Aleipata Islands off the eastern end of Upolu ( Nu'utele , Nu'ulua , Namua , and Fanuatapu ) , and Nu'usafe ' e ( less than 0.01 km² – 2½ acres – in area and about 1.4 km ( 0.9 mi ) off the south coast of Upolu at the village of Vaovai ) . The main island of Upolu is home to nearly three-quarters of Samoa 's population , and its capital city is Apia . The Samoan islands have been produced by vulcanism , the source of which is the Samoa hotspot which is probably the result of a mantle plume . While all of the islands have volcanic origins , only Savai ' i , the western most island in Samoa , is volcanically active with the most recent eruptions in Mt Matavanu ( 1905–1911 ) , Mata o le Afi ( 1902 ) and Mauga Afi ( 1725 ) . The highest point in Samoa is Mt Silisili , at 1858 m ( 6,096 ft ) . The Saleaula lava fields situated on the central north coast of Savai ' i are the result of the Mt Matavanu eruptions which left 50 km² ( 20 sq mi ) of solidified lava . Climate The climate is equatorial/monsoonal , with an average annual temperature of 26.5 °C ( 79.7 °F ) , and a rainy season from November to April . Savai ' i is the largest of the Samoan islands and the sixth largest Polynesian island after New Zealand 's North , South and Stewart Islands and the Hawaiian islands of Hawaiʻi and Maui . The population of Savai ' i is 42,000 people . Ecology Samoa is located within the Samoan tropical moist forests ecoregion . Since human habitation began , about 80 % of the lowland rain forests has been lost . Within the ecoregion about 28 % of plants and 84 % of land birds are endemic . Economy The Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) in purchasing power parity ( PPP ) in 2006 was estimated at $ 1.218 billion USD . The industrial sector is the largest component of GDP at 58.4 % , followed by the services sector at 30.2 % ( 2004 est . ) . Agriculture represents only 11.4 % of GDP ( 2004 est . ) . The Samoan labour force is estimated at 90,000 . The country currency is the Samoan tālā , issued and regulated by the Central Bank of Samoa . The economy of Samoa has traditionally been dependent on agriculture and fishing at the local level . In modern times , development aid , private family remittances from overseas , and agricultural exports have become key factors in the nation 's economy . Agriculture employs two-thirds of the labour force , and furnishes 90 % of exports , featuring coconut cream , coconut oil , noni ( juice of the nonu fruit , as it is known in Samoan ) , and copra . Outside of a large automotive wire harness factory ( Yazaki Corporation ) , the manufacturing sector mainly processes agricultural products . Tourism is an expanding sector which now accounts for 25 % of GDP . Tourist arrivals have been increasing over the years with more than 100,000 tourists visiting the islands in 2005 , up from 70,000 in 1996 . The Samoan government has called for deregulation of the financial sector , encouragement of investment , and continued fiscal discipline . Observers point to the flexibility of the labour market as a basic strength for future economic advances . The sector has been helped enormously by major capital investment in hotel infrastructure , political instability in neighbouring Pacific countries , and the 2005 launch of Virgin Samoa a joint-venture between the government and Virgin Australia ( then Virgin Blue ) . In the period before German colonisation , Samoa produced mostly copra . German merchants and settlers were active in introducing large scale plantation operations and developing new industries , notably cocoa bean and rubber , relying on imported labourers from China and Melanesia . When the value of natural rubber fell drastically , about the end of the Great War ( World War I ) , the New Zealand government encouraged the production of bananas , for which there is a large market in New Zealand . Because of variations in altitude , a large range of tropical and subtropical crops can be cultivated , but land is not generally available to outside interests . Of the total land area of 2,934 km² ( 725,000 acres ) , about 24.4 % is in permanent crops and another 21.2 % is arable . About 4.4 % is Western Samoan Trust Estates Corporation ( WSTEC ) . The staple products of Samoa are copra ( dried coconut meat ) , cocoa bean ( for chocolate ) , and bananas . The annual production of both bananas and copra has been in the range of 13,000 to 15,000 metric tons ( about 14,500 to 16,500 short tons ) . If the rhinoceros beetle in Samoa were eradicated , Samoa could produce in excess of 40,000 metric tons ( 44,000 short tons ) of copra . Samoan cocoa beans are of very high quality and used in fine New Zealand chocolates . Most are Criollo-Forastero hybrids . Coffee grows well , but production has been uneven . WSTEC is the biggest coffee producer . Rubber has been produced in Samoa for many years , but its export value has little impact on the economy . Other agricultural industries have been less successful . Sugarcane production , originally established by Germans in the early 20th century , could be successful . Old train tracks for transporting cane can be seen at some plantations east of Apia . Pineapples grow well in Samoa , but beyond local consumption have not been a major export . Demographics Samoa has a population of 194,320 . About three-quarters of the population live on the main island of Upolu . Ethnic groups 92.6 % of the population are Samoans , 7 % Euronesians ( people of mixed European and Polynesian ancestry ) and 0.4 % are Europeans , per the CIA World Factbook . Only the Māori of New Zealand outnumber Samoans among Polynesian groups . Languages Samoan and English are official languages . Samoan Sign Language is used by at least some of the deaf population . Religion Samoans ' religious adherence includes the following : Christian Congregational Church of Samoa 31.8 % , Roman Catholic 19.4 % , Methodist 15.2 % , Assembly of God 13.7 % , Mormon 7.6 % , Seventh-day Adventist 3.9 % , Worship Centre 1.7 % , other Christian 5.5 % , other 0.7 % , none 0.1 % , unspecified 0.1 % ( 2011 estimate ) . The Head of State until 2007 , His Highness Malietoa Tanumafili II , was a Bahá ' í convert . Samoa hosts one of seven Bahá ' í Houses of Worship in the world ; completed in 1984 and dedicated by the Head of State , it is located in Tiapapata , 8 km ( 5 mi ) from Apia . Culture The fa ' a Samoa , or traditional Samoan way , remains a strong force in Samoan life and politics . Despite centuries of European influence , Samoa maintains its historical customs , social and political systems , and language . Cultural customs such as the Samoa 'ava ceremony are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions including the bestowal of matai chiefly titles . Items of great cultural value include the finely woven 'ie toga . Samoan mythology includes many gods with creation stories and figures of legend such as Tagaloa and the goddess of war Nafanua , the daughter of Saveasi'uleo , ruler of the spirit realm Pulotu . Other legends include the well known story of Sina and the Eel which explains the origins of the first coconut tree . Some Samoans are spiritual and religious , and have subtly adapted the dominant religion of Christianity to 'fit in ' with fa ' a Samoa and vice versa . Ancient beliefs continue to co-exist side-by-side with Christianity , particularly in regard to the traditional customs and rituals of fa ' a Samoa . The Samoan culture is centred around the principle of vāfealoa ' i , the relationships between people . These relationships are based on respect , or fa'aaloalo . When Christianity was introduced in Samoa , most Samoan people converted . Currently 98 % of the population identify themselves as Christian . Some Samoans live a communal way of life , participating in activities collectively . Examples of this are the traditional Samoan fale ( houses ) which are open with no walls , using blinds made of coconut palm fronds during the night or bad weather . The Samoan word for dance is siva with unique gentle movements of the body in time to music and which tell a story , although the Samoan male dances can be more snappy . The sasa is also a traditional dance where rows of dancers perform rapid synchronised movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums ( pate ) or rolled mats . Another dance performed by males is called the fa'ataupati or the slap dance , creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body . This is believed to have been derived from slapping insects on the body . The form and construction of traditional architecture of Samoa was a specialised skill by Tufuga fai fale that was also linked to other cultural artforms . File : Catholic church in Samoa-2.jpg|Roman Catholic Immaculate Conception of Mary cathedral . File : Siva Afi - Fire spinning.jpg|A Samoan fire dancer . File : Fale on Manono Island.jpg|A fale on Manono Island File : Apia Samoa Temple-new.jpg|LDS Apia Samoa Temple Tattooing As with other Polynesian cultures ( Hawaiian , Tahitian and Māori ) with significant and unique tattoos , Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos . For males , it is called the Pe ' a and consists of intricate and geometrical patterns tattooed that cover areas from the knees up towards the ribs . A male who possesses such a tatau is called a soga'imiti . A Samoan girl or teine is given a malu , which covers the area from just below her knees to her upper thighs . Contemporary culture Albert Wendt is a significant Samoan writer whose novels and stories tell the Samoan experience . In 1989 , his novel Flying Fox in a Freedom Tree was made into a feature film in New Zealand , directed by Martyn Sanderson . Another novel Sons for the Return Home had also been made into a feature film in 1979 , directed by Paul Maunder . The late John Kneubuhl , born in American Samoa , was an accomplished playwright and screenwriter and writer . Sia Figiel won the 1997 Commonwealth Writers ' Prize for fiction in the south-east Asia/South Pacific region with her novel `` Where We Once Belonged '' . Momoe Von Reiche is an internationally recognised poet and artist . Tusiata Avia is a performance poet . Her first book of poetry Wild Dogs Under My Skirt was published by Victoria University Press in 2004 . Dan Taulapapa McMullin is an artist and writer . Other Samoan poets and writers include Sapa ' u Ruperake Petaia , Eti Sa'aga and Savea Sano Malifa , the editor of the Samoa Observer . In music , popular local bands include The Five Stars , Penina o Tiafau and Punialava ' a . The Yandall Sisters ' cover of the song Sweet Inspiration reached number one on the New Zealand charts in 1974 . King Kapisi was the first hip hop artist to receive the prestigious New Zealand APRA Silver Scroll Award in 1999 for his song Reverse Resistance . The music video for Reverse Resistance was filmed in Savai ' i at his villages . Other successful Samoan hip hop artists include rapper Scribe , Dei Hamo , Savage and Tha Feelstyle whose music video Suamalie was filmed in Samoa . Lemi Ponifasio is a director and choreographer who is prominent internationally with his dance Company MAU . Neil Ieremia 's company Black Grace has also received international acclaim with tours to Europe and New York . Hip hop has had a significant impact on Samoan culture . According to Katerina Martina Teaiwa , PhD from the University of Hawaii at Manoa , `` Hip hop culture in

qg_3086--Samoa.txt

On Monday, Samoa became the first nation in nearly 40 years to switch sides of the road. On what side do they now drive?

India , officially the Republic of India ( IAST : ' ) , is a country in South Asia . It is the seventh-largest country by area , the second-most populous country ( with over 1.2 billion people ) , and the most populous democracy in the world . Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south , the Arabian Sea on the south-west , and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east , it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west ; China , Nepal , and Bhutan to the north-east ; and Myanmar ( Burma ) and Bangladesh to the east . In the Indian Ocean , India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives ; in addition , India 's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia . Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires , the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history . Four religions—Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism , and Sikhism—originated here , whereas Zoroastrianism , Judaism , Christianity , and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also shaped the region 's diverse culture . Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi . Currently , the Indian economy is the world 's seventh-largest by nominal GDP and third-largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . Following market-based economic reforms in 1991 , India became one of the fastest-growing major economies ; it is considered a newly industrialised country . However , it continues to face the challenges of poverty , corruption , malnutrition and inadequate public healthcare . A nuclear weapons state and a regional power , it has the third-largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations . India is a federal republic governed under a parliamentary system and consists of 29 states and 7 union territories . India is a pluralistic , multilingual , and a multi-ethnic society . It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats . Etymology The name India is derived from Indus , which originates from the Old Persian word Sindhi . The latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu , which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River . The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi ( Ινδοί ) , which translates as `` The people of the Indus '' . The geographical term Bharat ( , ) , which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country , is used by many Indian languages in its variations . It is a modernisation of the historical name Bharatavarsha , which gained increasing currency from the mid-19th century onwards as a native name of India . Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B.C.E . It is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata . Gaṇarājya ( literally , people 's State ) is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for `` republic '' dating back to the ancient times . Hindustan is an ancient Persian name for India dating to 3 century B.C.E . It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then , often being thought of as the `` Land of the Hindus . '' Its meaning varied , referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety . History Ancient India The earliest authenticated human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago . Nearly contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent , including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh . Around 7000 BCE , the first known Neolithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan . These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation , the first urban culture in South Asia ; it flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India . Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro , Harappa , Dholavira , and Kalibangan , and relying on varied forms of subsistence , the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade . During the period 2000–500 BCE , in terms of culture , many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age . The Vedas , the oldest scriptures of Hinduism , were composed during this period , and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain . Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent . The caste system arose during this period , creating a hierarchy of priests , warriors , free peasants and traders , and lastly the indigenous peoples who were regarded as impure ; and small tribal units gradually coalesced into monarchical , state-level polities . On the Deccan Plateau , archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation . In southern India , a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period , as well as by nearby traces of agriculture , irrigation tanks , and craft traditions . In the late Vedic period , around the 6th century BCE , the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas . The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements , two of which became independent religions . Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar , Mahavira . Buddhism , based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class ; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India . In an age of increasing urban wealth , both religions held up renunciation as an ideal , and both established long-lasting monastic traditions . Politically , by the 3rd century BCE , the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire . The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south , but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas . The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka 's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma . The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that , between 200 BCE and 200 CE , the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras , the Cholas , and the Pandyas , dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and South-East Asia . In North India , Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family , leading to increased subordination of women . By the 4th and 5th centuries , the Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later Indian kingdoms . Under the Guptas , a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather than the management of ritual began to assert itself . The renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture , which found patrons among an urban elite . Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well , and Indian science , astronomy , medicine , and mathematics made significant advances . Medieval India The Indian early medieval age , 600 CE to 1200 CE , is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity . When Harsha of Kannauj , who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE , attempted to expand southwards , he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan . When his successor attempted to expand eastwards , he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal . When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards , they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south , who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south . No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond his core region . During this time , pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society , as were new non-traditional ruling classes . The caste system consequently began to show regional differences . In the 6th and 7th centuries , the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language . They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent . Indian royalty , big and small , and the temples they patronised , drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities , which became economic hubs as well . Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation . By the 8th and 9th centuries , the effects were felt in South-East Asia , as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar , Thailand , Laos , Cambodia , Vietnam , Philippines , Malaysia , and Java . Indian merchants , scholars , and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission ; South-East Asians took the initiative as well , with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages . After the 10th century , Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans , using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion , repeatedly overran South Asia 's north-western plains , leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206 . The sultanate was to control much of North India , and to make many forays into South India . Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites , the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs . By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century , the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia , setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers , learned men , mystics , traders , artists , and artisans from that region into the subcontinent , thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north . The sultanate 's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire . Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate , the empire came to control much of peninsular India , and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards . Early modern India In the early 16th century , northern India , being then under mainly Muslim rulers , fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors . The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule , but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and inclusive ruling elites , leading to more systematic , centralised , and uniform rule . Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity , especially under Akbar , the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty , expressed through a Persianised culture , to an emperor who had near-divine status . The Mughal state 's economic policies , deriving most revenues from agriculture and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency , caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets . The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India 's economic expansion , resulting in greater patronage of painting , literary forms , textiles , and architecture . Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India , such as the Marathas , the Rajputs , and the Sikhs , gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule , which , through collaboration or adversity , gave them both recognition and military experience . Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India . As the empire disintegrated , many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs . By the early 18th century , with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred , a number of European trading companies , including the English East India Company , had established coastal outposts . The East India Company 's control of the seas , greater resources , and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly flex its military muscle and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite ; both these factors were crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies . Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s . India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had , but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials , and many historians consider this to be the onset of India 's colonial period . By this time , with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of British administration , the Company began to more consciously enter non-economic arenas such as education , social reform , and culture . Modern India Historians consider India 's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885 . The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state . These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty , the surveillance of the population , and the education of citizens ( English Education Act 1835 ) . Technological changes—among them , railways , canals , and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe . However , disaffection with the Company also grew during this time , and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions , including invasive British-style social reforms , harsh land taxes , and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes , the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule . Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858 , it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and to the direct administration of India by the British government . Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system , the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest . In the decades following , public life gradually emerged all over India , leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885 . The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks—many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets . There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines , and , despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers , little industrial employment was generated for Indians . There were also salutary effects : commercial cropping , especially in the newly canalled Punjab , led to increased food production for internal consumption . The railway network provided critical famine relief , notably reduced the cost of moving goods , and helped nascent Indian-owned industry . After World War I , in which approximately one million Indians served , a new period began . It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislations , by more strident Indian calls for self-rule , and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation , of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol . During the 1930s , slow legislative reform was enacted by the British ; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections . The next decade was beset with crises : Indian participation in World War II , the Congress 's final push for non-co-operation , and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism . All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947 , but tempered by the partition of India into two states : India and Pakistan . Vital to India 's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution , completed in 1950 , which put in place a secular and democratic republic . In the 60 years since , India has had a mixed record of successes and failures . It has remained a democracy with civil liberties , an active Supreme Court , and a largely independent press . Economic liberalisation , which was begun in the 1990s , has created a large urban middle class , transformed India into one of the world 's fastest-growing economies , and increased its geopolitical clout . Indian movies , music , and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture . Yet , India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty , both rural and urban ; by religious and caste-related violence ; by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies ; and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India . It has unresolved territorial disputes with China and with Pakistan . The India–Pakistan nuclear rivalry came to a head in 1998 . India 's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world 's newer nations ; however , in spite of its recent economic successes , freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved . Geography India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent , lying atop the Indian tectonic plate , and part of the Indo-Australian Plate . India 's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian plate , then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana , began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west , and later , south and south-east . Simultaneously , the vast Tethyn oceanic crust , to its northeast , began to subduct under the Eurasian plate . These dual processes , driven by convection in the Earth 's mantle , both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas . Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas , plate movement created a vast trough that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain . Cut off from the plain by the ancient Aravalli Range lies the Thar Desert . The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India , the oldest and geologically most stable part of India . It extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India . These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east . To the south , the remaining peninsular landmass , the Deccan Plateau , is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats ; the plateau contains the country 's oldest rock formations , some over one billion years old . Constituted in such fashion , India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44 ' and 35° 30 ' north latitude and 68° 7 ' and 97° 25 ' east longitude . India 's coastline measures in length ; of this distance , belong to peninsular India and to the Andaman , Nicobar , and Lakshadweep island chains . According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts , the mainland coastline consists of the following : 43 % sandy beaches ; 11 % rocky shores , including cliffs ; and 46 % mudflats or marshy shores . Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra , both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal . Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi ; the latter 's extremely low gradient often leads to severe floods and course changes . Major peninsular rivers , whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding , include the Godavari , the Mahanadi , the Kaveri , and the Krishna , which also drain into the Bay of Bengal ; and the Narmada and the Tapti , which drain into the Arabian Sea . Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India ; the latter is shared with Bangladesh . India has two archipelagos : the Lakshadweep , coral atolls off India 's south-western coast ; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea . The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert , both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons . The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in , keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes . The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that , between June and October , provide the majority of India 's rainfall . Four major climatic groupings predominate in India : tropical wet , tropical dry , subtropical humid , and montane . Biodiversity India lies within the Indomalaya ecozone and contains three biodiversity hotspots . One of 17 megadiverse countries , it hosts 8.6 % of all mammalian , 13.7 % of all avian , 7.9 % of all reptilian , 6 % of all amphibian , 12.2 % of all piscine , and 6.0 % of all flowering plant species . About 21.2 % of the country 's landmass is covered by forests ( tree canopy density > 10 % ) , of which 12.2 % comprises moderately or very dense forests ( tree canopy density > 40 % ) . Endemism is high among plants , 33 % , and among ecoregions such as the shola forests . Habitat ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands , Western Ghats , and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya . Between these extremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India ; the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India ; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain . The medicinal neem , widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies , is a key Indian tree . The luxuriant pipal fig tree , shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro , shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment . Many Indian species descend from taxa originating in Gondwana , from which the Indian plate separated more than 105 million years before present . Peninsular India 's subsequent movement towards and collision with the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species . Epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago forced a mass extinction . Mammals then entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the rising Himalaya . Thus , while 45.8 % of reptiles and 55.8 % of amphibians are endemic , only 12.6 % of mammals and 4.5 % of birds are . Among them are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and Beddome 's toad of the Western Ghats . India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species , or 2.9 % of endangered forms . These include the Asiatic lion , the Bengal tiger , the snow leopard and the Indian white-rumped vulture , which , by ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-laced cattle , nearly became extinct . The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife . In response the system of national parks and protected areas , first established in 1935 , was substantially expanded . In 1972 , India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness ; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988 . India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteen biosphere reserves , four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves ; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention . Politics India is the world 's most populous democracy . A parliamentary republic with a multi-party system , it has six recognised national parties , including the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , and more than 40 regional parties . The Congress is considered centre-left in Indian political culture , and the BJP right-wing . For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s , the Congress held a majority in the parliament . Since then , however , it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP , as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalitions at the centre . In the Republic of India 's first three general elections , in 1951 , 1957 , and 1962 , the Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories . On Nehru 's death in 1964 , Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister ; he was succeeded , after his own unexpected death in 1966 , by Indira Gandhi , who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971 . Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975 , the Congress was voted out of power in 1977 ; the then-new Janata Party , which had opposed the emergency , was voted in . Its government lasted just over three years . Voted back into power in 1980 , the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984 , when Indira Gandhi was assassinated ; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi , who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year . The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition , led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front , won the elections ; that government too proved relatively short-lived , lasting just under two years . Elections were held again in 1991 ; no party won an absolute majority . The Congress , as the largest single party , was able to form a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao . A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996 . Several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre . The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996 ; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting United Front coalitions , which depended on external support . In 1998 , the BJP was able to form a successful coalition , the National Democratic Alliance ( NDA ) . Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee , the NDA became the first non-Congress , coalition government to complete a five-year term . In the 2004 Indian general elections , again no party won an absolute majority , but the Congress emerged as the largest single party , forming another successful coalition : the United Progressive Alliance ( UPA ) . It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP . The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers , and it no longer required external support from India 's communist parties . That year , Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term . In the 2014 general election , the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the support of other parties . The Prime Minister of India is Narendra Modi , who was formerly Chief Minister of Gujarat . Government India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India , which serves as the country 's supreme legal document . It is a republic and representative democracy , in which `` majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law '' . Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the federal government and the states . The government abides by constitutional checks and balances . The Constitution of India , which came into effect on 26 January 1950 , states in its preamble that India is a sovereign , socialist , secular ,

sfq_10996--India.txt

From which common English tree are cricket stumps traditionally made?

The boll weevil ( Anthonomus grandis ) is a beetle which feeds on cotton buds and flowers . Thought to be native to Central America , it migrated into the United States from Mexico in the late 19th century and had infested all U.S. cotton-growing areas by the 1920s , devastating the industry and the people working in the American South . During the late 20th century , it became a serious pest in South America as well . Since 1978 , the Boll Weevil Eradication Program in the U.S. allowed full-scale cultivation to resume in many regions . Lifecycle Adult weevils overwinter in well-drained areas in or near cotton fields after diapause . They emerge and enter cotton fields from early spring through midsummer , with peak emergence in late spring , and feed on immature cotton bolls . The female lays about 200 eggs over a 10- to 12-day period . The oviposition leaves wounds on the exterior of the flower bud . The eggs hatch in 3 to 5 days within the cotton squares ( larger buds before flowering ) , feed for 8 to 10 days , and finally pupate . The pupal stage lasts another 5 to 7 days . The lifecycle from egg to adult spans about three weeks during the summer . Under optimal conditions , 8 to 10 generations per season may occur . Boll weevils begin to die at temperatures at or below −5 °C ( 23 °F ) . Research at the University of Missouri indicates they can not survive more than an hour at −15 °C ( 5 °F ) . The insulation offered by leaf litter , crop residues , and snow may enable the beetle to survive when air temperatures drop to these levels . The boll weevil lays its eggs inside buds and ripening bolls ( fruits ) of the cotton plants . The adult insect has a long snout , is grayish color , and is usually less than 6 mm long . Other limitations on boll weevil populations include extreme heat and drought . Its natural predators include fire ants , insects , spiders , birds , and a parasitic wasp , Catolaccus grandis . The insects sometimes emerge from diapause before cotton buds are available . Infestation The insect crossed the Rio Grande near Brownsville , Texas , to enter the United States from Mexico in 1892 and reached southeastern Alabama in 1909 . By the mid-1920s , it had entered all cotton-growing regions in the U.S. , travelling 40 to 160 miles per year . It remains the most destructive cotton pest in North America . Since the boll weevil entered the United States , it has cost U.S. cotton producers about $ 13 billion , and in recent times about $ 300 million per year . The boll weevil contributed to the economic woes of Southern farmers during the 1920s , a situation exacerbated by the Great Depression in the 1930s . The boll weevil appeared in Venezuela in 1949 and in Colombia in 1950 . The Amazon Rainforest was thought to present a barrier to its further spread , but it was detected in Brazil in 1983 , and an estimated 90 % of the cotton farms in Brazil are now infested . During the 1990s , the weevil spread to Paraguay and Argentina . The International Cotton Advisory Committee has proposed a control program similar to that used in the U.S . Control Following World War II , the development of new pesticides such as DDT enabled U.S. farmers again to grow cotton as an economic crop . DDT was initially extremely effective , but U.S. weevil populations developed resistance by the mid-1950s . Methyl parathion , malathion , and pyrethroids were subsequently used , but environmental and resistance concerns arose as they had with DDT , and control strategies changed . While many control methods have been investigated since the boll weevil entered the United States , insecticides have always remained the main control methods . In the 1980s , entomologists at Texas A & M University pointed to the spread of another invasive pest , the red imported fire ant , as a factor in the weevils ' population decline in some areas . Other avenues of control that have been explored include weevil-resistant strains of cotton , the parasitic wasp Catolaccus grandis , the fungus Beauveria bassiana , and the Chilo iridescent virus . Genetically engineered Bt cotton is not protected from the boll weevil . Although it was possible to control the boll weevil , to do so was costly in terms of insecticide costs . The goal of many cotton entomologists was to eventually eradicate the pest from U. S. cotton . In 1978 , a large-scale test was begun in eastern North Carolina and in Southampton County , Virginia , to determine the feasibility of eradication . Based on the success of this test , area-wide programs were begun in the 1980s to eradicate the insect from whole regions . These are based on cooperative effort by all growers together with the assistance of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service of the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) . The program has been successful in eradicating boll weevils from all cotton-growing states with the exception of Texas , and most of this state is free of boll weevils . Problems along the southern border with Mexico have delayed eradication in the extreme southern portions of this state . Follow-up programs are in place in all cotton-growing states to prevent the reintroduction of the pest . These monitoring programs rely on pheromone-baited traps for detection . The boll weevil eradication program , although slow and costly , has paid off for cotton growers in reduced pesticide costs . This program and the screwworm program of the 1950s are among the biggest and most successful insect control programs in history . Impact The Library of Congress American Memory Project contains a number of oral history materials on the boll weevil 's impact . The boll weevil infestation has been credited with bringing about economic diversification in the Southern US , including the expansion of peanut cropping . The citizens of Enterprise , Alabama , erected the Boll Weevil Monument in 1919 , perceiving that their economy had been overly dependent on cotton , and that mixed farming and manufacturing were better alternatives . The boll weevil is the mascot for the University of Arkansas at Monticello and is listed on several `` silliest '' or `` weirdest '' mascots of all time . It was also the mascot of a short-lived minor league baseball team , the Temple Boll Weevils , which were alternatively called the `` Cotton Bugs . ''

qb_1569--Boll_weevil.txt

Boll weevil cause damage to which crop?

Wardenclyffe Tower ( 1901–1917 ) , also known as the Tesla Tower , was an early wireless transmission station designed and built by Nikola Tesla in Shoreham , New York in 1901-1902 . Tesla intended to transmit messages , telephony and even facsimile images across the Atlantic to England and to ships at sea based on his theories of using the Earth to conduct the signals . His decision to scale up the facility and add his ideas of wireless power transmission to better compete with Guglielmo Marconi 's radio based telegraph system was met with the project 's primary backer , financier J. P. Morgan , refusing to fund the changes . Additional investment could not be found and the project was abandoned in 1906 and never became operational . In an attempt to satisfy Tesla 's debts , the tower was demolished for scrap in 1917 and the property taken in foreclosure in 1922 . For 50 years , Wardenclyffe was a processing facility producing photography supplies . Many buildings were added to the site and the land it occupies has been trimmed down to 16 acre but the original , 94 by , brick building designed by Stanford White remains standing to this day . In the 1980s and 2000s , hazardous waste from the photographic era was cleaned up , and the site was sold and cleared for new development . A grassroots campaign to save the site succeeded in purchasing the property in 2013 , with plans to build a future museum dedicated to Nikola Tesla . Design and operational principles Origins Tesla 's design for Wardenclyffe grew out of his experiments begun in the early 1890s . His primary goal in these experiments was to develop a new wireless power transmission system . He discarded the idea of using the newly discovered Hertzian ( radio ) waves , detected in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz since Tesla doubted they existed and basic physics told him , and most other scientists from that period , that they would only travel in straight lines the way visible light did , meaning they would travel straight out into space becoming `` hopelessly lost '' . In laboratory work and later large scale experiments at Colorado Springs in 1899 , Tesla developed his own ideas on how a worldwide wireless system would work . He theorized from these experiments that if he injected electric current into the Earth at just the right frequency he could harness what he believed was the planet 's own electrical charge and cause it to resonate at a frequency that would be amplified in `` standing waves '' that could be tapped anywhere on the planet to run devices or , through modulation , carry a signal . His system was based more on 19th century ideas of electrical conduction and telegraphy instead of the newer theories of air-borne electromagnetic waves , with an electrical charge being conducted through the ground and being returned through the air . Tesla 's design used a concept of a charged conductive upper layer in the atmosphere , a theory dating back to an 1872 idea for a proposed wireless power system by Mahlon Loomis . Tesla not only believed that he could use this layer as his return path in his electrical conduction system , but that the power flowing through it would make it glow , providing night time lighting for cities and shipping lanes . In a February 1901 Collier 's Weekly article titled `` Talking With Planets '' Tesla described his `` system of energy transmission and of telegraphy without the use of wires '' as : `` ( using ) the Earth itself as the medium for conducting the currents , thus dispensing with wires and all other artificial conductors ... a machine which , to explain its operation in plain language , resembled a pump in its action , drawing electricity from the Earth and driving it back into the same at an enormous rate , thus creating ripples or disturbances which , spreading through the Earth as through a wire , could be detected at great distances by carefully attuned receiving circuits . In this manner I was able to transmit to a distance , not only feeble effects for the purposes of signaling , but considerable amounts of energy , and later discoveries I made convinced me that I shall ultimately succeed in conveying power without wires , for industrial purposes , with high economy , and to any distance , however great . '' Although Tesla demonstrated wireless power transmission at Colorado Springs , lighting electric lights mounted outside the building where he had his large experimental coil , he did not scientifically test his theories . He believed he had achieved Earth resonance which , according to his theory , would work at any distance . Financing Tesla was back in New York in January 1900 . He had convinced his friend Robert Underwood Johnson , editor of The Century Magazine , to allow him to publish an article covering his work and Johnson had even sent a photographer to Colorado Springs the previous year to photograph Tesla 's experiments . The article titled `` The Problem of Increasing Human Energy '' written by Tesla appeared in the June , 1900 edition of Century Magazine . Instead of the understandable scientific description Johnson had hoped for it was more of a lengthy philosophical treatise where Tesla described his futuristic ideas on harnessing the sun 's energy , control the weather with electricity , wireless control , and how future inventions would make war impossible . It also contained what were to become iconic images by photographer Dickenson Alley of Tesla and his Colorado Springs experiments . Tesla made the rounds in New York trying to find investors for his system of wireless transmission , wining and dining them at the Waldorf-Astoria 's Palm Garden ( the hotel where he was living at the time ) , The Players Club and Delmonico 's . Tesla first went to his old friend George Westinghouse for help . Westinghouse seemed like a natural fit for the project given the large-scale AC equipment Westinghouse manufactured and Tesla ’ s need for similar equipment . Tesla asked Westinghouse to “ …meet me on some fair terms in furnishing me the machinery , retaining the ownership of the same and interesting yourself to a certain extent ” . While Westinghouse declined to buy into the project , he did agree to lend Tesla $ 6,000 '' . Westinghouse suggested Tesla pursue some of the rich venture capitalists . Tesla talked to John Jacob Astor , Thomas Fortune Ryan , and even sent a cabochon sapphire ring as a gift to Henry O. Havemeyer . No investment was forthcoming from Havemeyer and Ryan but Astor did buy 500 shares in Tesla 's company . Tesla gained the attention of financier J. P. Morgan in November 1900 . Morgan , who was impressed by Guglielmo Marconi 's feat of sending reports from the America 's Cup yacht races off Long Island back to New York City via radio based wireless the previous year , was dubious about the feasibility and patent priority of Tesla 's system . In several discussions Tesla assured Morgan his system was superior to , and based on patents that superseded , Marconi and other wireless inventors and that it would far outpace the performance of its main competitor , the transatlantic telegraph cable . Morgan signed a contract with Tesla in March 1901 , agreeing to give the inventor $ 150,000 to develop and build a wireless station on Long Island , NY capable of sending wireless messages to London as well as ships at sea . The deal also included Morgan having a 51 % interest in the company as well as a 51 % share in present and future wireless transmission and artificial daylight patents developed from the project . Design changes and financial problems Tesla began working on his wireless station immediately . As soon as the contract was signed with Morgan in March 1901 he placed an order for generators and transformers with the Westinghouse Electric Company . Tesla 's plans changed radically after he read a June 1901 Electrical Review article by Marconi titled SYNTONIC WIRELESS TELEGRAPH . At this point Marconi was transmitting radio signals beyond the range most physicists thought possible ( over the horizon ) and the description of the Italian inventor 's use of a `` Tesla coil '' `` connected to the Earth '' led Tesla to believe Marconi was copying his earth resonance system to do it . Tesla , believing a small pilot system capable of sending Morse code yacht race results to Morgan in Europe would not be able to capture the attention of potential investors , decided to scale up his designs with a much more powerful transmitter , incorporating his ideas of advanced telephone and image transmission as well as his ideas of wireless power delivery . In July 1901 Tesla informed Morgan of his planned changes to the project and the need for much more money to build it . He explained the more grandiose plan as a way to leap ahead of competitors and secure much larger profits on the investment . Morgan seemed to consider Tesla 's changes a breach of contract , refused to lend additional funds , and demanded an account of money already spent . Tesla would claim a few years later that funds were also running short because of Morgan 's role in triggering the stock market panic of 1901 , making everything Tesla had to buy much more expensive . Despite Morgan stating no additional funds would be supplied , Tesla continued on with the project . He explored the idea of building several small towers or a tower 300 feet and even 600 feet tall in order to transmit the type of low-frequency long waves that Tesla thought were needed to resonate the Earth . His friend , architect Stanford White , who was working on designing structures for the project , calculated that a 600-foot tower would cost $ 450,000 and the idea had to be scrapped . The plant at Wardenclyffe Tesla purchased 200 acre of land close to a railway line 65 miles from New York City in Shoreham on Long Island Sound from land developer James S. Warden who was building a resort community known as Wardenclyffe-On-Sound . Tesla would later state his plans were to eventually make Wardenclyffe a hub `` city '' in his plans for a worldwide system of 30 wireless plants , sending messages and media content and broadcasting electrical power . The land surrounding the Wardenclyffe plant was intended to be what Tesla would later in life refer to as a `` radio city '' with factories producing Tesla 's patented devices . Warden expected to build housing on the part of his remaining land for the expected 2000-2500 Tesla employees . At the end of July 1901 Tesla closed a contract for the building of the wireless telegraph plant and electrical laboratory at Wardenclyffe . The final design Tesla started building at Wardenclyffe consisted of a wood-framed tower 186 ft tall and the cupola 68 ft in diameter . It had a 55-ton steel ( some report it was a better conducting material , such as copper ) hemispherical structure at the top ( referred to as a cupola ) . The structure was such as to allow each piece to be taken out and replaced as necessary . The main building occupied the rest of the facility grounds . Stanford White designed the Wardenclyffe facility main building . It included a laboratory area , instrumentation room , boiler room , generator room and machine shop . Inside the main building , there were electromechanical devices , electrical generators , electrical transformers , glass blowing equipment , X-ray devices , Tesla coils , a remote controlled boat , cases with bulbs and tubes , wires , cables , a library , and an office . It was constructed in the style of the Italian Renaissance . The tower was designed by W.D . Crow , an associate of White . There was a great deal of construction under the tower to establish some form of ground connection but Tesla and his workers kept the public and the press away from the project so little is known . The descriptions ( some from Tesla 's 1923 testimony in foreclosure proceedings on the property ) include that the facility had a ten by twelve foot wood and steel lined shaft sunk into the ground 120 ft beneath the tower with a stairway inside it . Tesla stated that at the bottom of the shaft he `` had special machines rigged up which would push the iron pipe , one length after another , and I pushed these iron pipes , I think sixteen of them , three hundred feet , and then the current through these pipes takes hold of the earth . '' In Tesla 's words the function of this was `` to have a grip on the earth so the whole of this globe can quiver . `` [ http : //www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/nt_on_ac.htm Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy , Telephony , and Transmission of Power ] , ISBN 1-893817-01-6 , p. 203 There is also contemporaneous and later descriptions of four 100 foot long tunnels , possibly brick lined and waterproofed , radiating from the bottom of the shaft north , south , east , and west terminating back at ground level in little brick igloos . Speculation on the tunnels ranges from them being for drainage , acting as access ways , or having the function of enhancing ground connection or resonance by interacting with the water table below the tower , maybe via being filled with salt water or liquid nitrogen . The Tesla biographer John Joseph O'Neill noted the cupola at the top of the 186 foot tower had a 5-foot hole in its top where ultraviolet lights were to be mounted , perhaps to create an ionized path up through the atmosphere that could conduct electricity . How Tesla intended to employ the ground conduction method and atmospheric method in Wardenclyffe 's design is unknown . Power for the entire system was to be provided by a coal fired 200 kilowatt Westinghouse alternating current industrial generator . Construction began in September 1901 but money was so short ( with Morgan still owing Tesla the remainder of the original $ 150,000 promised ) Tesla complained in a letter to White he was facing foreclosure . Tesla kept writing Morgan letters pleading for more money and assuring the financier his wireless system would be superior to Marconi 's , but in December Tesla 's plans were dealt another serious blow when Marconi announced to the world he was able to send a wireless transmission ( the Morse code for the letter S ) across the Atlantic . Construction at Wardenclyffe continued through 1902 and in June of that year Tesla began moving his laboratory operations from 46 East Houston Street laboratory to the 94-foot-square brick building at Wardenclyffe . By the end of 1902 the tower reached full height of 187 feet . What Tesla was up to at Wardenclyffe and the site itself was generally kept from the public . Tesla would respond to reporters inquiries stating there was a similar wireless plant in Scotland and that “ We have been sending wireless messages for long distances from this station for some time , but whether we are going into the telegraph field on a commercial basis I can not say at present . ” Tesla continued to write to Morgan asking the investor to reconsider his position on the contract and invest the additional funds the project needed . In a July 3 , 1903 letter Tesla wrote `` Will you help me or let my great work — almost complete — go to pots ? '' Morgan replied on July 14 was `` I have received your letter and in reply would say that I should not feel disposed at present to make any further advances '' . The night of Morgan 's reply , and several nights after , newspapers reported that the Wardenclyffe tower came alive shooting off bright flashes lighting up the night sky . No explanation was forthcoming from Tesla or any of his workers as to the meaning of the display and Wardenclyffe never seemed to operate again . Tesla 's finances continued to unravel . Investor money on Wall Street was continuing to flow to Marconi 's system , which was making regular transmissions , and doing it with equipment far less expensive than the `` wireless plant '' Tesla was attempting to build . Some in the press began turning against Tesla 's project claiming it was a hoaxMalanowski , Gregory , The Race for Wireless , AuthorHouse , page 35 and the fall 1903 `` rich man 's panic '' on Wall Street dried up investment further.Cheney , Margaret , Tesla : Man Out of Time , 2011 - pages 203 - 208Childress , Hatcher Childress , The Fantastic Inventions of Nikola Tesla , 1993 - page 254Burgan , Michael , Nikola Tesla : Physicist , Inventor , Electrical Engineer , 2009. page 75 Some money came from Thomas Fortune Ryan but the funds went towards the debt on the project instead of funding any further construction . Investors seemed to be shying away from putting money into a project that J. P. Morgan had abandoned . Tesla continued to write Morgan trying to get extra funding stating his `` knowledge and ability '' `` if applied effectively would advance the world a century '' . Morgan would only reply through his secretary saying `` it will be impossible for [ me/ Morgan ] to do anything in the matter '' . Tesla 's attempts to raise money by getting the US Navy interested in his remote control boat/torpedo and other attempts to commercialize his inventions went nowhere . In May 1905 , Tesla 's patents on alternating current motors and other methods of power transmission expired , halting royalty payments and causing a further severe reduction of funding to the Wardenclyffe Tower . In an attempt to find alternative funding Tesla advertised the services of the Wardenclyffe facility but he was met with little success . Abandonment In 1906 the financial problems and other events may have led to what Tesla biographer Marc J. Seifer suspects was a nervous breakdown on Tesla 's part . In June architect Stanford White was murdered by Harry Kendall Thaw over White 's affair with Thaw 's wife , actress Evelyn Nesbit . In October long time investor William Rankine died of a heart attack . Things were so bad by the fall of that year George Scherff , Tesla 's chief manager who had been supervising Wardenclyffe , had to leave to find other employment . The people living around Wardenclyffe noticed the Tesla plant seemed to have been abandoned without notice . In 1904 Tesla took out a mortgage on the Wardenclyffe property with George C. Boldt , proprietor of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel , to cover Tesla 's living expenses at the hotel . In 1908 Tesla procured a second mortgage from Boldt to further cover expenses . The facility was partially abandoned around 1911 , and the tower structure deteriorated . Between 1912 and 1915 , Tesla 's finances unraveled , and when the funders wanted to know how they were going to recapture their investments , Tesla was unable to give satisfactory answers . The March 1 , 1916 edition of the publication Export American Industries ran a story titled `` Tesla 's Million Dollar Folly '' describing the abandoned Wardenclyffe site : `` There everything seemed left as for a day — chairs , desks , and papers in businesslike array . The great wheels seemed only awaiting Monday life . But the magic word has not been spoken , and the spell still rests on the great plant . `` . The facility 's main building was breached and vandalized around this time . Demolition By 1915 , with Tesla 's debt at the Waldorf-Astoria being around $ 20,000 ( about $ 400,000 in 2009 dollars ) and unable to make any further payments on the mortgages , Boldt foreclosed on the Wardenclyffe property . Boldt failed to find any use for the property and finally decided to demolish the tower for scrap . On July 4 , 1917 the Smiley Steel Company of New York began demolition of the tower by dynamiting it . The tower was knocked on a tilt by the initial explosion but it took till September to totally demolish it . The scrap value realized was $ 1750 . Since this was during World War I a rumor spread , picked up by newspapers and other publications , that the tower was demolished on orders of the United States Government with claims German spies were using it as a radio transmitter or observation post , or that it was being used as a landmark for German submarines . Tesla was not pleased with what he saw as attacks on his patriotism via the rumors about Wardenclyffe , but since the original mortgages with Boldt as well as the foreclosure had been kept off the public record in order to hide his financial difficulties , Tesla was not able to reveal the real reason for the demolition . George Boldt decided to make the property available for sale . On April 20 , 1922 , Tesla lost an appeal of judgment on Boldt 's foreclosure . This effectively locked Tesla out of any future development of the facility . Post-Tesla era In 1925 , the property ownership was transferred to Walter L. Johnson of Brooklyn . On March 6 , 1939 , Plantacres , Inc. purchased the facility 's land and subsequently leased it to Peerless Photo Products , Inc . AGFA Corporation bought the property from Peerless and used the site from 1969 to 1992 before closing the facility . The site has undergone a final cleanup of waste produced during its Photo Products era . The clean up was conducted under the scrutiny of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation , and paid for by AGFA . In 2009 , AGFA put the property up for sale for $ 1,650,000 . The main building remains standing to this day ; AGFA advertised that the land can `` be delivered fully cleared and level . '' It says it spent $ 5 million through September 2008 cleaning up silver and cadmium . A non-profit preservation organization supported by The Oatmeal purchased the land in 2013 with hopes to create a museum to Tesla there . Preservation efforts Landmarking On February 14 , 1967 , the nonprofit public benefit corporation Brookhaven Town Historical Trust was established . It selected the Wardenclyffe facility to be designated as a historic site and as the first site to be preserved by the Trust on March 3 , 1967 . The Brookhaven Town Historic Trust was rescinded by resolution on February 1 , 1972 . There were never any appointments made after a legal opinion was received ; it was never set up properly . On July 7 , 1976 , a plaque from Yugoslavia was installed by representatives from Brookhaven National Laboratory near the entrance of the building . It reads : The sign was stolen from the property in November 2009 . An anonymous benefactor is offering a $ 2000 reward if it is returned to the property . In 1976 , an application was filed to nominate the main building for listing on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) . It failed to get approval . The Tesla Wardenclyffe Project , Inc. was established in 1994 for the purpose of seeking placement of the Wardenclyffe laboratory-office building and the Tesla tower foundation on both the New York State and NRHP . Its mission is the preservation and adaptive reuse of Wardenclyffe , the century-old laboratory of electrical pioneer Nikola Tesla located in Shoreham , Long Island , New York . In October 1994 , a second application for formal nomination was filed . The New York State Office of Parks , Recreation and Historic Preservation conducted inspections and determined the facility meets New York State criteria for historic designation . A second visit was made on February 25 , 2009 . The site can not be registered until it is nominated by a willing owner . Designation of the structure as a National Landmark is awaiting completion of plant decommissioning activities by its present owner . Museum In August 2012 , concerned about an apparent offer to purchase the site and develop it for commercial use , web cartoon The Oatmeal launched a fundraiser for the Tesla Science Center to raise $ 1.7 million in order to purchase the property , with the hope of eventually building a museum on the grounds . Jane Alcorn , president of the nonprofit group The Tesla Science Center at Wardenclyffe , and Matthew Inman , creator of The Oatmeal , collaborated in 2012 to honor `` the Father of the Electric Age '' , by preserving the Wardenclyffe facility as a science center and museum . They initiated the Let 's Build a Goddamn Tesla Museum fund-raising campaign on the Indiegogo crowdfunding site , to raise funding to buy the Wardenclyffe property and restore the facility . The project reached its goal of raising $ 850,000 within a week , after a $ 33,333 donation from the producers of the Tesla film `` Fragments from Olympus-The Vision of Nikola Tesla '' more than exceeded the requested amount . The campaign also attracted donations from benefactors such as Elon Musk , co-founder of Tesla Motors . The money raised within one week was enough to get a matching grant from the state of New York , allowing the project to be able to meet the seller 's asking price of $ 1.6 million ; the state had agreed to match donations up to half that amount . Including the grant , the crowdfunding campaign raised approximately $ 1,700,000 in six days , with the campaign originally slated to run 45 days . As of October 3 , 2012 , the goal of $ 850,000 had been reached in just over six days after a $ 33,333 donation from the producers of the Tesla film Fragments From Olympus - The Vision of Nikola Tesla put them over the top . A total of $ 1.37 million was donated , the matching grant from the State of New York brings the total collected to over $ 2.2 million . The surplus will be used to fund the cleaning and restoration of the property . Tesla , Wardenclyffe and the museum fundraising effort will be the subject of a new documentary being produced called Tower to the People - Tesla 's Dream at Wardenclyffe Continues . On May 2 , 2013 , The Tesla Science Center at Wardenclyffe announced that they had purchased the 15.69-acre laboratory site from Agfa Corporation and will begin to raise `` about $ 10 million to create a science learning center and museum worthy of Tesla and his legacy . '' On July 10 , 2014 , Elon Musk , CEO of Tesla Motors , pledged to donate $ 1 million . On May 13 , 2014 , The Oatmeal published a comic called `` What It 's Like to Own a Model S , Part 2 , '' in which he requested a further donation of $ 8 million from Tesla Motors founder Elon Musk in order to propel the museum toward completion . The next day , Musk stated on Twitter that he `` would be happy to help . '' On July 10 , 2014 , during a 158th birthday celebration for Tesla at the Wardenclyffe site , it was announced that Musk would donate $ 1 million toward funding the museum , as well as having a Tesla Motors supercharging station installed onsite . The center plans to offer several programs , including science teacher associations , conferences , symposia , field trips , associations with science competitions , and other science programs . Planned permanent exhibits include a Tesla exhibit , exploratorium-type exhibits , and a living museum . On September 23 , 2013 , the president of Serbia , Tomislav Nikolić , unveiled a monument to Tesla at the Wardenclyffe site . Nikolić said that he had planned to push for the monument to be displayed at the United Nations , but chose Wardenclyffe once he learned it had been purchased for the center . Facility grounds Wardenclyffe is located near the Shoreham Post Office and Shoreham Fire House on Route 25A in Shoreham ,

tb_1889--Wardenclyffe_Tower.txt

Wardenclyffe Tower in Shoreham, New York was designed by which genius who intended to showcase it for demonstrations of wireless power transmission?

Central Park is an urban park in middle-upper Manhattan , within New York City . Central Park is the most visited urban park in the United States , with 40 million visitors in 2013 . It is also one of the most filmed locations in the world . The Park was established in 1857 on 778 acre of city-owned land . In 1858 , Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux , a landscape architect and an architect , respectively , won a design competition to improve and expand the park with a plan they titled the `` Greensward Plan '' . Construction began the same year and the park 's first area was opened to the public in the winter of 1858 . Construction continued during the American Civil War farther south , and was expanded to its current size of 843 acre in 1873 . Central Park was designated a National Historic Landmark ( listed by the U.S. Department of the Interior and administered by the National Park Service ) in 1962 . The Park was managed for decades by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation , and is currently managed by the Central Park Conservancy under contract with the municipal government in a public-private partnership . The Conservancy is a non-profit organization that contributes 75 percent of Central Park 's $ 65 million annual budget and is responsible for all basic care of the 843-acre park . History Planning Between 1821 and 1855 , New York City nearly quadrupled in population . As the city expanded northward up Manhattan , people were drawn to the few existing open spaces , mainly cemeteries , to get away from the noise and chaotic life in the city . Since Central Park was not part of the original Commissioners ' Plan of 1811 , John Randel , Jr. , surveyed the grounds . The only remaining surveying bolt from his survey is still visible ; it is embedded in a rock just north of the present Dairy and the 65th Street Transverse , and south of Center Drive . New York City 's need for a great public park was resounded by the famed poet and editor of the Evening Post ( now the New York Post ) , William Cullen Bryant , as well as by the first American landscape architect , Andrew Jackson Downing , who predicted and began to publicize the city 's need for a public park in 1844 . A stylish place for open-air driving , similar to Paris ' Bois de Boulogne or London 's Hyde Park , was felt to be needed by many influential New Yorkers , and , after an abortive attempt in 1850–1851 to designate Jones 's Wood , in 1853 the New York legislature settled upon a 700 acre area from 59th to 106th Streets for the creation of the Park , at a cost of more than US $ 5 million for the land alone . The state appointed a Central Park Commission to oversee the development of the park , and in 1857 the commission held a landscape design contest . Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed what came to be known as the `` Greensward Plan '' , which was selected as the winning design . According to Olmsted , the park was `` of great importance as the first real Park made in this country—a democratic development of the highest significance… '' , a view probably inspired by his stay and various trips in Europe during 1850 ( he had visited several parks during these trips and was particularly impressed by Birkenhead Park and Derby Arboretum in England ) . The Greensward Plan called for some 36 bridges , all designed by Vaux , ranging from rugged spans of Manhattan schist or granite , to lacy Neo-Gothic cast iron ; no two are alike . The ensemble of the formal line of the Mall 's doubled allées of elms culminating at Bethesda Terrace , whose centerpiece is the Bethesda Fountain , with a composed view beyond of lake and woodland , was at the heart of the larger design . Execution of the Greensward Plan was the responsibility of a number of individuals , including Jacob Wrey Mould ( architect ) , Ignaz Anton Pilat ( master gardener ) , George E. Waring , Jr. ( engineer ) , and Andrew Haswell Green ( politician ) , in addition to Olmsted and Vaux . Several influences came together in the design . Landscaped cemeteries , such as Mount Auburn ( Cambridge , Massachusetts ) and Green-Wood ( Brooklyn , New York ) had set examples of idyllic , naturalistic landscapes . The most influential innovations in the Central Park design were the `` separate circulation '' systems for pedestrians , horseback riders , and pleasure vehicles . The `` crosstown '' commercial traffic was entirely concealed in sunken roadways ( today called `` transverses '' ) , screened with densely planted shrub belts so as to maintain a rustic ambiance . Construction In 1850 , the land was occupied by free blacks and Irish immigrants who had purchased land , where they raised livestock , including goats and pigs , built churches and cemeteries , and had lived as a community for close to 50 years . Before the construction of the park could start , the area had to be cleared of its inhabitants . Rossi states that part of the impetus to schemes such as Central Park and others was to remove what they incorrectly deemed as shanty towns and their denizens , who consisted of free African Americans and English/Irish residents , most of whom were middle-class . Most lived in small villages , such as Harsenville , the Piggery District , or Seneca Village ; or in the school and convent at Mount St. Vincent 's Academy . Approximately 1,600 residents were evicted under the rule of eminent domain during 1857 . Seneca Village and parts of the other communities were razed to make room for the park . In addition , when the commission finally deposited its report for public examination on October 4 , 1855 , taxpayers learned that they would be paying $ 5 million just for the park land , more than three times what they had been told the completed park as a whole would cost . At the same time , the portion of the bill covered by assessing adjacent landowners— $ 1.7 million , or one-third of the purchase price—would be considerably less than the more optimistic of the earlier estimates . During the park 's construction , Olmsted fought constant battles with the park commissioners , many of them also politicians . In 1860 , he was forced out for the first of many times as Central Park 's superintendent , and Andrew Haswell Green , the former president of New York City 's Board of Education took over as the commission 's chairman . Despite his having relatively little experience , he managed to accelerate the construction as well as to finalize the negotiations to purchase an additional 65 acre at the north end of the park , between 106th and 110th Streets , which would be used as the `` rugged '' part of the park , its swampy northeast corner dredged , and reconstructed as the Harlem Meer . Between 1860 and 1873 , most of the major hurdles to construction were overcome and the park was substantially completed . Construction combined the modern with the ageless : up-to-date steam-powered equipment and custom-designed wheeled tree moving machines augmented massive numbers of unskilled laborers wielding shovels . The work was extensively documented with technical drawings and photographs . During this period , more than 18500 yd3 of topsoil had been transported in from New Jersey , because the original soil was neither fertile nor sufficiently substantial to sustain the various trees , shrubs , and plants called for by the Greensward Plan . When the park was officially completed in 1873 , more than 10 million cartloads of material had been transported out of the park , including soil and rocks , and more than four million trees , shrubs , and plants representing approximately 1,500 species were transplanted to the park . More gunpowder was used to clear the area than was used at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War . A proposal to have ornate , European-style entrances to the park was opposed by Olmsted and Vaux , who intended for the park 's unadorned entrances to signal `` that all were welcome , regardless of rank or wealth . '' The park 's commissioners assigned a name to each of the original 18 gates in 1862 . The names were chosen to represent the broad diversity of New York City 's trades ; for example , `` Mariner 's Gate '' for the entrance at 85th Street and Central Park West . The majority of entrances did not receive an inscription , however , until a park restoration effort in 1999 . Sheep grazed on the Sheep Meadow from the 1860s until 1934 , when they were moved to Prospect Park in Brooklyn , and soon thereafter moved to a farm near Otisville , New York in the Catskill Mountains . It was feared they would be used for food by impoverished Depression-era New Yorkers . Officials were concerned that starving men would turn the sheep into lunch . First decline and renovation Following completion , the park quickly slipped into decline . One of the main reasons for this was the lack of interest from the Tammany Hall political machine , which was the largest political force in New York at the time . Around the turn of the 20th century , the park faced several new challenges . Cars were becoming commonplace , bringing with them their burden of pollution , and people 's attitudes were beginning to change . No longer were parks to be used only for walks and picnics in an idyllic environment but now also for sports and similar recreation . Following the dissolution of the Central Park Commission in 1870 and Andrew Green 's departure from the project , and Vaux 's death in 1895 , the maintenance effort gradually declined . All of this changed in 1934 , when Republican Fiorello La Guardia was elected mayor of New York City and unified the five park-related departments then in existence . Robert Moses was given the task of cleaning up the park . Moses , about to become one of the most powerful men in New York City , took over what was essentially a relic , a leftover from a bygone era . According to historian Robert Caro : In a single year , Moses managed to clean up Central Park and other parks in New York City . Lawns and flowers were replanted , dead trees and bushes were replaced , walls were sandblasted , and bridges repaired . Another dramatic change was Moses 's removal of the `` Hoover Valley '' shantytown , whose site was transformed into the 30 acre Great Lawn . Major redesigning and construction also was carried out : for instance , the Croton Lower Reservoir was filled in so the Great Lawn could be created . The Greensward Plans purpose of creating an idyllic landscape was combined with Moses ' vision of a park to be used for recreational purposes : 19 playgrounds , 12 ball fields , and handball courts were constructed . Moses also managed to secure funds from the New Deal program , as well as donations from the public . The `` Events Era '' and second decline The 1960s marked the beginning of an `` Events Era '' in Central Park that reflected the widespread cultural and political trends of the period . The Public Theater 's annual Shakespeare in the Park festival was settled in the Delacorte Theater ( 1961 ) , and summer performances were instituted on the Sheep Meadow , and then on the Great Lawn by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and the Metropolitan Opera . During the late 1960s the park became the venue for rallies and cultural events such as the `` Love-ins '' and `` Be-Ins '' of the period . Increasingly through the 1970s , the park became a venue for events of unprecedented scale , including rallies , demonstrations , festivals , and concerts . In the warm months of mid-1966 , two-term mayor of New York ( 1966–73 ) John V. Lindsay , himself an avid cyclist , initiated a weekend ban on automobiles in Central Park for the enjoyment of cyclists and public alike – a policy that continues . Despite the increasing numbers of visitors to the park , Robert Moses ' departure in 1960 marked the beginning of a 20-year period of decline in its management . The city was experiencing economic and social changes , with some residents leaving the city and moving to the suburbs in the wake of increased crime . The Parks Department , suffering from budget cuts , responded by opening the park to any and all activities that would bring people into it , without adequate oversight and maintenance follow-up . Some of these events nevertheless became milestones in the social history of the park and in the cultural history of the city . By the mid-1970s , however , managerial neglect was taking a toll on the park 's condition . `` Years of poor management and inadequate maintenance had turned a masterpiece of landscape architecture into a virtual dustbowl by day and a danger zone by night '' , in the opinion of Douglas Blonsky , a president of the Central Park Conservancy . Vandalism , territorial use ( e.g . a pick-up game of softball or soccer , which commandeered open space and excluded others ) , and illicit activities were taking place in the park . Several volunteer citizen groups emerged , intent upon reclaiming the park by fundraising and organizing volunteer initiatives . One of these groups , the Central Park Community Fund , commissioned a study of the park 's management . The study 's conclusion was bi-linear ; it called for establishment of a single position within the New York City Parks Department , responsible for overseeing both the planning and management of Central Park , as well as a board of guardians to provide citizen oversight . In 1979 , Parks Commissioner Gordon Davis established the Office of Central Park Administrator , appointing to the position the executive director of another citizen organization , the Central Park Task Force . The Central Park Conservancy was founded the following year , to support the office and initiatives of the administrator , and to provide consistent leadership through a self-perpetuating , citizen-based board that also would include as ex-officio trustees , the Parks Commissioner , the Central Park Administrator , and mayoral appointees . Restoration and second renovation Under the leadership of the Central Park Conservancy , the park 's reclamation began with modest , but highly significant first steps , addressing needs that could not be met within the existing structure and resources of the parks department . Interns were hired , and a small restoration staff to reconstruct and repair unique rustic features , undertaking horticultural projects , and removing graffiti under the broken windows theory ; currently the state of the park has improved , according to Conservancy president Douglas Blonsky : 1980s–90s renovations By 1980 , the Conservancy was also engaged in design efforts and long-term restoration planning , using both its own staff and external consultants . It provided the impetus and leadership for several early restoration projects funded by the city , preparing a comprehensive plan for rebuilding the park . The restoration was accompanied by a crucial restructuring of management , whereby the park was subdivided into zones , to each of which a supervisor was designated , responsible for maintaining restored areas . That year , the Dairy ( which was originally designed as a refreshment stand and rest spot ) was transformed into the Park 's first visitors center , with the Conservancy using it to revitalize public interest in the Park through exhibits , music series and children 's programs . The first landscape to be restored was the Sheep Meadow , primarily with funds provided by New York State . The next few years would see the restoration of Bethesda Terrace and Fountain , Belvedere Castle , the East Green , and Cherry Hill plaza . First , Bethesda Fountain , which had been dry for decades , was restored in 1980–81 and the Terrace was restored a year later , its stonework disassembled , cleaned , deteriorated surfaces removed , restored and patched and reset . Resodding , and fifty new trees , 3,500 shrubs and 3,000 ground cover plants specified by Philip Winslow followed in 1986 , most of which , having matured into dense blocks , were removed in 2008 , to make way for plants native to the United States ; meanwhile , the Minton encaustic tiles of the ceiling of the arcade between the flanking stairs , designed by Mould , were removed in 1987 , cleaned , restored , completed with additional new tiles and reinstalled in 2007 . Around the same time , the Belvedere Castle , which had been closed for many years , was renovated and then reopened on May 1 , 1983 , as the Henry Luce Nature Observatory . Cherry Hill , however , did not get fully restored until 1998 . By the following year , the Chess & Checkers House and Frisbee Hill had been restored ; thousands of shrubs and flowers asserted the Park as a horticultural showpiece . To tend to those plants , more than 1,900 volunteers contributed more than 4,000 hours of work in the Park . On completion of the planning stage in 1985 , the conservancy launched its first capital campaign , assuming increasing responsibility for funding the park 's restoration , and full responsibility for designing , bidding , and supervising all capital projects in the park . The Conservancy launched its first fundraising campaign in 1986 , mapping out a 15-year restoration plan that sought to remain true to the original design by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux . Over the next several years , Campaign for the Central Park Conservancy restored landmarks in the southern part of the Park – Grand Army Plaza , Shakespeare Garden , and Cedar Hill . By 1988 , Conservancy volunteers logged more than 13,000 hours in the Park , with the organization 's volunteer program winning a citation for excellence from the White House . In the early 1990s , the Conservancy announced a $ 50 million Capital Campaign to focus on improvements to the northern end of the Park . Efforts culminated in the restoration of the Mall and Concert Ground , Harlem Meer , and the Ravine in the North Woods . The Conservancy 's work on the Meer and the Charles A. Dana Discovery Center was subsequently honored with three awards : the 1994 New York City Landmarks Preservation Award , the American Society of Landscape Architects ' Design Merit Award and the Victorian Society 's Citation of Merit . In 1996 , the Conservancy embarked on its single most ambitious landscape restoration : the overhaul of the 55 acres including and surrounding the Great Lawn and Turtle Pond ( formerly the Great Lawn and the Belvedere Lake ) . The project was the centerpiece of the Conservancy 's three-year Wonder of New York Campaign , which raised $ 71.5 million and also helped restore southern and westside landscapes , as well as the North Meadow . The Great Lawn project was completed in 1997 , featuring new amenities to encourage both passive and active recreation and nature appreciation . Citywide budget cuts in the early 1990s , however , resulted in attrition of the park 's routine maintenance staff , and the conservancy began hiring staff to replace these workers . Management of the restored landscapes by the conservancy 's `` zone gardeners '' proved so successful that core maintenance and operations staff were reorganized in 1996 . The zone-based system of management was implemented throughout the park , which was divided into 49 zones . Consequently , every zone of the park has a specific individual accountable for its day-to-day maintenance . Zone gardeners supervise volunteers assigned to them ; these volunteers commit to a consistent work schedule and are supported by specialized crews in areas of maintenance requiring specific expertise or equipment , or more effectively conducted on a park-wide basis . In 2007 , there were 3,000 volunteers compared to just under 250 paid workers in the park . 2000s renovations Renovations continued through the early 2000s . The Conservatory Water opened after a six-month restoration effort , with a $ 4 million project beginning on the 59th Street Pond , one of the Park 's most visible and heavily used landscapes . A new Reservoir fence was installed in 2003 under a $ 2 million capital project that replaced the old chain-link fence with a replica of the 8,000-foot steel and cast-iron one that had enclosed the Reservoir in 1926 . The new fence , along with removal of invasive trees and shrubs , restored the panoramic views of the Park and Manhattan skyline . Another ambitious restoration effort began in 2004 , when Conservancy staff and contractors worked together to refurbish the 15,876 Minton tiles that hang on the ceiling of the Bethesda Arcade . Originally designed by Calvert Vaux and Jacob Wrey Mould , the ceiling of the Arcade is lined by 15,876 elaborately patterned encaustic tiles . Made by Minton and Company , a leading 19th Century ceramic manufacturer in England , the ceiling tiles are divided into 49 panels , each containing 324 tiles . Salt and water infiltration from the roadway above had badly damaged the tiles , leaving their backing plates so corroded they had to be removed in the 1980s . The tiles sat in storage for more than 20 years until the Conservancy received a generous private donation for their restoration . The Conservancy embarked on a $ 7 million restoration effort to return the Minton tiles to their original luster in 2004 . A team of seven conservation technicians cleaned and repaired more than 14,000 original tiles by hand . Only three panels of replica tiles were needed to replace those that had been damaged beyond repair . For those recreations , the Conservancy decided to commission Maw and Company , Minton 's successor in Stoke-on-Trent , England . The completed Bethesda Terrace Arcade was unveiled to much fanfare in March 2007 . In 2006 , the Conservancy completed a nine-month renovation of the Mall in a project that returned the landscape to its original character and ensured the protection of its great American Elms . The Lake was the last of Central Park 's bodies of water to be renovated by the Central Park Conservancy , in a project to enhance both its ecological '' Its increasing significance as a wildlife habitat '' was noted on the Conservancy 's on-site information boards . and scenic aspects . In the summer of 2007 the first phase of a restoration of the Lake and its shoreline plantings commenced , with replanting using native shrubs and understory trees around the northern end of the Lake , from Bank Rock Bay— a narrow cove in the northwest corner that had become a silted-up algae-covered stand of aggressively invasive Phragmites reeds— to Bow Bridge , which received replicas of its four original Italianate cast-iron vases , overspilling with annuals . In the earliest stages , invasive non-native plants like Japanese knotweed were eradicated , the slopes were regraded with added humus and protected with landscaping burlap to stabilize the slopes while root systems became established and leaf litter developed . During the same time , Bank Rock Bridge , also called Cabinet Bridge , across the mouth of the cove was recreated in carved oak with cast-iron panels and pine decking , its original materials , following Vaux 's original design of 1859–60 . The cascade , where the Gill empties into the lake , was reconstructed to approximate its dramatic original form , inspired by paintings of Asher B. Durand . Sections of the Lake were dredged of accumulated silt — topsoil that has washed off the surrounding slopes — and the island formerly in the lake , which gradually eroded below water level , was reconstructed in the summer of 2007 with rugged boulders along its shoreline , graded wetland areas and submerged planting shelves for water-loving native plants , like Pickerel weed . Oak Bridge , the major entrance to the Ramble from the Upper West Side , which spans Bank Rock Bay in the Lake 's northwest corner , is a picturesque feature and was recreated in 2009 based off Calvert Vaux 's original drawings . The bridge , built in 1860 of white oak with decorative openwork panels of cast iron , has been recreated in steel clad in ornamental cast iron facings , with a wooden deck . Restoration of further sections of the Lake 's shoreline landscapes was undertaken , and the first renovated sections were opened to visitors in April 2008 . Post-renovation On October 23 , 2012 , hedge fund manager John A. Paulson announced a $ 100 million gift to the Central Park Conservancy , the largest ever monetary donation to New York City 's park system . Since the 1960s , there has been a grassroots campaign to restore the park 's loop drives to their original car-free state . Over the years , the number of car-free hours has increased , though a full closure is currently resisted by the New York City Department of Transportation . Legislation was proposed in October 2014 to conduct a study to make the park car-free in summer 2015 . In 2015 , Mayor Bill de Blasio announced the permanent closure of West and East Drives north of 72nd Street to vehicular traffic as it was proven that closing the roads did not adversely impact traffic . The law was to take into effect permanently north of 72nd Street . Description File : Central Park New York City.svg|thumb|right|200px|Map of Central Park . Clicking on a feature in the picture causes the browser to load the appropriate article . rect 298 925 317 989 Conservatory Water rect 282 196 337 322 Conservatory Garden rect 222 72 331 133 Harlem Meer rect 112 400 320 663 Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Reservoir rect 146 661 251 814 Great Lawn and Turtle Pond rect 207 1001 259 1085 Bethesda Terrace rect 130 847 256 1003 The Ramble and Lake rect 137 1052 266 1137 Sheep Meadow rect 229 1196 309 1311 The Pond and Hallett Nature Sanctuary rect 351 484 394 636 Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum rect 283 705 333 798 Metropolitan Museum of Art rect 360 714 398 1174 Metropolitan Museum of Art rect 22 207 70 862 American Museum of Natural History rect 315 1255 339 1317 Central Park Zoo rect 84 1152 114 1176 Tavern on the Green Central Park , which has been a National Historic Landmark since 1962 , was designed by landscape architect and writer Frederick Law Olmsted and the English architect Calvert Vaux in 1858 after winning a design competition . They also designed Brooklyn 's Prospect Park . Central Park is one of the most famous sightseeing spots in New York . It is bordered on the north by Central Park North , on the south by Central Park South , on the west by Central Park West , and on the east by Fifth Avenue . Only Fifth Avenue along the park 's eastern border retains its name ; the other streets bordering the park ( 110th Street , 59th Street , and Eighth Avenue , respectively ) change names while they are adjacent to the park . The park , with a perimeter of , was opened on 770 acre of city-owned land and was expanded to 843 acre . It is 2.5 miles ( 4 km ) long between 59th Street ( Central Park South ) and 110th Street ( Central Park North ) , and is 0.5 miles ( 0.8 km ) wide between Fifth Avenue and Central Park West . Central Park also constitutes its own United States census tract , number 143 . According to Census 2000 , the park 's population is eighteen people , twelve male and six female , with a median age of 38.5 years , and a household size of 2.33 , over 3 households . However Central Park officials have rejected the claim of anyone permanently living there . The real estate value of Central Park was estimated by property appraisal firm Miller Samuel to be about

sfq_21242--Central_Park.txt

In which New York Borough is Central Park situated?

RMS Titanic was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean in the early morning of 15 April 1912 , after colliding with an iceberg during her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City . Of the 2,224 passengers and crew aboard , more than 1,500 died in the sinking , making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history . The largest ship afloat at the time it entered service , the RMS Titanic was the second of three Olympic class ocean liners operated by the White Star Line , and was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast . Thomas Andrews , her architect , died in the disaster . Under the command of Edward Smith , the ship carried some of the wealthiest people in the world , as well as hundreds of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland , Scandinavia and elsewhere throughout Europe seeking a new life in North America . A high-power radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger `` marconigrams '' and for the ship 's operational use . Although Titanic had advanced safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors , there were not enough lifeboats to accommodate all of those aboard due to outdated maritime safety regulations . Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people—slightly more than half of the number on board , and one third of her total capacity . After leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912 , Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown ( now Cobh ) in Ireland before heading west to New York . On 14 April 1912 , four days into the crossing and about 375 mi south of Newfoundland , she hit an iceberg at 11:40 p.m. ship 's time . The collision caused the ship 's hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea ; the ship gradually filled with water . Meanwhile , passengers and some crew members were evacuated in lifeboats , many of which were launched only partially loaded . A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a `` women and children first '' protocol for loading lifeboats . At 2:20 a.m. , she broke apart and foundered—with well over one thousand people still aboard . Just under two hours after Titanic sank , the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene of the sinking , where she brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors . The disaster was greeted with worldwide shock and outrage at the huge loss of life and the regulatory and operational failures that had led to it . Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to major improvements in maritime safety . One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea ( SOLAS ) , which still governs maritime safety today . Additionally , several new wireless regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications—which could have saved many more passengers . The wreck of Titanic remains on the seabed , split in two and gradually disintegrating at a depth of 12415 ft . Since her discovery in 1985 , thousands of artefacts have been recovered and put on display at museums around the world . Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history ; her memory is kept alive by numerous works of popular culture , including books , folk songs , films , exhibits , and memorials . Background The name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic . Built in Belfast , Ireland , in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ( as it was then known ) , the RMS Titanic was the second of the three Olympic-class ocean liners—the first was the RMS Olympic and the third was the HMHS Britannic . They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line 's fleet , which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912 . The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line 's chairman , J. Bruce Ismay , and the American financier J. P. Morgan , who controlled the White Star Line 's parent corporation , the International Mercantile Marine Co. ( IMM ) . The White Star Line faced an increasing challenge from its main rivals Cunard , which had recently launched the and the —the fastest passenger ships then in service—and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd . Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be larger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury . The company sought an upgrade in their fleet primarily in response to the Cunard giants but also to replace their oldest pair of passenger ships still in service , being the SS Teutonic of 1889 and SS Majestic of 1890 . Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic . Majestic would be brought back into her old spot on White Star 's New York service after Titanics loss . The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff , who had a long-established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867 . Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line ; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design . Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships , plus a five percent profit margin . In the case of the Olympic-class ships , a cost of £3 million for the first two ships was agreed plus `` extras to contract '' and the usual five percent fee . Harland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing the Olympic-class vessels . The design was overseen by Lord Pirrie , a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line ; naval architect Thomas Andrews , the managing director of Harland and Wolff 's design department ; Edward Wilding , Andrews ' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship 's design , stability and trim ; and Alexander Carlisle , the shipyard 's chief draughtsman and general manager . Carlisle 's responsibilities included the decorations , equipment and all general arrangements , including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design . On 29 July 1908 , Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives . Ismay approved the design and signed three `` letters of agreement '' two days later authorising the start of construction . At this point the first ship—which was later to become Olympic—had no name , but was referred to simply as `` Number 400 '' , as it was Harland and Wolff 's four hundredth hull . Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401 . Dimensions and layout Titanic was 882 ft long with a maximum breadth of 92 ft . Her total height , measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge , was 104 ft. She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 ft , she displaced 52,310 tons . All three of the Olympic-class ships had ten decks ( excluding the top of the officers ' quarters ) , eight of which were for passenger use . From top to bottom , the decks were : * The Boat Deck , on which the lifeboats were housed . It was from here during the early hours of 15 April 1912 that Titanics lifeboats were lowered into the North Atlantic . The bridge and wheelhouse were at the forward end , in front of the captain 's and officers ' quarters . The bridge stood 8 ft above the deck , extending out to either side so that the ship could be controlled while docking . The wheelhouse stood directly behind and above the bridge . The entrance to the First Class Grand Staircase and gymnasium were located midships along with the raised roof of the First Class lounge , while at the rear of the deck were the roof of the First Class smoke room and the relatively modest Second Class entrance . The wood-covered deck was divided into four segregated promenades : for officers , First Class passengers , engineers , and Second Class passengers respectively . Lifeboats lined the side of the deck except in the First Class area , where there was a gap so that the view would not be spoiled . * A Deck , also called the Promenade Deck , extended along the entire 546 ft length of the superstructure . It was reserved exclusively for First Class passengers and contained First Class cabins , the First Class lounge , smoke room , reading and writing rooms and Palm Court . * B Deck , the Bridge Deck , was the top weight-bearing deck and the uppermost level of the hull . More First Class passenger accommodation was located here with six palatial staterooms ( cabins ) featuring their own private promenades . On Titanic , the A La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien provided luxury dining facilities to First Class passengers . Both were run by subcontracted chefs and their staff ; all were lost in the disaster . The Second Class smoking room and entrance hall were both located on this deck . The raised forecastle of the ship was forward of the Bridge Deck , accommodating Number 1 hatch ( the main hatch through to the cargo holds ) , numerous pieces of machinery and the anchor housings . Aft of the Bridge Deck was the raised Poop Deck , 106 ft long , used as a promenade by Third Class passengers . It was where many of Titanics passengers and crew made their last stand as the ship sank . The forecastle and Poop Deck were separated from the Bridge Deck by well decks . * C Deck , the Shelter Deck , was the highest deck to run uninterrupted from stem to stern . It included both well decks ; the aft one served as part of the Third Class promenade . Crew cabins were housed below the forecastle and Third Class public rooms were housed below the Poop Deck . In between were the majority of First Class cabins and the Second Class library . * D Deck , the Saloon Deck , was dominated by three large public rooms—the First Class Reception Room , the First Class Dining Saloon and the Second Class Dining Saloon . An open space was provided for Third Class passengers . First , Second and Third Class passengers had cabins on this deck , with berths for firemen located in the bow . It was the highest level reached by the ship 's watertight bulkheads ( though only by eight of the fifteen bulkheads ) . * E Deck , the Upper Deck , was predominantly used for passenger accommodation for all three classes plus berths for cooks , seamen , stewards and trimmers . Along its length ran a long passageway nicknamed Scotland Road , in reference to a famous street in Liverpool . Scotland Road was used by Third Class passengers and crew members . * F Deck , the Middle Deck , was the last complete deck and mainly accommodated Second and Third Class passengers and several departments of the crew . The Third Class dining saloon was located here , as were the swimming pool and Turkish bath . * G Deck , the Lower Deck , was the lowest complete deck that carried passengers , and had the lowest portholes , just above the waterline . The squash court was located here along with the travelling post office where letters and parcels were sorted ready for delivery when the ship docked . Food was also stored here . The deck was interrupted at several points by orlop ( partial ) decks over the boiler , engine and turbine rooms . * The Orlop Decks and the Tank Top were on the lowest level of the ship , below the waterline . The orlop decks were used as cargo spaces , while the Tank Top—the inner bottom of the ship 's hull—provided the platform on which the ship 's boilers , engines , turbines and electrical generators were housed . This area of the ship was occupied by the engine and boiler rooms , areas which passengers would not be permitted to see . They were connected with higher levels of the ship by flights of stairs ; twin spiral stairways near the bow provided access up to D Deck . Features Power Titanic was equipped with three main engines—two reciprocating four-cylinder , triple-expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low-pressure Parsons turbine—each driving a propeller . The two reciprocating engines had a combined output of 30,000 hp and a further 16,000 hp was contributed by the turbine . The White Star Line had used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner , the SS Laurentic , where it had been a great success . It provided a good combination of performance and speed ; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic-class liner at the desired speeds , while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations , a problem that affected the all-turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania . By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine , fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased , while using the same amount of steam . The two reciprocating engines were each 63 ft long and weighed 720 tons , with their bedplates contributing a further 195 tons . They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers , 24 of which were double-ended and five single-ended , which contained a total of 159 furnaces . The boilers were 15 ft in diameter and 20 ft long , each weighing 91.5 tons and capable of holding 48.5 tons of water . They were heated by burning coal , 6,611 tons of which could be carried in Titanics bunkers with a further 1,092 tons in Hold 3 . The furnaces required over 600 tons of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand , requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock . 100 tons of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea . The work was relentless , dirty and dangerous , and although firemen were paid relatively generously there was a high suicide rate among those who worked in that capacity . Exhaust steam leaving the reciprocating engines was fed into the turbine , which was situated aft . From there it passed into a condenser , to increase the efficiency of the turbine and so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused . The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers . There were three , one for each engine ; the outer ( or wing ) propellers were the largest , each carrying three blades of manganese-bronze alloy with a total diameter of . The middle propeller was slightly smaller at 17 ft in diameter , and could be stopped but not reversed . Titanics electrical plant was capable of producing more power than an average city power station of the time . Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400 kW steam-driven electric generators , used to provide electrical power to the ship , plus two 30 kW auxiliary generators for emergency use . Their location in the stern of the ship meant that they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship sank . Technology Watertight compartments and funnels The interiors of the Olympic-class ships were subdivided into 16 primary compartments divided by 15 bulkheads which extended well above the waterline . Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency . The ships ' exposed decking was made of pine and teak , while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation . Standing above the decks were four funnels , each painted buff with black tops , ( though only three were functional—the last one was a dummy , installed for aesthetic purposes and also for kitchen ventilation ) —and two masts , each 155 ft high , which supported derricks for working cargo . Rudder and steering engines Titanics rudder was large enough—at 78 ft high and 15 ft long , weighing over 100 tons—that it required steering engines to move it . Two steam-powered steering engines were installed though only one was used at any one time , with the other one kept in reserve . They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs , to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction . As a last resort , the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans . The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship 's five anchors ( one port , one starboard , one in the centreline and two kedging anchors ) . Water , ventilation and heating The ship was equipped with her own waterworks , capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves . The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port , but in an emergency the ship could also distil fresh water from seawater , though this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant quickly became clogged by salt deposits . A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air , driven by electric fans , around the ship , and First Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters . Radio communications Titanics radiotelegraph equipment ( then known as wireless telegraphy ) was leased to the White Star Line by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company , which also supplied two of its employees , Jack Phillips and Harold Bride , as operators . The service maintained a 24-hour schedule , primarily sending and receiving passenger telegrams , but also handling navigation messages including weather reports and ice warnings . The radio room was located on the Boat Deck , in the officers ' quarters . A soundproofed `` Silent Room '' , next to the operating room , housed loud equipment , including the transmitter and a motor-generator used for producing alternating currents . The operators ' living quarters were adjacent to the working office . The ship was equipped with a 'state of the art ' 5 kilowatt rotary spark-gap transmitter , operating under the radio callsign MGY , and communication was conducted in Morse code . This transmitter was one of the first Marconi installations to use a rotary spark gap , which gave Titanic a distinctive musical tone that could be readily distinguished from other signals . The transmitter was one of the most powerful in the world , and guaranteed to broadcast over a radius of 350 mi . An elevated T-antenna that spanned the length of the ship was used for transmitting and receiving . The normal operating frequency was 500 kHz ( 600 m wavelength ) , however the equipment could also operate on the `` short '' wavelength of 1000 kHz ( 300 m wavelength ) that was employed by smaller vessels with shorter antennas . Passenger facilities The passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury . According to Titanics general arrangement plans , the ship could accommodate 833 First Class Passengers , 614 in Second Class and 1,006 in Third Class , for a total passenger capacity of 2,453 . In addition , her capacity for crew members exceeded 900 , as most documents of her original configuration have stated that her full carrying capacity for both passengers and crew was approximately 3,547 . Her interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners , which had typically been decorated in the rather heavy style of a manor house or an English country house . Titanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high-class hotels—the Ritz Hotel was a reference point—with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style . A variety of other decorative styles , ranging from the Renaissance to Victorian , were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship . The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship ; as one passenger recalled , on entering the ship 's interior a passenger would `` at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship , and seem instead to be entering the hall of some great house on shore '' . Passengers could use an on-board telephone system , a lending library and a large barber shop . The First Class section had a swimming pool , a gymnasium , a squash court , a Turkish bath , an electric bath and a Verandah Cafe . First Class common rooms were adorned with ornate wood panelling , expensive furniture and other decorations , while the Third Class general room had pine panelling and sturdy teak furniture . The Café Parisien was located on a sunlit veranda fitted with trellis decorations and offered the best French haute cuisine for First Class passengers . Third Class ( also commonly referred to as Steerage ) accommodations aboard Titanic were not as luxurious as First Class , but even so were better than on many other ships of the time . They reflected the improved standards which the White Star Line had adopted for trans-Atlantic immigrant and lower-class travel . On most other North Atlantic passenger ships at the time , Third Class accommodations consisted of little more than open dormitories in the forward end of the vessels , in which hundreds of people were confined , often without adequate food or toilet facilities . The White Star Line had long since broken that mould . As seen aboard Titanic , all White Star Line passenger ships divided their Third Class accommodations into two sections , always at opposite ends of the vessel from one another . The established arrangement was that single men were quartered in the forward areas , while single women , married couples and families were quartered aft . In addition , while other ships provided only open berth sleeping arrangements , White Star Line vessels provided their Third Class passengers with private , small but comfortable cabins capable of accommodating two , four , six , eight and 10 passengers . Third Class accommodations also included their own dining rooms , as well as public gathering areas including adequate open deck space , which aboard Titanic included the Forecastle Deck forward , the Poop Deck aft , both well decks and a large open space on D Deck which could be used as a social hall . This was supplemented by the addition of a smoking room for men and a reading room for women , and although they were not as glamorous in design as spaces seen in upper class accommodations , they were still far above average for the period . Leisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time . As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library , smoking rooms , and gymnasium , it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck , promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches . A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board , and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage . One of Titanics most distinctive features was her First Class staircase , known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway . This descended through seven decks of the ship , from the Boat Deck to E deck in the elegant style depicted in photographs and movies , and then as a more functional and less elegant staircase from there down to F deck . It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light . Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls lit by gold-plated light fixtures . At the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock , with figures of `` Honour and Glory Crowning Time '' flanking the clock face . The Grand Staircase was destroyed in Titanics sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks . During the filming of James Cameron 's Titanic in 1997 , his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set . It has been suggested that during the real event , the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome . Mail and cargo Although Titanic was primarily a passenger liner , she also carried a substantial amount of cargo . Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship ( RMS ) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail ( and also for the United States Post Office Department ) . For the storage of letters , parcels and specie ( bullion , coins and other valuables ) 26800 cuft of space in her holds was allocated . The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks ; three Americans and two Britons , who worked 13 hours a day , seven days a week sorting up to 60,000 items daily . The ship 's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage ; another 19455 cuft was taken up by first- and second-class baggage . In addition , there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo , ranging from furniture to foodstuffs and even motor cars . Despite later myths , the cargo on Titanics maiden voyage was fairly mundane ; there was no gold , exotic minerals or diamonds , and one of the more famous items lost in the shipwreck , a jewelled copy of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam , was valued at only £405 ( £ today ) . According to the claims for compensation filed with Commissioner Gilchrist , following the conclusion of the Senate Inquiry , the single most highly valued item of luggage or cargo was a large neoclassical oil painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain by French artist Merry-Joseph Blondel . The painting ’ s owner , first class passenger Mauritz Håkan Björnström-Steffansson , filed a claim for $ 100,000 ( $ 2.4 million equivalent in 2014 ) in compensation for the loss of the artwork . Titanic was equipped with eight electric cranes , four electric winches and three steam winches to lift cargo and baggage in and out of the hold . It is estimated that the ship used some 415 tons of coal whilst in Southampton , simply generating steam to operate the cargo winches and provide heat and light . Lifeboats Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats : 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt `` collapsible '' ( wooden bottom , collapsible canvas sides ) lifeboats ( identified as A to D ) with a capacity of 47 people each . In addition , she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each . Olympic herself did not even carry the four collapsibles A–D during the 1911–12 season . All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and , except for collapsible lifeboats A and B , connected to davits by ropes . Those on the starboard side were odd-numbered 1–15 from bow to stern , while those on the port side were even-numbered 2–16 from bow to stern . The two cutters were kept swung out , hanging from the davits , ready for immediate use , while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck ( connected to davits ) immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively . A and B were stored on

qf_2298--RMS_Titanic.txt

The SS Titanic sank in which year?

The French Revolution ( ) was a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France that lasted from 1789 until 1799 , and was partially carried forward by Napoleon during the later expansion of the French Empire . The Revolution overthrew the monarchy , established a republic , experienced violent periods of political turmoil , and finally culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon that rapidly brought many of its principles to Western Europe and beyond . Inspired by liberal and radical ideas , the Revolution profoundly altered the course of modern history , triggering the global decline of absolute monarchies while replacing them with republics and liberal democracies . Through the Revolutionary Wars , it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East . Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history . The causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians . Following the Seven Years ' War and the American Revolutionary War , the French government was deeply in debt and attempted to restore its financial status through unpopular taxation schemes . Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy . Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789 . The first year of the Revolution saw members of the Third Estate taking control , the assault on the Bastille in July , the passage of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August , and a women 's march on Versailles that forced the royal court back to Paris in October . A central event of the first stage , in August 1789 , was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime . The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the monarchy intent on thwarting major reforms . France rapidly transformed into a democratic and secular society with freedom of religion , legalization of divorce , decriminalization of same-sex relationships , and civil rights for Jews and black people . The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy . In a momentous event that led to international condemnation , Louis XVI was executed in January 1793 . External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution . The Revolutionary Wars beginning in 1792 ultimately featured French victories that facilitated the conquest of the Italian Peninsula , the Low Countries and most territories west of the Rhine – achievements that had eluded previous French governments for centuries . Internally , popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly , culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins . The dictatorship imposed by the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror , from 1793 until 1794 , established price controls on food and other items , abolished slavery in French colonies abroad , dechristianised society through the creation of a new calendar and the expulsion of religious figures , and secured the borders of the new republic from its enemies . Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror , with estimates ranging from 16,000 to 40,000 . After the Thermidorian Reaction , an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795 . The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections , debt repudiations , financial instability , persecutions against the Catholic clergy , and significant military conquests abroad . Dogged by charges of corruption , the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799 . Napoleon , who became the hero of the Revolution through his popular military campaigns , went on to establish the Consulate and later the First Empire , setting the stage for a wider array of global conflicts in the Napoleonic Wars . The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution . Almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor . Its central phrases and cultural symbols , such as La Marseillaise and Liberté , égalité , fraternité , became the clarion call for other major upheavals in modern history , including the Russian Revolution over a century later . The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day . The Revolution resulted in the suppression of the feudal system , the emancipation of the individual , the greater division of landed property , the abolition of the privileges of noble birth , the establishment of equality , the simplification of life . The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national , for it aimed at benefiting all humanity . Globally , the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies . It became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies , leading to the spread of liberalism , radicalism , nationalism , socialism , feminism , and secularism , among many others . The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organizing the resources of France and the lives of its citizens towards the objective of military conquest . Some of its central documents , like the Declaration of the Rights of Man , expanded the arena of human rights to include women and slaves , leading to movements for abolitionism and universal suffrage in the next century . Causes Historians have pointed to many events and factors culminating within the Ancien Régime that lead to the Revolution . Rising social and economic inequality , new political ideas emerging from the Enlightenment , economic mismanagement , environmental factors leading to agricultural failure , unmanageable national debt , and political mismanagement on the part of King Louis XVI have all been cited as laying the groundwork for the Revolution . Over the course of the 18th century there emerged what German philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the `` public sphere '' in France and elsewhere in Europe . Habermas argued that the dominant cultural model in 17th century France was a `` representational '' culture , which was based on a one-sided need to `` represent '' power with one side active and the other passive . A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV . Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the `` public sphere '' ( Öffentlichkeit ) which was `` critical '' in that both sides were active . Examples of the `` public sphere '' included newspapers , journals , masonic lodges , coffee houses and reading clubs where people either in person or virtually via the printed word debated and discussed issues . In France , the emergence of the `` public sphere '' outside of the control of the state saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France . Likewise , in the 17th century it was the court that decided what was culturally good and what was not ; in the 18th century , the opinion of the court mattered less and it was the consumers who become the arbiters of cultural taste . In the 1750s during the `` querelle des bouffons '' over the question of the quality of Italian vs. French music , the partisans of both sides appealed to the French public `` because it alone has the right to decide whether a work will be preserved for posterity or will be used by grocers as wrapping-paper '' . In 1782 , Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote : `` The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV . Reigning opinions are no longer received from the court ; it no longer decides on reputations of any sort ... The court 's judgments are countermanded ; one says openly that it understands nothing ; it has no ideas on the subject and could have none . `` . Inevitably , the belief that public opinion had the right to decide cultural questions instead of deferring to the court transformed itself into the demand that public also have a say on political questions as well . The economy in the Ancien Régime during the years preceding the Revolution suffered from instability ; poor harvests lasting several years and an inadequate transportation system both contributed to making food more expensive . The sequence of events leading to the Revolution included the national government 's fiscal troubles caused by an inefficient tax system and expenditure on numerous large wars . The attempt to challenge British naval and commercial power in the Seven Years ' War was a costly disaster , with the loss of France 's colonial possessions in continental North America and the destruction of the French Navy . French forces were rebuilt and performed more successfully in the American Revolutionary War , but only at massive additional cost , and with no real gains for France except the knowledge that Britain had been humbled . France 's inefficient and antiquated financial system could not finance this debt . Faced with a financial crisis , the king called an Estates General Assembly of Notables in 1787 for the first time in over a century . Meanwhile , the royal court at Versailles was isolated from , and indifferent to the escalating crisis . While in theory King Louis XVI was an absolute monarch , in practice he was often indecisive and known to back down when faced with strong opposition . While he did reduce government expenditures , opponents in the parliaments successfully thwarted his attempts at enacting much needed reforms . The Enlightenment had produced many writers , pamphleteers and publishers who could inform or inflame public opinion . The opposition used this resource to mobilize public opinion against the monarchy , which in turn tried to repress the underground literature . Many other factors involved resentments and aspirations given focus by the rise of Enlightenment ideals . These included resentment of royal absolutism ; resentment by peasants , laborers and the bourgeoisie toward the traditional seigneurial privileges possessed by the nobility ; resentment of the Catholic Church 's influence over public policy and institutions ; aspirations for freedom of religion ; resentment of aristocratic bishops by the poorer rural clergy ; aspirations for social , political and economic equality , and ( especially as the Revolution progressed ) republicanism ; hatred of Queen Marie-Antoinette , who was falsely accused of being a spendthrift and an Austrian spy ; and anger toward the King for dismissing ministers , including finance minister Jacques Necker , who were popularly seen as representatives of the people . Freemasonry played an important role in the revolution . Originally largely apolitical , Freemasonry was radicalized in the late 18th century through the introduction of higher grades which emphasized themes of liberty , equality , and fraternity . Virtually every major player in the Revolution was a Freemason and these themes became the widely recognized slogan of the revolution . Ancien Régime Financial crisis Louis XVI ascended to the throne in the middle of a financial crisis in which the state was nearing bankruptcy and outlays outpaced income . This was because of France 's financial obligations stemming from involvement in the Seven Years ' War and its participation in the American Revolutionary War . In May 1776 , finance minister Turgot was dismissed , after he failed to enact reforms . The next year , Jacques Necker , a foreigner , was appointed Comptroller-General of Finance . He could not be made an official minister because he was a Protestant . Necker realized that the country 's extremely regressive tax system subjected the lower classes to a heavy burden , while numerous exemptions existed for the nobility and clergy . He argued that the country could not be taxed higher ; that tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy must be reduced ; and proposed that borrowing more money would solve the country 's fiscal shortages . Necker published a report to support this claim that underestimated the deficit by roughly 36 million livres , and proposed restricting the power of the parlements . This was not received well by the King 's ministers , and Necker , hoping to bolster his position , argued to be made a minister . The King refused , Necker was dismissed , and Charles Alexandre de Calonne was appointed to the Comptrollership . Calonne initially spent liberally , but he quickly realised the critical financial situation and proposed a new tax code . The proposal included a consistent land tax , which would include taxation of the nobility and clergy . Faced with opposition from the parlements , Calonne organised the summoning of the Assembly of Notables . But the Assembly failed to endorse Calonne 's proposals and instead weakened his position through its criticism . In response , the King announced the calling of the Estates-General for May 1789 , the first time the body had been summoned since 1614 . This was a signal that the Bourbon monarchy was in a weakened state and subject to the demands of its people . Estates-General of 1789 The Estates-General was organised into three estates : the clergy , the nobility , and the rest of France . It last met in 1614 . Elections were held in the spring of 1789 ; suffrage requirements for the Third Estate were for French-born or naturalised males , aged 25 years or more , who resided where the vote was to take place and who paid taxes . Strong turnout produced 1,201 delegates , including 303 clergy , 291 nobles and 610 members of the Third Estate . The First Estate represented 100,000 Catholic clergy ; the Church owned about 10 % of the land and collected its own taxes ( the tithe ) on peasants . The lands were controlled by bishops and abbots of monasteries , but two-thirds of the 303 delegates from the First Estate were ordinary parish priests ; only 51 were bishops . The Second Estate represented the nobility , about 400,000 men and women who owned about 25 % of the land and collected seigneurial dues and rents from their peasant tenants . About a third of these deputies were nobles , mostly with minor holdings . The Third Estate representation was doubled to 610 men , representing 95 % of the population . Half were well educated lawyers or local officials . Nearly a third were in trades or industry ; 51 were wealthy land owners . To assist delegates , `` Books of grievances '' ( cahiers de doléances ) were compiled to list problems . The books articulated ideas which would have seemed radical only months before ; however , most supported the monarchical system in general . Many assumed the Estates-General would approve future taxes , and Enlightenment ideals were relatively rare . Pamphlets by liberal nobles and clergy became widespread after the lifting of press censorship . The Abbé Sieyès , a theorist and Catholic clergyman , argued the paramount importance of the Third Estate in the pamphlet Qu'est-ce que le tiers état ? ( What is the Third Estate ? ) published in January , 1789 . He asserted : `` What is the Third Estate ? Everything . What has it been until now in the political order ? Nothing . What does it want to be ? Something . '' The Estates-General convened in the Grands Salles des Menus-Plaisirs in Versailles on 5 May 1789 and opened with a three-hour speech by Necker . The Third Estate demanded that the credentials of deputies should be verified by all deputies , rather than each estate verifying the credentials of its own members ; but negotiations with the other estates failed to achieve this . The commoners appealed to the clergy , who asked for more time . Necker then stated that each estate should verify its own members ' credentials and that the king should act as arbitrator . National Assembly ( 1789 ) On 10 June 1789 , Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate , now meeting as the Communes ( English : `` Commons '' ) proceed with verifying its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part , but not to wait for them . They proceeded to do so two days later , completing the process on 17 June . Then they voted a measure far more radical , declaring themselves the National Assembly , an assembly not of the Estates but of `` the People . '' They invited the other orders to join them , but made it clear they intended to conduct the nation 's affairs with or without them . In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening , Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des États where the Assembly met , making an excuse that the carpenters needed to prepare the hall for a royal speech in two days . Weather did not allow an outdoor meeting , so the Assembly moved their deliberations to a nearby indoor real tennis court , where they proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath ( 20 June 1789 ) under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a constitution . A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them , as did 47 members of the nobility . By 27 June , the royal party had overtly given in , although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles . Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities . Constitutional Monarchy National Constituent Assembly ( 1789–91 ) Storming of the Bastille By this time , Necker had earned the enmity of many members of the French court for his overt manipulation of public opinion . Marie Antoinette , the King 's younger brother the Comte d'Artois , and other conservative members of the King 's privy council urged him to dismiss Necker as financial advisor . On 11 July 1789 , after Necker published an inaccurate account of the government 's debts and made it available to the public , the King fired him , and completely restructured the finance ministry at the same time . Many Parisians presumed Louis 's actions to be aimed against the Assembly and began open rebellion when they heard the news the next day . They were also afraid that arriving soldiers – mostly foreign mercenaries – had been summoned to shut down the National Constituent Assembly . The Assembly , meeting at Versailles , went into nonstop session to prevent another eviction from their meeting place . Paris was soon consumed by riots , chaos , and widespread looting . The mobs soon had the support of some of the French Guard , who were armed and trained soldiers . On 14 July , the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the Bastille fortress , which was also perceived to be a symbol of royal power . After several hours of combat , the prison fell that afternoon . Despite ordering a ceasefire , which prevented a mutual massacre , Governor Marquis Bernard de Launay was beaten , stabbed and decapitated ; his head was placed on a pike and paraded about the city . Although the fortress had held only seven prisoners ( four forgers , two noblemen kept for immoral behaviour , and a murder suspect ) the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the Ancien Régime . Returning to the Hôtel de Ville ( city hall ) the mob accused the prévôt des marchands ( roughly , mayor ) Jacques de Flesselles of treachery and butchered him . The King , alarmed by the violence , backed down , at least for the time being . The Marquis de la Fayette took up command of the National Guard at Paris . Jean-Sylvain Bailly , president of the Assembly at the time of the Tennis Court Oath , became the city 's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the commune . The King visited Paris , where , on 17 July he accepted a tricolore cockade , to cries of Vive la Nation ( `` Long live the Nation '' ) and Vive le Roi ( `` Long live the King '' ) . Necker was recalled to power , but his triumph was short-lived . An astute financier but a less astute politician , Necker overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty , losing much of the people 's favour . As civil authority rapidly deteriorated , with random acts of violence and theft breaking out across the country , members of the nobility , fearing for their safety , fled to neighbouring countries ; many of these émigrés , as they were called , funded counter-revolutionary causes within France and urged foreign monarchs to offer military support to a counter-revolution . By late July , the spirit of popular sovereignty had spread throughout France . In rural areas , many commoners began to form militias and arm themselves against a foreign invasion : some attacked the châteaux of the nobility as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as `` la Grande Peur '' ( `` the Great Fear '' ) . In addition , wild rumours and paranoia caused widespread unrest and civil disturbances that contributed to the collapse of law and order . Abolition of feudalism On the night of 4 August 1789 , the National Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism ( numerous peasant revolts had almost brought feudalism to an end ) in the August Decrees , sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes ( a 10 % tax for the Church ) gathered by the First Estate . During the course of a few hours nobles , clergy , towns , provinces , companies and cities lost their special privileges . Historian Georges Lefebvre summarises the night 's work : Without debate the Assembly enthusiastically adopted equality of taxation and redemption of all manorial rights except for those involving personal servitude — which were to be abolished without indemnification . Other proposals followed with the same success : the equality of legal punishment , admission of all to public office , abolition of venality in office , conversion of the tithe into payments subject to redemption , freedom of worship , prohibition of plural holding of benefices ... Privileges of provinces and towns were offered as a last sacrifice . Originally the peasants were supposed to pay for the release of seigneurial dues ; these dues affected more than a fourth of the farmland in France and provided most of the income of the large landowners . The majority refused to pay and in 1793 the obligation was cancelled . Thus the peasants got their land free , and also no longer paid the tithe to the church . Furet emphasizes that the decisions of August 1789 survived and became an integral part of : the founding texts of modern France . They destroyed aristocratic society from top to bottom , along with its structure of dependencies and privileges . For this structure they substituted the modern , autonomous individual , free to do whatever was not prohibited by law ... The Revolution thus distinguished itself quite early by its radical individualism The old judicial system , based on the 13 regional parlements , was suspended in November 1789 , and officially abolished in September 1790 . The main institutional pillars of the old regime had vanished overnight . Declaration of the Rights of Man On 26 August 1789 , the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , which comprised a statement of principles rather than a constitution with legal effect . The Declaration was directly influenced by Thomas Jefferson working with General LaFayette , who introduced it . The National Constituent Assembly functioned not only as a legislature , but also as a body to draft a new constitution . Writing the first constitution Necker , Mounier , Lally-Tollendal and others argued unsuccessfully for a senate , with members appointed by the crown on the nomination of the people . The bulk of the nobles argued for an aristocratic upper house elected by the nobles . The popular party carried the day : France would have a single , unicameral assembly . The King retained only a `` suspensive veto '' ; he could delay the implementation of a law , but not block it absolutely . The Assembly eventually replaced the historic provinces with 83 départements , uniformly administered and roughly equal in area and population . Amid the Assembly 's preoccupation with constitutional affairs , the financial crisis had continued largely unaddressed , and the deficit had only increased . Honoré Mirabeau now led the move to address this matter , and the Assembly gave Necker complete financial dictatorship . Women 's March on Versailles Fueled by rumors of a reception for the King 's bodyguards on 1 October 1789 , at which the national cockade had been trampled upon , on 5 October 1789 , crowds of women began to assemble at Parisian markets . The women first marched to the Hôtel de Ville , demanding that city officials address their concerns . The women were responding to the harsh economic situations they faced , especially bread shortages . They also demanded an end to royal efforts to block the National Assembly , and for the King and his administration to move to Paris as a sign of good faith in addressing the widespread poverty . Getting unsatisfactory responses from city officials , as many as 7,000 women joined the march to Versailles , bringing with them cannons and a variety of smaller weapons . Twenty thousand National Guardsmen under the command of La Fayette responded to keep order , and members of the mob stormed the palace , killing several guards . La Fayette ultimately persuaded the king to accede to the demand of the crowd that the monarchy relocate to Paris . On 6 October 1789 , the King and the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris under the `` protection '' of the National Guards , thus legitimising the National Assembly . Revolution and the Church The Revolution caused a massive shift of power from the Roman Catholic Church to the state . Under the Ancien Régime , the Church had been the largest single landowner in the country , owning about 10 % of the land in the kingdom . The Church was exempt from paying taxes to the government , while it levied a tithe—a 10 % tax on income , often collected in the form of crops—on the general population , only a fraction of which it then redistributed to the poor . The power and wealth of the Church was highly resented by some groups . A small minority of Protestants living in France , such as the Huguenots , wanted an anti-Catholic regime and revenge against the clergy who discriminated against them . Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire helped fuel this resentment by denigrating the Catholic Church and destabilising the French monarchy . As historian John McManners argues , `` In eighteenth-century France throne and altar were commonly spoken of as in close alliance ; their simultaneous collapse ... would one day provide the final proof of their interdependence . '' This resentment toward the Church weakened its power during the opening of the Estates General in May 1789 . The Church composed the First Estate with 130,000 members of the clergy . When the National Assembly was later created in June 1789 by the Third Estate , the clergy voted to join them , which perpetuated the destruction of the Estates General as a governing body . The National Assembly began to enact social and economic reform . Legislation sanctioned on 4 August 1789 abolished the Church 's authority to impose the tithe . In an attempt to address the financial crisis , the Assembly declared , on 2 November 1789 , that the property of the Church was `` at the disposal of the nation . '' They used this property to back a new currency , the assignats . Thus , the nation had now also taken on the responsibility of the Church , which included paying the clergy and caring for the poor , the sick and the orphaned . In December , the Assembly began to sell the

qw_661--French_Revolution.txt

The Reign Of Terror was a period in the revolution of which country?

A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy , which involves rational inquiry into areas that are outside of either theological dogma or science . The term `` philosopher '' comes from the Ancient Greek ( philosophos ) meaning `` lover of wisdom '' . Its origination has been ascribed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras . In the classical sense , a philosopher was someone who lived according to a certain way of life , focusing on resolving existential questions about the human condition , and not someone who discourses upon theories or comments upon authors . Typically , these particular brands of philosophy are Hellenistic ones and those who most arduously commit themselves to this lifestyle may be considered philosophers . In a modern sense , a philosopher is an intellectual who has contributed in one or more branches of philosophy , such as aesthetics , ethics , epistemology , logic , metaphysics , social theory , and political philosophy . A philosopher may also be one who worked in the humanities or other sciences which have since split from philosophy proper over the centuries , such as the arts , history , economics , sociology , psychology , linguistics , anthropology , theology , and politics . History Ancient Greece and Rome The separation of philosophy and science from theology began in Greece during the 6th century BC . Thales , an astronomer and mathematician , was considered by Aristotle to be the first philosopher of the Greek tradition . While Pythagoras coined the word , the first known elaboration on the topic was conducted by Plato . In his Symposium , he concludes that Love is that which lacks the object it seeks . Therefore , the philosopher is one who seeks wisdom ; if he attains wisdom , he would be a sage . Therefore , the philosopher in antiquity was one who lives in the constant pursuit of wisdom , and living in accordance to that wisdom . Disagreements arose as to what living philosophically entailed . These disagreements gave rise to different Hellenistic schools of philosophy . In consequence , the ancient philosopher thought in a tradition . As the ancient world became schism by philosophical debate , the competition lay in living in manner that would transform his whole way of living in the world . Among the last of these philosophers was Marcus Aurelius , who is widely regarded as a philosopher in the modern sense , but personally refused to call himself by such a title , since he had a duty to live as an emperor . Transition According to the Classicist Pierre Hadot , the modern conception of a philosopher and philosophy developed predominately through three changes : The first is the natural inclination of the philosophical mind . Philosophy is a tempting discipline which can easily carry away the individual in analyzing the universe and abstract theory . The second is the historical change through the Medieval era . With the rise of Christianity , the philosophical way of life was adopted by its theology . Thus , philosophy was divided between a way of life and the conceptual , logical , physical and metaphysical materials to justify that way of life . Philosophy was then the servant to theology.Pierre Hadot , Philosophy as a Way of Life , trans . Michael Chase . Blackwell Publishing , 1995. pg . 32 : Introduction : Pierre Hadot and the Spiritual Phenomenon of Ancient Philosophy by Arnold I. Davidson . The third is the sociological need with the development of the university . The modern university requires professionals to teach . Maintaining itself requires teaching future professionals to replace the current faculty . Therefore , the discipline degrades into a technical language reserved for specialists , completely eschewing its original conception as a way of life . Medieval era In the fourth century , the word philosopher began to designate a man or woman who led a monastic life . Gregory of Nyssa , for example , describes how his sister Macrina persuaded their mother to forsake `` the distractions of material life '' for a life of philosophy . Later during the Middle Ages , persons who engaged with alchemy was called a philosopher - thus , the Philosopher 's Stone . Early Modern era Many philosophers still emerged from the Classical tradition , as saw their philosophy as a way of life . Among the most notable are René Descartes , Baruch Spinoza , Nicolas Malebranche , and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz . With the rise of the university , the modern conception of philosophy became more prominent . Many of the esteemed philosophers of the eighteenth century and onward have attended , taught , and developed their works in university . Early examples include : Immanuel Kant , Johann Gottlieb Fichte , Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling , and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel . After these individuals , the Classical conception had all but died with the exceptions of Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche . The last considerable figure in philosophy to not have followed a strict and orthodox academic regime was Ludwig Wittgenstein . Modern academia In the modern era , those attaining advanced degrees in philosophy often choose to stay in careers within the educational system . According to a 1993 study by the National Research Council ( as reported by the American Philosophical Association ) , 77.1 % of the 7,900 holders of a Ph.D. in philosophy who responded were employed in educational institutions ( academia ) . Outside of academia , philosophers may employ their writing and reasoning skills in other careers , such as medicine , bioethics , business , publishing , free-lance writing , media , and law . Prizes in philosophy Various prizes in philosophy exist . Among the most prominent are : * Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy * Rolf Schock Prizes * Avicenna Prize Certain esteemed philosophers , such as Henri Bergson , Bertrand Russell , Albert Camus , and Jean-Paul Sartre , have also won the Nobel Prize in Literature . The John W. Kluge Prize for the Study of Humanity , created by the Library of Congress to recognize work not covered by the Nobel Prizes , was given to philosophers Leszek Kołakowski in 2003 , Paul Ricoeur in 2004 , and Jürgen Habermas and Charles Taylor in 2015 .

sfq_6043--Philosopher.txt

Which philosopher wrote 'Thus Spoke Zarathustra' between 1883 and 1885?

The Magi ( or ; Greek : μάγοι , magoi ) , also referred to as the ( Three ) Wise Men or ( Three ) Kings , were , in the Gospel of Matthew and Christian tradition , a group of distinguished foreigners who visited Jesus after his birth , bearing gifts of gold , frankincense and myrrh . They are regular figures in traditional accounts of the nativity celebrations of Christmas and are an important part of Christian tradition . According to Matthew , the only one of the four Canonical gospels to mention the Magi , they came `` from the east '' to worship the `` king of the Jews '' . Although the account does not mention the number of Magi , the three gifts has led to the widespread assumption that there were three men . In Eastern Christianity , especially the Syriac churches , the Magi often number twelve . Their identification as kings in later Christian writings is probably linked to Psalms 72:11 , `` May all kings fall down before him '' . Biblical account Traditional nativity scenes depict three `` kings '' visiting the infant Jesus on the night of his birth , in a manger accompanied by the shepherds and angels , but this should be understood as an artistic convention allowing the two separate scenes of the Adoration of the Shepherds on the birth night and the later Adoration of the Magi to be combined for convenience . The single biblical account in Matthew simply presents an event at an unspecified point after Christ 's birth in which an unnumbered party of unnamed `` wise men '' ( `` μάγοι '' ) visits him in a house ( `` οἰκίαν '' ) , not a stable , with only `` his mother '' mentioned as present . The New Revised Standard Version of Matthew 2:1–12 describes the visit of the Magi in this manner : The Bible specifies no interval between the birth and the visit , and artistic depictions and the closeness of the traditional dates of December 25 and January 6 encourage the popular assumption that the visit took place the same winter as the birth , but later traditions varied , with the visit taken as occurring up to two winters later . This maximum interval explained Herod 's command at Matthew 2:16–18 that the Massacre of the Innocents included boys up to two years old . More recent commentators , not tied to the traditional feast days , may suggest a variety of intervals . The wise men are mentioned twice shortly thereafter in verse 16 , in reference to their avoidance of Herod after seeing Jesus , and what Herod had learned from their earlier meeting . The star which they followed has traditionally become known as the Star of Bethlehem . Description The Magi are popularly referred to as wise men and kings . The word magi is the plural of Latin magus , borrowed from Greek μάγος magos , as used in the original Greek text of the Gospel of Matthew ( `` μάγοι '' ) . Greek magos itself is derived from Old Persian maguŝ from the Avestan magâunô , i.e. , the religious caste into which Zoroaster was born ( see Yasna 33.7 : `` ýâ sruyê parê magâunô '' = `` so I can be heard beyond Magi '' ) . The term refers to the priestly caste of Zoroastrianism . As part of their religion , these priests paid particular attention to the stars and gained an international reputation for astrology , which was at that time highly regarded as a science . Their religious practices and use of astrology caused derivatives of the term Magi to be applied to the occult in general and led to the English term magic , although Zoroastrianism was in fact strongly opposed to sorcery . The King James Version translates the term as wise men ; the same translation is applied to the wise men led by Daniel of earlier Hebrew Scriptures ( ) . The same word is given as sorcerer and sorcery when describing `` Elymas the sorcerer '' in , and Simon Magus , considered a heretic by the early Church , in . Several translations refer to the men outright as astrologers at Matthew Chapter 2 , including New English Bible ( 1961 ) ; Phillips New Testament in Modern English ( J.B.Phillips , 1972 ) ; Twentieth Century New Testament ( 1904 revised edition ) ; Amplified Bible ( 1958-New Testament ) ; An American Translation ( 1935 , Goodspeed ) ; and The Living Bible ( K. Taylor , 1962-New Testament ) . Names The New Testament does not give the names of the Magi , however , traditions and legends identify a variety of different names for them . In the Western Christian church , they have been all regarded as saints and are commonly known as : * Melchior ( ; also Melichior ) , a Persian scholar ; * Caspar ( or ; also Gaspar , Jaspar , Jaspas , Gathaspa , and other variations ) , an Indian scholar ; * Balthazar ( or ; also Balthasar , Balthassar , and Bithisarea ) , a Babylonian scholar . Encyclopædia Britannica states : `` according to Western church tradition , Balthasar is often represented as a king of Arabia , Melchior as a king of Persia , and Gaspar as a king of India . '' These names apparently derive from a Greek manuscript probably composed in Alexandria around 500 , and which has been translated into Latin with the title Excerpta Latina Barbari . [ http : //www.attalus.org/translate/barbari.html # 51B Excerpta Latina Barbari , page 51B ] : `` At that time in the reign of Augustus , on 1st January the Magi brought him gifts and worshipped him . The names of the Magi were Bithisarea , Melichior and Gathaspa . `` . Another Greek document from the 8th century , of presumed Irish origin and translated into Latin with the title Collectanea et Flores , continues the tradition of three kings and their names and gives additional details . Collectanea et Flores in Patrologia Latina . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? vidOCLC12663742 & id WNyDanXpkTkC & pg=PP13 XCIV , page 541 ( D ) Online version ] One candidate for the origin of the name Caspar appears in the Acts of Thomas as Gondophares ( 21 – c. AD 47 ) , i.e. , Gudapharasa ( from which `` Caspar '' might derive as corruption of `` Gaspar '' ) . This Gondophares declared independence from the Arsacids to become the first Indo-Parthian king , and he was allegedly visited by Thomas the Apostle . According to at least one scholar , his name is perpetuated in the name of the Afghan city Kandahar , which he is said to have founded under the name Gundopharron . In contrast , many Syrian Christians name the Magi Larvandad , Gushnasaph , and Hormisdas . These names have a far greater likelihood of being originally Persian , though that does not , of course , guarantee their authenticity . In the Eastern churches , Ethiopian Christianity , for instance , has Hor , Karsudan , and Basanater , while the Armenians have Kagpha , Badadakharida and Badadilma . Many Chinese Christians believe that one of the magi came from China . Country of origin and journey The phrase from the east ( ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν ) , more literally from the rising [ of the sun ] , is the only information Matthew provides about the region from which they came . Traditionally the view developed that they were Babylonians , Persians , or Jews from Yemen as the kings of Yemen then were Jews , a view held for example by John Chrysostom . There is an Armenian tradition identifying the `` Magi of Bethlehem '' as Balthasar of Arabia , Melchior of Persia , and Gaspar of India . Bible historian Chuck Missler has also written about this tradition . Historian John of Hildesheim relates a tradition in the ancient silk road city of Taxila ( near Islamabad in Pakistan ) that one of the Magi passed through the city on the way to Bethlehem . After the visit , the Magi leave the narrative by returning another way so as to avoid Herod , and do not reappear . There are many traditional stories about what happened to the Magi after this , with one having them baptised by St. Thomas on his way to India . Another has their remains found by Saint Helena and brought to Constantinople , and eventually making their way to Germany and the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral . Sebastian Brock , a historian of Christianity , has said : `` It was no doubt among converts from Zoroastrianism that… certain legends were developed around the Magi of the Gospels '' . And Anders Hultgård concluded that the Gospel story of the Magi was influenced by an Iranian legend concerning magi and a star , which was connected with Persian beliefs in the rise of a star predicting the birth of a ruler and with myths describing the manifestation of a divine figure in fire and light . A model for the homage of the Magi might have been provided , it has been suggested , by the journey to Rome of King Tiridates I of Armenia , with his magi , to pay homage to the Emperor Nero , which took place in 66 AD , a few years before the date assigned to the composition of the Gospel of Matthew . There was a tradition that the Central Asian Naimans and their Christian relatives , the Keraites , were descended from the Biblical Magi . This heritage passed to the Mongol dynasty of Genghis Khan when Sorghaghtani , niece of the Keraite ruler Toghrul , married Tolui the youngest son of Genghis and became the mother of Möngke Khan and his younger brother and successor , Kublai Khan . Toghrul became identified with the legendary Central Asian Christian king , Prester John , whose Mongol descendants were sought as allies against the Muslims by contemporary European monarchs and popes . Sempad the Constable , elder brother of King Hetoum I of Cilician Armenia , visited the Mongol court in Karakorum in 1247–1250 and in 1254 . He wrote a letter to Henry I King of Cyprus and Queen Stephanie ( Sempad ’ s sister ) from Samarkand in 1243 , in which he said : “ Tanchat [ Tangut , or Western Xia ] , which is the land from whence came the Three Kings to Bethlem to worship the Lord Jesus which was born . And know that the power of Christ has been , and is , so great , that the people of that land are Christians ; and the whole land of Chata [ Khitai , or Kara-Khitai ] believes those Three Kings . I have myself been in their churches and have seen pictures of Jesus Christ and the Three Kings , one offering gold , the second frankincense , and the third myrrh . And it is through those Three Kings that they believe in Christ , and that the Chan and his people have now become Christians ” . The legendary Christian ruler of Central Asia , Prester John was reportedly a descendant of one of the Magi . `` Long before the time of Christ , India had trade relations with Palestine ; much of the commerce between the Orient and the Mediterranean civilizations ( including Egypt , Greece , and Rome ) passed through Jerusalem '' , so it is very likely that Wise Men could have been `` great sages of India '' , as Paramahansa Yogananda wrote in his “ The Second Coming of Christ – The Resurrection of the Christ Within You ” ( 2004 , pp . 56–59 ) . Gestures of respect The Magi are described as `` falling down '' , `` kneeling '' or `` bowing '' in the worship of Jesus . This gesture , together with Luke 's birth narrative , had an important effect on Christian religious practices . They were indicative of great respect , and typically used when venerating a king . Inspired by these verses , kneeling and prostration were adopted in the early Church . While prostration is now rarely practised in the West it is still relatively common in the Eastern Churches , especially during Lent . Kneeling has remained an important element of Christian worship to this day . Traditional identities and symbolism Apart from their names , the three Magi developed distinct characteristics in Christian tradition , so that between them they represented the three ages of ( adult ) man , three geographical and cultural areas , and sometimes other things . In the normal Western account , reflected in art by the 14th century ( for example in the Arena Chapel by Giotto in 1305 ) Caspar is old , normally with a white beard , and gives the gold ; he is `` King of Tarsus , land of merchants '' on the Mediterranean coast of modern Turkey , and is first in line to kneel to Christ . Melchior is middle-aged , giving frankincense from his native Arabia , and Balthazar is a young man , very often and increasingly black-skinned , with myrrh from Saba ( modern south Yemen ) . Their ages were often given as 60 , 40 and 20 respectively , and their geographical origins were rather variable , with Balthazar increasingly coming from Ethiopia or other parts of Africa , and being represented accordingly . Balthazar 's blackness has been the subject of considerable recent scholarly attention ; in art it is found mostly in northern Europe , beginning from the 12th century , and becoming very common in the north by the 15th . Gifts Three gifts are explicitly identified in Matthew : gold , frankincense , and myrrh , in Koine Greek : chrysós ( χρυσός ) , líbanos ( λίβανος ) and smýrna ( σμύρνα ) . Many different theories of the meaning and symbolism of the gifts have been brought forward . While gold is fairly obviously explained , frankincense , and particularly myrrh , are much more obscure . See the previous section for who gave which . The theories generally break down into two groups : # All three gifts are ordinary offerings and gifts given to a king . Myrrh being commonly used as an anointing oil , frankincense as a perfume , and gold as a valuable . # The three gifts had a spiritual meaning : gold as a symbol of kingship on earth , frankincense ( an incense ) as a symbol of deity , and myrrh ( an embalming oil ) as a symbol of death . # : * This dates back to Origen in Contra Celsum : `` gold , as to a king ; myrrh , as to one who was mortal ; and incense , as to a God . '' # : * These interpretations are alluded to in the verses of the popular carol `` We Three Kings '' in which the magi describe their gifts . The last verse includes a summary of the interpretation : `` Glorious now behold Him arise/King and God and sacrifice . '' # : * Sometimes this is described more generally as gold symbolizing virtue , frankincense symbolizing prayer , and myrrh symbolizing suffering . Myrrh was used as an embalming ointment and as a penitential incense in funerals and cremations until the 15th century . The `` holy oil '' traditionally used by the Eastern Orthodox Church for performing the sacraments of chrismation and unction is traditionally scented with myrrh , and receiving either of these sacraments is commonly referred to as `` receiving the myrrh '' . The picture of the Magi on the 7th century Franks Casket shows the third visitor – he who brings myrrh – with a valknut over his back , a pagan symbol referring to Death . It has been suggested by scholars that the `` gifts '' were medicinal rather than precious material for tribute . The Syrian King Seleucus II Callinicus is recorded to have offered gold , frankincense and myrrh ( among other items ) to Apollo in his temple at Miletus in 243 BC , and this may have been the precedent for the mention of these three gifts in Gospel of Matthew ( 2:11 ) . It was these three gifts , it is thought , which were the chief cause for the number of the Magi becoming fixed eventually at three . This episode can be linked to and to which report gifts being given by kings , and this has played a central role in the perception of the Magi as kings , rather than as astronomer-priests . In a hymn of the late 4th-century hispanic poet Prudentius , the three gifts have already gained their medieval interpretation as prophetic emblems of Jesus ' identity , familiar in the carol `` We Three Kings '' by John Henry Hopkins , Jr. , 1857 . John Chrysostom suggested that the gifts were fit to be given not just to a king but to God , and contrasted them with the Jews ' traditional offerings of sheep and calves , and accordingly Chrysostom asserts that the Magi worshiped Jesus as God . What subsequently happened to these gifts is never mentioned in the scripture , but several traditions have developed . One story has the gold being stolen by the two thieves who were later crucified alongside Jesus . Another tale has it being entrusted to and then misappropriated by Judas . One tradition suggests that Joseph and Mary used the gold to finance their travels when they fled Bethlehem after an angel had warned , in a dream , about King Herod 's plan to kill Jesus . And another story proposes the theory that the myrrh given to them at Jesus ' birth was used to anoint Jesus ' body after his crucifixion . There was a 15th-century golden case purportedly containing the Gift of the Magi housed in the Monastery of St. Paul of Mount Athos . It was donated to the monastery in the 15th century by Mara Branković , daughter of the King of Serbia Đurađ Branković , wife to the Ottoman Sultan Murat II and godmother to Mehmet II the Conqueror ( of Constantinople ) . They were apparently part of the relics of the Holy Palace of Constantinople and it is claimed they were displayed there since the 4th century . After the Athens earthquake of September 9 , 1999 they were temporarily displayed in Athens in order to strengthen faith and raise money for earthquake victims . The relics were displayed in Ukraine and Belarus in Christmas of 2014 , and thus left Greece for the first time since the 15th century . Martyrdom traditions Christian Scriptures record nothing about the Biblical Magi after reporting their going back to their own country . Two separate traditions have surfaced claiming that they were so moved by their encounter with Jesus that they either became Christians on their own or were quick to convert fully upon later encountering an Apostle of Jesus . The traditions claim that they were so strong in their beliefs that they willingly embraced martyrdom . Chronicon of Dexter One tradition gained popularity in Spain during the 17th century , it was found in a work called the Chronicon of Dexter . The work was ascribed to Flavius Lucius Dexter the bishop of Barcelona , under Theodosius the Great . The tradition appears in the form of a simple martyrology reading `` In Arabia Felix , in the city of Sessania of the Adrumeti , the martyrdom of the holy kings , the three Magi , Gaspar , Balthassar , and Melchior who adored Christ . '' First appearing in 1610 , the Chronicon of Dexter was immensely popular along with the traditions it contained throughout the 17th century – later this was all brought into question when historians and the Catholic hierarchy in Rome declared the work a pious forgery . Relics at Cologne A competing tradition asserts that the Biblical Magi `` were martyred for the faith , and that their bodies were first venerated at Constantinople ; thence they were transferred to Milan in 344 . It is certain that when Frederick I , Holy Roman Emperor ( Barbarossa ) imposed his authority on Milan , the relics there were transferred to Cologne Cathedral , housed in the Shrine of the Three Kings , and are venerated there today . '' The Milanese treated the fragments of masonry from their now empty tomb as secondary relics and these were widely distributed around the region , including southern France , accounting for the frequency with which the Magi appear on chasse reliquaries in Limoges enamel . Tombs There are several traditions on where the remains of the Magi are located , although none of the traditions is considered as an established fact or even as particularly likely by secular history . Marco Polo claimed that he was shown the three tombs of the Magi at Saveh south of Tehran in the 1270s : A Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral , according to tradition , contains the bones of the Three Wise Men . Reputedly they were first discovered by Saint Helena on her famous pilgrimage to Palestine and the Holy Lands . She took the remains to the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople ; they were later moved to Milan ( some sources say by the city 's bishop , Eustorgius I ) , before being sent to their current resting place by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I in 1164 . The Milanese celebrate their part in the tradition by holding a medieval costume parade every 6 January . A version of the detailed elaboration familiar to us is laid out by the 14th century cleric John of Hildesheim 's Historia Trium Regum ( `` History of the Three Kings '' ) . In accounting for the presence in Cologne of their mummified relics , he begins with the journey of Helena , mother of Constantine I to Jerusalem , where she recovered the True Cross and other relics : Queen Helen… began to think greatly of the bodies of these three kings , and she arrayed herself , and accompanied by many attendants , went into the Land of Ind… after she had found the bodies of Melchior , Balthazar , and Gaspar , Queen Helen put them into one chest and ornamented it with great riches , and she brought them into Constantinople ... and laid them in a church that is called Saint Sophia . Religious significance The visit of the Magi is commemorated in most Western Christian churches by the observance of Epiphany , 6 January , which also serves as the feast of the three as saints . The Eastern Orthodox celebrate the visit of the Magi on 25 December . The identification of the Magi as kings is linked to Old Testament prophesies that have the Messiah being worshipped by kings in Isaiah 60:3 , Psalm 72:10 , and Psalm 68:29 . Early readers reinterpreted Matthew in light of these prophecies and elevated the Magi to kings . By AD 500 all commentators adopted the prevalent tradition that the three were kings , and this continued until the Protestant Reformation . Though the Qur'an omits Matthew 's episode of the Magi , it was well known in Arabia . The Muslim encyclopaedist al-Tabari , writing in the 9th century , gives the familiar symbolism of the gifts of the Magi . Al-Tabari gave his source for the information to be the later 7th century writer Wahb ibn Munabbih . Traditions Holidays celebrating the arrival of the Magi traditionally recognise a distinction between the date of their arrival and the date of Jesus ' birth . The account given in the Gospel of Matthew does not state that they were present on the night of the birth ; in the Gospel of Luke , Joseph and Mary remain in Bethlehem until it is time for Jesus ' dedication , in Jerusalem , and then return to their home in Nazareth . Spanish customs Western Christianity celebrates the Magi on the day of Epiphany , January 6 , the day immediately following the twelve days of Christmas , particularly in the Spanish-speaking parts of the world . In these areas , the Three Kings ( `` los Reyes Magos de Oriente '' , also `` Los Tres Reyes Magos '' and `` Los Reyes Magos '' ) receive letters from children and so bring them gifts on the night before Epiphany . In Spain , each one of the Magi is supposed to represent one different continent , Europe ( Melchior ) , Asia ( Caspar ) and Africa ( Balthasar ) . According to the tradition , the Magi come from the Orient on their camels to visit the houses of all the children , much like Sinterklaas and Santa Claus with his reindeer elsewhere , they visit everyone in one night . In some areas , children prepare a drink for each of the Magi . It is also traditional to prepare food and drink for the camels , because this is the only night of the year when they eat . * In Spain , Argentina , México , Paraguay and Uruguay , there is a long tradition for having the children receive presents by the three `` Reyes Magos '' on the night of January 5 ( Epiphany Eve ) or morning of January 6 . Almost every Spanish city or town organises cabalgatas in the evening , in which the kings and their servants parade and throw sweets to the children ( and parents ) in attendance . The cavalcade of the three kings in Alcoy claims to be the oldest in the world , having started in 1886 . The Mystery Play of the Three Magic Kings is also presented on Epiphany Eve . There is also a `` Roscón '' ( Spain ) or `` Rosca de Reyes '' ( Mexico ) as explained below . * In the Philippines , beliefs concerning the Three Kings ( Filipino : Tatlóng Haring Mago , lit . `` Three Magi Kings '' ; shortened to Tatlóng Harì or Spanish Tres Reyes ) follows Hispanic influence , with the Feast of the Epiphany considered by many Filipinos as the traditional end of their Christmas season . The tradition of the Three Kings ' cabalgada is today done only in some areas , such as the old city of Intramuros in Manila , and the island of Marinduque . Another dying custom is children leaving shoes out on Epiphany Eve , so that they may receive sweets and money from the Three Kings . With the arrival of American culture in the early 20th century , the Three Kings as gift-givers have been largely replaced in urban areas by Santa Claus , and they only survive in the greeting `` Happy Three Kings ! '' and the surname Tatlóngharì . The Three Kings are especially revered in Gapan , Nueva Ecija , where they are the town 's joint patron saints . * In Paraguay , Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic , children cut grass or greenery on January 5 and put it in a box under their bed for the Kings ' camels . Children receive gifts on January 6 , which is called Día de Reyes , and is traditionally the day in which the Magi arrived bearing gifts for the Christ child . Christmas starts in December and ends in January after Epiphany , although in Puerto Rico there are eight more days of celebration ( las octavitas ) . Campaign for a real black Balthazar in Spain In 2009 a campaign started in Spain over the fact that Balthazar is commonly played by a white person in blackface . Central Europe * A tradition in Poland and German-speaking Catholic areas is the writing of the three kings ' initials ( C+M+B or C M B , or K+M+B in those areas where Caspar is spelled Kaspar ) above the main door of Catholic homes in chalk . This is a new year 's blessing for the occupants and the initials also are believed to also stand for `` Christus mansionem benedicat '' ( `` May/Let Christ Bless This House '' ) . Depending on the city or town , this will be happen sometime between Christmas and

qz_2223--Biblical_Magi.txt

The Bible tells of 3 wise men visiting Jesus after his birth, but in which of the Gospels does this appear?

Marie-Anne Charlotte de Corday d'Armont ( 27 July 1768 – 17 July 1793 ) , known to history as Charlotte Corday , was a figure of the French Revolution . In 1793 , she was executed by guillotine for the assassination of Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat , who was in part responsible , through his role as a politician and journalist , for the more radical course the Revolution had taken . More specifically , he played a substantial role in the political purge of the Girondins , with whom Corday sympathized . His murder was memorialized in a celebrated painting by Jacques-Louis David which shows Marat after Corday had stabbed him to death in his bathtub . In 1847 , writer Alphonse de Lamartine gave Corday the posthumous nickname l'ange de l'assassinat ( the Angel of Assassination ) . Biography Born in Saint-Saturnin-des-Ligneries , a hamlet in the commune of Écorches ( Orne ) , in Normandy , Charlotte Corday was a member of a minor aristocratic family . She was a fifth-generation matrilineal descendant of the dramatist Pierre Corneille . Her parents were cousins . While Corday was a young girl , her older sister and their mother , Charlotte Marie Jacqueline Gaultier de Mesnival , died . Her father , Jacques François de Corday , seigneur d'Armont ( 1737–1798 ) , unable to cope with his grief over their death , sent Corday and her younger sister to the Abbaye-aux-Dames convent in Caen , where she had access to the abbey 's library and first encountered the writings of Plutarch , Rousseau and Voltaire . After 1791 , she lived in Caen with her cousin , Madame Le Coustellier de Bretteville-Gouville . The two developed a close relationship , and Corday was the sole heir to her cousin 's estate . Political influence After the revolution radicalized and headed towards terror , Charlotte Corday began to sympathize with the Girondins . She admired their speeches and grew fond of many of the Girondist groups whom she met while living in Caen . She respected the political principles of the Girondins and came to align herself with their thinking . She regarded them as a movement that would ultimately save France . The Gironde represented a more moderate approach to the revolution and they , like Corday , were skeptical about the direction the revolution was taking . They opposed the Montagnards , who advocated a more radical approach to the revolution , which included the extreme idea that the only way the revolution would survive invasion and civil war was through terrorizing and executing those opposed to it . The opposition to this radical thinking , coupled with the influence of the Gironde , ultimately led Corday to carry out her plan to murder the most radical of them all , Jean-Paul Marat . The influence of Girondin ideas on Corday is evident in her words at her trial : `` I knew that he Marat was perverting France . I have killed one man to save a hundred thousand . '' As the revolution progressed , the Girondins had become progressively more opposed to the radical , violent propositions of the Montagnards such as Marat and Robespierre . Corday 's notion that she was saving a hundred thousand lives echoes this Girondin sentiment as they attempted to slow the revolution and reverse the violence that had escalated since the September Massacres of 1792 . Marat 's assassination Jean-Paul Marat was a member of the radical Jacobin faction which had a leading role during the Reign of Terror . As a journalist , he exerted power and influence through his newspaper , L'Ami du peuple ( `` The Friend of the People '' ) . Corday 's decision to kill Marat was stimulated not only by her revulsion at the September Massacres , for which she held Marat responsible , but by her fear of an all-out civil war . She believed that Marat was threatening the Republic , and that his death would end violence throughout the nation . She also believed that King Louis XVI should not have been executed . On 9 July 1793 , Corday left her cousin , carrying a copy of Plutarch 's Parallel Lives , and went to Paris , where she took a room at the Hôtel de Providence . She bought a kitchen knife with a six-inch blade . She then wrote her Addresse aux Français amis des lois et de la paix ( `` Address to the French people , friends of Law and Peace '' ) to explain her motives for assassinating Marat . Initially , she planned to assassinate Marat in front of the entire National Convention , intending to make an example out of him , but upon arriving in Paris she discovered that Marat no longer attended meetings because his health was deteriorating due to a skin disorder . She was then forced to change her plan . She went to Marat 's home before noon on 13 July , claiming to have knowledge of a planned Girondist uprising in Caen ; she was turned away by his wife , Simonne Evrard . On her return that evening , Marat admitted her . At the time , he conducted most of his affairs from a bathtub because of a debilitating skin condition . Marat wrote down the names of the Girondists that she gave to him , then she pulled out the knife and plunged it into his chest , piercing his lung , aorta and left ventricle . He called out , Aidez-moi , ma chère amie ! ( `` Help me , my dear friend ! '' ) and died . This is the moment memorialised by Jacques-Louis David 's painting ( illustration , right ) . The iconic pose of Marat dead in his bath has been reviewed from a different angle in Baudry 's posthumous painting of 1860 , both literally and interpretatively : Corday , rather than Marat , has been made the hero of the action . Following immediately on her trial Corday asked the court if her portrait could be painted , selecting as the artist a National Guard officer Jean-Jacques Hauer who had begun sketching her . Hauer 's likeness ( see above ) was completed shortly before Corday was summoned to the tumbril , after she had viewed it and suggested a few changes . Trial and execution Corday underwent three separate cross-examinations by senior revolutionary judicial officials , including the President of the Revolutionary Tribunal and the chief prosecutor . She stressed that she was a republican and had been so even before the Revolution , citing the values of ancient Rome as an ideal model . The focus of the questioning was to establish whether she had been part of a wider Girondist conspiracy . Corday remained constant in insisting that `` I alone conceived the plan and executed it '' . She referred to Marat as a `` hoarder '' and a `` monster '' who was only respected in Paris . She credited her fatal knifing of Marat with one blow not to practicing in advance but to luck . On 17 July 1793 , four days after Marat was killed , Corday was executed by guillotine , wearing the red overblouse denoting a condemned traitor who had assassinated a representative of the people . Standing alone in the tumbril amid a large and curious crowd she remained calm , although drenched by a sudden summer rainfall . Her corpse was disposed of in the Madeleine Cemetery . Aftermath After Corday 's decapitation , a man named Legros lifted her head from the basket and slapped it on the cheek . Charles-Henri Sanson , the executioner , indignantly rejected published reports that Legros was one of his assistants . Sanson stated in his diary that Legros was in fact a carpenter who had been hired to make repairs to the guillotine . Witnesses report an expression of `` unequivocal indignation '' on her face when her cheek was slapped . The oft-repeated anecdote has served to suggest that victims of the guillotine may in fact retain consciousness for a short while , including by Albert Camus in his Reflections on the Guillotine ( `` Charlotte Corday 's severed head blushed , it is said , under the executioner 's slap . `` ) . This offense against a woman executed moments before was considered unacceptable and Legros was imprisoned for three months because of his outburst . Jacobin leaders had her body autopsied immediately after her death to see if she was a virgin . They believed there was a man sharing her bed and the assassination plans . To their dismay , she was found to be virgo intacta ( a virgin ) . The assassination did not stop the Jacobins or the Terror : Marat became a martyr , a bust of him replaced a religious statue on the rue aux Ours and a number of place-names were changed to incorporate his . Cultural references * Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote about her in his Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson ( 1810 ) . * American dramatist Sarah Pogson Smith ( 1774–1870 ) also memorialised Corday in her verse drama The Female Enthusiast : A Tragedy in Five Acts ( 1807 ) . * Alphonse de Lamartine devoted to her a book of his Histoire des Girondins ( 1847 ) , in which he gave her this now famous nickname : `` l'ange de l'assassinat '' ( the angel of assassination ) . * French dramatist François Ponsard ( 1814–67 ) wrote a play , Charlotte Corday , which was premièred at the Théâtre-Français in March , 1850 . * Harper 's Weekly mentioned Corday in their April 29 , 1865 edition , in a series of articles analyzing the assassination of Abraham Lincoln , as the `` one assassin whom history mentions with toleration and even applause , '' but goes on to conclude that her assassination of Marat was a mistake in which she became Marat 's victim rather than saving or helping one of his victims . Her case is pointed to as a pattern that matches all other assassinations in harming rather than helping the cause for which the act was carried out . * At the end of Act III , before departing to kill the Czar , the eponymous heroine of Oscar Wilde 's play Vera ; or , The Nihilists exclaims `` the spirit of Charlotte Corday has entered my soul now . '' * Charlotte appears briefly but significantly , in Caen , in A Far Better Rest , by Susanne Alleyn , a reimagining of A Tale of Two Cities . * Drieu La Rochelle wrote a play in three acts called Charlotte Corday in 1939 . It was performed in southern France during World War II . Corday is depicted as a fervent republican who hopes eliminating Marat will save the revolution and prevent it from degenerating into tyranny . * A minor character in P.G . Wodehouse 's Jeeves series is named after Charlotte Corday . * Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero ( 1951– ) composed an opera in three acts , Charlotte Corday , for the 200th anniversary of the French Revolution which was commemorated in 1989 . * In Peter Weiss 's Marat/Sade , the assassination of Marat is presented as a play , written by the Marquis de Sade , to be performed by inmates of the asylum at Charenton , for the public . The patient performing the role of Corday in the play-within-a-play ( Glenda Jackson in the stage production and subsequent film adaptation ) is , somewhat ironically , a narcoleptic . * The historical-fiction `` My Bonny Light Horseman '' , part of the Bloody Jack series by L.A. Meyer , references a Jean-Paul de Valdon , who claims to be the cousin of Charlotte Corday * British singer-songwriter Al Stewart included a song co-written by Tori Amos about Corday on his album Famous Last Words ( 1993 ) . * In Katherine Neville 's novel The Eight , Charlotte Corday changes place with the heroine Mireille , who kills Jean-Paul Marat for revenge . * The graphic novel series `` L'Ordre Du Chaos '' has a whole book dedicated to Charlotte Corday and Marat . * Corday makes an appearance in Assassin 's Creed Unity . Arno finds Marat 's body in a murder mystery mission , and after investigating evidence , clues , and talking to witnesses , the player has the option of accusing Corday of the murder . * In Les Miserables , Combeferre likens Enjolras 's execution of Le Cabuc to Corday 's assassination of Marat , calling it a `` liberating murder '' . Notes

qz_3042--Charlotte_Corday.txt

Who killed Jean Paul Marat?

Libya ( ' ; Tamazight : ⵍⵉⴱⵢⴰ Libia ; officially the State of Libya ( ' ; Tamazight : ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴱⵢⴰ Addad n Libia ; is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa , bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north , Egypt to the east , Sudan to the southeast , Chad and Niger to the south , and Algeria and Tunisia to the west . The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania , Fezzan and Cyrenaica . With an area of almost , Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa , and is the 16th largest country in the world . Libya has the 10th-largest proven oil reserves of any country in the world . The largest city and capital , Tripoli , is located in western Libya and contains over one million of Libya 's six million people . The other large city is Benghazi , which is located in eastern Libya . Libya has been inhabited by Berbers since the late Bronze Age . The Phoenicians established trading posts in western Libya , and Ancient Greek colonists established city-states in eastern Libya . Libya was variously ruled by Carthaginians , Persians , Egyptians and Greeks before becoming a part of the Roman Empire . Libya was an early center of Christianity . After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the Vandals until the 7th century , when invasions brought Islam and Arab colonization . In the sixteenth century , the Spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli , until Ottoman rule began in 1551 . Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries . Ottoman rule continued until the Italian occupation of Libya resulted in the temporary Italian Libya colony from 1911 to 1943 . During the Second World War Libya was an important area of warfare in the North African Campaign . The Italian population then went into decline . Libya became an independent kingdom in 1951 . A military coup in 1969 overthrew King Idris I , beginning a period of sweeping social reform . The most prominent coup figure , Muammar Gaddafi , was ultimately able to fully concentrate power in his own hands during the Libyan Cultural Revolution , remaining in power until the Libyan Civil War of 2011 , in which the rebels were supported by NATO . Since then , Libya has experienced a period of instability . The European Union is involved in an operation to disrupt human trafficking networks exploiting refugees fleeing from wars in Africa for Europe . At least two political bodies claim to be the government of Libya . The Council of Deputies is internationally recognized as the legitimate government , but it does not hold territory in the capital , Tripoli , instead meeting in the Cyrenaica city of Tobruk . Meanwhile , the 2014 General National Congress purports to be the legal continuation of the General National Congress , elected in the 2012 Libyan General National Congress election and dissolved following the June 2014 elections but then reconvened by a minority of its members . The Supreme Court in the Libya Dawn and General National Congress-controlled Tripoli declared the Tobruk government unconstitutional in November 2014 , but the internationally recognized government has rejected the ruling as made under threat of violence . Parts of Libya are outside of either government 's control , with various Islamist , rebel , and tribal militias administering some cities and areas . The United Nations is sponsoring peace talks between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based factions . An agreement to form a unified interim government was signed on 17 December 2015 . Under the terms of the agreement , a nine-member Presidency Council and a seventeen-member interim Government of National Accord would be formed , with a view to holding new elections within two years . The leaders of the new government , called the Government of National Accord ( GNA ) , arrived in Tripoli on April 5 , 2016 . Since then the GNC , one of the two rival governments , has disbanded to support the new GNA . Etymology The name Libya ( or ; ' ; Libyan Arabic : ) was introduced in 1934 for Italian Libya , reviving the historical name for Northwest Africa , from the ancient Greek ( ' ) . The name was based on earlier use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico Minutilli . It was intended to supplant terms applied to Ottoman Tripolitania , the coastal region of what is today Libya having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911 , as the Eyalet of Tripolitania . Libya gained independence in 1951 as the United Libyan Kingdom ( ' ) , changing its name to the Kingdom of Libya ( ' ) in 1963 . Following a coup d'état led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969 , the name of the state was changed to the Libyan Arab Republic ( ' ) . The official name was `` Socialist People 's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya '' from 1977 to 1986 , and `` Great Socialist People 's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya '' ( ' ) from 1986 to 2011 . The National Transitional Council , established in 2011 , referred to the state as simply `` Libya '' . The UN formally recognized the country as `` Libya '' in September 2011 , based on a request from the Permanent Mission of Libya citing the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration of 3 August 2011 . In November 2011 , the ISO 3166-1 was altered to reflect the new country name `` Libya '' in English , `` Libye ( la ) '' in French . The current name , `` State of Libya '' ( ' ) , was adopted unanimously by the General National Congress in January 2013 . History Ancient Libya The coastal plain of Libya was inhabited by Neolithic peoples from as early as 8000 BC . The Afroasiatic ancestors of the Berber people are assumed to have spread into the area by the Late Bronze Age . The earliest known name of such a tribe is that of the Garamantes , who were based in Germa . The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya . By the 5th century BC , the greatest of the Phoenician colonies , Carthage , had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa , where a distinctive civilization , known as Punic , came into being . In 630 BC , the Ancient Greeks colonized Eastern Libya and founded the city of Cyrene . Within 200 years , four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as Cyrenaica . In 525 BC the Persian army of Cambyses II overran Cyrenaica , which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule . Alexander the Great was greeted by the Greeks when he entered Cyrenaica in 331 BC , and Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks , this time as part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom . After the fall of Carthage the Romans did not occupy immediately Tripolitania ( the region around Tripoli ) , but left it under control of the kings of Numidia , until the coastal cities asked and obtained its protection . Ptolemy Apion , the last Greek ruler , bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome , which formally annexed the region in 74 BC and joined it to Crete as a Roman province . As part of the Africa Nova province , Tripolitania was prosperous , and reached a golden age in the 2nd and 3rd centuries , when the city of Leptis Magna , home to the Severan dynasty , was at its height . On the Eastern side , Cyrenaica 's first Christian communities were established by the time of the Emperor Claudius but was heavily devastated during the Kitos War and almost depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike , and , although repopulated by Trajan with military colonies , from then started its decadence . Libya was early to convert to Nicene Christianity and was the home of Pope Victor I ; however , Libya was a hotbed for early heresies such as Arianism and Donatism . The decline of the Roman Empire saw the classical cities fall into ruin , a process hastened by the Vandals ' destructive sweep through North Africa in the 5th century . When the Empire returned ( now as East Romans ) as part of Justinian 's reconquests of the 6th century , efforts were made to strengthen the old cities , but it was only a last gasp before they collapsed into disuse . Cyrenaica , which had remained an outpost of the Byzantine Empire during the Vandal period , also took on the characteristics of an armed camp . Unpopular Byzantine governors imposed burdensome taxation to meet military costs , while the towns and public services—including the water system—were left to decay . By the beginning of the 7th century , Byzantine control over the region was weak , Berber rebellions were becoming more frequent , and there was little to oppose Muslim invasion . Islamic Libya Under the command of 'Amr ibn al-'As , the Rashidun army conquered Cyrenaica . In 647 an army led by Abdullah ibn Saad took Tripoli from the Byzantines definitively . The Fezzan was conquered by Uqba ibn Nafi in 663 . The Berber tribes of the hinterland accepted Islam , however they resisted Arab political rule . For the next several decades , Libya was under the purview of the Umayyad Caliph of Damascus until the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750 , and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad . When Caliph Harun al-Rashid appointed Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab as his governor of Ifriqiya in 800 , Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the Aghlabid dynasty . By the end of the 9th century , the Shiite Fatimids controlled Western Libya , and ruled the entire region in 972 and appointed Bologhine ibn Ziri as governor . Ibn Ziri 's Berber Zirid dynasty ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids , and recognised the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs . In retaliation , the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from two troublesome Arab Bedouin tribes , the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal to North Africa . This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside , and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region . Zirid rule in Tripolitania was short-lived though , and already in 1001 the Berbers of the Banu Khazrun broke away . Tripolitania remained under their control until 1146 , when the region was overtaken by the Normans of Sicily . It was not until 1159 that the Moroccan Almohad leader Abd al-Mu'min reconquered Tripoli from European rule . For the next 50 years , Tripolitania was the scene of numerous battles among Ayyubids , the Almohad rulers and insurgents of the Banu Ghaniya . Later , a general of the Almohads , Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs , ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before the later establishment of a Tunisian Hafsid dynasty independent from the Almohads . The Hafsids ruled Tripolitania for nearly 300 years . By the 16th century the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire . After weakening control of Abbasids , Cyrenaica was under Egypt based states such as Tulunids , Ikhshidids , Ayyubids and Mamluks before Ottoman conquest in 1517 . Finally Fezzan acquired independence under Awlad Muhammad dynasty after Kanem rule . Ottomans finally conquered Fezzan between 1556 and 1577 . Ottoman Tripolitania ( 1551–1911 ) After a successful invasion of Tripoli by Habsburg Spain in 1510 , and its handover to the Knights of St. John , the Ottoman admiral Sinan Pasha took control of Libya in 1551 . His successor Turgut Reis was named the Bey of Tripoli and later Pasha of Tripoli in 1556 . By 1565 , administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a pasha appointed directly by the sultan in Constantinople/Istanbul . In the 1580s , the rulers of Fezzan gave their allegiance to the sultan , and although Ottoman authority was absent in Cyrenaica , a bey was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as agent of the government in Tripoli . European slaves and large numbers of enslaved Blacks transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli . In 1551 , Turgut Reis enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo , some 6,300 people , sending them to Libya . In time , real power came to rest with the pasha ’ s corps of janissaries . In 1611 the deys staged a coup against the pasha , and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government . For the next hundred years , a series of deys effectively ruled Tripolitania . The two most important Deys were Mehmed Saqizli ( r. 1631–49 ) and Osman Saqizli ( r. 1649–72 ) , both also Pasha , who ruled effectively the region . The latter conquered also Cyrenaica . Lacking direction from the Ottoman government , Tripoli lapsed into a period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in office more than a year . One such coup was led by Turkish officer Ahmed Karamanli . The Karamanlis ruled from 1711 until 1835 mainly in Tripolitania , and had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid-18th century . Ahmad 's successors proved to be less capable than himself , however , the region 's delicate balance of power allowed the Karamanli . The 1793–95 Tripolitanian civil war occurred in those years . In 1793 , Turkish officer Ali Benghul deposed Hamet Karamanli and briefly restored Tripolitania to Ottoman rule . Hamet 's brother Yusuf ( r. 1795–1832 ) reestablished Tripolitania 's independence . In the early 19th century war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania , and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War . By 1819 , the various treaties of the Napoleonic Wars had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely , and Tripolitania 's economy began to crumble . As Yusuf weakened , factions sprung up around his three sons . Civil war soon resulted . Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II sent in troops ostensibly to restore order , marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania . Order was not recovered easily , and the revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858 . The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes , and greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya . Ottoman rule finally reasserted to Fezzan between 1850 and 1875 for earning income from Saharan commerce . Italian Libya ( 1911–1943 ) After the Italo-Turkish War ( 1911–1912 ) , Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies . From 1912 to 1927 , the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa . From 1927 to 1934 , the territory was split into two colonies , Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania , run by Italian governors . Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya , constituting roughly 20 % of the total population . In 1934 , Italy adopted the name `` Libya '' ( used by the Ancient Greeks for all of North Africa , except Egypt ) as the official name of the colony ( made up of the three provinces of Cyrenaica , Tripolitania and Fezzan ) . Omar Mukhtar was the resistance leader against the Italian colonization and became a national hero despite his capture and execution on 16 September 1931 . His face is currently printed on the Libyan ten dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism . Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi ( later King Idris I ) , Emir of Cyrenaica , led the Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two world wars . Ilan Pappé estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military `` killed half the Bedouin population ( directly or through disease and starvation in camps ) . '' Italian historian Emilio Gentile estimates 50,000 deaths resulting from the suppression of resistance . In June 1940 , Italy entered World War II . Libya became the setting for the hard-fought North African Campaign that ultimately ended in defeat for Italy and its German ally in 1943 . From 1943 to 1951 , Libya was under Allied occupation . The British military administered the two former Italian Libyan provinces of Tripolitana and Cyrenaïca , while the French administered the province of Fezzan . In 1944 , Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947 . Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies , Italy relinquished all claims to Libya . Independence , Kingdom of Libya and Libya under Gaddafi ( 1951–2011 ) On 24 December 1951 , Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya , a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris , Libya 's only monarch . The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled one of the world 's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state . Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government 's finances , resentment among some factions began to build over the increased concentration of the nation 's wealth in the hands of King Idris . On 1 September 1969 , a small group of military officers led by 27-year-old army officer Muammar Gaddafi staged a coup d'état against King Idris , launching the Al Fateh Revolution . Gaddafi was referred to as the `` Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution '' in government statements and the official Libyan press . On 2 March 1977 , Libya officially became the `` Great Socialist People 's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya '' . Gaddafi officially passed power to the General People 's Committees and henceforth claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead . Dissidence against the new system was not tolerated . At around the same time the Jamahiriya was established , Gaddafi authorized the execution of twenty-two officers who had participated in a 1975 attempted military coup , in addition to the execution of several civilians . The new `` jamahiriya '' governance structure he established was officially referred to as `` direct democracy '' , though the government refused to publish election results . Libya 's system of governance during the Jamahiriya era was based on Gaddafi 's theories outlined in his The Green Book , published in 1975 . Under the Jamahiriya system , political issues for debate were raised at local level around the country , convened by any one of about 2,000 local `` people 's committees '' . The committees would then pass their votes to a central general committee formed by elected members , where votes at the local congresses would finally influence the outcomes of national decisions . In February 1977 , Libya started delivering military supplies to Goukouni Oueddei and the People 's Armed Forces in Chad . The Chadian–Libyan conflict began in earnest when Libya 's support of rebel forces in northern Chad escalated into an invasion . Later that same year , Libya and Egypt fought a four-day border war that came to be known as the Libyan-Egyptian War , both nations agreed to a ceasefire under the mediation of the Algerian president Houari Boumediène . Hundreds of Libyans lost their lives in the war against Tanzania , when Gaddafi tried to save his friend Idi Amin . Gaddafi financed various other groups from anti-nuclear movements to Australian trade unions . From 1977 onward , per capita income in the country rose to more than US $ 11,000 , the fifth-highest in Africa , while the Human Development Index became the highest in Africa and greater than that of Saudi Arabia . This was achieved without borrowing any foreign loans , keeping Libya debt-free . The Great Manmade River was also built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country . In addition , financial support was provided for university scholarships and employment programs . Much of Libya 's income from oil , which soared in the 1970s , was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring dozens of paramilitaries and terrorist groups around the world . An American airstrike failed to kill Gaddafi in 1986 . Libya was finally put under United Nations sanctions after the bombing of a commercial flight killed hundreds of travellers . A gathering of more than 200 African kings and traditional rulers , meeting on 27 August 2008 in the Libyan town of Benghazi , conferred on Colonel Gaddafi the title `` King of Kings of Africa '' . Sheikh Abdilmajid of Tanzania said traditional rulers were more influential in Africa than their respective governments . 2011 Civil War After the Arab Spring movements overturned the rulers of Tunisia and Egypt , Libya experienced a full-scale revolt beginning on 17 February 2011 . By 20 February , the unrest had spread to Tripoli . On 27 February 2011 , the National Transitional Council was established to administer the areas of Libya under rebel control . On 10 March 2011 , France became the first state to officially recognise the council as the legitimate representative of the Libyan people . Pro-Gaddafi forces were able to respond militarily to rebel pushes in Western Libya and launched a counterattack along the coast toward Benghazi , the de facto centre of the uprising . The town of Zawiya , 48 km from Tripoli , was bombarded by air force planes and army tanks and seized by Jamahiriya troops , `` exercising a level of brutality not yet seen in the conflict . '' Organizations of the United Nations , including United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and the United Nations Human Rights Council , condemned the crackdown as violating international law , with the latter body expelling Libya outright in an unprecedented action urged by Libya 's own delegation to the UN . On 17 March 2011 the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973 , with a 10–0 vote and five abstentions including Russia , China , India , Brazil and Germany . The resolution sanctioned the establishment of a no-fly zone and the use of `` all means necessary '' to protect civilians within Libya . On 19 March , the first act of NATO allies to secure the no-fly zone by destroying Libyan air defences began when French military jets entered Libyan airspace on a reconnaissance mission heralding attacks on enemy targets . In the weeks that followed , American forces were in the forefront of NATO operations against Libya . More than 8,000 American personnel in warships and aircraft were deployed in the area . At least 3,000 targets were struck in 14,202 strike sorties , 716 of them in Tripoli and 492 in Brega . The American air offensive included flights of B-2 Stealth bombers , each bomber armed with sixteen 2000-pound bombs , flying out of and returning to their base in Missouri on the continental United States . Clearly the support provided by the NATO airforces was pivotal in the ultimate success of the revolution . By 22 August 2011 , rebel fighters had entered Tripoli and occupied Green Square , which they renamed Martyrs ' Square in honour of those killed since 17 February 2011 . On 20 October 2011 the last heavy fighting of the uprising came to an end in the city of Sirte , where Gaddafi was captured and killed . The defeat of loyalist forces was celebrated on 23 October 2011 , three days after the fall of Sirte . At least 30,000 Libyans died in the civil war . Post-Gaddafi era Since the defeat of loyalist forces , Libya has been torn among numerous rival , armed militias affiliated with distinct regions , cities and tribes , while the central government has been weak and unable to effectively exert its authority over the country . Competing militias have pitted themselves against each other in a political struggle between Islamist politicians and their opponents . On 7 July 2012 , Libyans held their first parliamentary elections since the end of the former regime . On 8 August 2012 , the National Transitional Council officially handed power over to the wholly elected General National Congress , which was then tasked with the formation of an interim government and the drafting of a new Libyan Constitution to be approved in a general referendum . On 25 August 2012 , in what Reuters reported as `` the most blatant sectarian attack '' since the end of the civil war , unnamed organized assailants bulldozed a Sufi mosque with graves , in broad daylight in the center of the Libyan capital Tripoli . It was the second such razing of a Sufi site in two days . On 11 September 2012 , Islamist militants mounted a surprise attack on the American consulate in Benghazi , killing the U.S. ambassador to Libya , J. Christopher Stevens , and three others . The incident generated outrage in the United States and Libya . On 7 October 2012 , Libya 's Prime Minister-elect Mustafa A.G. Abushagur was ousted after failing a second time to win parliamentary approval for a new cabinet . On 14 October 2012 , the General National Congress elected former GNC member and human rights lawyer Ali Zeidan as prime minister-designate . Zeidan was sworn in after his cabinet was approved by the GNC . On 11 March 2014 , after having been ousted by the GNC for his inability to halt a rogue oil shipment , Prime Minister Zeiden stepped down , and was replaced by Prime Minister Abdullah al-Thani . On 25 March 2014 , in the face of mounting instability , al-Thani 's government briefly explored the possibility of the restoration of the Libyan monarchy . In June 2014 , elections were held to the Council of Deputies , a new legislative body intended to take over from the General National Congress . The elections were marred by violence and low turnout , with voting stations closed in some areas . Secularists and liberals did well in the elections , to the consternation of Islamist lawmakers in the GNC , who reconvened and declared a continuing mandate for the GNC , refusing to recognise the new Council of Deputies . Armed supporters of the General National Congress occupied Tripoli , forcing the newly elected parliament to flee to Tobruk . Libya has been riven by conflict between the rival parliaments since mid-2014 . Tribal militias and jihadist groups have taken advantage of the power vacuum . Most notably , radical Islamist fighters seized Derna in 2014 and Sirte in 2015 in the name of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant . In early 2015 , neighbouring Egypt launched airstrikes against ISIL in support of the Tobruk government . In January 2015 , meetings were held with the aim to find a peaceful agreement between the rival parties in Libya . The so-called Geneva-Ghadames talks were supposed to bring the GNC and the Tobruk government together at one table to find a solution of the internal conflict . However , the GNC actually never participated , a sign that internal division not only affected the `` Tobruk Camp '' , but also the `` Tripoli Camp '' . Meanwhile , terrorism within Libya has steadily increased , affecting also neighbouring countries . The terrorist attack against the Bardo Museum on 18 March 2015 , was reportedly carried on by two Libyan-trained militants . During 2015 an extended series of diplomatic meetings and peace negotiations were supported by the United Nations , as conducted by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General ( SRSG ) , Spanish diplomat Bernardino Leon . UN support for the SRSG-led process of dialogue carried on in addition to the usual work of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya ( UNSMIL ) . In July 2015 SRSG Leon reported to the UN Security Council on the progress of the negotiations , which at that point had just achieved a political agreement on 11 July setting out `` a comprehensive framework…includ [ ing ] guiding principles…institutions and decision-making mechanisms to guide the transition until the adoption of a permanent constitution . '' The stated purpose of that process was `` …intended to culminate in the creation of a modern

bb_1374--Libya.txt

Libya was a colony of which European country prior to World War II?

Porridge ( also spelled porage , porrige , parritch ) is a dish made by boiling ground , crushed , or chopped starchy plants – typically grain – in water or milk . It is often cooked or served with flavorings such as sugar , honey , etc . to make a sweet dish , or mixed with spices , vegetables , etc . to make a savoury dish . It is usually served hot in a bowl . The term is often used specifically for oat porridge ( called oatmeal in the U.S. and parts of Canada ) , which is eaten for breakfast with salt , sugar , milk , cream , or butter , and sometimes other flavorings . Oat porridge is also sold in ready-made or partly-cooked form as an instant breakfast . Other grains used for porridge include semolina , rice , wheat , barley , corn , and buckwheat . Many types of porridge have their own names , such as polenta , grits , and kasha . Porridge is a staple food in much of Africa , and historically was so in much of Northern Europe and Russia . Porridge is easy to digest , so it is used traditionally in many cultures as a food for the sick , and is also often eaten by athletes in training . Varieties * Oat porridge , traditional and common in England , Scotland , Ireland , English-speaking countries , Nordic countries , Germany , and North America . Oat porridge has been found in the stomachs of 5,000-year-old Neolithic bog bodies in Central Europe and Scandinavia . Varieties of oat porridge include : * * Groats , a porridge made from unprocessed oats or wheat . * * Gruel , very thin porridge , often drunk rather than eaten . * * Owsianka , an east European ( Russia , Poland , Belarus , Ukraine ) traditional breakfast made with hot milk , oats , and sometimes with sugar and butter . * * Porridge made from rolled oats or ground oatmeal is common in Scotland , England , Wales , Australia , New Zealand , North America , Finland and Scandinavia . It is known as simply `` porridge '' or , more commonly in the United States and Canada , `` oatmeal '' . Rolled oats are commonly used in England , oatmeal in Scotland , and steel-cut oats in Ireland . * * Porridge ( Parrige ) – Anglophone Caribbean ( Guyana , Jamaica , Trinidad etc . ) Also known as Pap . The most common type is corn meal , and they are always made with milk . Varieties include oatmeal , grated green plantain , barley , cream of wheat , sago ( tapioca ) . Oatmeal porridge is often flavored with cinnamon , nutmeg , brown sugar and/or almond essence . * * Stirabout – Irish porridge , traditionally made by stirring oats into boiling water * * Terci de ovăz , traditional oatmeal in Romania . * * Zabkása , traditional oatmeal in Hungary . * * In the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars , cooks made burgoo for the men for breakfast , from coarse oatmeal and water . * Kasha , a widely consumed groats/porridge range of dishes , utilising a variety of grains , widespread in Eastern Europe and Russia . * Maize porridge : * * Atole , a Mexican dish of corn flour in water or milk . * * Champurrado ( a chocolate-based atole ) , a Mexican blend of sugar , milk , chocolate and corn dough or corn flour . The Philippine dish tsampurado is similar , with rice instead of maize . * * Cir , Păsat , or ( when firmer ) Mămăligă are all Romanian maize porridges . * * Cornmeal mush , a traditional dish in southern and mid-Atlantic US states . * * Gachas , a Spanish porridge of maize or grass peas . Often garnished with roasted almonds and croutons of bread fried in olive oil . * * Gofio , a Canary Islands porridge of toasted coarse-ground maize . Made from roasted sweetcorn and other grains ( e.g. , wheat , barley or oats ) , used in many ways in parts of the world to which Canary Islanders have emigrated . * * Grits , ground hominy or ground posole , is common in the southern United States , traditionally served with butter , salt and black pepper . Sometimes , it is also served with cheese . * * Kachamak , a maize porridge from the Balkans . * * Mazamorra , a maize porridge from Colombia . * * Polenta , an Italian maize porridge which is cooked to a solidified state and sliced for serving . * * Rubaboo is made from dried maize and peas with animal fat , and was a staple food of the Voyageurs . * * Shuco , a Salvadoran dish of black , blue , or purple corn flour , ground pumpkin seeds , chili sauce , and red cooked kidney beans , which was traditionally drunk out of a hollowed-out gourd at early morning , especially coming from a hunting or drinking trip . * * Suppawn , also called , and better known as , hasty pudding , was common in American Colonial times , and consisted of cornmeal boiled with milk into a thick porridge . Still eaten in modern times , it is no longer necessarily corn-based . * * Uji , a thick East African porridge made most commonly from corn flour mixed with sorghum and many other different ground cereals , with milk or butter and sugar or salt . Ugali , a more solid meal , is also made from maize flour , likewise often mixed with other cereals . These two , under various names , are staple foods over a wide part of the African continent , e.g. , pap in South Africa , sadza in Zimbabwe , nshima in Zambia , tuwo or ogi in Nigeria , etc. , though some of these may also be made from sorghum . * * Žganci , a maize porridge prepared in the Kajkavian countries and Slovenia . * Pease porridge or peasemeal porridge , made from dried peas , is a traditional English and Scottish porridge . * Potato porridge , eaten in Norway , is a thick , almost solid paste made from cooked potatoes mixed with milk and barley . * * Helmipuuro ( `` pearl porridge '' ) is a porridge made from grains of potato starch swelled in milk into ca . five-mm `` pearls '' , traditionally found in Russia and Finland . * Tsampa is a toasted grain flour , usually barley , eaten in Tibet , often mixed with tea and butter . * Wheat porridge : * * Cream of Wheat , a brand of American wheat porridge , boiled in milk or water with sugar or salt ; also called farina . * * Dalia , a simple porridge made out of cracked wheat , is a common breakfast in northern India and Pakistan . It is cooked in milk or water and eaten with salt or sugar added . * * Frumenty , a boiled wheat porridge eaten in Roman times , sometimes with fruit or meat added . * * Gris cu lapte ( Romania ) , dessert made with semolina boiled in milk with sugar added , sometimes flavored with jam , raisins , dried fruit , cinnamon powder , etc . * * Tejbegríz ( Hungary ) , semolina dessert cooked with milk , usually with sugar and topped with cocoa or cinnamon powder , etc . * * Mannapuuro , a traditional Finnish dessert made with semolina . * * Semolina porridge , eaten in Czech Republic and Slovakia , is made of milk , semolina and sugar . * * Sour cream porridge , a Norwegian porridge of wheat flour in cooked sour cream with a very smooth and slightly runny texture . It is served with sugar , cinnamon , cured meats , or even hard-boiled eggs depending on local custom . * * Upma , a fried semolina porridge traditional in southern India , flavored with clarified butter , fried onions , toasted mustard seeds , and curry leaves , and often mixed with vegetables and other foods , such as potatoes , fried dried red chilis , fried cauliflower , and toasted peanuts or cashew nuts . * * Velvet porridge or butter porridge , a Norwegian dish : a generous amount of white roux is made from wheat flour and butter , adding milk until it can be served as a thick porridge . * * Wheatena , a brand name for a whole-wheat porridge . * * Ýarma , a Turkmen wheat groat porridge . * * Harees , a Middle Eastern dish of boiled , cracked , or coarsely-ground wheat and meat or chicken . Its consistency varies between a porridge and a dumpling . Harees is a popular dish in the Persian Gulf countries , Armenia and Pakistan . * Rice porridge : * * Congee , a common East Asian , Southeast Asian and South Asian dish of boiled-down rice : * * * In Sri Lanka congee is prepared with many ingredients . As a porridge , Sinhala people mainly use coconut milk with rice flour , it is known as `` Kiriya . '' * * * Chinese congee , called zhou in Mandarin , and juk in Cantonese , can be served with a century egg , salted duck egg , pork , cilantro , fried wonton noodles , or you tiao , deep-fried dough strips . * * * Indonesian and Malaysian congee , called bubur , comes in many regional varieties , such as bubur sumsum , made from rice flour boiled with coconut milk then served with palm sugar sauce ; and also bubur manado or tinutuan , a rice porridge mixed with various vegetables and eaten with fried salted fish and chili sauce . * * * Japanese congee , called kayu , is mixed with salt and green onions . Often accompanied with variety of foods such as tsukemono ( preserved vegetables ) , shiokara ( preserved seafoods ) , and so on . * * * Korean congee , called juk , can have added seafood , pine nuts , mushrooms , etc . * * * Thai congee , called `` khao tom '' ( ข้าวต้ม ) , or `` Jok '' ( โจ๊ก ) , can have added coriander , preserved duck eggs , fish sauce , sliced chili peppers , pickled mustard greens or salt cabbage preserves , red pepper flakes , etc . * * * Vietnamese congee , called cháo , can be made with beef or chicken stock and contains fish sauce and ginger . It is often served with scallions , coleslaw , and fried sticks of bread . * * * Philippine congee , called lugaw or arroz caldo , contains saffron , ginger , and sometimes meat . Less common ingredients include boiled eggs , pepper , chilies , puto , lumpiang toge , tofu , fish sauce , calamansi sauce , toyo , and spring onions . It is common as a street food . * * Cream of Rice , a brand of American rice porridge , boiled in milk or water with sugar or salt . * * Kheer ( or Ksheer ) , a traditional Indian sweet dish , made of rice boiled in milk . * * Tsampurado , a sweet chocolate rice porridge in Philippine cuisine . It is traditionally made by boiling sticky rice with cocoa powder , giving it a distinctly brown color and usually with milk and sugar to make it taste sweeter . * * Frescarelli , an Italian dish made of overcooked rice and white flour , typical of Marche . * * Orez în lapte ( Romania ) , a dessert made with rice boiled in milk with sugar , sometimes flavored with cinnamon , jam , cocoa powder , etc . * * Tejberizs ( Hungary ) , made with milk * Buckwheat porridge ( kasha ) , made of buckwheat in butter , is eaten by many people in Russia and Ukraine , with yoghurt more common in the Caucasus . * * Terci de hrişcă , buckwheat porridge from Romania . * Quinoa porridge . * Millet porridge : * * Foxtail millet porridge is a staple food in northern China . * * A porridge made from pearl millet is the staple food in Niger and surrounding regions of the Sahel . * * Oshifima or otjifima , a stiff pearl millet porridge , is the staple food of northern Namibia . * * Middle Eastern millet porridge , often seasoned with cumin and honey . * * Munchiro sayo , a millet porridge eaten by the Ainu , a native people of northern Japan . * * Milium in aqua was a millet porridge made with goat 's milk that was eaten in ancient Rome . * * Koozh is a millet porridge commonly sold in Tamil Nadu . * Sorghum porridge : * * Mabela , a sorghum porridge eaten typically for breakfast in South Africa and Zimbabwe . Maltabella is a brand name for a sorghum porridge manufactured by Bokomo Foods * * Tolegi , a sorghum porridge eaten as a midday meal during the summer in New Guinea . * * Tuwo or ogi , a Nigerian sorghum porridge that may also be made from maize . * Rye porridge : * * Rugmelsgrød , a traditional dinner of the Danish island Bornholm , made of ryemeal and water . * * Ruispuuro , a traditional Finnish breakfast . * Flax porridge , often served as part of a mixture with wheat and rye meal . Red River Cereal and Sunny Boy Cereal are common brands in Canada . * Mixed grain and legumes in Ethiopia : * * Genfo is a thick porridge made by lightly roasting , milling and cooking any combination of Ethiopian oats wheat , barley , sorghum , millet , maize , chickpeas , yellow peas , soybeans or bulla , the starch from the root of the false banana tree ; it is traditionally eaten for breakfast with a dollop of clarified , spiced butter ( kibe ) or oil and chili-spice mix berbere , or with yoghurt . For those who can afford it , it is a popular holiday or Sunday breakfast dish and is often given to pregnant women and women after birthing to bring them back to health and strength . * * Atmit , Muk or Adja is a thinner version of Genfo porridge for drinking , mixed often with spiced , clarified butter , milk and honey , or on its own with a pinch of salt . It is popular in the rainy season and for nursing the sick back to health . * * Besso , made of roasted and ground barley is a popular snack for travellers and , in olden times , foot soldiers . The powder is either mixed with a bit of water , salt and chili powder to make a thick bread like snack , or mixed with more water or milk and honey for drinking . The Gurage and other southern tribes in Ethiopia ferment the Besso for a few days with water and a bit of sugar , add a pinch of salt and chili and drink it as a fortifying and energising meal-in-a-drink . * Spelt porridge . * Multigrain Porridge * * This consists of roasted rice , wheat , roasted gram , jowar , maize , millet , groundnut , cashewnut , corn , barley , and ragi , and is prepared by roasting all the ingredients individually in a pan without using any ghee or oil , then grinding them together into a coarse powder . * * This porridge is described as being rich in protein and good for children . Oat porridge Types of oats Oats for porridge may be whole ( groats ) , cut into two or three pieces ( called 'pinhead ' , 'steel-cut ' or 'coarse ' oatmeal ) , ground into medium or fine oatmeal , or steamed and rolled into flakes of varying sizes and thicknesses ( called 'rolled oats ' , the largest size being 'jumbo ' ) . The larger the pieces of oat used , the more textured the resulting porridge . It is said that , because of their size and shape , the body breaks steel-cut oats down more slowly than rolled oats , reducing spikes in blood sugar and keeping you full longer . The US Consumer Reports Web site found that the more cooking required , the stronger the oat flavor and the less mushy the texture . Oats are a good source of dietary fibre ; health benefits are claimed for oat bran in particular , which is part of the grain . Preparation The oats are cooked in milk , water or a mixture of the two . Scottish traditionalists allow only oats , water and salt . [ http : //www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2011/nov/10/how-to-cook-perfect-porridge How to cook perfect porridge ] , Felicity Cloake , The Guardian , 10 November 2011 . An article by an expert who has systematically tried many variants to get the best result . Traditionally , it is left overnight on a banked-up ( barely alight ) cooking range or in smouldering fire ashes , possibly due to religious ( sabbatarian ) restrictions spreading to daily usage . Other religious factors in preparation have included the admonition to stir only clockwise , as `` anti-clockwise stirring will encourage the devil into your breakfast '' . There are techniques suggested by cooks , such as pre-soaking , but a comparative test documented in an article in The Guardian found very little difference in the end result . Various flavorings can be used , and can vary widely by taste and locality . Demerara sugar , golden syrup , Greek yoghurt and honey , even langoustine tails and scallops have been employed for this purpose . A girdle of very cold milk or single cream is believed to be essential ( by some 'experts ' ) , traditionally served in a separate bowl to keep it cold . Glaswegians typically use canned evaporated milk , jam . Use of whisky , rum , or sherry have been reported . Cooking time can be adjusted to preference , but simmering for ten minutes is typical for non-instant oatmeal . Instant oatmeal , including flavored instant oatmeal , is common and can be prepared with the application of hot water . History Northern Europe Historically , porridge was a staple food in much of Northern Europe and Russia . It was often made from barley , though other grains and yellow peas could be used , depending on local conditions . It was primarily a savoury dish , with meats , root crops , vegetables and herbs added for flavor . Porridge could be cooked in a large metal kettle over hot coals or heated in a cheaper earthenware container by adding hot stones until boiling hot . Until leavened bread and baking ovens became commonplace in Europe , porridge was a typical means of preparing cereal crops for the table . Porridge was also commonly used as prison food for inmates in the British prison system , and so `` doing porridge '' became a slang term for a sentence in prison .

qw_15104--Porridge.txt

In Scotland, porridge is traditionally made with what?

The Republican Party , commonly referred to as the GOP ( abbreviation for Grand Old Party ) , is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States , the other being its historic rival , the Democratic Party . There have been 18 Republican presidents , the first being Abraham Lincoln , who served from 1861 to 1865 , when he was assassinated , and the most recent being George W. Bush , who served from 2001 to 2009 . The most recent Republican presidential nominee was former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney , who lost in 2012 to incumbent Democrat Barack Obama . Businessman and reality television personality Donald Trump is the current Republican nominee for the 2016 election . The party is named after republicanism , the dominant value during the American Revolution . Founded by anti-slavery activists , modernists , ex-Whigs , and ex-Free Soilers in 1854 , the Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932 . Its current ideology is American conservatism . That contrasts with the Democrats ' modern liberalism . The Republican Party 's platform involves support for free market capitalism , free enterprise , business , a strong national defense , deregulation , restrictions on labor unions , social-conservative policies ( particularly opposition to abortion and same-sex marriage ) , and traditional values , usually with a Judeo-Christian ethical foundation . Once dominant in the North-East and the Midwest , the party 's core support now comes from the South and the Mountain West , as well as conservative Catholics and evangelicals across the country . In the 114th United States Congress , Republicans have their largest majority in the House of Representatives since the 1928 election and a majority of seats in the Senate . The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures . Specifically , 68 out of 98 partisan state legislative chambers have Republican majorities . History Founding and 19th century Founded in the Northern states in 1854 by anti-slavery activists , modernizers , ex-Whigs , and ex-Free Soilers , the Republican Party quickly became the principal opposition to the dominant Democratic Party and the briefly popular Know Nothing Party . The main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act , which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas . The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil . The first public meeting of the general `` anti-Nebraska '' movement where the name `` Republican '' was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20 , 1854 in a schoolhouse in Ripon , Wisconsin . The name was partly chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jefferson 's Republican Party . The first official party convention was held on July 6 , 1854 , in Jackson , Michigan . By 1858 , the Republicans dominated nearly all Northern states . The Republican Party first came to power in 1860 with the election of Lincoln to the Presidency and Republicans in control of Congress and again , the Northern states . It oversaw the preserving of the union , the end of slavery , and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction , 1861–1877.Gould The Republicans ' initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest . With the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System , the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states . Early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan `` free labor , free land , free men '' , which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase , a Senator from Ohio ( and future Secretary of the Treasury and Chief Justice of the United States ) . `` Free labor '' referred to the Republican opposition to slave labor and belief in independent artisans and businessmen . `` Free land '' referred to Republican opposition to plantation system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land , leaving the yeoman independent farmers the leftovers . The Party strived to contain the expansion of slavery , which would cause the collapse of the slave power and the expansion of freedom . Lincoln , representing the fast-growing western states , won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency . The party took on the mission of preserving the Union and destroying slavery during the American Civil War and over Reconstruction . In the election of 1864 , it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket . The party 's success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s . Those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency . The Stalwarts defended Grant and the spoils system ; the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883 . The Republican Party supported business generally , hard money ( i.e. , the gold standard ) , high tariffs to promote economic growth , high wages and high profits , generous pensions for Union veterans , and ( after 1893 ) the annexation of Hawaii . The Republicans supported the pietistic Protestants who demanded Prohibition . As the northern post-bellum economy boomed with heavy and light industry , railroads , mines , fast-growing cities and prosperous agriculture , the Republicans took credit and promoted policies to sustain the fast growth . Nevertheless , by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers . The high McKinley Tariff of 1890 hurt the party and the Democrats swept to a landslide in the off-year elections , even defeating McKinley himself . After the two terms of Democrat Grover Cleveland , the election of William McKinley in 1896 is widely seen as a resurgence of Republican dominance and is sometimes cited as a realigning election . McKinley promised that high tariffs would end the severe hardship caused by the Panic of 1893 , and that Republicans would guarantee a sort of pluralism in which all groups would benefit . 20th century The 1896 realignment cemented the Republicans as the party of big business , while Theodore Roosevelt added more small business support by his embrace of trust busting . He handpicked his successor William Howard Taft in 1908 , but they became enemies on economic issues . Defeated by Taft for the 1912 nomination , Roosevelt bolted the party and led the third party ticket of the Progressive Party . The Republicans returned to the White House throughout the 1920s , running on platforms of normalcy , business-oriented efficiency , and high tariffs . The national party avoided the prohibition issue after it became law in 1920 . Warren G. Harding , Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover were resoundingly elected in 1920 , 1924 , and 1928 respectively . The Teapot Dome scandal threatened to hurt the party but Harding died and Coolidge blamed everything on him , as the opposition splintered in 1924 . The pro-business policies of the decade seemed to produce an unprecedented prosperity until the Wall Street Crash of 1929 heralded the Great Depression . New Deal Era The New Deal coalition of Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt controlled American politics for most of the next three decades , excepting the two-term presidency of Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower . Blacks moved into the Democratic Party during the New Deal era ; they could vote in the North but not in the South . After Roosevelt took office in 1933 , New Deal legislation sailed through Congress and the economy moved sharply upward from its nadir in early 1933 . However , long-term unemployment remained a drag until 1940 . In the 1934 midterm elections , 10 Republican senators went down to defeat , leaving them with only 25 against 71 Democrats . The House of Representatives likewise had overwhelming Democratic majorities . The Republican Party split into a majority `` Old Right '' ( based in the Midwest ) and a liberal wing based in the Northeast that supported much of the New Deal . The Old Right sharply attacked the `` Second New Deal '' and said it represented class warfare and socialism . Roosevelt was reelected in a landslide in 1936 but everything went awry in his second term , as the economy plunged , strikes soared , and FDR failed to take control of the Supreme Court or to purge the Southern conservatives in the Democratic party . Republicans made a major comeback in the 1938 elections , and had new rising stars such as Robert A. Taft of Ohio on the right and Thomas E. Dewey of New York on the left . Southern conservatives joined with most Republicans to form the conservative coalition , which dominated domestic issues in Congress until 1964 . Both parties split on foreign policy issues , with the anti-war isolationists dominant in the Republican Party and the interventionists who wanted to stop Hitler dominant in the Democratic party . Roosevelt won a third and fourth term in 1940 and 1944 . Conservatives abolished most of the New Deal during the war , but did not attempt to reverse Social Security or the agencies that regulated business . Historian George H. Nash argues : Unlike the `` moderate '' , internationalist , largely eastern bloc of Republicans who accepted ( or at least acquiesced in ) some of the `` Roosevelt Revolution '' and the essential premises of President Truman 's foreign policy , the Republican Right at heart was counterrevolutionary , anticollectivist , anti-Communist , anti-New Deal , passionately committed to limited government , free market economics , and congressional ( as opposed to executive ) prerogatives , the G.O.P . conservatives were obliged from the start to wage a constant two-front war : against liberal Democrats from without and `` me-too '' Republicans from within . The Democrats elected majorities to Congress almost continuously after 1932 ( the GOP won only in 1946 and 1952 ) , but the Conservative Coalition blocked practically all major liberal proposals in domestic policy . After 1945 , the internationalist wing of the GOP cooperated with Harry Truman 's Cold War foreign policy , funded the Marshall Plan , and supported NATO , despite the continued isolationism of the Old Right . The second half of the 20th century saw election or succession of Republican presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower , Richard Nixon , Gerald Ford , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush . Eisenhower had defeated conservative leader Senator Robert A. Taft for the 1952 nomination , but conservatives dominated the domestic policies of the Eisenhower Administration . Voters liked Ike much more than they liked the GOP , and he proved unable to shift the party to a more moderate position . After 1970 , the liberal wing began to fade away . Ever since he left office in 1989 , Reagan has been the iconic conservative Republican ; and Republican presidential candidates frequently claim to share his views and aim to establish themselves and their policies as the more appropriate heir to his legacy . In 1994 , the Party , led by House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich campaigning on the Contract with America , was elected to majorities to both houses of Congress in the Republican Revolution . However , Gingrich was unable to deliver on most of its promises , and after the impeachment and acquittal of President Bill Clinton in 1998 and 1999 , and subsequent Republican losses in the House , he resigned . Since Reagan 's day , presidential elections have been close . However , the Republican presidential candidate won a majority of the popular vote only in 2004 , while coming in second in 1992 , 1996 , 2000 , 2008 and 2012 . 21st century The Senate majority lasted until 2001 , when the Senate became split evenly but was regained in the 2002 elections . Both Republican majorities in the House and Senate were held until the Democrats regained control in the mid-term elections of 2006 . The Republican Party has since been defined by social conservatism , a preemptive war foreign policy intended to defeat terrorism and promote global democracy , a more powerful executive branch , supply side economics , support for gun ownership , and deregulation . In the Presidential election of 2008 , the party 's nominees were Senator John McCain , of Arizona , for President and Alaska Governor Sarah Palin for Vice President . They were defeated by Senator Barack Obama of Illinois and Senator Joe Biden of Delaware . In 2009 , Republicans Chris Christie and Bob McDonnell were elected to the governorships of New Jersey and Virginia . 2010 was a year of electoral success for the Republicans , starting with the upset win of Scott Brown in the Massachusetts special Senate election for the seat held for many decades by the Democratic Kennedy brothers . In the November elections , Republicans recaptured control of the House , increased their number of seats in the Senate , and gained a majority of governorships . Additionally , Republicans took control of at least 19 Democratic-controlled state legislatures . In the Presidential election of 2012 , the Republican nominees were former Governor Mitt Romney of Massachusetts for President , and Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin for Vice President . The Democrats nominated incumbents Barack Obama and Joe Biden . The campaign focused largely on the Affordable Care Act and President Obama 's stewardship of the economy , with the country facing high unemployment numbers and a rising national debt four years after his first election . Romney and Ryan were defeated by Obama and Biden . In addition , in the November congressional elections , while Republicans lost 7 seats in the House , they retained control . However , Republicans were not able to gain control of the Senate , continuing their minority status with a net loss of 2 seats . After the 2014 midterm elections the Republican Party took control of the Senate by gaining nine seats . With a final total of 247 seats ( 56.78 % ) in the House and 54 seats in the Senate , the Republicans ultimately achieved their largest majority in the U.S. Congress since the 71st Congress in 1929 . Congressional Electoral history , 1950–present Republican Party in Presidential Elections Name and symbols The party 's founding members chose the name `` Republican Party '' in the mid-1850s as homage to the values of republicanism promoted by Thomas Jefferson 's Republican party . The idea for the name came from an editorial by the party 's leading publicist Horace Greeley , who called for , `` some simple name like 'Republican ' [ that ] would more fitly designate those who had united to restore the Union to its true mission of champion and promulgator of Liberty rather than propagandist of slavery '' . The name reflects the 1776 republican values of civic virtue and opposition to aristocracy and corruption.Gould , pp . 14–15 It is important to note that `` republican '' has a variety of meanings around the world , and the U.S. Republican Party has evolved such that the meanings no longer always align . The term `` Grand Old Party '' is a traditional nickname for the Republican Party , and the abbreviation `` GOP '' is a commonly used designation . The term originated in 1875 in the Congressional Record , referring to the party associated with the successful military defense of the Union as `` this gallant old party '' ; the following year in an article in the Cincinnati Commercial , the term was modified to `` grand old party '' . The first use of the abbreviation is dated 1884 . The traditional mascot of the party is the elephant . A political cartoon by Thomas Nast , published in Harper 's Weekly on November 7 , 1874 , is considered the first important use of the symbol . [ http : //www.harpweek.com/09Cartoon/BrowseByDateCartoon.asp ? Year 2003 & MonthNovember & Date 7 Cartoon of the Day : `` The Third-Term Panic '' ] . Retrieved on 2007-02-21 . In the early 20th century , the usual symbol of the Republican Party in Midwestern states such as Indiana and Ohio was the bald eagle , as opposed to the Democratic rooster . Traditionally the party had no consistent color identity . After the 2000 election , the color red became associated with Republicans . That election night , for the first time , all of the major broadcast networks used the same color scheme for the electoral map : states won by Republican nominee George W. Bush were colored red , and states won by Democratic nominee Al Gore were colored blue . Although the assignment of colors to political parties is unofficial and informal , the media has come to represent the respective political parties using these colors . The party and its candidates have also come to embrace the color red . Positions Economic policies Republicans strongly believe that free markets and individual achievement are the primary factors behind economic prosperity . To this end , they advocate in favor of fiscal conservatism , and the elimination of government run welfare programs in favor of private sector nonprofits and encouraging personal responsibility . Modern Republicans advocate the theory of supply side economics , which holds that lower tax rates increase economic growth . Many Republicans oppose higher tax rates for higher earners , which they believe are unfairly targeted at those who create jobs and wealth . They believe private spending is more efficient than government spending . Republicans believe individuals should take responsibility for their own circumstances . They believe the private sector is more effective in helping the poor than government is and that social assistance programs often cause government dependency . Some agree there should be some `` safety net '' to assist the less fortunate , while limiting it to encourage employment and monitoring it to reduce abuse . The party promotes free trade agreements , most notably North American Free Trade Agreement , although some have a protectionist view of trade . Republicans believe corporations should be able to establish their own employment practices , including benefits and wages , with the free market deciding the value of work . Since the 1920s Republicans have generally been opposed by labor union organizations and members . At the national level Republicans supported the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 , which gives workers the right not to participate in unions . Modern Republicans at the state level generally support various `` right to work '' laws that weaken unions . Most Republicans are opposed to increases in the minimum wage , believing that such increases hurt many businesses by forcing them to cut and outsource jobs and pass costs along to consumers . The party opposes a government-run single-payer health care system , claiming such a system constitutes socialized medicine . While opposed to the Affordable Care Act and its requirement to buy insurance , many Republicans support some of its provisions , such as laws promoting coverage of pre-existing medical conditions . The Republican Party has a mixed record of supporting the historically popular Social Security , Medicare and Medicaid programs . Separation of powers and balance of powers Many contemporary Republicans voice support of strict constructionism , the judicial philosophy that the Constitution should be interpreted as close to the original intent as is practicable . Most Republicans point to Roe v. Wade , which legalized abortion nationwide , as a case of judicial activism . Republicans favor judicial restraint and have actively sought to block judges whom they see as being activist judges . Republicans believe in federalism , with limitations on federal authorities and a larger role for states . As such , they often take a less expansive reading of congressional power under the Commerce Clause . Environmental policies Historically , progressive leaders in the Republican party supported environmental protection . Republican President Theodore Roosevelt was a prominent conservationist whose policies eventually led to the creation of the National Park Service . Republican President Richard Nixon was responsible for establishing the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 . However , this position has changed since the 1980s and the administration of President Ronald Reagan , who labeled environmental regulations a burden on the economy . Since then Republicans have increasingly taken positions against environmental regulation . Since the 1990s , a significant part of the US conservative movement has worked to challenge climate science and climate policy . Republicans are divided over acknowledging the human causes of climate change and global warming . While the scientific consensus for human activity created climate-warming is around 97 % , according to a Pew Research survey , 44 % of American adults in the general public acknowledged human activity as the cause of climate change , and 23 % of Republicans . Republican views on global warming and scientific consensus on climate change show a similar trend , and few Republican lawmakers support climate policy that builds on international consensus . In 2006 then California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger broke from Republican orthodoxy to sign several bills imposing caps on carbon emissions in California . George W. Bush , then U.S. President , opposed mandatory caps at a national level . Bush 's decision not to regulate carbon dioxide as a pollutant was challenged in the supreme court by 12 states , with the court ruling against the Bush administration in 2007 . Bush also publicly opposed ratification of the Kyoto Protocols which sought to limit greenhouse gas emissions and thereby combat climate change , a decision heavily criticized by climate scientists . Senator John McCain has also previously proposed laws regulating carbon emissions , such as the McCain-Lieberman Climate Stewardship Act , although his position on climate change is unusual among high-ranking party members . Some Republican candidates have supported development of alternative fuels in order to achieve energy independence for the US . The Republican party rejects cap-and-trade policy to limit carbon emissions . Some Republicans support increased oil drilling in protected areas such as the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge , a position that has drawn criticism from activists . Many Republicans during the Presidency of Barack Obama have opposed the president 's new environmental regulations , such as those on carbon emissions from coal . In particular , many Republicans support building the Keystone Pipeline , which is supported by businesses but opposed by indigenous peoples ' groups and environmental activists . Immigration Republicans are divided on how to confront illegal immigration between a platform that allows for migrant workers and a path to citizenship ( supported by establishment types ) , versus a position focused on securing the border and deporting illegal immigrants ( supported by populists ) . In 2006 , the White House supported and Republican-led Senate passed comprehensive immigration reform that would eventually allow millions of illegal immigrants to become citizens , but the House , also led by Republicans , did not advance the bill . After the defeat in the 2012 presidential election , particularly among Latinos , several Republicans advocated a friendlier approach to immigrants . However , in 2016 the field of candidates took a sharp position against illegal immigration , with leading candidate Donald Trump proposing building a wall with Mexico and having Mexico pay for it . Proposals calling for immigration reform with a path to citizenship have attracted broad Republican support in some polls . In a 2013 poll 60 % of Republicans supported the pathway concept . Foreign policy and national defense Some in the Republican Party support unilateralism on issues of national security , believing in the ability and right of the United States to act without external support in matters of its national defense . In general , Republican thinking on defense and international relations is heavily influenced by the theories of neorealism and realism , characterizing conflicts between nations as struggles between faceless forces of international structure , as opposed to being the result of the ideas and actions of individual leaders . The realist school 's influence shows in Reagan 's Evil Empire stance on the Soviet Union and George W. Bush 's Axis of evil stance . Since the September 11 , 2001 attacks , many in the party have supported neoconservative policies with regard to the War on Terror , including the 2001 war in Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq . The George W. Bush administration took the position that the Geneva Conventions do not apply to unlawful combatants , while other prominent Republicans strongly oppose the use of enhanced interrogation techniques , which they view as torture . Republicans have frequently advocated for restricting foreign aid as a means of asserting the national security and immigration interests of the United States . The Republican Party generally supports a strong alliance with Israel and efforts to secure peace in the Middle East between Israel and its Arab neighbors . According to the 2016 platform , the republican principle on the status of Taiwan is that `` all issues regarding the island 's future must be resolved peacefully , through dialogue , and be agreeable to the people of Taiwan . '' In addition , if `` China were to violate those principles , the United States , in accord with the Taiwan Relations Act , will help Taiwan defend itself . '' In a 2014 poll 59 % of Republicans favored doing less abroad and focusing on the country 's own problems instead . Social policies The Republican Party is generally associated with social conservative policies , although it does have dissenting centrist and libertarian factions . The social conservatives want laws that uphold their traditional values , such as opposition to same-sex marriage , abortion , and marijuana . Most conservative Republicans also oppose gun control , affirmative action , and illegal immigration . Abortion and embryonic stem cell research A majority of the party 's national and state candidates are pro-life and oppose elective abortion on religious or moral grounds . While many advocate exceptions in the case of incest , rape or the mother 's life being at risk , in 2012 , the party approved a platform advocating banning abortions without exception . [ http : //finance.yahoo.com/news/gop-oks-platform-barring-abortions-gay-marriage-204947742.html GOP OKs platform barring abortions , gay marriage ] retrieved 31 October 2012 They oppose government funding for abortions . Although Republicans have voted for increases in government funding of scientific research , some members actively oppose the federal funding of embryonic stem cell research beyond the original lines because it involves the destruction of human embryos . Civil rights Republicans are generally against affirmative action for women and some minorities , often describing it as a 'quota system ' , and believing that it is not meritocratic and that it is counter-productive socially by only further promoting discrimination . Many Republicans support race-neutral admissions policies in universities , but support taking into account the socioeconomic status of the student . Gun ownership Republicans generally support gun ownership rights and oppose laws regulating guns . Drugs Republicans have historically supported the War on Drugs , and oppose the legalization of drugs . More recently , several prominent Republicans have advocated for the reduction and reform of mandatory sentencing laws with regards to drugs . Education Most Republicans support school choice through charter schools and school vouchers for private schools ; many have denounced the performance of the public school system and the teachers ' unions . The party has insisted on a system of greater accountability for public schools , most prominently in recent years with the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 . Many Republicans , however , opposed the creation of the United States Department of Education when it was initially created in 1979 . LGBT rights Owing largely to the prominence of the religious right in conservative politics in the United States , the Republican Party has taken positions regarded by many as outwardly hostile to the gay rights movement . Republicans have historically strongly opposed same-sex marriage ( the party 's overall attitude on civil unions is much more divided , with some in favor and others opposed ) , with the

wh_4269--Republican_Party_(United_States).txt

Who was the first Republican President of the United States ?

TL ; DR , short for `` too long ; did n't read '' , is an expression used in Internet culture to say that some text being replied to has been ignored or as a signifier for a summary of an online post or news article . It originates in Internet slang , where it is often used in quoted responses to indicate parts of the text skipped as too lengthy . The abbreviation is based on the principle that , if the writer does not invest the time to convey their message concisely , the reader is justified not investing the time to read it . Alternately , it might mean that there is insufficient material of value or interest to justify the time required to read it . The phrase dates back to at least 2003 , and was added to the Oxford Dictionaries Online in 2013 . TL ; DR : TL ; DR is internet slang for `` too long , did n't read '' Eponyms On reddit , tldr is the subreddit serving as the site 's daily recap . Long posts on reddit are also frequently followed or preceded by a summary , consisting of a sentence or brief paragraph , that is prefixed by the phrase `` TL ; DR '' , and the abbreviation is sometimes used as a noun denoting such a summary , as in `` Please include a TL ; DR along with your post '' . The phrase inspired the name of Terms of Service ; Did n't Read , a website that aims to analyze and grade the terms of service and privacy policies of major service providers .

qg_1704--TL;DR.txt

In internet/texting parlance, what does tl;dr mean?

Food coloring , or color additive , is any dye , pigment or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or drink . They come in many forms consisting of liquids , powders , gels , and pastes . Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking . Due to its safety and general availability , food coloring is also used in a variety of non-food applications including cosmetics , pharmaceuticals , home craft projects , and medical devices . Purpose of food coloring People associate certain colors with certain flavors , and the color of food can influence the perceived flavor in anything from candy to wine . Sometimes the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural , such as adding red coloring to glacé cherries ( which would otherwise be beige ) , but sometimes it is for effect , like the green ketchup that Heinz launched in 1999 . Color additives are used in foods for many reasons including : * Offset color loss due to exposure to light , air , temperature extremes , moisture and storage conditions * Correct natural variations in color * Enhance colors that occur naturally * Provide color to colorless and `` fun '' foods * Make food more attractive and appetizing , and informative * Allow consumers to identify products on sight , like candy flavors or medicine dosages File : Indigo carmine.svg | Indigo carmine , which is blue . File : Allura Red AC Structural Formula V1.png | Allura Red AC , which is red . File : Quinoline Yellow WS.svg | Quinoline Yellow WS , which is yellow . File : Betanin.png | Betanin , a beet-derived dye . File : Anthocyanidine.svg | Anthocyanin , a blue dye . File : Beta-Carotin.svg| beta-carotene a yellow to orange colorant . Regulation Past use and regulation history The addition of colorants to foods is thought to have occurred in Egyptian cities as early as 1500 BC , when candy makers added natural extracts and wine to improve the products ' appearance . During the Middle Ages , the economy in the European countries was based on agriculture , and the peasants were accustomed to producing their own food locally or trading within the village communities . Under feudalism , aesthetic aspects were not considered , at least not by the vast majority of the generally very poor population . This situation changed with urbanization at the beginning of the Modern Age , when trade emerged—especially the import of precious spices and colors . One of the very first food laws , created in Augsburg , Germany , in 1531 , concerned spices or colorants and required saffron counterfeiters to be burned . With the onset of the industrial revolution , people became dependent on foods produced by others . These new urban dwellers demanded food at low cost . Analytical chemistry was still primitive and regulations few . The adulteration of foods flourished . Heavy metal and other inorganic element-containing compounds turned out to be cheap and suitable to `` restore '' the color of watered-down milk and other foodstuffs , some more lurid examples being : * Red lead ( Pb3O4 ) and vermillion ( HgS ) were routinely used to color cheese and confectionery . * Copper arsenite ( CuHAsO3 ) was used to recolor used tea leaves for resale . It also caused two deaths when used to color a dessert in 1860 . Sellers at the time offered more than 80 artificial coloring agents , some invented for dyeing textiles , not foods . Many color additives had never been tested for toxicity or other adverse effects . Historical records show that injuries , even deaths , resulted from tainted colorants . In 1851 , about 200 people were poisoned in England , 17 of them fatally , directly as a result of eating adulterated lozenges . In 1856 , mauveine , the first synthetic color , was developed by Sir William Henry Perkin and by the turn of the century , unmonitored color additives had spread through Europe and the United States in all sorts of popular foods , including ketchup , mustard , jellies , and wine . Concerns over food safety led to numerous regulations throughout the world , . German food regulations released in 1882 stipulated the exclusion of dangerous minerals such as arsenic , copper , chromium , lead , mercury and zinc , which were frequently used as ingredients in colorants . In contrast to today , these first laws followed the principle of a negative listing ( substances not allowed for use ) ; they were already driven by the main principles of today 's food regulations all over the world , since all of these regulations follow the same goal : the protection of consumers from toxic substances and from fraud . In the United States , the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 reduced the permitted list of synthetic colors from 700 down to seven . Even with updated food laws , adulteration continued for many years and this , together with more recent adverse press comments on food colors and health , has continued to contribute to consumer concern about color addition to foodstuffs . In the 20th century , the improvement of chemical analysis and the development of trials to identify the toxic features of substances added to foods led to the replacement of the negative lists by lists of substances allowed to be used for the production and the improvement of foods . This principle is called a positive listing , and almost all recent legislations are based on it . Positive listing implies that substances meant for human consumption have been tested for their safety , and that they have to meet specified purity criteria prior to their approval by the corresponding authorities . In 1962 , the first EU directive ( [ http : //eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do ? uri DD : I:1959-1962:31962L2645 : EN : PDF 62/2645/EEC ] ) approved 36 colorants , of which 20 were naturally derived and 16 were synthetic . This directive did not list which food products the colorants could or could not be used in . At that time , each member state could designate where certain colors could and could not be used . In Germany , for example , quinoline yellow was allowed in puddings and desserts , but tartrazine was not . The reverse was true in France . This was updated in 1989 with [ http : //eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do ? uri OJ : L:1989:040:0027:0033 : EN : PDF 89/107/EEC ] , which concerned food additives authorized for use in foodstuffs . Current regulation While naturally derived colors are not required to be certified by a number of regulatory bodies throughout the world ( including the U.S. FDA ) , they still need to be approved for use in that country . The FDA lists `` color additives exempt from certification '' for food in subpart A of the [ http : //www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_01/21cfr73_01.html Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 Part 73 ] . However , this list contains substances which may have synthetic origins , such as nature identical beta-carotene . FDA 's permitted colors are classified as subject to certification or exempt from certification , both of which are subject to rigorous safety standards prior to their approval and listing for use in foods . * Certified colors are synthetically produced and are used widely because they impart an intense , uniform color , are less expensive , and blend more easily to create a variety of hues . There are nine certified color additives approved for use in the United States . Certified food colors generally do not add undesirable flavors to foods . * Colors that are exempt from certification include pigments derived from natural sources such as vegetables , minerals or animals . Nature derived color additives are typically more expensive than certified colors and may add unintended flavors to foods . Examples of exempt colors include annatto , beet extract , caramel , beta-carotene , turmeric and grape skin extract . Food colorings are tested for safety by various bodies around the world and sometimes different bodies have different views on food color safety . In the United States , FD & C numbers ( which indicate that the FDA has approved the colorant for use in foods , drugs and cosmetics ) are given to approved synthetic food dyes that do not exist in nature , while in the European Union , E numbers are used for all additives , both synthetic and natural , that are approved in food applications . The food colors are known by E numbers that begin with a 1 , such as E100 ( turmeric ) or E161b ( lutein ) . The safety of food colors and other food additives in the EU is evaluated by the European Food Safety Authority . [ http : //ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sfp/addit_flavor/flav08_en.pdf Color Directive 94/36/EC ] , enacted by the European Commission in 1994 , outlines permitted natural and artificial colors with their approved applications and limits in different foodstuffs . This is binding to all member countries of the EU . Any changes have to be implemented into their national laws within a given time frame . In non-EU member states , food additives are regulated by their national authorities , which usually , but not in all cases , try to harmonize with the laws adopted by the EU . Most other countries have their own regulations and list of food colors which can be used in various applications , including maximum daily intake limits . Global harmonization Global trade requires harmonization of food regulations on a world-wide basis in order to abolish barriers of trade and to ensure that the economic and nutritional demands of all nations are considered . Since the beginning of the 1960s , JECFA has played an important role in the development of international standards for food additives , not only by its toxicological assessments , which are continuously published by the WHO in a [ http : //whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_960_eng.pdf `` Technical Report Series '' ] , but furthermore by elaborating appropriate purity criteria , which are laid down in the two volumes of the [ http : //www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2358e/i2358e00.pdf `` Compendium of Food Additive Specifications '' ] and their supplements . These specifications are not legally binding but very often serve as a guiding principle , especially in countries where no scientific expert committees have been established . In order to further regulate the use of these evaluated additives , in 1962 the WHO and FAO created an international commission , the Codex Alimentarius , which is composed of authorities , food industry associations and consumer groups from all over the world . Within the Codex organization , the Codex Committee for Food Additives and Contaminants is responsible for working out recommendations for the application of food additives , the [ http : //www.codexalimentarius.net/gsfaonline/docs/CXS_192e.pdf General Standard for Food Additives ] . In the light of the World Trade Organizations General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) , the Codex Standard , although not legally binding , influences food color regulations all over the world . Artificial coloring As the 1900s began , a host of synthetic dyes and pigments became available . Originally , these were dubbed ` coal-tar ' colors because the starting materials were obtained from bituminous coal . Many synthesized dyes were easier and less costly to produce and were superior in coloring properties when compared to naturally derived alternatives of the time . Also known as `` azo-dyes '' , synthetic colors are generally produced via a two-step chemical synthesis . The first step forms a diazo compound from the reaction of aromatic amines generally formed from nitrosamine and a diazonium compound . The second step couples these diazo compounds with various reactive aromatic hydrocarbons . Due to the π-electrons across the two aromatic sections and the azo-groups , a conjugated system exists that is able to absorb light of specific wavelengths , leading to the color of the compounds ( this principle also applies to naturally derived pigments as well ) . The attractiveness of the synthetic dyes is that their color , lipophilicity , and other attributes can be engineered by the design of the specific molecule . The color of the dyes can be controlled selecting the number of azo-groups and various substituents . Yellow shades are achieved by using acetoacetanilide and heterocyclic compounds . Red colors result from the reaction between an aniline derivative ( diazo ) with a naphthol derivate . A blue results from replacing the aniline derivate with a benzidine derivate . The pair indigo and indigo carmine exhibit the same color , but the former is soluble in lipids , and the latter is water soluble because it has been fitted with sulfonate functional groups . In the United States Only seven dyes were initially approved under the U.S . Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 , but several have been delisted and replacements have been found . Some of the food colorings have the abbreviation `` FCF '' in their names . This stands for `` For Coloring Food '' ( US ) or `` For Colouring of Food '' ( UK ) . In the United States , manufacturers must get FDA approval for every batch of certified colors produced . FDA personnel evaluate the color 's physical appearance and chemically analyze it . Tests include purity ( total color content ) , moisture , residual salts , unreacted intermediates , colored impurities other than the main color ( called subsidiary colors ) , any other specified impurities , and heavy metals ( lead , arsenic , and mercury ) . The results are reviewed for compliance with the identity and specifications described in the listing regulation for the color additive . If the sample is found to meet these requirements , the FDA issues a certificate for the batch that identifies the color additive . For example , a batch of `` tartrazine '' becomes `` FD & C Yellow No . 5 . '' Current seven generally permitted In the US , the following seven artificial colorings are generally permitted in food ( the most common in bold ) . The lakes of these colorings are also permitted except the lake of Red No . 3 . * FD & C Blue No . 1 – Brilliant Blue FCF , E133 ( blue shade ) * FD & C Blue No . 2 – Indigotine , E132 ( indigo shade ) * FD & C Green No . 3 – Fast Green FCF , E143 ( turquoise shade ) * FD & C Red No . 3 – Erythrosine , E127 ( pink shade , commonly used in glacé cherries ) * FD & C Red No . 40 – Allura Red AC , E129 ( red shade ) * FD & C Yellow No . 5 – Tartrazine , E102 ( yellow shade ) * FD & C Yellow No . 6 – Sunset Yellow FCF , E110 ( orange shade ) Permitted for limited use in foods Two dyes are allowed by the FDA for limited applications : * Citrus Red 2 ( orange shade ) - allowed only to color orange peels . * Orange B ( red shade ) - allowed only for use in hot dog and sausage casings ( not produced after 1978 , but never delisted ) Delisted and banned in the US * FD & C Red No . 2 – Amaranth , E123 * FD & C Red No . 4 * FD & C Red No . 32 was used to color Florida oranges . * FD & C Orange Number 1 was one of the first water-soluble dyes to be commercialized , and one of seven original food dyes allowed under the Pure Food and Drug Act of June 30 , 1906 . * FD & C Orange No . 2 was used to color Florida oranges . * FD & C Yellow No . 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 * FD & C Violet No . 1 Approved in EU E numbers 102-143 cover the range of artificial colors . For an overview of currently allowed additives see here [ http : //www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist ] . Some artificial dyes approved for food use in the EU include : * E104 : Quinoline Yellow * E122 : Carmoisine * E124 : Ponceau 4R * E131 : Patent Blue V * E142 : Green S Natural food dyes Carotenoids ( E160 , E161 , E164 ) , chlorophyllin ( E140 , E141 ) , anthocyanins ( E163 ) , and betanin ( E162 ) comprise four main categories of plant pigments grown to color food products . Other colorants or specialized derivatives of these core groups include : * Annatto ( E160b ) , a reddish-orange dye made from the seed of the achiote * Caramel coloring ( E150a-d ) , made from caramelized sugar * Carmine ( E120 ) , a red dye derived from the cochineal insect , Dactylopius coccus * Elderberry juice * Lycopene ( E160d ) * Paprika ( E160c ) * Turmeric ( E100 ) Blue colors are especially rare . To ensure reproducibility , the colored components of these substances are often provided in highly purified form . For stability and convenience , they can be formulated in suitable carrier materials ( solid and liquids ) . Hexane , acetone , and other solvents break down cell walls in the fruit and vegetables and allow for maximum extraction of the coloring . Traces of these may still remain in the finished colorant , but they do not need to be declared on the product label . These solvents are known as carry-over ingredients . Dyes and lakes Color additives are available for use in food as either `` dyes '' or lake pigments ( commonly known as `` lakes '' ) . Dyes dissolve in water , but are not soluble in oil . Dyes are manufactured as powders , granules , liquids or other special purpose forms . They can be used in beverages , dry mixes , baked goods , confections , dairy products , pet foods , and a variety of other products . Dyes also have side effects that lakes lack . Consuming large amounts of dyes can color stools . Lakes are made by combining dyes with salts ( usually aluminum salts ) to make insoluble compounds . Lakes tint by dispersion . Lakes are not oil-soluble , but are oil-dispersible . Lakes are more stable than dyes and are ideal for coloring products containing fats and oils or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes . Typical uses include coated tablets , cake and doughnut mixes , hard candies and chewing gums , lipsticks , soaps , shampoos , talc , etc . Other uses Because food dyes are generally safer to use than normal artists ' dyes and pigments , some artists have used food coloring as a means of making pictures , especially in forms such as body-painting . Red food dye is often used in theatrical blood . Most artificial food colorings are a type of acid dye , and can be used to dye protein fibers and nylon with the addition of an acid . They are all washfast and most are also lightfast . They will not permanently bond to plant fibers and other synthetics . Criticism and health implications There is no evidence to support broad claims that food coloring causes food intolerance and ADHD-like behavior in children . It is possible that certain food coloring may act as a trigger in those who are genetically predisposed , but the evidence is weak . After concerns were expressed that food colorings may cause ADHD-like behavior in children , FDA . [ http : //www.fda.gov/downloads/AdvisoryCommittees/CommitteesMeetingMaterials/FoodAdvisoryCommittee/UCM248549.pdf Background Document for the Food Advisory Committee : Certified Color Additives in Food and Possible Association with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children : March 30-31 , 2011 ] the collective evidence do not support this assertion . The US FDA and other food safety authorities to regularly review the scientific literature , and led the UK Food Standards Agency ( FSA ) to commission a study by researchers at Southampton University of the effect of a mixture of six food dyes ( Tartrazine , Allura Red , Ponceau 4R , Quinoline Yellow WS , Sunset Yellow and Carmoisine ( dubbed the `` Southampton 6 '' ) ) on children in the general population . These colorants are found in beverages.Sarah Chapman of Chapman Technologies on behalf of Food Standards Agency in Scotland . March 2011 [ Guidelines on approaches to the replacement of Tartrazine , Allura Red , Ponceau 4R , Quinoline Yellow , Sunset Yellow and Carmoisine in food and beverages ] The study found `` a possible link between the consumption of these artificial colours and a sodium benzoate preservative and increased hyperactivity '' in the children ; the advisory committee to the FSA that evaluated the study also determined that because of study limitations , the results could not be extrapolated to the general population , and further testing was recommended '' . The U.S. FDA did not make changes following the publication of the Southampton study , but following a citizen petition filed by the Center for Science in the Public Interest in 2008 , requesting the FDA ban several food additives , the FDA reviewed the available evidence , and still made no changes . The European regulatory community , with an emphasis on the precautionary principle , required labelling and temporarily reduced the acceptable daily intake ( ADI ) for the food colorings ; the UK FSA called for voluntary withdrawal of the colorings by food manufacturers . However , in 2009 the EFSA re-evaluated the data at hand and determined that `` the available scientific evidence does not substantiate a link between the color additives and behavioral effects '' for any of the dyes.EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to food ( ANS ) [ http : //www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1330.htm Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of Sunset Yellow FCF ( E 110 ) as a food additive ] . EFSA Journal 2009 ; 7 ( 11 ) :1330 doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1330EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food ( ANS ) [ http : //www.efsa.europa.eu/en/scdocs/scdoc/1328.htm 091113 efsa.europa.eu Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of Ponceau 4R ( E 124 ) as a food additive ] EFSA Journal 2009 ; 7 ( 11 ) :1328EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to food ( ANS ) . [ http : //www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1329.htm Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of Quinoline Yellow ( E 104 ) as a food additive ] . EFSA Journal 2009 ; 7 ( 11 ) :1329 [ 40 pp . ] . doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1329

dpql_1965--Food_coloring.txt

What colour is pistachio flavoured ice cream?

The Danakil Desert is a desert in northeast Ethiopia , southern Eritrea , and northwestern Djibouti . Situated in the Afar Triangle , it stretches across of arid terrain . The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat , with daytime temperatures surpassing 50 °C ( 122 °F ) . The Danakil Desert is one of the lowest and hottest places on Earth . It is inhabited by a few Afar , who engage in salt mining . Local geology is characterized by volcanic and tectonic activity , various climate cycles , and discontinuous erosion . The Danakil Desert has a number of lakes formed by lava flows that dammed up several valleys . Among these is Lake Afrera , which has thick saline crusts on its banks . The area is flanked toward the east by the Dancal Alps , a tabular mountain system that has a few volcanic cones which peak in height in Mount Ramlo ( ) . A plinth of salt up to 800 m thick can also be found in the Salt Plain flatlands . Other local lakes include Lake Asale ( 116 m below sea level ) and Lake Giuletti/Afrera ( 80 m below sea level ) , both of which possess cryptodepressions in the Danakil Depression . The Afrera contains many active volcanoes , including the Maraho , Dabbahu , Afdera and Erta Ale . The Afar people mine for a day more until the camels are fully loaded with the salt tiles . It will then take two days to get to the nearest town , with guards watching the camels and guarding them from bandits .

sfq_6867--Danakil_Desert.txt

In which African country is the Danikil Desert?

Zorro ( Spanish for `` fox '' ) is the secret identity of Don Diego de la Vega , a fictional character created in 1919 by pulp writer Johnston McCulley . He is a Californio nobleman living in Los Angeles during the era of Mexican rule ( between 1821 and 1846 ) , although some movie adaptations of Zorro 's story have placed him during the earlier Spanish rule . The character has undergone changes through the years , but the typical image of him is a dashing black-clad masked outlaw who defends the commoners and indigenous peoples of the land against tyrannical officials and other villains . Not only is he too cunning and foxlike for the bumbling authorities to catch , but he also delights in publicly humiliating them . The character has been featured in numerous books , films , television series , and other media . Tiburcio Vásquez , Juan Nepomuceno Cortina and Joaquin Murrieta are cited as inspirations for Zorro . Publishing history Zorro debuted in McCulley 's 1919 story The Curse of Capistrano , serialized in five parts in the pulp magazine All-Story Weekly . At the denouement , Zorro 's true identity is revealed to all . Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford , on their honeymoon , selected the story as the inaugural picture for their new studio , United Artists , beginning the character 's cinematic tradition . The story was adapted as the film The Mark of Zorro ( 1920 ) , which was a commercial success . McCulley 's story was rereleased by publisher Grosset & Dunlap under the same title , to tie in with the film . In response to public demand fueled by the film , McCulley wrote more than sixty more Zorro stories , beginning in 1922 . The last , `` The Mask of Zorro '' ( not to be confused with the 1998 film ) , was published posthumously in 1959 . These stories ignore Zorro 's public revelation of his identity . McCulley died in 1958 , just as the Disney-produced Zorro television show was becoming popular . Fictional character biography In The Curse of Capistrano , Don Diego Vega becomes Señor Zorro in the pueblo of Los Angeles in California `` to avenge the helpless , to punish cruel politicians '' , and `` to aid the oppressed . '' He is the title character , as he is dubbed the `` Curse of Capistrano . '' The story involves him romancing Lolita Pulido , an impoverished noblewoman . While Lolita is unimpressed with Diego , who pretends to be a passionless fop , she is attracted to the dashing Zorro . His rival is Captain Ramon . Other characters include Sgt . Pedro Gonzales , Zorro 's enemy but Diego 's friend ; Zorro 's deaf and mute servant Bernardo ; his ally Fray ( Friar ) Felipe ; his father Don Alejandro Vega ; and a group of noblemen ( caballeros ) who at first hunt him but are won over to his cause . In later stories , McCulley introduces characters such as pirates and Native Americans , some of whom know Zorro 's identity . In McCulley 's later stories , Diego 's surname became de la Vega . In fact , the writer was wildly inconsistent . The first magazine serial ended with the villain dead and Diego publicly exposed as Zorro , but in the sequel the villain was alive , and the next entry had the double identity still secret . Several Zorro productions have expanded on the character 's exploits . Many of the continuations feature a younger character taking up the mantle of Zorro . Although McCulley 's stories were set in Los Angeles during the era of Mexican rule ( between 1821 and 1846 ) , some movie adaptations of Zorro 's story have placed him during the earlier Spanish era . Characteristics In The Curse of Capistrano , Diego is described as `` unlike the other full-blooded youths of the times '' ; though proud as befitting his class ( and seemingly uncaring about the lower classes ) , he shuns action , rarely wearing his sword except for fashion , and is indifferent to romance with women . This is , of course , a sham . This portrayal , with minor variations , is followed in most Zorro media . A notable exception to this portrayal is Disney 's Zorro ( 1957–59 ) , where Diego , despite using the original facade early in the series , instead becomes a passionate and compassionate crusader for justice and simply masquerades as `` the most inept swordsman in all of California . '' In this show , everyone knows Diego would love to do what Zorro does , but thinks he does not have the skill . The Family Channel 's Zorro ( 1990–1993 ) takes this concept further . While Diego pretends to be inept with a sword , the rest of his facade is actually exaggerating his real interests . Diego is actually well versed and interested in art , poetry , literature , and science . His facade is pretending to be interested in only these things and to have no interest in swordplay or action . Zorro also has a well-equipped laboratory in his hidden cave in this version of the story . Character motifs The character 's visual motif is typically a black costume with a flowing Spanish cape , a flat-brimmed black sombrero cordobés , and a black cowl sackcloth domino mask that covers the top of the head from eye level upwards . In his first appearance , he wears a cloak instead of a cape , and a black cloth veil mask with slits for eyes covers his whole face . Other features of the costume may vary . His favored weapon is a rapier , which he often uses to leave his distinctive mark , a Z cut with three quick strokes . He also uses a bullwhip . In his debut , he uses a pistol . The fox is never depicted as Zorro 's emblem . It is used as a metaphor for the character 's wiliness , such as in the lyrics `` Zorro , 'the Fox ' , so cunning and free ... '' from the Disney television show theme . His heroic pose consists of rearing on his horse Tornado , sword raised high . ( The logo of Zorro Productions , Inc. uses an example of this pose . ) Skills and resources Zorro is an agile athlete and acrobat , using his bullwhip as a gymnastic accoutrement to swing through gaps between city roofs , and is very capable of landing from great heights and taking a fall . Although he is a master swordsman and marksman , he has more than once demonstrated his prowess in unarmed combat against multiple opponents . His calculating and precise dexterity as a tactician has enabled him to use his two main weapons , his sword and bullwhip , as an extension of his deft hand . He never uses brute strength , more his fox-like sly mind and well-practiced technique to outmatch an opponent . In some versions , Zorro keeps a medium-sized dagger tucked in his left boot for emergencies . He has used his cape as a blind , a trip-mat and a disarming tool . Zorro 's boots are also sometimes weighted , as is his hat , which he has thrown , Frisbee-style , as an efficiently substantial warning to enemies . But more often than not , he uses psychological mockery to make his opponents too angry to be coordinated in combat . Zorro is a skilled horseman . The name of his jet-black horse has varied through the years . In The Curse of Capistrano , it was unnamed . Later versions named the horse Tornado/Toronado or Tempest . In other versions , Zorro rides a white horse named Phantom . McCulley 's concept of a band of men helping Zorro is often absent from other versions of the character . An exception is Zorro 's Fighting Legion ( 1939 ) , starring Reed Hadley as Diego . In Douglas Fairbanks ' version , he also has a band of masked men helping him . In McCulley 's stories , Zorro was aided by a deaf-mute named Bernardo . In Disney 's Zorro television series , Bernardo is not deaf but pretends to be , and serves as Zorro 's spy . He is a capable and invaluable helper for Zorro , sometimes wearing the mask to reinforce his master 's charade . The Family Channel 's Zorro television series replaces Bernardo with a teenager named Felipe , played by Juan Diego Botto , with a similar disability and pretense . Inspirations The historical figure most often associated with the Zorro character is Joaquin Murrieta , whose life was fictionalized in an 1854 dime novel by John Rollin Ridge . In the 1998 film The Mask of Zorro Murrieta 's ( fictitious ) brother Alejandro succeeds Diego as Zorro . As a hero with a secret identity who taunts his foes by signing his deeds , Zorro finds a direct literary predecessor in Sir Percival Blakeney , hero of the Scarlet Pimpernel pulp series by Baroness Emmuska Orczy . The character recalls other figures , such as Robin Hood , Reynard the Fox , Salomon Pico , Manuel Rodríguez Erdoíza , and Tiburcio Vasquez . Another possible historical inspiration is William Lamport , an Irish soldier who lived in Mexico in the seventeenth century . His life was the subject of a fictive book by Vicente Riva Palacio ; The Irish Zorro ( 2004 ) is a recent biography . Another is Estanislao , a Yokuts man who led a revolt against the Mission San Jose in 1827 . The 1890s penny dreadful treatment of the Spring-heeled Jack character as a masked avenger may have inspired some aspects of Zorro 's heroic persona . Spring Heeled Jack was portrayed as a nobleman who created a flamboyant , masked alter ego to fight injustice , frequently demonstrated exceptional athletic and combative skills , maintained a hidden lair and was known to carve the letter `` S '' into walls with his rapier as a calling card . Like Sir Percy in The Scarlet Pimpernel , Don Diego avoids suspicion by playing the role of an effete dandy who wears lace , writes poetry , and shuns violence . The all-black Fairbanks film costume , which with variations has remained the standard costume for the character , was likely adapted from the Arrow serial film character The Masked Rider ( 1919 ) . This character was the first Mexican black-clad masked rider on a black horse to appear on the silver screen . Fairbanks 's costume in The Mark of Zorro , released the following year , resembled that of the Rider with only slight differences in the mask and hat . Appearances in media Books * Johnston McCulley 's original magazine serial , The Curse of Capistrano from All-Story Weekly , was published in 1924 as a novel by Grosset & Dunlap under the title The Mark of Zorro . It was reprinted by MacDonald & Co. in 1959 and by Tor books in 1998 , ISBN 978-0-8125-4007-9 . * Johnston McCulley 's Zorro novels and short stories are being reprinted by Bold Venture Press in a series of trade paperback editions . * * Zorro : The Complete Pulp Adventures Volume One March 2016 ISBN 978-1530392445 * Johnston McCulley 's Zorro short stories were reprinted by Pulp Adventures Inc. in a series of trade paperback editions . * * Zorro The Master 's Edition Volume One ( 1932–1944 ) February 2000 ISBN 1-891729-20-9 * * Zorro The Master 's Edition Volume Two ( 1944–1946 ) January 2002 ISBN 1-891729-21-7 * * Zorro The Master 's Edition : A Task For Zorro ( 1947 ) July 2002 ISBN 1-891729-31-4 * A series of paperback novels were published by Tom Doherty Associates , Inc. Books in the late 1990s and early 2000s . * * Zorro and the Jaguar Warriors by Jerome Preisler September 1998 ISBN 978-0-8125-6767-0 * * Zorro and The Dragon Riders by David Bergantino March 1999 ISBN 978-0-8125-6768-7 * * Zorro and the Witch 's Curse by John Whitman April 2000 ISBN 978-0-8125-6769-4 * * Gerard Ronan 's Biography of William Lamport `` The Irish Zorro '' was published by Brandon Books in 2004 . ISBN 978-0-86322-329-7 . * Minstrel Books published A series of young reader novels based on the motion picture The Mask of Zorro . * * The Treasure of Don Diego by William McCay 1998 ISBN 978-0-671-51968-1 * * Skull and Crossbones by Frank Lauria 1999 ISBN 978-0-671-51970-4 * * The Secret Swordsman by William McCay 1999 ISBN 978-0-671-51969-8 * * The Lost Temple by Frank Lauria 1999 * Zorro filmographic books have also been published : * * The Legend of Zorro by Bill Yenne 1991 Mallard Press ISBN 978-0-7924-5547-9 * * Zorro Unmasked The Official History by Sandra Curtis 1998 Hyperion ISBN 978-0-7868-8285-4 * * Tales of Zorro anthology edited by Richard Dean Starr 2008 Moonstone Books ISBN 978-1-933076-31-7 * Two novelization of films from Sony : * * The Mask of Zorro : A Novelization by James Luceno 1998 Pocket Books ISBN 978-0671519896 * * The Legend of Zorro : A Novelization by Scott Ciencin 2005 HarperCollins ISBN 978-0060833046 * The character was also the subject of a historical novel by a famous Chilean author . * * Zorro by Isabel Allende 2005 HarperCollins ISBN 0-06-077897-0 * inspired in Allende 's novel , Harper Collins released : * * Young Zorro : The Iron Brand by Jan Adkins 2005 Harper Collins ISBN 978-0060839468 Films The character has been adapted for over forty films . [ http : //www.zorro.com/et-movie.html Zorro Productions , Inc. ] They include : American films * The Mark of Zorro ( 1920 ) , with Douglas Fairbanks * Don Q , Son of Zorro ( 1925 ) , with Douglas Fairbanks * The Bold Caballero ( 1936 ) , with Robert Livingston * Zorro 's Fighting Legion ( 1939 ) , with Reed Hadley * The Mark of Zorro ( 1940 ) , with Tyrone Power * The Sign of Zorro ( 1958 ) , with Guy Williams , portions of the first 13 Zorro TV series episodes edited into a feature film , released overseas in 1958 and domestically in 1960 . * Zorro , the Avenger ( 1959 ) , with Guy Williams , another theatrical compilation of several Zorro TV episodes , released overseas , and was not seen in the United States until it was eventually aired on the Disney Channel . * The Mark of Zorro ( 1974 ) , a made for television movie with Frank Langella as Zorro that reuses the Alfred Newman theme from 1940 's The Mark of Zorro . * Zorro , The Gay Blade ( 1981 ) , a parody , with George Hamilton . Diego , Jr. , breaks his leg shortly after launching his career as a new Zorro , and his gay twin brother Ramon , now calling himself Bunny Wigglesworth , volunteers to fill in while he recuperates . * The Mask of Zorro ( 1998 ) , played against tradition , with Anthony Hopkins as an aged Don Diego de la Vega and Antonio Banderas as Alejandro Murrieta , a misfit outlaw/cowboy who is groomed to become the next Zorro . * The Legend of Zorro ( 2005 ) , the sequel to 1998 's The Mask of Zorro , again starring Antonio Banderas . 20th Century Fox is working on a reboot Zorro film called Zorro Reborn with Gael Garcia Bernal in the title role set in the future with a script by Glen Gers , Lee Shipman , and Brian McGeevy . Sony also plans another film with a script by Christopher Stetson Boal based on the novel by Isabel Allende as a less traditional swashbuckler and more of a Dark Knight style unveiling of the character with a new backstory , gritty realism and emotional core with swordplay , combined with the martial arts that came from Europe and created a deadly combination of action and lethal fighting systems that combined swords , daggers , grappling and bare knuckles . Sony is also planning on working a Django Unchained and Zorro crossover movie . Lantica Media and Sobini films are producing a Zorro film called Z with Jonas Cuaron to write and direct the film . Bernal was once again courted to star as the masked hero . Production is expected to begin in the fall . Mexican films * La Gran Aventura Del Zorro ( 1976 ) , Mexican Western with Rodolfo de Anda , the first Mexican actor to play the role ; with Pedro Armendáriz Jr. as the villain and set in a very primitive San Francisco Bay Area . A similar character was `` The Black Wolf '' set in Monterey , California in 1846 . * El lobo negro ( 1981 ) Spain & Mexico Fernando Allende * Duelo a muerte/Revenge of the Black Wolf ( 1981 ) Spain Fernando Allende European films In addition to a variety of Zorro films , European producers also used a similar character called the Coyote . * À la manière de Zorro / In the Way of Zorro ( 1926 ) Belgium William Elie * Il sogno di Zorro ( 1952 ) Italy Walter Chiari * La montaña sin ley ( 1953 ) Spain José Suárez ( Suárez is the first Spanish actor to play the role ) * Zorro alla corte di Spagna / Zorro at the Spanish Court ( 1962 ) Italy George Ardisson * La venganza del Zorro / Zorro the Avenger ( 1962 ) Spain Frank Latimore * L'ombra di Zorro / The Shadow of Zorro ( 1962 ) Italy , Spain & France Frank Latimore * Le tre spade di Zorro / The Three Swords of Zorro ( 1963 ) Spain & Italy Guy Stockwell * Zorro e i tre moschettieri / Zorro and the Three Musketeers ( 1963 ) Italy Gordon Scott * Zorro contro Maciste / Samson and the Slave Queen ( 1963 ) Italy & Spain Pierre Brice * ' / Duel at the Rio Grande ( 1963 ) Spain , Italy & France Sean Flynn * El Zorro cabalga otra vez / Behind the Mask of Zorro ( 1965 ) Italy & Spain Tony Russel * Zorro il ribelle / Zorro the Rebel ( 1966 ) Italy Howard Ross * El Zorro ( 1968 ) Italy & Spain George Ardisson * I nipoti di Zorro / The Nephews of Zorro ( 1968 ) Italy Dean Reed ( comedy with Franco & Ciccio ) * Zorro marchese di Navarra / Zorro , the Navarra Marquis ( 1969 ) Italy Nino Vingelli * Zorro alla corte d'Inghilterra / Zorro in the Court of England ( 1969 ) Italy Spiros Focás * El Zorro justiciero ( 1969 ) Italy & Spain Fabio Testi * La última aventura del Zorro ( 1970 ) Spain & Italy Carlos Quiney * El Zorro de Monterrey ( 1971 ) Spain & Italy Carlos Quiney * Zorro il cavaliere della vendetta / Zorro , Rider of Vengeance ( 1971 ) Spain & Italy Carlos Quiney * The Erotic Adventures of Zorro ( 1972 ) France , USA & West Germany Douglas Frey * Les aventures galantes de Zorro ( 1972 ) France & Belgium Jean-Michel Dhermay * Il figlio di Zorro / Son of Zorro ( 1973 ) Italy & Spain Alberto Dell'Acqua * Le meravigliose avventure di Zorro ( 1974 ) Italy * Il sogno di Zorro / Grandsons of Zorro ( 1975 ) Italy Franco Franchi * Zorro ( 1975 ) Italy & France Alain Delon * La marque de Zorro ( 1975 ) France Monica Swinn * Ah sì ? E io lo dico a Zzzzorro ! / Mark of Zorro ( 1976 ) Italy & Spain George Hilton The Coyote of `` El Coyote '' was a creation of Spanish novelist José Mallorquí Figuerola writing as Carter Mulford beginning with a novel of the same name in 1943 . * El coyote ( 1955 ) Spain & Mexico Act Odón Alonso * La justicia del Coyote / Judgement of Coyote ( 1956 ) Spain & Mexico Odón Alonso * Il segno del coyote / The Sign of the Coyote ( 1963 ) Italy & Spain Fernando Casanova * La vuelta de El Coyote / The Return of El Coyote ( 1998 ) Spain José Coronado Film serials * Zorro Rides Again ( 1937 ) , with John Carroll as a modern-day descendant , James Vega * Zorro 's Fighting Legion ( 1939 ) , with Reed Hadley as the original Zorro/Don Diego de la Vega * Zorro 's Black Whip ( 1944 ) , with Linda Stirling as an 1880s female descendent , The Black Whip * Son of Zorro ( 1947 ) , with George Turner as a Civil War descendant , Jeff Stewart * Ghost of Zorro ( 1949 ) , with Clayton Moore as Ken Mason , Zorro 's grandson/ '' The Ghost of Zorro '' Television * Zorro , a Disney half-hour television series , running from 1957 to 1959 , starring Guy Williams as Zorro . The two features listed above starring Guy Williams were episode compilations , and there were four one-hour follow-ups on the Walt Disney anthology television series in the 1960–1961 TV season . * The Mark of Zorro ( 1974 ) , with Frank Langella , a made for television remake of the 1940 film * The New Adventures of Zorro , 1981 animated series from Filmation . * Zorro and Son , 1983 * Zorro ( also known as The New Zorro or New World Zorro or Zorro 1990 ) was an early 1990s television series featuring Duncan Regehr . Regehr portrayed him for 88 episodes on The Family Channel from 1990 to 1993 . Two feature-length videos were episode compilations . It was shot entirely in Madrid , Spain . * Kaiketsu Zorro ( 1996 ) Japanese anime version from NHK and Ashi Productions . * The New Adventures of Zorro , 1997 animated series from Warner Bros .. * The Amazing Zorro , 2002 made for TV animated film created by DIC Entertainment . It premiered on television on Nickelodeon Sunday Movie Toons and was released on DVD and VHS shortly afterward by MGM Home Entertainment . * Zorro : La Espada y la Rosa ( The Sword and the Rose ) , a ( 2007 ) Spanish language telenovela from Sony Pictures and Telemundo , starring Peruvian actor Christian Meier as Don Diego de la Vega/Zorro and Marlene Favela as Esmeralda Sánchez de Moncada . This was filmed in the colonial village of Villa de Leyva , Colombia . * Zorro : Generation Z , ( 2006 ) animated series follows a descendant of the original Zorro , also named Diego De La Vega , fighting crime and the corrupt government of Pueblo Grande in a future setting . * Zorro , a 2009 TV series from the GMA Network of the Philippines . The lead role is portrayed by Richard Gutierrez with leading ladies Rhian Ramos , Bianca King , and Michelle Madrigal . * Zorro : The Chronicles , an upcoming animated series ( 2016 ) Audio/radio dramas * Walt Disney 's Zorro : [ 1 . Presenting Señor Zorro ; 2 . Zorro Frees The Indians ; 3 . Zorro And The Ghost ; 4 . Zorro 's Daring Rescue ] ( 1957 ) released by Disneyland Records . This album retold stories from the Disney Zorro television series and featured Guy Williams as Zorro and Don Diego , Henry Calvin as Sergeant Garcia , Phil Ross as Monastario , Jan Arvan as Torres , Jimmie Dodd from The Mickey Mouse Club as Padre Felipe , with other voices by Dallas McKennon and sound effects by Jimmy Macdonald and Eddie Forrest . Record story adaptations by Bob Thomas and George Sherman . Music composed and conducted by William Lava . * The Adventures of Zorro . ( 1957 ) Based on the original Johnston McCulley story The Curse of Capistrano ( aka The Mark of Zorro ) . It was written by Maria Little , directed by Robert M. Light and produced by Mitchell Gertz . This short-lived radio show was a series of short episodes . Only a handful of episodes are known to have survived . * The Mark of Zorro . ( 1997 ) [ No longer available ] Produced by the BBC it starred Mark Arden as Zorro , Louise Lombard as Lolita and Glyn Houston as Friar Felipe . It aired in 5 parts . 1 . July 3 97 Night of the Fox : 2 . July 10 97 Deadly Reckonings : 3 . July 17 97 The Avenging Blade 4 . July 24 97 The Place of Skulls 5 . July 31 97 The Gathering Storm * Zorro and the Pirate Raiders . ( 2009 ) Based on the D.J . Arneson adaptation of Johnston McCulley 's The Further Adventures of Zorro . Produced by Colonial Radio Theatre on the Air . Published by Brilliance Audio . It features Kevin Cirone , Shonna McEachern , Hugh Metzler , J.T . Turner , Sam Donato , Joseph Zamperelli Jr. , and Dan Powell . * Zorro Rides Again . ( 2011 ) Based on the D.J . Arneson adaptation of Johnston McCulley 's `` Zorro Rides Again '' . Produced by Colonial Theatre on the Air . It features the voice talents of Kevin Cirone , Jeremy Benson , Shonna McEachern , Shana Dirk , Sam Donato , and Hugh Metzler . * The Mark of Zorro . ( 2011 ) Based on The Curse of Capistrano . Produced by Hollywood Theater of the Ear for Blackstone Audio.It features the voice talents of Val Kilmer as Diego de la Vega/Zorro , Ruth Livier as Lolita Pulido , Elizabeth Peña as Doña Catalina Pulido , Armin Shimmerman as the Landlord , Mishach Taylor as Sgt Pedro Gonzalez , Keith Szarabajka as Cpt Ramone , Ned Schmidtke as Don Carlos Pulido , Scott Brick as the Governor , Stefan Rudnicki as Fray Felipe , Kristoffer Tabori as Don Alejando de la Vega , Philip Proctor as Don Audre , John Sloan as the Magistrado , and Gordo Panza in numerous roles . Toys Due to the popularity of the Disney TV series , in 1958 , The Topps Company produced an 88-card set featuring stills from that year 's movie . The cards were rare and became collectors ' items . In the same year the Louis Marx company released a variety of Zorro toys such as hats , swords , toy pistols and a playset with the Lido company also making plastic figures . A major toy line based on the classic Zorro characters , motifs and styling , was released by Italian toy giant , Giochi Preziosi , master toy licensees of the property . The toy range was developed by Pangea Corporation and released worldwide in 2005 and featured action figures in various scales , interactive playsets and roleplaying items . New original characters were also introduced , including Senor Muerte , who served as a foil to Zorro . In 2007 , Brazilian toymaker Gulliver Toys licensed the rights to Zorro : Generation Z , which was co-developed by BKN and Pangea Corporation . The toy range was designed concurrent and in association with the animated program . In 2011 , US-based collectibles company Triad Toys released a 12-inch Zorro action figure . Comics Zorro has appeared in many different comic book series over the decades . In Hit Comics # 55 published by Quality Comics in November 1948 , Zorro is summoned by Kid Eternity , in this version has only a whip and does not wear a mask . Dell Comics published Zorro in Four Color Comics # 228 ( 1949 ) , 425 ( 1952 ) , 497 ( 1953 ) , 538 ( 1954 ) , 574 ( 1954 ) , 617 ( 1955 ) and 732 ( 1957 ) , This stories

qg_1950--Zorro.txt

Meaning Fox in Spanish, what was the secret identity of Don Diego De La Vega?

The Torres Strait is a strait which lies between Australia and the Melanesian island of New Guinea . It is approximately 150 km wide at its narrowest extent . To the south is Cape York Peninsula , the northernmost continental extremity of the Australian state of Queensland . To the north is the Western Province of Papua New Guinea . It is named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres , who passed through the Strait in 1606 . Geography The strait links the Coral Sea to the east with the Arafura Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria in the west . Although it is an important international sea lane , it is very shallow ( 7 to 15 m water depth ) , and the maze of reefs and islands can make it hazardous to navigate . In the south the Endeavour Strait is located between Prince of Wales Island ( Muralug ) and the mainland . Shipping enters Torres Strait via the Adolphus Channel which joins to the Great Barrier Reef lagoon to the southeast . Strong tidal currents occur in the narrow channels between islands and reefs , and large submarine sand dunes migrate across the seafloor . Some 580 coral reefs , including the Warrior Reefs and Eastern Patch Reefs , cover a total area of 2,400 km2 in the region , as well as some of the most extensive seagrass beds in the world . Several clusters of islands lie in the Strait , collectively called the Torres Strait Islands . There are at least 274 of these islands , of which 17 have present-day permanent settlements . Over 6,800 Torres Strait Islanders live on the Islands and 42,000 live on the mainland . These islands have a variety of topographies , ecosystems and formation history . Several of those closest to the New Guinea coastline are low-lying , formed by alluvial sedimentary deposits borne by the outflow of the local rivers into the sea . Many of the western islands are hilly and steep , formed mainly of granite , and are peaks of the northernmost extension of the Great Dividing Range now turned into islands when sea levels rose at the end of the last ice age . The central islands are predominantly coral cays , and those of the east are of volcanic origins . The islands are considered Australian territory and are administered from Thursday Island . There are several major policy and institutional frameworks in the Torres Strait region that support the sustainable use and management of marine resources while also protecting habitats , biodiversity and the traditional islander way of life . Most important of these is the Torres Strait Treaty entered into by Australia and Papua New Guinea in February 1985 . The Treaty defines sovereignty and maritime boundaries in the area between the two countries . It guides decision makers on protecting the way of life and livelihood of traditional inhabitants , on managing the protection of habitats , and on sharing the commercial and traditional fisheries resources . The Treaty established a Torres Strait Protected Zone within which both nations manage access to fisheries resources . Each country exercises sovereign jurisdiction for resources on either side of the agreed jurisdiction lines . The islands ' indigenous inhabitants are the Torres Strait Islanders , Melanesian peoples related to the Papuans of adjoining New Guinea . The various Torres Strait Islander communities have a distinct culture and long-standing history with the islands and nearby coastlines . Their maritime-based trade and interactions with the Papuans to the north and the Australian Aboriginal communities have maintained a steady cultural diffusion between the three societal groups , dating back thousands of years at least . Two indigenous languages are spoken on the Torres Strait Islands : Kala Lagaw Ya/Kalaw Kawaw Ya/Kawalgau Ya/Muwalgau Ya/Kulkalgau Ya , and Miriam Mir , as well as Brokan [ Broken ] , otherwise called Torres Strait Creole . In the 2001 Australian national census , the population of the islands was recorded as 8,089 , though many more live outside of Torres Strait in Australia . Environmental issues facing the region include the risk of mining waste from the Fly River in southern Papua New Guinea , the impacts of global climate change and the sustainable management of natural resources . History The islands of the Torres Strait have been inhabited for at least 2,500 years and possibly much longer . The first recorded European navigation of the strait was by Luís Vaz de Torres , a pilot who was second-in-command on the Spanish expedition led by navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós who sailed from Peru to the South Pacific in 1605 . After Queirós 's ship returned to Mexico , Torres resumed the intended voyage to Manila via the Maluku Islands . He sailed along the south coast of New Guinea , and may also have sighted the northernmost extremity of the Australian mainland , however no specific records exist that indicate he did so . In 1769 the Scottish geographer Alexander Dalrymple , whilst translating some Spanish documents captured in the Philippines in 1762 , had found Luís Vaz de Torres ' testimony proving a passage south of New Guinea now known as Torres Strait . This discovery led Dalrymple to publish the Historical Collection of the Several Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean in 1770–1771 , which aroused widespread interest in his claim of the existence of an unknown continent . It was Dalrymple who named the strait after Torres . Dalrymple was bitterly disappointed that it was James Cook and not he who was appointed commander of the expedition that eventually led in 1770 to the British encounter and charting of the eastern coastline of Australia . In 1770 Cook claimed the whole of eastern Australia for the British Crown , and sailed through the strait after proceeding up the eastern coast of the continent . In 1823 Lieutenant John Lihou , then Master of HMS Zenobia , was on passage from Manila to South America and chose a route through Torres Strait . This was the first occasion a ship was navigated through Torres Strait from west to east . It was also the first occasion a ship was navigated through the Coral Sea from Torres Strait , south-eastward to the southward of New Caledonia . Lihou saw Sir James Saumarez ' Shoal ( now Saumarez Reefs ) on 27 February and named the reef system after Vice-Admiral James Saumarez . On this same trip , Lihou discovered the Lihou Reef and Cays and Port Lihou . The London Missionary Society arrived on Erub ( Darnley Island ) in 1871 . Although some of the Torres Strait islands lie just off the coast of New Guinea , they were annexed in 1879 by Queensland , then a British colony . There was an important pearling industry from the 1860s until about 1970 when it collapsed in the face of competition from the plastics industry . Pearl-shelling was responsible for the arrival of experienced divers from many countries , notably Japan . In 1978 an agreement between Australia and Papua New Guinea determined the maritime border in the Torres Strait.for a detailed map see , for the agreement see Torres Strait is mentioned in Jules Verne 's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea as a dangerous strait where the submarine , the Nautilus , is briefly stranded . The people of the Torres Strait have a unique indigenous culture , which has been the centre for anthropological work completed by Cambridge University 's Alfred Haddon in 1898 and Australia 's Margaret Lawrie from 1960 to 1973 . Shipping Routes through Torres Strait The two routes through the Strait are : * Endeavour Strait ( purple line on chart ) - for small vessels . * Prince of Wales Channel : Larger ships transiting Torres Strait enter the The Prince of Wales Channel from the West just north of Booby Island by way of the Gannet or Varzin Passages . The minimum depths for deep draught shipping in the Great Barrier Reef pilotage area are found here ( 10.3m - Nov 2011 ) . Shipping with a 12.2m static draught or less are permitted to transit the area . * * Channels to the East of Prince of Wales Channel * * * Great North East Channel : East of Prince of Wales Channel at Wednesday Island the Route becomes The Great North East Channel . ( green line on chart ) . The Great North East Channel ( GNEC ) links the Prince of Wales Channel to the northern most entrance to the Great Barrier Reef , 120 NM away at Bligh Entrance . The GNEC route runs North or South of Alert Patches and East to under Twin Island then Northeast to Dalrymple Island ( the end of Pilotage requirement ) then on to Bramble Quay , Bligh Entrance and the open sea . This passage routes shipping to the Coral Sea , the Pacific Ocean and the outside of the Great Barrier Reef . Another channel ( brown line on chart ) runs down towards Cape York . * * * Inner Route Pilotage Area : The Inner Route Pilotage Area runs from near Cape York to near Cairns . This channel , named the 'Inner Route ' runs between the Australian mainland and the Great Barrier Reef Asylum seekers Due to proximity to the Papua New Guinea mainland , the northern Torres Strait islands experience occasional asylum seeker arrivals from across the Strait . A total of ten asylum seekers from Papua New Guinea were detected in each of 2012 and 2013 .

qw_3246--Torres_Strait.txt

What is the name of the strait between New Guinea and the Australian mainland?

Country music is a genre of United States popular music that originated in the Southern United States in the 1920s . It takes its roots from the southeastern genre of United States such as folk music , Blues music , and Western music . Blues modes have been used extensively throughout its recorded history . Country music often consists of ballads and dance tunes with generally simple forms and harmonies accompanied by mostly string instruments such as banjos , electric and acoustic guitars , dobros and fiddles as well as harmonicas . The term country music gained popularity in the 1940s in preference to the earlier term hillbilly music ; it came to encompass Western music , which evolved parallel to hillbilly music from similar roots , in the mid-20th century . The term country music is used today to describe many styles and subgenres . The origins of country music are the folk music of mostly white , working-class Americans , who blended popular songs , Irish and Celtic fiddle tunes , traditional ballads , and cowboy songs , and various musical traditions from European immigrant communities . In 2009 country music was the most listened to rush hour radio genre during the evening commute , and second most popular in the morning commute in the United States . Generations of country music Immigrants to the Southern Appalachian Mountains of North America brought the music and instruments of Europe along with them for nearly 300 years . Country music was `` introduced to the world as a Southern phenomenon . '' The first generation emerged in the early 1920s , with Atlanta 's music scene playing a major role in launching country 's earliest recording artists . Okeh Records began issuing hillbilly music records by Fiddlin ' John Carson as early as 1923 , followed by Columbia Records ( series 15000D `` Old Familiar Tunes '' ) ( Samantha Bumgarner ) in 1924 , and RCA Victor Records in 1927 ( the Carter Family and Jimmie Rodgers ) . Many `` hillbilly '' musicians , such as Cliff Carlisle , recorded blues songs throughout the 1920s . During the second generation ( 1930s–1940s ) , radio became a popular source of entertainment , and `` barn dance '' shows featuring country music were started all over the South , as far north as Chicago , and as far west as California . The most important was the Grand Ole Opry , aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day . During the 1930s and 1940s , cowboy songs , or Western music , which had been recorded since the 1920s , were popularized by films made in Hollywood . Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a `` hot string band , '' and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns . His mix of country and jazz , which started out as dance hall music , would become known as Western swing . Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band , in 1938 . Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939 , shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall , when Johnny Barfield recorded `` Boogie Woogie '' . The third generation ( 1950s–1960s ) started at the end of World War II with `` mountaineer '' string band music known as bluegrass , which emerged when Bill Monroe , along with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs were introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry . Gospel music remained a popular component of country music . Another type of stripped-down and raw music with a variety of moods and a basic ensemble of guitar , bass , dobro or steel guitar ( and later ) drums became popular , especially among poor whites in Texas and Oklahoma . It became known as honky tonk , and had its roots in Western swing and the ranchera music of Mexico and the border states . By the early 1950s a blend of Western swing , country boogie , and honky tonk was played by most country bands . Rockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s , and 1956 could be called the year of rockabilly in country music . Beginning in the mid-1950s , and reaching its peak during the early 1960s , the Nashville Sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville , Tennessee . The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres . In the aftermath of the British Invasion , many desired a return to the `` old values '' of rock n ' roll . At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music . What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock . Fourth generation ( 1970s–1980s ) music included outlaw country with roots in the Bakersfield sound , and country pop with roots in the countrypolitan , folk music and soft rock . Between 1972 and 1975 singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles . During the early 1980s country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts . In 1980 a style of `` neocountry disco music '' was popularized . During the mid-1980s a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts in favor of more traditional `` back-to-basics '' production . During the fifth generation ( 1990s ) , country music became a worldwide phenomenon thanks to Garth Brooks and Alan Jackson . The Dixie Chicks became one of the most popular country bands in the 1990s and early 2000s . The sixth generation ( 2000s–present ) is exemplified by country singer Carrie Underwood . The influence of rock music in country has become more overt during the late 2000s and early 2010s . Attempts to combine punk and country were pioneered by Jason and the Scorchers , and in the 1980s Southern Californian cowpunk scene with bands like the Long Ryders . Hip-hop also made its mark on country music with the emergence of country rap . Most of the best-selling country songs of this era however were in the country pop genre , such as those by Lady Antebellum , Florida Georgia Line , and Taylor Swift . First generation ( 1920s ) Atlanta 's music scene played a major role in launching country 's earliest recording artists in the early 1920s—many Appalachian people had come to the city to work in its cotton mills and brought their music with them . It would remain a major recording center for two decades and a major performance center for four decades , up to the first country music TV shows on local Atlanta stations in the 1950s . Some record companies in Atlanta turned away early artists such as Fiddlin ' John Carson , while others realized that his music would fit perfectly with the lifestyle of the country 's agricultural workers . The first commercial recordings of what was considered country music were `` Arkansas Traveler '' and `` Turkey in the Straw '' by fiddlers Henry Gilliland & A.C. ( Eck ) Robertson on June 30 , 1922 , for Victor Records and released in April 1923 . Columbia Records began issuing records with `` hillbilly '' music ( series 15000D `` Old Familiar Tunes '' ) as early as 1924 . A year later , on June 14 , 1923 , Fiddlin ' John Carson recorded `` Little Log Cabin in the Lane '' for Okeh Records . Vernon Dalhart was the first country singer to have a nationwide hit in May 1924 with `` Wreck of the Old 97 '' . The flip side of the record was `` Lonesome Road Blues '' , which also became very popular . In April 1924 , `` Aunt '' Samantha Bumgarner and Eva Davis became the first female musicians to record and release country songs . Many `` hillbilly '' musicians , such as Cliff Carlisle , recorded blues songs throughout the decade and into the 1930s . Other important early recording artists were Riley Puckett , Don Richardson , Fiddlin ' John Carson , Uncle Dave Macon , Al Hopkins , Ernest V. Stoneman , Charlie Poole and the North Carolina Ramblers and The Skillet Lickers . The steel guitar entered country music as early as 1922 , when Jimmie Tarlton met famed Hawaiian guitarist Frank Ferera on the West Coast . Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family are widely considered to be important early country musicians . Their songs were first captured at a historic recording session in Bristol , Tennessee , on August 1 , 1927 , where Ralph Peer was the talent scout and sound recordist . A scene in the movie O Brother , Where Art Thou ? depicts a similar occurrence in the same timeframe . Rodgers fused hillbilly country , gospel , jazz , blues , pop , cowboy , and folk , and many of his best songs were his compositions , including `` Blue Yodel '' , which sold over a million records and established Rodgers as the premier singer of early country music . Beginning in 1927 , and for the next 17 years , the Carters recorded some 300 old-time ballads , traditional tunes , country songs and gospel hymns , all representative of America 's southeastern folklore and heritage . Second generation ( 1930s–1940s ) Record sales declined during the Great Depression , but radio became a popular source of entertainment , and `` barn dance '' shows featuring country music were started by radio stations all over the South , as far north as Chicago , and as far west as California . The most important was the Grand Ole Opry , aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day . Some of the early stars on the Opry were Uncle Dave Macon , Roy Acuff and African American harmonica player DeFord Bailey . WSM 's 50,000-watt signal ( in 1934 ) could often be heard across the country . Many musicians performed and recorded songs in any number of styles . Moon Mullican , for example , played Western swing but also recorded songs that can be called rockabilly . Between 1947 and 1949 , country crooner Eddy Arnold placed eight songs in the top 10 . From 1945 to 1955 Jenny Lou Carson was one of the most prolific songwriters in country music . Singing cowboys and Western swing During the 1930s and 1940s , cowboy songs , or Western music , which had been recorded since the 1920s , were popularized by films made in Hollywood . Some of the popular singing cowboys from the era were Gene Autry , the Sons of the Pioneers , and Roy Rogers . Country music and western music were frequently played together on the same radio stations , hence the term country and western music . And it was n't only cowboys ; cowgirls contributed to the sound in various family groups . Patsy Montana opened the door for female artists with her history-making song `` I Want To Be a Cowboy 's Sweetheart '' . This would begin a movement toward opportunities for women to have successful solo careers . Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a `` hot string band , '' and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns . His mix of country and jazz , which started out as dance hall music , would become known as Western swing . Cliff Bruner , Moon Mullican , Milton Brown and Adolph Hofner were other early Western swing pioneers . Spade Cooley and Tex Williams also had very popular bands and appeared in films . At its height , Western swing rivaled the popularity of big band swing music . Changing instrumentation Drums were scorned by early country musicians as being `` too loud '' and `` not pure '' , but by 1935 Western swing big band leader Bob Wills had added drums to the Texas Playboys . In the mid-1940s , the Grand Ole Opry did not want the Playboys ' drummer to appear on stage . Although drums were commonly used by rockabilly groups by 1955 , the less-conservative-than-the-Grand Ole Opry Louisiana Hayride kept its infrequently used drummer back stage as late as 1956 . By the early 1960s , however , it was rare that a country band did n't have a drummer . Bob Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band , in 1938 . A decade later ( 1948 ) Arthur Smith achieved top 10 US country chart success with his MGM Records recording of `` Guitar Boogie '' , which crossed over to the US pop chart , introducing many people to the potential of the electric guitar . For several decades Nashville session players preferred the warm tones of the Gibson and Gretsch archtop electrics , but a `` hot '' Fender style , using guitars which became available beginning in the early 1950s , eventually prevailed as the signature guitar sound of country . Hillbilly boogie Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939 , shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall , when Johnny Barfield recorded `` Boogie Woogie '' . The trickle of what was initially called hillbilly boogie , or okie boogie ( later to be renamed country boogie ) , became a flood beginning in late 1945 . One notable release from this period was The Delmore Brothers ' `` Freight Train Boogie '' , considered to be part of the combined evolution of country music and blues towards rockabilly . In 1948 , Arthur `` Guitar Boogie '' Smith achieved top ten US country chart success with his MGM Records recordings of `` Guitar Boogie '' and `` Banjo Boogie '' , with the former crossing over to the US pop charts . Other country boogie artists included Moon Mullican , Merrill Moore and Tennessee Ernie Ford . The hillbilly boogie period lasted into the 1950s and remains one of many subgenres of country into the 21st century . Bluegrass , folk and gospel By the end of World War II , `` mountaineer '' string band music known as bluegrass had emerged when Bill Monroe joined with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs , introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry . Gospel music , too , remained a popular component of country music . Red Foley , the biggest country star following World War II , had one of the first million-selling gospel hits ( `` Peace in the Valley '' ) and also sang boogie , blues and rockabilly . In the post-war period , country music was called `` folk '' in the trades , and `` hillbilly '' within the industry . In 1944 , The Billboard replaced the term `` hillbilly '' with `` folk songs and blues , '' and switched to `` country '' or `` country and Western '' in 1949 . Honky Tonk Another type of stripped down and raw music with a variety of moods and a basic ensemble of guitar , bass , dobro or steel guitar ( and later ) drums became popular , especially among poor whites in Texas and Oklahoma . It became known as honky tonk and had its roots in Western swing and the ranchera music of Mexico and the border states , particularly Texas , together with the blues of the American South . Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys personified this music which has been described as `` a little bit of this , and a little bit of that , a little bit of black and a little bit of white ... just loud enough to keep you from thinking too much and to go right on ordering the whiskey . '' East Texan Al Dexter had a hit with `` Honky Tonk Blues '' , and seven years later `` Pistol Packin ' Mama '' . These `` honky tonk '' songs associated barrooms , were performed by the likes of Ernest Tubb , Kitty Wells ( the first major female country solo singer ) , Ted Daffan , Floyd Tillman , and the Maddox Brothers and Rose , Lefty Frizzell and Hank Williams , would later be called `` traditional '' country . Williams ' influence in particular would prove to be enormous , inspiring many of the pioneers of rock and roll , such as Elvis Presley and Jerry Lee Lewis , as well as Chuck Berry and Ike Turner , while providing a framework for emerging honky tonk talents like George Jones . Webb Pierce was the top-charting country artist of the 1950s , with 13 of his singles spending 113 weeks at number one . He charted 48 singles during the decade ; 31 reached the top ten and 26 reached the top four . Third generation ( 1950s–1960s ) By the early 1950s a blend of Western swing , country boogie , and honky tonk was played by most country bands . Western music , influenced by the cowboy ballads and Tejano music rhythms of the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico , reached its peak in popularity in the late 1950s , most notably with the song `` El Paso '' , first recorded by Marty Robbins in September 1959 . The country music scene largely kept the music of the folk revival and folk rock at a distance , despite the similarity in instrumentation and origins ( see , for instance , The Byrds ' negative reception during their appearance on the Grand Ole Opry ) . The main concern was politics : the folk revival was largely driven by progressive activists , a stark contrast to the culturally conservative audiences of country music . Only a handful of folk artists , such as Burl Ives , John Denver and Canadian musician Gordon Lightfoot , would cross over into country music after the folk revival died out . During the mid-1950s a new style of country music became popular , eventually to be referred to as rockabilly . Rockabilly Rockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s , and 1956 could be called the year of rockabilly in country music . Rockabilly was an early form of rock and roll , an upbeat combination of blues and country music . The number two , three and four songs on Billboard 's charts for that year were Elvis Presley , `` Heartbreak Hotel '' ; Johnny Cash , `` I Walk the Line '' ; and Carl Perkins , `` Blue Suede Shoes '' . Cash and Presley placed songs in the top 5 in 1958 with No . 3 `` Guess Things Happen That Way/Come In , Stranger '' by Cash , and No . 5 by Presley `` Don't/I Beg of You . '' Presley acknowledged the influence of rhythm and blues artists and his style , saying `` The colored folk been singin ' and playin ' it just the way I 'm doin ' it now , man for more years than I know . '' But he also said , `` My stuff is just hopped-up country . '' Within a few years , many rockabilly musicians returned to a more mainstream style or had defined their own unique style . Country music gained national television exposure through Ozark Jubilee on ABC-TV and radio from 1955 to 1960 from Springfield , Missouri . The program showcased top stars including several rockabilly artists , some from the Ozarks . As Webb Pierce put it in 1956 , `` Once upon a time , it was almost impossible to sell country music in a place like New York City . Nowadays , television takes us everywhere , and country music records and sheet music sell as well in large cities as anywhere else . '' The late 1950s saw the emergence of Buddy Holly , but by the end of the decade , backlash as well as traditional artists such as Ray Price , Marty Robbins , and Johnny Horton began to shift the industry away from the rock n ' roll influences of the mid-1950s . The Nashville and countrypolitan sounds Beginning in the mid-1950s , and reaching its peak during the early 1960s , the Nashville sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville , Tennessee . Under the direction of producers such as Chet Atkins , Paul Cohen , Owen Bradley , Bob Ferguson , and later Billy Sherrill , the sound brought country music to a diverse audience and helped revive country as it emerged from a commercially fallow period . This subgenre was notable for borrowing from 1950s pop stylings : a prominent and smooth vocal , backed by a string section and vocal chorus . Instrumental soloing was de-emphasized in favor of trademark `` licks '' . Leading artists in this genre included Jim Reeves , Skeeter Davis , The Browns , Patsy Cline , and Eddy Arnold . The `` slip note '' piano style of session musician Floyd Cramer was an important component of this style . Nashville 's pop song structure became more pronounced and it morphed into what was called countrypolitan . Countrypolitan was aimed straight at mainstream markets , and it sold well throughout the later 1960s into the early 1970s ( a rarity in an era where American popular music was being decimated by the British Invasion ) . Top artists included Tammy Wynette , Lynn Anderson and Charlie Rich , as well as such former `` hard country '' artists as Ray Price and Marty Robbins . Despite the appeal of the Nashville sound , many traditional country artists emerged during this period and dominated the genre : Loretta Lynn , Merle Haggard , Buck Owens , Porter Wagoner , and Sonny James among them . Country soul - crossover In 1962 , Ray Charles surprised the pop world by turning his attention to country and western music , topping the charts and rating number three for the year on Billboard 's pop chart with the `` I Ca n't Stop Loving You '' single , and recording the landmark album Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music . The Bakersfield sound Another genre of country music grew out of hardcore honky tonk with elements of Western swing and originated 112 mi north-northwest of Los Angeles in Bakersfield , California . Influenced by one-time West Coast residents Bob Wills and Lefty Frizzell , by 1966 it was known as the Bakersfield sound . It relied on electric instruments and amplification , in particular the Telecaster electric guitar , more than other subgenres of country of the era , and can be described as having a sharp , hard , driving , no-frills , edgy flavor . Leading practitioners of this style were Buck Owens , Merle Haggard , Tommy Collins , Gary Allan , and Wynn Stewart , each of whom had his own style . Decline of Western music and the cowboy ballad By the late 1960s , Western music , in particular the cowboy ballad , was in decline . Relegated to the `` country and Western '' genre by marketing agencies , popular Western recording stars released albums to only moderate success . Rock-and-roll artists got hit songs , but Western artists also got country hits . The latter was largely limited to Buck Owens , Merle Haggard , and a few other bands . In the process , country and western music as a genre lost most of its southwestern , ranchera , and Tejano musical influences . However the cowboy ballad and honky-tonk music would be resurrected and reinterpreted in the 1970s with the growth in popularity of `` outlaw country '' music from Texas and Oklahoma . Fourth generation ( 1970s–1980s ) Outlaw country Derived from the traditional Western and honky tonk musical styles of the late 1950s and 1960s , including Ray Price ( whose band , the `` Cherokee Cowboys '' , included Willie Nelson and Roger Miller ) and mixed with the anger of an alienated subculture of the nation during the period , outlaw country revolutionized the genre of country music . `` After I left Nashville ( the early 70s ) , I wanted to relax and play the music that I wanted to play , and just stay around Texas , maybe Oklahoma . Waylon and I had that outlaw image going , and when it caught on at colleges and we started selling records , we were O.K . The whole outlaw thing , it had nothing to do with the music , it was something that got written in an article , and the young people said , 'Well , that 's pretty cool . ' And started listening . '' ( Willie Nelson ) The term outlaw country is traditionally associated with Hank Williams , Jr. , Willie Nelson , Waylon Jennings , David Allan Coe , Whitey Morgan and the 78 's , John Prine , Billy Joe Shaver , Gary Stewart , Townes Van Zandt , Kris Kristofferson , Michael Martin Murphey , and the later career renaissance of Johnny Cash , with a few female vocalists such as Jessi Colter and Sammi Smith . It was encapsulated in the 1976 album Wanted ! The Outlaws . A related subgenre is Red Dirt . Country pop Country pop or soft pop , with roots in the countrypolitan sound , folk music , and soft rock , is a subgenre that first emerged in the 1970s . Although the term first referred to country music songs and artists that crossed over to top 40 radio , country pop acts are now more likely to cross over to adult contemporary music . It started with pop music singers like Glen Campbell , Bobbie Gentry , John Denver , Olivia Newton-John , Anne Murray , Marie Osmond , B. J. Thomas , The Bellamy Brothers , and Linda Ronstadt having hits on the country charts . Between 1972 and 1975 , singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles ( `` Rocky Mountain High '' , `` Sunshine on My Shoulders '' , `` Annie 's Song '' , `` Thank God I 'm a Country Boy '' , and `` I 'm Sorry '' ) , and was named Country Music Entertainer of the Year in 1975 . The year before , Olivia Newton-John , an Australian pop singer , won the `` Best Female Country Vocal Performance '' as well as the Country Music Association 's most coveted award for females , `` Female Vocalist of the Year '' . In response George Jones , Tammy Wynette , and other traditional Nashville country artists dissatisfied with the new trend formed the short-lived Association of Country Entertainers in 1974 . During the mid-1970s , Dolly Parton , a successful mainstream country artist since the late 1960s , mounted a high profile campaign to cross over to pop music , culminating in her 1977 hit `` Here You Come Again '' , which topped the U.S. country singles chart , and also reached No . 3 on the pop singles charts . Parton 's male counterpart , Kenny Rogers , came from the opposite direction , aiming his music at the country charts , after a successful career in pop , rock and folk music , achieving success the same year with `` Lucille '' , which topped the country charts and reached No . 5 on the U.S. pop singles charts , as well as reaching Number 1 on the British all-genre chart . Parton and Rogers would both continue to have success on both country and pop charts simultaneously , well into the 1980s . Artists like Crystal Gayle , Ronnie Milsap and Barbara Mandrell would also find success on the pop charts with their records . In 1975 , author Paul Hemphill stated in the Saturday Evening Post , `` Country music is n't really country anymore ; it is a hybrid of nearly every form of popular music in America . '' During the early 1980s , country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts . Willie Nelson and Juice Newton each had two songs in the top 5 of the Billboard Hot 100 in the early eighties : Nelson

sfq_17955--Country_music.txt

Which female country and Western singer died in a plane crash in Tennessee in 1963?

The Coat of Arms of the Isle of Man dates from 12 July 1996 . As the Isle of Man is a Crown dependency , the arms are more accurately described as the Arms of Her Majesty in right of the Isle of Man . The coat of arms—featuring a triskeles—is based upon the traditional coat of arms associated with island which first appears on record in the late thirteenth century . The origin of the triskeles is obscure but appears to stemmed from the Scottish takeover of the island at this point in history . The heraldic supporters are birds associated with the island , whilst the motto first appears on record in the seventeenth century . Description The coat of arms was granted by Elizabeth II , Lord of Man , on 12 July 1996 . The escutcheon is blazoned : gules a triskele argent garnished and spurred or . The crest is blazoned : an imperial crown proper . The supporters are blazoned : dexter a peregrine falcon and sinister a raven both proper . The motto is : Quocunque Jeceris Stabit . The heraldic device of the triskele or triskeles has been associated with the Isle of Man for centuries . The supporters are symbolically associated with the island as well . In 1405 , Henry IV , King of England gave the Isle of Man to John Stanley . The latter gave Henry two peregrine falcons , and was to provide every future English king the same on his coronation . On the coronation of George III in 1822 , the latter was presented with two falcons . The raven is a bird strongly associated with Norse mythology , and appears in numerous place names on the island . The Latin motto Quocunque Jeceris Stabit can be translated as `` whithersoever you throw it , it will stand '' , or `` whichever way you throw , it will stand '' . The motto dates to the seventeenth century , where it is first recorded on Manx coinage dating to the year 1668 . Origin The coat of arms an augmented form of the traditional arms associated with the island . It is unknown when the triskeles was originally adopted as a symbol in a Manx context . It appears associated with the island in several late thirteenth-century armorials such as : Camden Roll , Herald 's Roll , Segar 's Roll , Walford 's Roll , and Wijnbergen Roll ( all which date within the last three decades of the century ) . Just before this period in history , the island formed part of the Kingdom of the Isles , ruled by the Crovan dynasty . The last member of this ruling family died in 1265 without a legitimate heir . The island then passed into the possession of Alexander III , King of Scotland ( died 1286 ) . In 1266 , sovereignty of the Isle of Man and the Hebrides was formally transferred from the Norwegian Crown to the Scottish Crown . There is no evidence that the Crovan dynasty utilised the triskeles as a heraldic device . Instead , members of this family are known to have born ships and lions on their seals . Although it is possible that the origin of the Manx triskeles lies in a symbol depicted upon the coinage of their tenth-century Viking antecessors on the island , this particular knotted device is dissimilar to the Manx triskeles , and the nearly three-century gap between its use and the appearance of the Manx triskeles suggests that there is no connection between the symbols . The appearance of the triskeles in the last third of the thirteenth century may well be connected with the aforesaid regime change on the island . The symbol is otherwise closely associated with Sicily , and is attested there as early as the seventh century BC . In 1250 , Frederick III , Holy Roman Emperor , died after having ruled this island for fifty-two years . Four years later , the papal legate invested the Sicilian kingship in Edmund ( died 1296 ) , the young son of Henry III , King of England ( died 1272 ) , and for about ten years afterwards Edmund was styled `` King of Sicily '' . Alexander III 's wife , Margaret ( died 1275 ) , was a daughter of Henry . This familial connection between the English and Scottish royal families could account for the introduction of the triskeles as a symbol of the Isle of Man . If so , it could well have been adopted as a means to reinforce the regime change on the island . Although there is no evidence that the triskeles was used on Sicily itself in the thirteenth century , there is architectural evidence of its use in Austria at this time . Such evidence is almost certainly associated with Frederick himself , and almost certainly stems from his Sicilian connections .

tb_1113--Coat_of_arms_of_the_Isle_of_Man.txt

A 'triskelion', a symbol consisting of three bent human legs is featured on the flag of which British crown dependency?

The MMR vaccine ( also known as the MPR-vaccine after the Latin names of the diseases ) is an immunization vaccine against measles , mumps , and rubella ( German measles ) . It is a mixture of live attenuated viruses of the three diseases , administered via injection . It was first developed by Maurice Hilleman while at Merck . A licensed vaccine to prevent measles first became available in 1963 , and an improved one in 1968 . Vaccines for mumps and rubella became available in 1967 and 1969 , respectively . The three vaccines ( for mumps , measles , and rubella ) were combined in 1971 to become the measles-mumps-rubella ( MMR ) vaccine . The MMR vaccine is generally administered to children around the age of one year , with a second dose before starting school ( i.e . age 4/5 ) . The second dose is a dose to produce immunity in the small number of persons ( 2–5 % ) who fail to develop measles immunity after the first dose . In the United States , the vaccine was licensed in 1971 and the second dose was introduced in 1989 . It is widely used around the world ; since introduction of its earliest versions in the 1970s , over 500 million doses have been used in over 60 countries . The vaccine is sold by Merck as M-M-R II , GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals as Priorix , Serum Institute of India as Tresivac , and Sanofi Pasteur as Trimovax . It is usually considered a childhood vaccination . However , it is also recommended for use in some cases of adults with HIV . Effectiveness Before the widespread use of a vaccine against measles , its incidence was so high that infection with measles was felt to be `` as inevitable as death and taxes . '' Reported cases of measles in the United States fell from hundreds of thousands to tens of thousands per year following introduction of the vaccine in 1963 . Increasing uptake of the vaccine following outbreaks in 1971 and 1977 brought this down to thousands of cases per year in the 1980s . An outbreak of almost 30,000 cases in 1990 led to a renewed push for vaccination and the addition of a second vaccine to the recommended schedule . Fewer than 200 cases have been reported each year between 1997 and 2013 , and the disease is no longer considered endemic . The benefit of measles vaccination in preventing illness , disability , and death has been well documented . The first 20 years of licensed measles vaccination in the U.S. prevented an estimated 52 million cases of the disease , 17,400 cases of intellectual disability , and 5,200 deaths . During 1999–2004 , a strategy led by the World Health Organization and UNICEF led to improvements in measles vaccination coverage that averted an estimated 1.4 million measles deaths worldwide . Between 2000 and 2013 , measles vaccination resulted in a 75 % decrease in deaths from the disease . Measles is endemic worldwide . Although it was declared eliminated from the U.S. in 2000 , high rates of vaccination and good communication with persons who refuse vaccination are needed to prevent outbreaks and sustain the elimination of measles in the U.S. Of the 66 cases of measles reported in the U.S. in 2005 , slightly over half were attributable to one unvaccinated individual who acquired measles during a visit to Romania . This individual returned to a community with many unvaccinated children . The resulting outbreak infected 34 people , mostly children and virtually all unvaccinated ; 9 % were hospitalized , and the cost of containing the outbreak was estimated at $ 167,685 . A major epidemic was averted due to high rates of vaccination in the surrounding communities . Mumps is another viral disease of childhood that was once very common . If mumps is acquired by a male who is past puberty , a possible complication is bilateral orchitis which can in some cases lead to sterility . Rubella , otherwise known as German measles , was also very common before the advent of widespread vaccination . The major risk of rubella is in pregnancy . If a pregnant woman is infected , her baby may contract congenital rubella from her , which can cause significant congenital defects . The combined MMR vaccine was introduced to induce immunity less painfully than three separate injections at the same time , and sooner and more efficiently than three injections given on different dates . In 2012 , the Cochrane Library published a systematic review of scientific studies . Its authors concluded , `` Existing evidence on the safety and effectiveness of MMR vaccine supports current policies of mass immunisation aimed at global measles eradication and in order to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with mumps and rubella . '' As measles and rubella cause upper respiratory disease that leads to complications of pneumonia and bronchitis which are also caused by varicella , MMR vaccine is beneficial to control exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) and asthma . Development , formulation and administration The component viral strains of MMR vaccine were developed by propagation in animal and human cells . The live viruses require animal or human cells as a host for production of more virus . For example , in the case of mumps and measles viruses , the virus strains were grown in embryonated hens ' eggs and chick embryo cell cultures . This produced strains of virus which were adapted for the hens egg and less well-suited for human cells . These strains are therefore called attenuated strains . They are sometimes referred to as neuroattenuated because these strains are less virulent to human neurons than the wild strains . The Rubella component , Meruvax , was developed in 1967 through propagation using the human embryonic lung cell line WI-38 ( named for the Wistar Institute ) that was derived 6 years earlier in 1961 . MMR II is supplied freeze-dried ( lyophilized ) and contains live viruses . Before injection it is reconstituted with the solvent provided . The MMR vaccine is administered by a subcutaneous injection.The second dose may be given as early as one month after the first dose . The second dose is a dose to produce immunity in the small number of persons ( 2–5 % ) who fail to develop measles immunity after the first dose . In the U.S. it is done before entry to kindergarten because that is a convenient time . Safety Adverse reactions , rarely serious , may occur from each component of the MMR vaccine . Ten percent of children develop fever , malaise , and a rash 5–21 days after the first vaccination ; and 3 % develop joint pain lasting 18 days on average . Older women appear to be more at risk of joint pain , acute arthritis , and even ( rarely ) chronic arthritis . Anaphylaxis is an extremely rare but serious allergic reaction to the vaccine . One cause can be egg allergy . In 2014 , the FDA approved two additional possible adverse events on the vaccination label for ADEM ( acute disseminated encephalomyelitis ) , and transverse myelitis , with permission to also add `` difficulty walking '' to the package inserts . The number of reports on neurological disorders is very small , other than evidence for an association between a form of the MMR vaccine containing the Urabe mumps strain and rare adverse events of aseptic meningitis , a transient mild form of viral meningitis . The UK National Health Service stopped using the Urabe mumps strain in the early 1990s due to cases of transient mild viral meningitis , and switched to a form using the Jeryl Lynn mumps strain instead . The Urabe strain remains in use in a number of countries ; MMR with the Urabe strain is much cheaper to manufacture than with the Jeryl Lynn strain , and a strain with higher efficacy along with a somewhat higher rate of mild side effects may still have the advantage of reduced incidence of overall adverse events . The Cochrane Library review found that , compared with placebo , MMR vaccine was associated with fewer upper respiratory tract infections , more irritability , and a similar number of other adverse effects . Naturally acquired measles often occurs with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura ( ITP , a purpuric rash and an increased tendency to bleed that resolves within two months in children ) . Between 1 in 25,000 and 1 in 40,000 children are thought to acquire ITP in the six weeks following an MMR vaccination , which is a higher rate than found in unvaccinated populations . ITP below the age of 6 years is generally a mild disease , rarely having long-term consequences . Claims about autism In 1998 Andrew Wakefield et al . published a fraudulent paper about twelve children , reportedly with bowel symptoms and autism , or other disorders soon after administration of MMR vaccine . In 2010 , Wakefield 's research was found by the General Medical Council to have been `` dishonest '' , and The Lancet fully retracted the paper . Three months following The Lancet 's retraction , Wakefield was struck off the UK medical register , with a statement identifying deliberate falsification in the research published in The Lancet , and was barred from practising medicine in the UK . The research was declared fraudulent in 2011 by the British Medical Journal . Many peer-reviewed studies have failed to show any association between the vaccine and autism . The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences , the UK National Health Service and the Cochrane Library review have all concluded that there is no evidence of a link . Administering the vaccines in three separate doses does not reduce the chance of adverse effects , and it increases the opportunity for infection by the two diseases not immunized against first . Health experts have criticized media reporting of the MMR-autism controversy for triggering a decline in vaccination rates . Before publication of Wakefield 's findings , the inoculation rate for MMR in the UK was 92 % ; after publication , the rate dropped to below 80 % . In 1998 , there were 56 measles cases in the UK ; by 2008 , there were 1348 cases , with two confirmed deaths . In Japan , the MMR vaccination has been discontinued , with single vaccines being used for each disease ( or in practice the vaccines are given as two doses . One a combination vaccine for Measles and Rubella MR and the other Mumps vaccine being given as a single dose ) . Rates of autism diagnosis have continued to increase , showing no correlation with the change . In the United States , a number of celebrities have become anti-vaccination spokespeople . Some notable examples are : . These include actors Jenny McCarthy , and Jim Carrey , as well as Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump . MMRV vaccine The MMRV vaccine , a combined measles , mumps , rubella and varicella vaccine , has been proposed as a replacement for the MMR vaccine to simplify administration of the vaccines . Preliminary data indicate a rate of fever fits of 9 per 10,000 vaccinations with MMRV , as opposed to 4 per 10,000 for separate MMR and varicella shots ; U.S. health officials therefore do not express a preference for use of MMRV vaccine over separate injections . In a 2012 study pediatricians and family doctors were sent a survey to gauge their awareness of the increased risk of febrile seizures ( fever fits ) in the MMRV . 74 % of family doctors and 29 % of pediatricians were unaware of the increased risk of febrile seizures . After reading an informational statement only 7 % of family doctors and 20 % of pediatricians would recommend the MMRV for a healthy 12- to 15-month-old child . The factor that was reported as the `` most important '' deciding factor in recommending the MMRV over the MMR+V was ACIP/AAFP/AAP recommendations ( pediatricians , 77 % ; family physicians , 73 % ) .

qb_779--MMR_vaccine.txt

In medicine the MMR vaccination gives protection against which diseases?

Frank Hampson ( 21 December 1918 – 8 July 1985 ) was a British illustrator , best known as the creator and artist of Dan Dare and other characters in the boys ' comic , the Eagle , to which he contributed from 1950 to 1961 . He wrote and drew Dan Dare 's Venus and Red Moon stories , plus a complete storyline for Operation Saturn . However , Hampson drew only part of the Saturn story and his script was altered when he passed the strip to assistants . Biography Hampson was born at 488 Audenshaw Road , Audenshaw , near to Manchester ( now Tameside ) , and was educated at King George V School , a grammar school in Southport . His brother Eric was killed in a naval action during the Second World War . He married Dorothy Mabel Jackson in 1944 and in 1947 they had a son , Peter . In 1949 , in collaboration with Christian vicar Rev . Marcus Morris , he devised a new children 's magazine , the Eagle , which Morris took to the Hulton Press . In April the following year , a revised version of the Eagle hit the bookstalls . Its most popular strip was Hampson 's creation Dan Dare , Pilot of the Future . Like Alex Raymond and Milton Caniff in the U.S. , Hampson instigated a studio system where , from his home in Epsom , Surrey , as many as four artists might work on two pages of the strip at any one time . When Hulton Press was bought up in 1959 , and the Eagle moved to a new publisher , Hampson 's studio system was disbanded due to its cost . He drew The Road of Courage , a carefully researched and meticulously crafted telling of the life of Jesus , with the help of his longtime assistant , Joan Porter , which concluded at Easter 1961 . Hampson then began to devise seven other strip cartoon ideas , which he intended to offer to the Eagle . Partly through his own mismanagement ( he told no-one what he was doing ) Longacre Press accused him of breach of contract . He was forced to resign , his new strips were impounded by the legal department , and he rarely drew for comics again . The remainder of Hampson 's life was spent working as a freelance commercial artist for various publications including Ladybird Books : one such book was ' The Stories of our Christmas Customs ' , 1964 , Series 664 , written by N.F.Pearson .. Hampson was voted Prestigioso Maestro at an international convention of strip cartoon and animated film artists held at Lucca , Tuscany in 1975 . A jury of his peers gave him a Yellow Kid Award and declared him to be the best writer and artist of strip cartoons since the end of the Second World War . In 1978 he graduated from the Open University . He celebrated by drawing a Dan Dare strip for the University 's internal magazine . The punch line of the script involved the University getting an application from Dare 's nemesis The Mekon . In ailing health , Hampson died from a stroke and the lingering effects of throat cancer in July 1985 , in Surrey , England .

sfq_1981--Frank_Hampson.txt

Which comic strip character was created in the early fifties by the Southport artist Frank Hampson?

Russia ( ; ) , also officially known as the Russian Federation ( ) , is a sovereign state in northern Eurasia . At 17075200 km2 , Russia is the largest country in the world , covering more than one eighth of Earth 's inhabited land area , and the ninth most populous , with over 146.6 million people at the end of March 2016 . Extending across the entirety of northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe , Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms . From northwest to southeast , Russia shares land borders with Norway , Finland , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania and Poland ( both with Kaliningrad Oblast ) , Belarus , Ukraine , Georgia , Azerbaijan , Kazakhstan , China , Mongolia , and North Korea . It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait . The nation 's history began with that of the East Slavs , who emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD . Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants , the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century . In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire , beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium . Rus ' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states ; most of the Rus ' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century . The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities , achieved independence from the Golden Horde , and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus ' . By the 18th century , the nation had greatly expanded through conquest , annexation , and exploration to become the Russian Empire , which was the third largest empire in history , stretching from Poland in Europe to Alaska in North America . Following the Russian Revolution , the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , the world 's first constitutionally socialist state . The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II , and emerged as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War . The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century , including the world 's first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space . By the end of 1990 , the Soviet Union had the world 's second largest economy , largest standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction . Following the partition of the Soviet Union in 1991 , fourteen independent republics emerged from the USSR ; as the largest , most populous , and most economically developed republic , the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as the continuing legal personality and sole successor state of the Soviet Union . It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic . The Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015 . Russia 's extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world , making it one of the leading producers of oil and natural gas globally . The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction . Russia is a great power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council , as well as a member of the G20 , the Council of Europe , the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) , the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation ( SCO ) , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe ( OSCE ) , and the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , as well as being the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ) , the Collective Security Treaty Organization ( CSTO ) and one of the five members of the Eurasian Economic Union ( EEU ) , along with Armenia , Belarus , Kazakhstan , and Kyrgyzstan . Etymology The name Russia is derived from Rus , a medieval state populated mostly by the East Slavs . However , this proper name became more prominent in the later history , and the country typically was called by its inhabitants `` Русская Земля '' ( russkaja zemlja ) , which can be translated as `` Russian Land '' or `` Land of Rus ' '' . In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it , it is denoted as Kievan Rus ' by modern historiography . The name Rus itself comes from Rus people , a group of Varangians ( possibly Swedish Vikings ) who founded the state of Rus ( Русь ) . An old Latin version of the name Rus ' was Ruthenia , mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus ' that were adjacent to Catholic Europe . The current name of the country , Россия ( Rossija ) , comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus ' , Ρωσσία Rossía—spelt Ρωσία ( Rosía ) in Modern Greek . The standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is `` Russians '' . History Prehistory Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic-Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic . In classical antiquity , the Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia . Beginning in the 8th century BC , Ancient Greek traders brought their civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria . The Romans settled on the western part of the Caspian Sea , where their empire stretched towards the east . In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD a semi-legendary Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in Southern Russia until it was overrun by Huns . Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD , the Bosporan Kingdom , a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greek colonies , was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes , such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars . A Turkic people , the Khazars , ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas until the 10th century . The ancestors of modern Russians are the Slavic tribes , whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pinsk Marshes . The East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves : one moving from Kiev toward present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk toward Novgorod and Rostov . From the 7th century onwards , the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia and assimilated the native Finno-Ugric peoples , including the Merya , the Muromians , and the Meshchera . Kievan Rus ' The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians , the traders , warriors and settlers from the Baltic Sea region . Primarily they were Vikings of Scandinavian origin , who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas . According to the Primary Chronicle , a Varangian from Rus ' people , named Rurik , was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862 . In 882 his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev , which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars , founding Kievan Rus ' . Oleg , Rurik 's son Igor and Igor 's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule , destroyed the Khazar khaganate and launched several military expeditions to Byzantium and Persia . In the 10th to 11th centuries Kievan Rus ' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe . The reigns of Vladimir the Great ( 980–1015 ) and his son Yaroslav the Wise ( 1019–1054 ) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev , which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code , the Russkaya Pravda . In the 11th and 12th centuries , constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes , such as the Kipchaks and the Pechenegs , caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer , heavily forested regions of the north , particularly to the area known as Zalesye . The age of feudalism and decentralization was marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik Dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus ' collectively . Kiev 's dominance waned , to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east , Novgorod Republic in the north-west and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west . Ultimately Kievan Rus ' disintegrated , with the final blow being the Mongol invasion of 1237–40 that resulted in the destruction of Kiev and the death of about half the population of Rus ' . The invading Mongol elite , together with their conquered Turkic subjects ( Cumans , Kipchaks , Bulgars ) , became known as Tatars , forming the state of the Golden Horde , which pillaged the Russian principalities ; the Mongols ruled the Cuman-Kipchak confederation and Volga Bulgaria ( modern-day southern and central expanses of Russia ) for over two centuries . Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the Kingdom of Poland , while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod Republic , two regions on the periphery of Kiev , established the basis for the modern Russian nation . The Novgorod together with Pskov retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the Mongol yoke and were largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country . Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky , Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240 , as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle of the Ice in 1242 , breaking their attempts to colonize the Northern Rus ' . Grand Duchy of Moscow The most powerful state to eventually arise after the destruction of Kievan Rus ' was the Grand Duchy of Moscow ( `` Muscovy '' in the Western chronicles ) , initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal . While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance , Moscow began to assert its influence in the Central Rus ' in the early 14th century , gradually becoming the leading force in the process of the Rus ' lands ' reunification and expansion of Russia . Moscow 's last rival , the Novgorod Republic , prospered as the chief fur trade center and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League . Times remained difficult , with frequent Mongol-Tatar raids . Agriculture suffered from the beginning of the Little Ice Age . As in the rest of Europe , plague was a frequent occurrence between 1350 and 1490 . However , because of the lower population density and better hygiene—widespread practicing of banya , a wet steam bath—the death rate from plague was not as severe as in Western Europe , and population numbers recovered by 1500 . Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow and helped by the Russian Orthodox Church , the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 . Moscow gradually absorbed the surrounding principalities , including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod . Ivan III ( `` the Great '' ) finally threw off the control of the Golden Horde and consolidated the whole of Central and Northern Rus ' under Moscow 's dominion , He was also the first to take the title `` Grand Duke of all the Russias '' . After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 , Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire . Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina , the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI , and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own , and eventually Russia 's , coat-of-arms . Tsardom of Russia In development of the Third Rome ideas , the Grand Duke Ivan IV ( the `` Terrible '' ) was officially crowned the first Tsar ( `` Caesar '' ) of Russia in 1547 . The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws ( Sudebnik of 1550 ) , established the first Russian feudal representative body ( Zemsky Sobor ) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions . During his long reign , Ivan the Terrible nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates ( parts of the disintegrated Golden Horde ) : Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River , and the Siberian Khanate in southwestern Siberia . Thus , by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a multiethnic , multidenominational and transcontinental state . However , the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of Poland , Lithuania , and Sweden for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade . At the same time , the Tatars of the Crimean Khanate , the only remaining successor to the Golden Horde , continued to raid Southern Russia . In an effort to restore the Volga khanates , Crimeans and their Ottoman allies invaded central Russia and were even able to burn down parts of Moscow in 1571 . But in the next year the large invading army was thoroughly defeated by Russians in the Battle of Molodi , forever eliminating the threat of an Ottoman–Crimean expansion into Russia . The slave raids of Crimeans , however , did not cease until the late 17th century though the construction of new fortification lines across Southern Russia , such as the Great Abatis Line , constantly narrowed the area accessible to incursions . The death of Ivan 's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik Dynasty in 1598 , and in combination with the famine of 1601–03 led to civil war , the rule of pretenders , and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century . The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied parts of Russia , including Moscow . In 1612 , the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps , led by two national heroes , merchant Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky . The Romanov Dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of Zemsky Sobor , and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis . Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century , which was the age of Cossacks . Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities , resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World . In 1648 , the peasants of Ukraine joined the Zaporozhian Cossacks in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania during the Khmelnytsky Uprising in reaction to the social and religious oppression they had been suffering under Polish rule . In 1654 , the Ukrainian leader , Bohdan Khmelnytsky , offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar , Aleksey I. Aleksey 's acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War . Finally , Ukraine was split along the Dnieper River , leaving the western part , right-bank Ukraine , under Polish rule and the eastern part ( Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev ) under Russian rule . Later , in 1670–71 , the Don Cossacks led by Stenka Razin initiated a major uprising in the Volga Region , but the Tsar 's troops were successful in defeating the rebels . In the east , the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory . Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes , and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in Eastern Siberia , on the Chukchi Peninsula , along the Amur River , and on the Pacific coast . In 1648 , the Bering Strait between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnyov . Imperial Russia Under Peter the Great , Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 and became recognized as a world power . Ruling from 1682 to 1725 , Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War , forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria ( two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles ) , as well as Estland and Livland , securing Russia 's access to the sea and sea trade . On the Baltic Sea Peter founded a new capital called Saint Petersburg , later known as Russia 's `` Window to Europe '' . Peter the Great 's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia . The reign of Peter I 's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–62 saw Russia 's participation in the Seven Years ' War ( 1756–63 ) . During this conflict Russia annexed East Prussia for a while and even took Berlin . However , upon Elisabeth 's death , all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia . Catherine II ( `` the Great '' ) , who ruled in 1762–96 , presided over the Age of Russian Enlightenment . She extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the Partitions of Poland , pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe . In the south , after successful Russo-Turkish Wars against Ottoman Turkey , Catherine advanced Russia 's boundary to the Black Sea , defeating the Crimean Khanate . As a result of victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars , by the first half of the 19th century Russia also made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia and the North Caucasus , forcing the former to irrevocably cede what is nowadays Georgia , Dagestan , Azerbaijan and Armenia to Russia . This continued with Alexander I 's ( 1801–25 ) wresting of Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812 . At the same time , Russians colonized Alaska and even founded settlements in California , such as Fort Ross . In 1803–1806 , the first Russian circumnavigation was made , later followed by other notable Russian sea exploration voyages . In 1820 a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica . In alliances with various European countries , Russia fought against Napoleon 's France . The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon 's power in 1812 failed miserably as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders , in which more than 95 % of the pan-European Grande Armée perished . Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly , the Russian army ousted Napoleon from the country and drove through Europe in the war of the Sixth Coalition , finally entering Paris . Alexander I headed Russia 's delegation at the Congress of Vienna that defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe . The officers of the Napoleonic Wars brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia with them and attempted to curtail the tsar 's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825 . At the end of the conservative reign of Nicolas I ( 1825–55 ) , a zenith period of Russia 's power and influence in Europe was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War . Between 1847 and 1851 , about one million people died of Asiatic cholera . Nicholas 's successor Alexander II ( 1855–81 ) enacted significant changes in the country , including the emancipation reform of 1861 . These Great Reforms spurred industrialization and modernized the Russian army , which had successfully liberated Bulgaria from Ottoman rule in the 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War . The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia . Alexander II was killed in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists , and the reign of his son Alexander III ( 1881–94 ) was less liberal but more peaceful . The last Russian Emperor , Nicholas II ( 1894–1917 ) , was unable to prevent the events of the Russian Revolution of 1905 , triggered by the unsuccessful Russo-Japanese War and the demonstration incident known as Bloody Sunday . The uprising was put down , but the government was forced to concede major reforms , including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly , the legalization of political parties , and the creation of an elected legislative body , the State Duma of the Russian Empire . The Stolypin agrarian reform led to a massive peasant migration and settlement into Siberia . More than four million settlers arrived in that region between 1906 and 1914 . In 1914 , Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary 's declaration of war on Russia 's ally Serbia , and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies . In 1916 , the Brusilov Offensive of the Russian Army almost completely destroyed the military of Austria-Hungary . However , the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war , high casualties , and rumors of corruption and treason . All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917 , carried out in two major acts . Revolution and Russian Republic The February Revolution forced Nicholas II to abdicate ; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed in Yekaterinburg during the Russian Civil War . The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government . An alternative socialist establishment existed alongside , the Petrograd Soviet , wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants , called Soviets . The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country , instead of resolving it . Eventually , the October Revolution , led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin , overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the Soviets , leading to the creation of the world 's first socialist state . Soviet Russia and civil war Following the October Revolution , a civil war broke out between the anti-Communist White movement and the new Soviet regime with its Red Army . Bolshevist Russia lost its Ukrainian , Polish , Baltic , and Finnish territories by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I . The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-Communist forces . In the meantime both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other , known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror . By the end of the civil war , Russia 's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged . Millions became White émigrés , and the Povolzhye famine of 1921 claimed up to 5 million victims . Soviet Union The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( called Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic at the time ) , together with the Ukrainian , Byelorussian , and Transcaucasian Soviet Socialist Republics , formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) , or Soviet Union , on 30 December 1922 . Out of the 15 republics that would make up the USSR , the largest in size and over half of the total USSR population was the Russian SFSR , which came to dominate the union for its entire 69-year history . Following Lenin 's death in 1924 , a troika was designated to govern the Soviet Union . However , Joseph Stalin , an elected General Secretary of the Communist Party , managed to suppress all opposition groups within the party and consolidate power in his hands . Leon Trotsky , the main proponent of world revolution , was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929 , and Stalin 's idea of Socialism in One Country became the primary line . The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge , a period of mass repressions in 1937–38 , during which hundreds of thousands of people were executed , including original party members and military leaders accused of coup d'état plots . Under Stalin 's leadership , the government launched a planned economy , industrialisation of the largely rural country , and collectivization of its agriculture . During this period of rapid economic and social change , millions of people were sent to penal labor camps , including many political convicts for their opposition to Stalin 's rule ; millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union . The transitional disorganisation of the country 's agriculture , combined with the harsh state policies and a drought , led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933 . The Soviet Union , though with a heavy price , was transformed from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time . The Appeasement policy of Great Britain and France towards Adolf Hitler 's annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia did not stem an increase in the power of Nazi Germany and initiated a threat of war to the Soviet Union . Around the same time , the Third Reich allied with the Empire of Japan , a rival of the USSR in the Far East and an open enemy of the USSR in the Soviet–Japanese Border Wars in 1938–39 . In August 1939 , after another failure of attempts to establish an anti-Nazi alliance with Britain and France , the Soviet government decided to improve relations with Germany by concluding the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact , pledging non-aggression between the two countries and dividing Eastern Europe into their respective spheres of influence . While Hitler conquered Poland and France and other countries acted on a single front at the start of World War II , the USSR was able to build up its military and claim some of the former territories of the Russian Empire , Western Ukraine , Hertza region and Northern Bukovina as a result of the Soviet invasion of Poland , Winter War , occupation of the Baltic states and Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina . On 22 June 1941 , Nazi Germany broke the non-aggression treaty and invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history , opening the largest theater of World War II . Although the German army had considerable early success , their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow . Subsequently , the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–43 , and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943 . Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad , in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces , and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths , but never surrendered . Under Stalin 's administration and the leadership of such commanders as Georgy Zhukov and Konstantin Rokossovsky , Soviet forces took Eastern Europe in 1944–45 and captured Berlin in May 1945 . In August 1945 the Soviet Army ousted the Japanese from China 's Manchukuo and North Korea , contributing to the allied victory over Japan . The 1941–45 period of World War II is known in Russia as the `` Great Patriotic War '' . The Soviet Union together with the United States , the United Kingdom and China were considered as the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II and later became the Four Policemen which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council . During this war , which included many of the most lethal battle operations in human history , Soviet military and civilian deaths were 10.6 million and 15.9 million respectively , accounting for about a third of all World War II casualties . The full demographic loss to the Soviet peoples was even greater . The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–47 but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledged military superpower on the continent . After the war , Eastern and Central Europe including East Germany and part of Austria was occupied by Red Army according to the Potsdam Conference . Dependent socialist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states . Becoming the world 's second nuclear weapons power , the USSR established the Warsaw Pact alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance , known as the Cold War , with the United States and NATO . The Soviet Union supported revolutionary movements across the world , including the newly formed People 's Republic of China , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea and , later

jp_2035--Russia.txt

In what country did the Romani ethnic group originate?

Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States . In the Americas and western Europe , abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade and set slaves free . In the 17th century , English Quakers and evangelical Protestants condemned slavery as un-Christian . By that time , most slaves were Africans , but thousands of Native Americans remained enslaved . In the 18th century , as many as six million Africans were taken to the Americas as slaves . At least a third of the newly enslaved Africans were carried on British ships . Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies . In the same period , rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights . A member of the British Parliament , James Edward Oglethorpe , was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery . Founder of the Province of Georgia , Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds . He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp and Hannah More to vigorously pursue the cause . Soon after his death in 1785 , Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect . Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century , colonies and emerging nations , notably in the southern United States , continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery . After the American Revolution established the United States , Northern states , beginning with Pennsylvania in 1780 , passed legislation during the next two decades abolishing slavery , sometimes by gradual emancipation . Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal ; freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state . In other states , such as Virginia , similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans . During ensuing decades , the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states , and Congress regulated the expansion of slavery as new states were admitted to the Union . Britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833 . The United States criminalized the international slave trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War . Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist `` as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate , unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States . '' He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln or the Republican Party , which called for the gradual ending of slavery . The beginnings The first attempt to end slavery in the English colonies in North America began with Roger Williams and Samuel Gorton , who made slavery illegal in Rhode Island in 1652 , because slavery contradicted their Protestant beliefs . However , this anti-slavery law was disregarded in 1700 when the Rhode Island colony became involved in the slave trade . In the 18th century , Thomas Jefferson and some of his contemporaries had plans to abolish slavery . Despite the fact that Jefferson was a lifelong slaveholder , he had included strong anti-slavery language in the original draft of the Declaration of Independence , but other delegates removed it . Benjamin Franklin , also a slaveholder for most of his life , was a leading member of the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery , the first recognized organization for abolitionists in the United States . Following the Revolutionary War , Northern states abolished slavery , beginning with the 1777 constitution of Vermont , followed by Pennsylvania 's Gradual Emancipation Act in 1780 . While some of these laws were gradual , these states enacted the first abolition laws in the entire `` New World '' . States with a greater economic interest in slaves , such as New York and New Jersey , passed gradual emancipation laws . By 1804 , all the northern states passed laws to abolish it . Some slaves continued in servitude for two more decades , but most were freed . In addition , individual slaveholders , particularly in the upper South , freed slaves , sometimes in their wills . Many noted they had been moved by the revolutionary ideals of the equality of men . The number of free blacks as a proportion of the black population increased from less than 1 percent to nearly 10 percent from 1790 to 1810 in the upper South as a result of these actions . President Jefferson signed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves on March 2 , 1807 . It took effect in 1808 , the earliest allowed under the Constitution . In 1820 , he privately supported the Missouri Compromise , believing it would help to end slavery , but his views on slavery were complicated , and possibly contradictory . His will freed only a small fraction of Monticello plantation . In the 1850s , slavery remained legal in the 15 states of the American South . While it was fading away in the cities and border states , it remained strong in plantation areas that grew cash crops such as cotton , sugar , rice , tobacco or hemp . By the 1860 United States Census , the slave population in the United States had grown to four million . American abolitionism was based in the North , and white Southerners alleged it fostered slave rebellion . The white abolitionist movement in the North was led by social reformers , especially William Lloyd Garrison , founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society , and writers such as John Greenleaf Whittier and Harriet Beecher Stowe . Black activists included former slaves such as Frederick Douglass , and free blacks such as the brothers Charles Henry Langston and John Mercer Langston , who helped found the Ohio Anti-Slavery Society . Some abolitionists said that slavery was criminal and a sin ; they also criticized slave owners of using black women as concubines and taking sexual advantage of them . The Republican Party wanted to achieve the gradual extinction of slavery by market forces , because its members believed that free labor was superior to slave labor . Southern leaders said the Republican policy of blocking the expansion of slavery into the West made them second-class citizens , and challenged their autonomy . With the 1860 presidential victory of Abraham Lincoln , seven Deep South states whose economy was based on cotton and slavery decided to secede and form a new nation . The American Civil War broke out in April 1861 with the firing on Fort Sumter in South Carolina . When Lincoln called for troops to suppress the rebellion , four more slave states seceded . In 1863 , Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation , which freed slaves held in the Confederate States . Border states , except Delaware , began their own emancipation programs . Thousands of slaves escaped to freedom behind Union Army lines , and in 1863 many men started serving as the United States Colored Troops . The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution took effect in December 1865 and ended slavery throughout the United States . It also abolished slavery among the Indian tribes . Calls for abolition The first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown , Pennsylvania . Soon after , in April 1688 , Quakers in the same town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church , the Society of Friends . The Quaker establishment never took action . The 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery was an unusually early , clear and forceful argument against slavery and initiated the spirit that finally led to the end of slavery in the Society of Friends ( 1776 ) and in the state of Pennsylvania ( 1780 ) . The Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester , Pennsylvania , made its first protest in 1711 . Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack , being opposed by such leaders as William Burling , Benjamin Lay , Ralph Sandiford , William Southby , and John Woolman . Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733 . The colony 's founder , James Edward Oglethorpe , fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony . In 1739 , he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm : `` If we allow slaves we act against the very principles by which we associated together , which was to relieve the distresses . Whereas , now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa , by setting men upon using arts to buy and bring into perpetual slavery the poor people who now live there free . '' The struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery , occurring between 1740 and 1742 . The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage was the first American abolition society , formed 14 April 1775 , in Philadelphia , primarily by Quakers . The society suspended operations during the Revolutionary war and was reorganized in 1784 , with Benjamin Franklin as its first president . Rhode Island Quakers , associated with Moses Brown , were among the first in America to free slaves . Benjamin Rush was another leader , as were many Quakers . John Woolman gave up most of his business in 1756 to devote himself to campaigning against slavery along with other Quakers . One of the first articles advocating the emancipation of slaves and the abolition of slavery was written by Thomas Paine . Titled `` African Slavery in America '' , it appeared on 8 March 1775 in the Postscript to the Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser , more popularly known as The Pennsylvania Magazine , or American Museum . Abolition in the North Beginning with Vermont in 1777 , most states north of the Ohio River and the Mason–Dixon line abolished slavery . These states enacted the first abolition laws in the entire New World . Slavery in Massachusetts was abolished by the judiciary . The constitution adopted in 1780 declared all men to have rights , making slavery unenforceable . Emancipation in many free states was gradual . Enslaved people often remained slaves , but children of slaves were born free . Transition arrangements were made , partially to prevent abuses . New York and Pennsylvania still listed a few slaves in 1840 census returns , and a dozen black slaves were held in New Jersey in 1860 as `` perpetual apprentices '' . At the United States Constitutional Convention of 1787 , delegates debated over slavery , finally agreeing to allow states to permit the international trade for at least 20 years . By that time , all the states had passed individual laws abolishing or severely limiting the international buying or selling of slaves . Through the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 , the Congress of the Confederation prohibited slavery in the territories northwest of the Ohio River . The importation of slaves into the United States was officially banned on January 1 , 1808 . No action was taken on the nation 's internal domestic slave trade . The principal organized bodies to advocate this reform were the Pennsylvania Abolition Society and the New York Manumission Society . The latter was headed by powerful politicians : John Jay , Alexander Hamilton , later Federalists , and Aaron Burr , later the Democratic-Republican vice-president of the United States . New York enacted a bill in 1799 that ended slavery over time . In 1806 , President Thomas Jefferson denounced the international slave trade and called for a law to make it a crime . He told Congress in his 1806 annual message , such a law was needed to `` withdraw the citizens of the United States from all further participation in those violations of human rights ... which the morality , the reputation , and the best of our country have long been eager to proscribe . '' Congress in 1807 outlawed the international slave trade , effective January 1 , 1808 . The result was a reduction of more than 90 percent in the volume of the slave trade from Africa to the U.S. About 1,000 slaves a year were illegally brought into the United States . Freed by Southern owners After 1776 , Quaker and Moravian advocates helped persuade numerous slaveholders in the Upper South to free their slaves . Manumissions increased for nearly two decades . Many individual acts by slaveholders freed thousands of slaves . Slaveholders freed slaves in such numbers that the percentage of free Negroes in the Upper South increased from 1 to 10 percent , with most of that increase in Virginia , Maryland and Delaware . By 1810 three-quarters of blacks in Delaware were free . The most notable of men offering freedom was Robert Carter III of Virginia , who freed more than 450 people by `` Deed of Gift '' , filed in 1791 . This number was more slaves than any single American had freed before or after . Often slaveholders came to their decisions by their own struggles in the Revolution ; their wills and deeds frequently cited language about the equality of men supporting decision to set slaves free . The era 's changing economy also encouraged slaveholders to release slaves . Planters were shifting from labor-intensive tobacco to mixed-crop cultivation and needed fewer slaves . The newly free black families began to thrive , together with African Americans free before the Revolution . By 1860 , 91.7 percent of the blacks in Delaware were free , and 49.7 percent of the blacks in Maryland were free . Such early free families often formed the core of artisans , professionals , preachers and teachers in future generations . Western territories During Congressional debate in 1820 on the proposed Tallmadge Amendment , which sought to limit slavery in Missouri as it became a state , Rufus King declared that `` laws or compacts imposing any such condition [ slavery ] upon any human being are absolutely void , because contrary to the law of nature , which is the law of God , by which he makes his ways known to man , and is paramount to all human control . '' The amendment failed and Missouri became a slave state . According to historian David Brion Davis , this may have been the first time in the world that a political leader openly attacked slavery 's perceived legality in such a radical manner . Beginning in the 1830s , the U.S. Postmaster General refused to allow the mails to carry abolition pamphlets to the South . Northern teachers suspected of abolitionism were expelled from the South , and abolitionist literature was banned . Southerners rejected the denials of Republicans that they were abolitionists . They pointed to John Brown 's attempt in 1859 to start a slave uprising as proof that multiple Northern conspiracies were afoot to ignite slave rebellions . Although some abolitionists did call for slave revolts , no evidence of any other Brown-like conspiracy has been discovered . The North felt threatened as well , for as Eric Foner concludes , `` Northerners came to view slavery as the very antithesis of the good society , as well as a threat to their own fundamental values and interests '' . The famous , `` fiery '' Abolitionist , Abby Kelley Foster , from Massachusetts , was considered an `` ultra '' abolitionist who believed in full civil rights for all black people . She held to the views that the freed slaves would colonize Liberia . Parts of the anti-slavery movement became known as `` Abby Kellyism '' . She recruited Susan B Anthony and Lucy Stone to the movement . Effingham Capron , a cotton and textile scion , who attended the Quaker meeting where Abby Kelley Foster and her family were members , became a prominent abolitionist at the local , state and national levels . The local anti-slavery society at Uxbridge had more than one quarter of the town 's population as members . Colonization and the founding of Liberia In the early 19th century , a variety of organizations were established that advocated relocation of black people from the United States to places where they would enjoy greater freedom ; some endorsed colonization , while others advocated emigration . During the 1820s and 1830s the American Colonization Society ( A.C.S . ) was the primary vehicle for proposals to `` return '' black Americans to freedom in Africa , regardless of whether they were native-born in the United States . It had broad support nationwide among white people , including prominent leaders such as Abraham Lincoln , Henry Clay and James Monroe , who considered this preferable to emancipation . Clay said that due to unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color , they [ the blacks ] never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country . It was desirable , therefore , as it respected them , and the residue of the population of the country , to drain them off.Maggie Montesinos Sale , The slumbering volcano : American slave ship revolts and the production of rebellious masculinity , Duke University Press , 1997 , p. 264 . ISBN 0-8223-1992-6 Many African Americans opposed colonization , and simply wanted to be given the rights of free citizens in the United States . One notable opponent of such plans was the wealthy free black abolitionist James Forten of Philadelphia . After attempts to plant small settlements on the coast of west Africa , the A.C.S . established the colony of Liberia in 1821–22 . Over the next four decades , it assisted thousands of former slaves and free black people to move there from the United States . The disease environment they encountered was extreme , and most migrants died fairly quickly . Enough survived to declare independence in 1847 . American support for colonization waned gradually through the 1840s and 1850s , largely because of the efforts of abolitionists to promote emancipation of slaves and the granting of United States citizenship . The Americo-Liberians established an elite who ruled Liberia continuously until the military coup of 1980 . Immigration Immigration of free Africans back to their continent of origin was thought of since the Revolutionary war . After Haiti became independent , the nation tried to recruit African Americans to migrate there after it re-established trade relations with the United States . The Haitian Union was a group formed to promote relations between the countries . In West Africa , the Back-to-Africa movement and actions of president James Monroe led to the founding of Liberia , a settlement for freed Africans to live upon . After riots against blacks in Cincinnati , its black community sponsored founding of the Wilberforce Colony , an initially successful settlement of African-American immigrants to Canada . The colony was one of the first such independent political entities . It lasted for a number of decades and provided a destination for about 200 black families emigrating from a number of locations in the United States . Religion and morality The Second Great Awakening of the 1820s and 1830s in religion inspired groups that undertook many types of social reform . For some that included the immediate abolition of slavery as they considered it sinful to hold slaves as well as to tolerate slavery . `` Abolitionist '' had several meanings at the time . The followers of William Lloyd Garrison , including Wendell Phillips and Frederick Douglass , demanded the `` immediate abolition of slavery '' , hence the name . A more pragmatic group of abolitionists , such as Theodore Weld and Arthur Tappan , wanted immediate action , but were willing to support a program of gradual emancipation , with a long intermediate stage . `` Antislavery men '' , such as John Quincy Adams , did not call slavery a sin . They called it an evil feature of society as a whole . They did what they could to limit slavery and end it where possible , but were not part of any abolitionist group . For example , in 1841 , John Quincy Adams represented the Amistad African slaves in the Supreme Court of the United States and argued that they should be set free . In the last years before the war , `` antislavery '' could refer to the Northern majority , such as Abraham Lincoln , who opposed expansion of slavery or its influence , as by the Kansas–Nebraska Act or the Fugitive Slave Act . Many Southerners called all these abolitionists , without distinguishing them from the Garrisonians . Historian James Stewart ( 1976 ) explains the abolitionists ' deep beliefs : `` All people were equal in God 's sight ; the souls of black folks were as valuable as those of whites ; for one of God 's children to enslave another was a violation of the Higher Law , even if it was sanctioned by the Constitution . '' Slave owners were angry over the attacks on what some Southerners ( including the politician John C. Calhoun ) referred to as their peculiar institution of slavery . Starting in the 1830s , Southerners developed a vehement and growing ideological defense of slavery . Slave owners claimed that slavery was a positive good for masters and slaves alike , and that it was explicitly sanctioned by God . Biblical arguments were made in defense of slavery by religious leaders such as the Rev . Fred A. Ross and political leaders such as Jefferson Davis . Southern biblical interpretations contradicted those of the abolitionists ; a popular one was that the curse on Noah 's son Ham and his descendants in Africa was a justification for enslavement of blacks . Garrison and immediate emancipation A radical shift came in the 1830s , led by William Lloyd Garrison , who demanded `` immediate emancipation , gradually achieved . '' That is , he demanded that slave-owners repent immediately , and set up a system of emancipation . Theodore Weld , an evangelical minister , and Robert Purvis , a free African American , joined Garrison in 1833 to form the American Anti-Slavery Society ( Faragher 381 ) . The following year Weld encouraged a group of students at Lane Theological Seminary to form an anti-slavery society . After the president , Lyman Beecher , tried to suppress the group , the students moved to Oberlin College . Due to its students ' anti-slavery position , Oberlin soon became one of the most liberal colleges and accepted African-American students . Along with Garrison , Northcutt and Collins were proponents of immediate abolition . Abby Kelley Foster became an `` ultra abolitionist '' and a follower of William Lloyd Garrison . She led Susan B. Anthony as well as Elizabeth Cady Stanton into the anti-slavery cause . After 1840 , `` abolition '' usually referred to positions similar to Garrison 's . It was largely an ideological movement led by about 3,000 people , including free blacks and free people of color , many of whom , such as Frederick Douglass in New England , and Robert Purvis and James Forten in Philadelphia , played prominent leadership roles . Douglass became legally free during a two-year stay in England , as British supporters raised funds to purchase his freedom from his American owner Thomas Auld , and also helped fund his abolitionist newspapers in the United States . Abolitionism had a strong religious base including Quakers , and people converted by the revivalist fervor of the Second Great Awakening , led by Charles Finney in the North , in the 1830s . Belief in abolition contributed to the breaking away of some small denominations , such as the Free Methodist Church . Evangelical abolitionists founded some colleges , most notably Bates College in Maine and Oberlin College in Ohio . The well-established colleges , such as Harvard , Yale and Princeton , generally opposed abolition , although the movement did attract such figures as Yale president Noah Porter and Harvard president Thomas Hill . In the North , most opponents of slavery supported other modernizing reform movements such as the temperance movement , public schooling , and prison- and asylum-building . They were split on the issue of women 's activism and their political role , and this contributed to a major rift in the Society . In 1839 , brothers Arthur Tappan and Lewis Tappan left the Society and formed the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society , which did not admit women . Other members of the Society , including Charles Turner Torrey , Amos Phelps , Henry Stanton , and Alanson St. Clair , in addition to disagreeing with Garrison on the women 's issue , urged taking a much more activist approach to abolitionism and consequently challenged Garrison 's leadership at the Society 's annual meeting in January 1839 . When the challenge was beaten back , they left and founded the New Organization , which adopted a more activist approach to freeing slaves . Soon after , in 1840 , they formed the Liberty Party , which had as its sole platform the abolition of slavery . By the end of 1840 , Garrison himself announced the formation of a third new organization , the Friends of Universal Reform , with sponsors and founding members including prominent reformers Maria Chapman , Abby Kelley Foster , Oliver Johnson , and Bronson Alcott ( father of Louisa May Alcott ) . Abolitionists such as William Lloyd Garrison repeatedly condemned slavery for contradicting the principles of freedom and equality on which the country was founded . In 1854 , Garrison wrote : I am a believer in that portion of the Declaration of American Independence in which it is set forth , as among self-evident truths , `` that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life , liberty , and the pursuit of happiness . '' Hence , I am an abolitionist . Hence , I can not but regard oppression in every form – and most of all , that which turns a man into a thing – with indignation and abhorrence . Not to cherish these feelings would be recreancy to principle . They who desire me to be dumb on the subject of slavery , unless I will open my mouth in its defense , ask me to give the lie to my professions , to degrade my manhood , and to stain my soul . I will not be a liar , a poltroon , or a hypocrite , to accommodate any party , to gratify any sect , to escape any odium or peril , to save any interest , to preserve any institution , or to promote any object . Convince me that one man may rightfully make another man his slave , and I will no longer subscribe to the Declaration of Independence . Convince me that liberty is not the inalienable birthright of every human being , of whatever complexion or clime , and I will give that instrument to the consuming fire . I do not know how to espouse freedom and slavery together . Black abolitionist rhetoric Historians and scholars have largely overlooked the work of black abolitionists , instead , focusing much of their scholarship on a few black abolitionists , such as Frederick Douglass . Black abolitionists , though , played an undeniably large role in shaping the movement . Although it is impossible to generalize an entire rhetorical movement , black abolitionists can largely be characterized by the obstacles that they faced and the ways in which these obstacles informed their rhetoric . Black abolitionists had the distinct problem of having to confront an often hostile American public , while still acknowledging their nationality and struggle.Thomas O. Sloane , [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id eslMAgAAQBAJ & pgPA8 & lpg PA8 & dqblack+abolitionist+rhetoric+encyclopedia & source bl & ots2lw_7C7bOt & sig 0-w_rS294elGncEGqyHV7vP6Dn4 & hlen & sa X & ei4h6RVIDkJ8_voAStjoGoBA & ved 0CCAQ6AEwAA # vonepage & q & f false `` Abolitionist Rhetoric '' ] , Encyclopedia of Rhetoric , Oxford University Press , 2001 , p. 8 . As a result , many black abolitionists `` intentionally adopted aspects of British , New England , and Midwestern cultures . '' Furthermore , much of abolitionist rhetoric , and black abolitionist rhetoric in particular , were influenced by

jp_3926--Abolitionism_in_the_United_States.txt

What abolitionist raided Harpers Ferry in 1859?

Tybalt is the main antagonist in William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet . He is the son of Lady Capulet 's brother , Juliet 's short-tempered first cousin , and Romeo 's rival . Tybalt shares the same name as the character Tibert/Tybalt the `` Prince of Cats '' in Reynard the Fox , a point of mockery in the play . Mercutio repeatedly calls Tybalt `` Prince of Cats '' ( perhaps referring not only to Reynard but to the Italian word cazzo as well ) . Luigi da Porto adapted the story as Giulietta e Romeo and included it in his Historia novellamente ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti published in 1530 . Da Porto drew on Pyramus and Thisbe and Giovanni Boccaccio 's Decameron . He gave it much of its modern form , including the lovers ' names , the rival families of Montecchi and Capuleti , and the location in Verona . He also introduces characters corresponding to Shakespeare 's Mercutio , Tybalt , and Paris . Da Porto presents his tale as historically true and claims it took place in the days of Bartolomeo II della Scala ( a century earlier than Salernitano ) . Montague and Capulet were actual 13th-century political factions , but the only connection between them is a mention in Dante 's Purgatorio as an example of civil dissension . Role in the play In Act I , Scene I , Tybalt enters and helps his servants , Sampson and Gregory , who are fighting in the streets with servants of the Montagues , Abraham and Balthasar . Seeing Benvolio ( Romeo 's cousin ) trying to stop the fight , Tybalt draws his sword to fight Benvolio , saying : What , drawn and talk of peace ? I hate the word As I hate hell , all Montagues , and thee . Have at thee , coward ! Later , at the Capulets ' ball , Tybalt is the first to recognize Romeo through his disguise , and would kill him if not forbidden by his uncle , Lord Capulet . His lust for revenge unsated , Tybalt sends a challenge letter to Romeo for a duel to the death . He enters looking for Romeo at the beginning of Act III , only to create tensions with Mercutio , who was mocking Tybalt even before he entered the scene . Tybalt initially ignores Mercutio and confronts Romeo , who refuses to fight because of his marriage to Juliet . Tybalt becomes even angrier ; he does not know Romeo can not fight him because they are now relatives . Mercutio loses his temper and begins fighting Tybalt himself . Romeo tries to stop the combat by rushing between them , and Tybalt then stabs Mercutio under Romeo 's arm . Mercutio dies . Enraged , Romeo duels and kills Tybalt in return , leading to his own exile by the prince . Tybalt is revealed to be Juliet 's maternal first cousin , when Lady Capulet arrives at the scene where Tybalt lies dead , and cries `` Tybalt , my cousin , O my brother 's child ! '' ( III.I ) Performers * Orson Welles performed the role in the 1934–35 production presented by Katharine Cornell , in which he made his Broadway debut . * Basil Rathbone performed the role in the 1936 Hollywood film Romeo and Juliet . He was nominated for an Oscar as Best Supporting Actor . * George Chakiris performed the role of Bernardo Nunez , the Tybalt character in the 1961 film West Side Story , the musical modernized version of Romeo and Juliet . * Michael York in the 1968 Franco Zeffirelli film version * Armand Assante in the 1977 Broadway revival * Alan Rickman in the 1978 television adaptation within the BBC Television Shakespeare series * John Leguizamo in Baz Luhrmann 's 1996 modernized film adaption , Romeo + Juliet * Tom Ross in the 2001 French musical Roméo et Juliette * Corey Hawkins in the 2013 Broadway revival * Ed Westwick in the 2013 film adaptation of Romeo and Juliet * Matthew Rigby in the 2015 SPCC Shakespeare Cafè Analysis John W. Draper points out the parallels between the Elizabethan belief in the four humors and the main characters of the play ( for example , Tybalt is a choleric ) . Interpreting the text in the light of humours reduces the amount of plot attributed to chance by modern audiences.Draper ( 1939 : 16–34 ) .

sfq_13224--Tybalt.txt

Tybalt is a character in which of Shakespeare's plays?

Sébastien Izambard ( born 7 March 1973 ) is a French musician , singer , composer , and record producer . His vocal range is classified as popular melody or voix populi to a loud , so it has a tenor tessitura phonic . Member since 2004 of the classical crossover group Il Divo , who has sold over 28 million copies worldwide discs . In 2000 he launched the solo titled `` Libre '' pop album , reaching number No . 1 ranking with the single `` Si tu savais '' achieving excellent sales ranking in France , Canada and Belgium . Currently , Izambard writes , produces and composes for pop artists of international stature . Active member of the French organization AMTM , Assistance Médicale Toit du Monde and global ambassador for the Sanfilippo Children 's Foundation . Biography Childhood Sébastien , the only son of Maurice and Marie Izambard , stylist by profession , was born and raised in the 16th arrondissement of Paris or Arrondissement Passy , France . Sebastian 's childhood was hard , his parents had divorced and his father left him when he was six . He grew up in a poor single parent household and lived with his mother in a small room of 10m2 on the top floor of a block of apartments in Parisian Dense with her great-grandmother . These years were very difficult . He studied at the Lycée Janson de Sailly in Paris , considered one of the best schools in Europe . Over the years , his love for music he grew up and he learned to play guitar , piano and singing through self-study . Piano is the first instrument he played as his grandmother Jacqueline , whom he called Mimine , had one and he began composing songs on it at the age of just five years . Piano helped as a therapy as it became his way of self-expression . As his mother worked , he grew accustomed to solitude and independence . At the age of 12 years he cooked cakes as a gift for her after her workday . He confesses that for him , becoming an adult was more a way to learn to get out of trouble since before their parents got separated , he witnessed violence , drugs and abuse . Due to this psychological impact , he was becoming a cautious , introverted and a repressed child . However , with the help of child specialists he was able to overcome this feeling of repression . At 17 , tired of a life of violence and beatings of his mother , he went to live with his grandmother and spent many years without maintaining any relationship with his mother . Private life Sébastien got engaged to Australian Renee Murphy on 1 June 2007 and they got married on 17 August 2008 in a house on the outskirts of France . Renée was a publicist for Sony BMG when she met Sebastien in Australia in 2005 , who was on a tour with Il Divo . A few months before the wedding , on 20 March 2008 , Sebastien and Renee became parents of twins , Rose and Luca , [ http : //forum.ildivo.com/viewtopic.php ? t 28932 Official forum|date=2014 ] , thread of Izambard 's announcement . who were born in the Royal-des-Champs Port of Paris maternity hospital . On 20 May 2011 , the couple 's third child Jude was born at Queen Charlotte 's Hospital in London . Solidarity work Sèbastien is an active member of two charities ; with the French organization AMTM ( Assistance Médicale Toit du Monde ) which helps poor children in Nepal and India where during one of his campaigns to raise funds in September 2008 , Seb raffled several of his Armani suits ; and the Australian Sanfilippo Children 's Foundation organization of which he is global ambassador . He recorded two videoclips and collaborated in solidarity projects such as the Noël Ensemble , a record in which more than one hundred artists participated in order to raise funds for the fight against AIDS . Musical career Soloist Izambard started his career as a pop musician in France , releasing a solo album called Libre and his song Si Tu Savais was ranked first in French Hit Charts . Besides being a singer , Izambard is also an accomplished music composer , pianist , and guitar player In Paris he has written music for many French artists . In 2001 , he performed with Johnny Hallyday as a guest in the Olympia Theater in Paris . His music , greatly influenced by Jeff Buckley , earns him the acknowledgement of French and Canadian audiences . French singer Florent Pagny is his musical godfather . Record producer and composer Sébastien says that composing and writing songs is his passion , writing for the pleasure of writing . Before joining Il Divo wrote and produced songs for other French artists . In parallel with Il Divo , Izambard continued writing songs with pop stars in the world ; as with Australian Darren Hayes , the lead singer of Savage Garden ; the star of The Phantom of the Opera Ramin Karimloo ; Guy Chambers ; and with the lyricist Don Black . In November 2014 , Sébastien led the project to create an album with different Australian artists for raising money . Izambard , with the help of Sony Pictures Entertainment , produced the album titled For Bringing Hope Isla and Jude , which was released on 5 December 2014 with the single written by Kate Bush This Woman 's Work , for St. Filippo Foundation . Musical Theatre Izambard performed in February 2002 in Richard Cocciante 's musical `` Le Petit Prince '' , where he played the role of the Business Man . Before being a member of Il Divo he also performed in several theatre plays as part of the group `` La Troupe '' . He was preparing his second album with Francis Madjouli and Lionel Florence when he became involved with Il Divo . Duets and Collaborations Izambard has made many music & duets collaborations with major artists , both alone and with a member of Il Divo Il Divo While recording his second solo album after collaborating on Le Petit Prince , Sébastien attended an audition for the musical The Sun King . While waiting , he met Geraldine Larrosa , ( Innocence ) and her then-partner Carlos Marín , who spoke to him after hearing Sébastien sing in online videos . Carlos said it was worth a try , so Sébastien went to the Bastille in Paris , where the auditions were being held by Sonny Takhar . Hearing Izambard Caruso performed the song while playing the piano himself , relaxed and convinced that he had nothing to lose since he thought would lead nowhere . But Cowell heard him and offered him the job . Sebastien he said to himself : Je Ne Regrette Rien ( I have nothing to lose ) , . accepted and devoted worldwide in the stateless musical quartet Il Divo in December 2003 , along with Urs Bühler ( Switzerland ) , David Miller ( US ) and Carlos Marín ( Spain ) . Izambard is the only member of the group who is not classically trained . Izambard has said that he has two dreams while being in Il Divo : composing a song for the quartet , and singing songs in French . In fact , Ancora , the second album of the group , contains two songs in French : `` Je Crois en toi '' ( a duet partially in French with Céline Dion ) and `` Pour Que Tu M'Aimes Encore . '' `` I Believe in You '' is an original song for both artists , while Pour Que Tu M'Aimes Encore is Dion 's , considered to be her most famous song in French . Their first album , called Il Divo became a worldwide multiplatinum selling record when released in November 2004 , entering Billboard at number 4 ; it sold five million copies worldwide in less than a year and knocked Robbie Williams from the number one spot . Their second album , Ancora , was released on 7 November 2005 in the United Kingdom . Il Divo 's third album Siempre was released on 21 November 2006 in the United States and on 27 November 2006 internationally . Their latest album , The Promise , was released on 10 November 2008 ( world ) & 18 November 2008 ( US ) , and shot straight to number 1 in the United Kingdom . In 2013 they published A Musical Affair , the album 's songs are inspired by famous plays and musicals . On 9 June 2006 , Il Divo performed the 2006 FIFA World Cup official song , `` The Time of Our Lives , '' with R & B singer Toni Braxton live , at half-time , during the opening match between Germany and Costa Rica and again a month later at 9 July closing ceremony . [ http : //www.mirror.co.uk/news/tm_objectid16862049 & method full & siteid94762 & headline fiona -- divo -- name_page.html FIONA : DIVO – Mirror.co.uk ] The song is available exclusively on the Voices from the FIFA World Cup compilation album and on the European reissue of Braxton 's album Libra but not on any Il Divo album . Il Divo have been on several world tours and have received 50 gold and platinum awards . Their last tour in 2014 covered five continents and over 33 countries . On 12 December 2008 , Il Divo performed their new song at the Swedish Idol 2008 finale in the Globen Arena in Stockholm . The Paraguay show was Il Divo 's biggest capacity performance to date and took place on 20 December 2011 , at the Defensores del Chaco Stadium in Asuncion , for 33,900 people . 13 May 2012 Il Divo performed the song Caruso with a staging of riding the rhythm of the song during the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II at Windsor for the entire royal family and Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom . On 6 September 2012 , it was announced that Il Divo would release a Greatest Hits album . The album was produced by Alberto Quintero and featured songs spanning Il Divo 's successful eight-year career to date , as well as four new songs including My Heart Will Go On , I Will Always Love You , Ca n't Help Falling in Love and Alone . On 19 July 2014 , Il Divo performed before a capacity crowd at Edinburgh Castle esplanade where a pop festival took place ahead of the 2014 Commonwealth Games . The group performed Amazing Grace . On 23 March 2015 , it was announced that Il Divo was the winner of the 2015 Silver Clef Award , giving them the coveted Classic PPL . The gala award ceremony took place on 3 July at the Grosvenor House Hotel , a five-star hotel in London . Discography Singer Soloist ; Studio albums # 2000 – Libre : Single : :2000 – Libre ; album Libre : :2000 – Si tu savais ; album Libre : :2001 – J'T'en veux ; album Libre Il Divo ; Studio albums # 2004 – Il Divo # 2005 – Ancora # 2006 – Siempre # 2008 – The Promise # 2011 – Wicked Game # 2013 – A Musical Affair # 2015 – Amor & Pasión ; Seasonal album # 2005 – The Christmas Collection ; Albums Collections # 2012 - The Greatest Hits ; Live Albums # 2009 – An Evening with Il Divo : Live in Barcelona # 2014 – Live in Japan Collaborations other albums # 2000 – Nöel Ensemble # 2005 – On ne change pas ; Celine Dion ( Il Divo ) # 2006 – Voices from the FIFA World Cup ( Il Divo ) # 2006 – Libra ; Toni Braxton ( Il Divo ) # 2014 – Engelbert Calling ; Engelbert Humperdick , song `` Spanish Eyes '' . ( Il Divo ) # 2015 – Los Dúos ; Juan Gabriel song `` Amor eterno '' ( Il Divo ) Musical theater # 2002 – Le Petit Prince , ( Studio version ) # 2002 – Le Petit Prince , ( Full version ) Producer # 2014 – Hope – This Woman 's Work Composer # 2010 – Ramin de Ramin Karimloo # 2011 – Secret Codes and Battleships de Darren Hayes Videography Soloist * Official video # 2004 – Libre Musical works * Musical # 2002 – Le Petit Prince Il Divo * Documentary / Concert # 2004 – Live at Gotham Hall # 2005 – Encore # 2005 – Mamá # 2006 – The Yule Log : The Christmas Collection # 2006 – Live At the Greek Theater # 2008 – At the Coliseum # 2009 – An Evening with Il Divo : Live in Barcelona # 2011 – Live in London # 2014 – Live in Japan * Official video # 2004 – Regresa a mí # 2005 – Mama # 2006 – Time of our Lives . # 2014 – Le Temps Des Cathédrales # 2014 – Who Wants to Live Forever # 2014 – Aimer # 2014 – Can You Feel the Love Tonight # 2014 – Memory # 2015 - Amor & Pasión -Trailer-

odql_729--Sébastien_Izambard.txt

Urs Buhler, Sebastian Izambard, Carlos Martin and David Millercomprise which singing group?

Major The Hon . John Wickham Gascoyne Beresford Steed MC , OM usually known as John Steed , is a fictional character and the central protagonist on the popular 1960s British spy series The Avengers and its 1970s sequel The New Avengers , played by the late Patrick Macnee in both ; by Donald Monat in the South-African radio series adaptation of The Avengers ; by Ralph Fiennes in the 1998 film of the same name and by Julian Wadham in the new Big Finish audio series The Avengers – The Lost Episodes . Steed is a secret agent working for an unnamed branch of British intelligence . He was teamed with a variety of partners , including Dr. David Keel ( 1961 ) , Venus Smith ( 1962-1963 ) , Dr. Martin King ( 1962–1963 ) , Cathy Gale ( 1962–1964 ) , Emma Peel ( 1965–1968 ) , Tara King ( 1968–1969 ) , Lady Diana Forbes-Blakeney ( 1969 ) , Purdey , and Mike Gambit ( both 1976–1977 ) . Biography Pre-Avengers Steed was born John Wickham Gascoyne Beresford Steed sometime between 1922 and 1925 ( the actor who played him , Patrick Macnee , was born 1922 ) . A scion of a noble family , Steed attended Eton ( like Macnee ) , where he once got into a fight with the school bully , James Bond , and was eventually expelled ( like Macnee ) . He was a distinguished veteran of World War II ( like Macnee—but here their bios begin to diverge ) , training with the Coldstream GuardsThe Avengers episode The Murder Market has the following dialogue : Lovejoy : '' You were commissioned , of course ? `` Steed : `` Of course . `` Lovejoy : `` Which regiment ? `` Steed : `` Guards , of course . `` Lovejoy : `` Of course . Ah , which Guards ? `` Steed : `` The Guards , of course . `` Lovejoy : `` Of course . '' and then transferring to the Intelligence Corps . He spent the early part of his war service posted at RAF Camp 472 Hamelin , which was a jumping-off point for British spies on the continent . He received the Military Cross for single-handedly taking a German machine-gun post . Before leaving the British Army to join `` The Ministry '' in 1945 , Steed achieved the rank of Major . He maintained a modest mews flat in London during the 1960s ( first at 5 Westminster Mews , later at 3 Stable Mews ) and drove a variety of elaborate , old-fashioned cars , including a Rolls Royce and several different models of Bentley , one of which he calls Fido . In one episode also a Vauxhall 30/98 can be seen . By The New Avengers , Steed had moved out to the country , to a manor house known as `` Steed 's Stud '' , and was no longer driving vintage cars , but contemporary Jaguars instead . The Avengers During the first season Steed 's character was a more rough-and-tumble operative than the suave , sophisticated gentleman he became during the Gale and Peel eras . His most common style of dress as Dr. Keel 's sidekick was a trenchcoat and suit , though the famous bowler hat and umbrella appeared as early as the `` The Frighteners '' , the 15th episode to be aired . Most of the first season episodes are lost , but Macnee hints in his memoir that they initially appeared earlier . During the show 's budget-strained first season , Macnee supplemented his on-screen wardrobe with numerous items from his own wardrobe , including the bowler and umbrella . By the second season , Steed had dispensed with the trenchcoat and was found wearing the familiar three-piece suits with which he is afterward identified . He was initially shown answering to several different superiors such as `` One-Ten '' and `` Charles '' . During most of the Gale-Peel era the source of his orders were left a mystery . For the final season of the original series ( the Tara King era ) Steed was shown taking his orders from an obese man called `` Mother '' who used a wheelchair ( and once from a blind woman named `` Father '' ) . In The New Avengers , Steed was shown working on his own , and it was suggested that he had moved into an administrative role in British intelligence , although that did n't stop him from directly participating in missions . Out of all his partners , he was closest to Mrs Peel ; while their interaction was often laced with dry , sarcastic wit on both sides , he respected her as an equal , and owed her his life on more than a few occasions . Regarding the question of whether they had a sexual relationship at any time , Macnee thought they went to bed on a very regular basis ( just not in view of the camera ) , Rigg thought they were engaged in a very enjoyable extended flirtation that ultimately went nowhere , and Brian Clemens said he wrote them with the idea they 'd had an affair before Emma 's first appearance in the series . Description One of Steed 's trademarks was his impeccable dress , often consisting of a three-piece suit with Bowler ( or Coke ) and ever-present umbrella . His bowler and umbrella were in fact his favourite weapons . Steed 's umbrella , with its distinctive whangee handle , was known for containing a sword , though there were other versions , including one that featured a sound recorder and one with a camera hidden under the handle for covert photography ( `` The Cybernauts '' ) , and one that contained measures of whisky . ( The swordstick featured in the title sequence was made by venerable English umbrella maker James Smith & Sons . ) The bowler was metal plated and very hard , it could stop bullets and knock down opponents . Although he was witty and highly sagacious , he was also a suave and ruthless spy . In combat , he is an excellent swordsman . A bon vivant , he also seemed to be something of an oenophile , having an impeccable palate and a love for Champagne . Influence The professional footballer , Steed Malbranque is widely reported to have been named after John Steed on account of his parents having seen their child as the epitome of Britishness . Fans of John Steed sometimes call themselves `` Steedophiles '' . Other versions of Steed * In the 1971 stage play of The Avengers , Steed was played by Simon Oates . * In the South African radio version of The Avengers which ran from 1971 to 1973 , Steed was played by Donald Monat . * In the 1998 film , Steed was played by Ralph Fiennes . As this film was set in the 1990s and Steed seemed younger than before , this represented a reimagining of the character . * In 1991 ’ s Doctor Who Monthly # 173 , Gary Russell and artists Mike Collins and Steve Pini show Captain Britain about to hit Steed when Emma Peel shows up behind him . * John Steed and Emma Peel and where spotted in the crowd in KINGDOME COME # 2 ( 1996 ) by Mark Waid and Alex Ross , where they are both in a bar scene . * John Steed and Emma Peel appeared in Superman # 13 ( 1988 ) , where John Byrne and Karl Kesel give us the crime-fight duo - unnamed , of course . * In the new Big Finish audio series The Avengers - The Lost Episodes ( 2014–present ) , Steed is played by Julian Wadham .

qw_2135--John_Steed.txt

On British television, John Steed and Emma Peel were known collectively as what?

Ancient history is the aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era . The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years , beginning with Sumerian Cuneiform script , the oldest discovered form of coherent writing from the protoliterate period around the 30th century BC . The term classical antiquity is often used to refer to history in the Old World from the beginning of recorded Greek history in 776 BC ( First Olympiad ) . This roughly coincides with the traditional date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC , the beginning of the history of ancient Rome , and the beginning of the Archaic period in Ancient Greece . Although the ending date of ancient history is disputed , some Western scholars use the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD ( the most used ) , the closure of the Platonic Academy in 529 AD , the death of the emperor Justinian I in 565 AD , the coming of Islam or the rise of Charlemagne as the end of ancient and Classical European history . In India , ancient history includes the early period of the Middle Kingdoms , and , in China , the time up to the Qin Dynasty . Study Historians have two major avenues which they take to better understand the ancient world : archaeology and the study of source texts . Primary sources are those sources closest to the origin of the information or idea under study . Primary sources have been distinguished from secondary sources , which often cite , comment on , or build upon primary sources . Archaeology Archaeology is the excavation and study of artefacts in an effort to interpret and reconstruct past human behavior . Archaeologists excavate the ruins of ancient cities looking for clues as to how the people of the time period lived . Some important discoveries by archaeologists studying ancient history include : * The Egyptian pyramids : giant tombs built by the ancient Egyptians beginning about 2600 BC as the final resting places of their royalty . * The study of the ancient cities of Harappa ( Pakistan ) , Mohenjo-daro ( Pakistan ) , and Lothal in India ( South Asia ) . * The city of Pompeii : an ancient Roman city preserved by the eruption of a volcano in AD 79 . Its state of preservation is so great that it is a valuable window into Roman culture and provided insight into the cultures of the Etruscans and the Samnites . * The Terracotta Army : the mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor in ancient China . * The discovery of Knossos by Minos Kalokairinos and Sir Arthur Evans . * The discovery of Troy by Heinrich Schliemann . Source text Most of what is known of the ancient world comes from the accounts of antiquity 's own historians . Although it is important to take into account the bias of each ancient author , their accounts are the basis for our understanding of the ancient past . Some of the more notable ancient writers include Herodotus , Thucydides , Arrian , Plutarch , Polybius , Sima Qian , Sallust , Livy , Josephus , Suetonius , and Tacitus . A fundamental difficulty of studying ancient history is that recorded histories can not document the entirety of human events , and only a fraction of those documents have survived into the present day . Furthermore , the reliability of the information obtained from these surviving records must be considered . Few people were capable of writing histories , as literacy was not widespread in almost any culture until long after the end of ancient history . The earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece , beginning with Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( 484–c . 425 BC ) . Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta , establishing a rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings . He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event . The Roman Empire was one of the ancient world 's most literate cultures , but many works by its most widely read historians are lost . For example , Livy , a Roman historian who lived in the 1st century BC , wrote a history of Rome called Ab Urbe Condita ( From the Founding of the City ) in 144 volumes ; only 35 volumes still exist , although short summaries of most of the rest do exist . Indeed , only a minority of the work of any major Roman historian has survived . Chronology Prehistory Prehistory is the period before written history . The early human migrations in the Lower Paleolithic saw Homo erectus spread across Eurasia 1.8 million years ago . The controlled use of fire occurred 800 thousand years ago in the Middle Paleolithic . 250 thousand years ago , Homo sapiens ( modern humans ) emerged in Africa . 60–70 thousand years ago , Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa along a coastal route to South and Southeast Asia and reached Australia . 50 thousand years ago , modern humans spread from Asia to the Near East . Europe was first reached by modern humans 40 thousand years ago . Humans migrated to the Americas about 15 thousand years ago in the Upper Paleolithic , The 10th millennium BC is the earliest given date for the invention of agriculture and the beginning of the ancient era . Göbekli Tepe was erected by hunter-gatherers in the 10th millennium BC ( c. 11,500 years ago ) , before the advent of sedentism . Together with Nevalı Çori , it has revolutionized understanding of the Eurasian Neolithic . In the 7th millennium BC , Jiahu culture began in China . By the 5th millennium BC , the late Neolithic civilizations saw the invention of the wheel and the spread of proto-writing . In the 4th millennium BC , the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture in the Ukraine-Moldova-Romania region develops . By 3400 BC , `` proto-literate '' cuneiform is spread in the Middle East . The 30th century BC , referred to as the Early Bronze Age II , saw the beginning of the literate period in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt . Around the 27th century BC , the Old Kingdom of Egypt and the First Dynasty of Uruk are founded , according to the earliest reliable regnal eras . Timeline of ancient history Middle to Late Bronze Age The Bronze Age forms part of the three-age system . It follows the Neolithic Age in some areas of the world . In the 24th century BC , the Akkadian Empire was founded in Mesopotamia . The First Intermediate Period of Egypt of the 22nd century BC was followed by the Middle Kingdom of Egypt between the 21st to 17th centuries BC . The Sumerian Renaissance also developed c. the 21st century BC in Ur . Around the 18th century BC , the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt began . By 1600 BC , Mycenaean Greece developed . The beginning of the Shang Dynasty emerged in China in this period , and there was evidence of a fully developed Chinese writing system . The beginning of Hittite dominance of the Eastern Mediterranean region is also seen in the 1600s BC . The time from the 16th to the 11th centuries BC around the Nile is called the New Kingdom of Egypt . Between 1550 BC and 1292 BC , the Amarna Period developed in Egypt . Early Iron Age The Iron Age is the last principal period in the three-age system , preceded by the Bronze Age . Its date and context vary depending on the country or geographical region . During the 13th to 12th centuries BC , the Ramesside Period occurred in Egypt . Around 1200 BC , the Trojan War was thought to have taken place . By around 1180 BC , the disintegration of the Hittite Empire was under way . In 1046 BC , the Zhou force , led by King Wu of Zhou , overthrew the last king of the Shang Dynasty . The Zhou Dynasty was established in China shortly thereafter . Pirak is an early iron-age site in Balochistan , Pakistan , going back to about 1200 BC . This period is believed to be the beginning of the Iron Age in India and the subcontinent . In 1000 BC , the Mannaean Kingdom began in Western Asia . Around the 10th to 7th centuries BC , the Neo-Assyrian Empire developed in Mesopotamia . In 800 BC , the rise of Greek city-states began . In 776 BC , the first recorded Olympic Games were held . Classical Antiquity Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered around the Mediterranean Sea , which begins roughly with the earliest-recorded Greek poetry of Homer ( 9th century BC ) , and continues through the rise of Christianity and the fall of the Western Roman Empire ( 5th century AD ) , ending in the dissolution of classical culture with the close of Late Antiquity . Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many rather disparate cultures and periods . `` Classical antiquity '' typically refers to an idealized vision of later people , of what was , in Edgar Allan Poe 's words , `` the glory that was Greece , the grandeur that was Rome ! '' In the 18th and 19th centuries AD , reverence for classical antiquity was much greater in Europe and the United States than it is today . Respect for the ancients of Greece and Rome affected politics , philosophy , sculpture , literature , theatre , education , and even architecture and sexuality . In politics , the presence of a Roman Emperor was felt to be desirable long after the empire fell . This tendency reached its peak when Charlemagne was crowned `` Roman Emperor '' in the year 800 , an act which led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire . The notion that an emperor is a monarch who outranks a mere king dates from this period . In this political ideal , there would always be a Roman Empire , a state whose jurisdiction extended to the entire civilized world . Epic poetry in Latin continued to be written and circulated well into the 19th century . John Milton and even Arthur Rimbaud received their first poetic educations in Latin . Genres like epic poetry , pastoral verse , and the endless use of characters and themes from Greek mythology left a deep mark on Western literature . In architecture , there have been several Greek Revivals , ( though while apparently more inspired in retrospect by Roman architecture than Greek ) . Still , one needs only to look at Washington , DC to see a city filled with large marble buildings with façades made out to look like Roman temples , with columns constructed in the classical orders of architecture . In philosophy , the efforts of St Thomas Aquinas were derived largely from the thought of Aristotle , despite the intervening change in religion from paganism to Christianity . Greek and Roman authorities such as Hippocrates and Galen formed the foundation of the practice of medicine even longer than Greek thought prevailed in philosophy . In the French theatre , tragedians such as Molière and Racine wrote plays on mythological or classical historical subjects and subjected them to the strict rules of the classical unities derived from Aristotle 's Poetics . The desire to dance like a latter-day vision of how the ancient Greeks did it moved Isadora Duncan to create her brand of ballet . The Renaissance was partly caused by the rediscovery of classic antiquity . Early classical ancient history * 776 BC : First Olympic Games , generally considered the beginning of Classical Antiquity . * 753 BC : Founding of Rome ( traditional date ) * 752 BC : Piye ( once transliterated as Piankhi ; d. 721 BC ) was a Kushite king who conquered Egypt and founded the Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt * 745 BC : Tiglath-Pileser III becomes the new king of Assyria . With time he conquers neighboring countries and turns Assyria into an empire * 722 BC : Spring and Autumn Period begins in China ; Zhou Dynasty 's power is diminishing ; the era of the Hundred Schools of Thought * c. 750 BC : Breach of the Marib Dam in Arabia Felix . Three new dams were built by the Sabaeans . * c.615 BC : Rise of the Median Empire . * 612 BC : Attributed date of the destruction of Nineveh and subsequent fall of Assyria . * 600 BC : Sixteen Maha Janapadas ( `` Great Realms '' or `` Great Kingdoms '' ) emerge . A number of these Maha Janapadas are semi-democratic republics . * c. 600 BC : Pandyan kingdom in South India * 599 BC : Mahavira , founder of Jainism is born as a prince at Kundalavana , who ruled Magadha Empire . * 563 BC : Siddhartha Gautama ( Buddha ) , founder of Buddhism is born as a prince of the Shakya tribe , which ruled parts of Magadha , one of the Maha Janapadas * 551 BC : Confucius , founder of Confucianism , is born * 550 BC : The Achaemenid Empire is founded by Cyrus the Great * 546 BC : Cyrus the Great overthrows Croesus King of Lydia * 544 BC : Rise of Magadha as the dominant power under Bimbisara . * 539 BC : The Fall of the Babylonian Empire and liberation of the Jews by Cyrus the Great * 529 BC : Death of Cyrus the Great * 525 BC : Cambyses II of Persia conquers Egypt * c. 512 BC : Darius I ( Darius the Great ) of Persia , subjugates eastern Thrace , Macedonia submits voluntarily , and annexes Libya , Persian Empire at largest extent * 509 BC : Expulsion of the last King of Rome , founding of Roman Republic ( traditional date ) * 508 BC : Democracy instituted by Cleisthenes at Athens * c. 500 BC : Panini standardizes the grammar and morphology of Sanskrit in the text Ashtadhyayi . Panini 's standardized Sanskrit is known as Classical Sanskrit . * 500 BC : Pingala develops system ranks of binary patterns . * 490 BC : Greek city-states defeat Persian invasion at Battle of Marathon * 480-479 BC : Greek city states decisively defeat the Persians at the Battle of Salamis and the Battle of Plataea , ending once and for all the Persian threat to Greece . * 480 BC King Leonidas of Sparta died 10 August * 475 BC : Warring States period begins in China as the Zhou king became a mere figurehead ; China is annexed by regional warlords . * c. 469 BC : Birth of Socrates * 465 BC : Murder of Xerxes I of Persia * 460 BC : First Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta * 449 BC : End of the Greco-Persian Wars . Macedonia , Thrace and Ionia gain independence from Achaemenid Persia . * 447 BC : Building of the Parthenon at Athens started * 424 BC : Nanda dynasty comes to power . * 404 BC : End of Peloponnesian War between the Greek city-states * 399 BC : February 15—The Greek philosopher Socrates [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 1P0GAAAAcAAJ Characteristics of the Greek Philosophers : Socrates and Plato ] By John Philips Potter . J. W. Parker , 1845. is sentenced to death by Athenian authorities in Athens , condemned for impiety and the corruption of youth . He refuses to flee into exile and is sentenced to death by drinking hemlock . * c. 385 BC : The Greek philosopher Plato , a former disciple of Socrates , founds a philosophical school at the Akademia , from land purchased from Akademus , in Athens – later famously known as the Academy . There , Plato , and the later heads of the school , called scholarchs , taught many of the brilliant minds of the day , including the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle * 335 BC : The Greek philosopher Aristotle founds his philosophical school – known then as the Lyceum ( named because it was located near the site of the Lyceum gymnasium in Athens ) – and begins teaching there . * 331 BC : Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela * 326 BC : Alexander the Great defeats Indian king Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes River . * 323 BC : Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon * 321 BC : Chandragupta Maurya overthrows the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha . * 307 BC : The Greek philosopher Epicurus founds his philosophical school , the Garden of Epicurus , outside the walls of Athens . * 305 BC : Chandragupta Maurya seizes the satrapies of Paropanisadai ( Kabul ) , Aria ( Herat ) , Arachosia ( Qanadahar ) and Gedrosia ( Baluchistan ) from Seleucus I Nicator , the Macedonian satrap of Babylonia , in return for 500 elephants . * c. 302 BC : Pandyan dynasty , Chola dynasty , and Chera dynasty rule separate areas in South India * 294 BC : Zeno of Citium founds the philosophy of Stoicism in Athens ( the philosophy derives its namesake from the fact that Zeno and his followers would regularly meet near the Stoa Poikile ( `` Painted Porch '' ) A beginner 's history of philosophy , Volume 1 By Herbert Ernest Cushman . Houghton Mifflin Company , 1910 . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 33QBAAAAYAAJ & pg=PA219 Pg 219 ] . of the Athenian agora . ) * c. 252 BC : Ashoka the Great becomes the emperor of the Mauryan Empire * c. 252 BC : Thục Dynasty takes over Việt Nam ( then Kingdom of Âu Lạc ) * c. 249 BC : Rise of Parthia ( Ashkâniân ) , the third native dynasty of ancient Persia * c. 233 BC : Death of Emperor Ashoka the Great ; Decline of the Mauryan Empire * 221 BC : Construction of the Great Wall begins . * c. 220 BC : Qin Shi Huang , ruler of the Qin Dynasty , unifies China ( end of Warring States period ) * c. 220 BC : Simuka , founder of the Satavahanas dynasty , rules area in South India * 209 BC : Kingdom of Nan Yueh is established by Tch'ao T ' o ( Trieu Dynasty ) Babylonian & oriental record , Volume 3 . D. Nutt , 1889 . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 86ZDAAAAYAAJ & pg=PA157 Pg 157 ] * 208 BC : The Xiongnu replaces the Mongolic Donghu as the dominant tribe of the Mongolian steppe and then five years later defeats the Yuezhi in Gansu , making a cup out of the skull of their leader . * c. 206 BC : Lew Pang is proclaimed emperor ( Kaou-te ) and the Han Dynasty is established . * 202 BC : Scipio Africanus defeats Hannibal at Battle of Zama * 189 BC : Artaxiad Dynasty in Armenia is founded * c. 184 BC : Shunga Empire founded . * 149 BC–146 : Third and final Punic War ; destruction of Carthage by Rome * 146 BC : Corinth in Greece was destroyed by Rome and Roman authority became supreme throughout Greece . * 140 BC : The first system of imperial examinations was officially instituted in China by the Han Dynasty emperor Han Wu Di . * c. 127 BC : Chang-Kien finds the western lands of civilisation and trading opens on routes of the Silk Road . * 111 BC : The Nam Viet Kingdom ( Triệu Dynasty ) is destroyed by the first Chinese domination of Viet Nam . * 95-55 BC : Tigranes the Great reigns in Armenian empire . * 53 BC : Led by General Surena , the Parthians decisively defeat a Roman invasion at the Battle of Carrhae * 49 BC : Conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great lead to the Roman Civil War . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id BVwWAAAAYAAJ History of Julius Caesar ] By Jacob Abbott . Harper & Brothers , 1876 . Mid-classical ancient history * 44 BC : Julius Caesar murdered by Marcus Brutus and others ; the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire . * 27 BC : Octavian is proclaimed princeps ( emperor ) by the Roman Senate and adopts the title Augustus ( lit . `` the august one '' ) . * 6 BC : Earliest estimated date for birth of Jesus of Nazareth * 5 BC : Birth of Jesus Christ ( Ussher chronology ) * 9 : Battle of the Teutoburg Forest , the Imperial Roman Army 's bloodiest defeat . * 14 : Death of Emperor Augustus ( Octavian ) , ascension of his adopted son Tiberius to the throne * 29 : Crucifixion of Jesus Christ . * 69 : Year of the four emperors in Rome * 70 : Destruction of Jerusalem by the armies of Titus . * 117 : Roman Empire at largest extent under Emperor Trajan * 192 : Kingdom of Champa in Central Việt Nam * 3rd century : The Buddhist Srivijaya Empire established in the Malay Archipelago . * 220 : Three Kingdoms period begins in China after the fall of Han Dynasty . * 226 : Fall of the Parthian Empire and Rise of the Sassanian Empire * 238 : Defeat of Gordian III ( 238–244 ) , Philip the Arab ( 244–249 ) , and Valerian ( 253–260 ) , by Shapur I of Persia , and Valerian is captured * 280 : Emperor Wu established Jin Dynasty providing a temporary unity of China after the devastating Three Kingdoms period . Late classical ancient history * 285 : Emperor Diocletian splits the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western Empires * 313 : Edict of Milan legalized Christianity throughout the Roman Empire , and thus ended the previous state-sanctioned persecution of Christians there * 335 : Samudragupta becomes the emperor of the Gupta empire * 378 : Battle of Adrianople , Roman army under Eastern Roman Emperor Valens is defeated by the Germanic tribes * 395 : Roman Emperor Theodosius I outlaws all pagan religions in favour of Christianity * 410 : Alaric I sacks Rome for the first time since 390 BC * c. 455 : Skandagupta repels an Indo-Hephthalite attack on India . * 476 : Romulus Augustus , last Western Roman Emperor is forced to abdicate by Odoacer , a half Hunnish and half Scirian chieftain of the Germanic Heruli ; Odoacer returns the imperial regalia to Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno in Constantinople in return for the title of dux of Italy ; traditionally , the most frequently cited date for the end of the Roman Empire ( although the Eastern Roman Empire , based in Constantinople , would still continue to exist until 1453 ) * 529 The Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I ordered the prominent philosophical schools of antiquity throughout the Eastern Roman Empire ( including the famous Academy in Athens , among others ) to close down—allegedly , because Justinian frowned upon the pagan nature of these schools Classical ancient history end The transition period from Classical Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages is known as Late Antiquity . Some key dates marking that transition are : * 293 : reforms of Roman Emperor Diocletian * 395 : the division of Roman Empire into the Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire * 476 : the fall of Western Roman Empire * 529 : closure of Platonic Academy in Athens by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I * 610 : the rise of Islam The beginning of the post-classical age ( known generally as the Middle Ages ) is a period in the history of Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire spanning roughly five centuries from AD 500 to 1000 . Aspects of continuity with the earlier classical period are discussed in greater detail under the heading `` Late Antiquity '' . Late Antiquity is the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages in both mainland Europe and the Mediterranean world : generally from the end of the Roman Empire 's Crisis of the 3rd century ( c. 284 ) to the Islamic conquests and the re-organization of the Byzantine Empire under Heraclius . Prominent civilizations Comparative timeline ImageSize = width:835 height:500 PlotArea = left:100 right:20 top:20 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id : time value : rgb ( 0.7,0.7,1 ) # id : period value : rgb ( 1,0.7,0.5 ) # id : age value : rgb ( 0.95,0.85,0.5 ) # id : era value : rgb ( 1,0.85,0.5 ) # id : eon value : rgb ( 1,0.85,0.7 ) # id : filler value : gray ( 0.8 ) # background bar id : black value : black Period = from : -3000 till:1000 TimeAxis = orientation : horizontal ScaleMajor = unit : year increment:500 start : -3000 ScaleMinor = unit : year increment:100 start : -3000 BarData = bar : ages text : '' Historical Ages ........ '' bar : Time text : Age bar : blank bar : sw_asia text : '' South-west Asia ...... '' bar : Mes . text : Mes . bar : Elam text : Elam bar : Ach . text : Ach . bar : blank bar : africa text : '' Africa ...................... '' bar : Egypt text : Egypt bar : Kush text : Kush bar : Aksumite text : Aksumite bar : Carthage text : Carthage bar : blank bar : s_asia text : '' South Asia .............. '' bar : Indus.Valley bar : blank bar : e_asia text : '' East Asia ................. '' bar : China bar : blank bar : americas text : '' Americas ................. '' bar : N.Americas text : N.Americas bar : C.Americas text : C.Americas bar : S.Americas text : S.Americas bar : blank bar : eur text : '' Europe ..................... '' bar : Europe PlotData = align : center textcolor : black fontsize:8 mark : ( line , black ) width:15 shift : ( 0 , -5 ) bar : ages color : skyblue from : start till : end text : '' Historical ages '' bar : Time color : period from : -3000 till : -1200 text : Bronze Age from : -1200 till : 400 text : Iron Age from : 400 till : 1000 text : Middle Ages bar : blank at : -3000 bar : sw_asia color : skyblue from : start till : end text : '' Southwest Asia ( Near East ) '' bar : Mes . color : era from : -3000 till : -750 text : Mesopotamia bar : Elam color : era from : -3000 till : -2700 shift : ( 8,0 ) text : Proto-Elamite from : -2700 till : -1500 text : Old Elamite from : -1500 till : -1100 text : Middle Elamite from : -1100 till : -539 text : Neo-Elamite bar : Ach . color : era from : -550 till : -330 text : Achaemenid Empire bar : blank at : -3000 bar : africa color : skyblue from : start till : end text : '' Africa '' bar : Egypt color : age from : -3000 till : -30 text : Ancient Egypt bar : Kush color : era from : -3000 till : -1650 text : Kerma from : -1650 till : -1070 text : Ancient Egypt from

bb_1575--Ancient_history.txt

What ancient African nation is (at 2011) the most populated landlocked country of the world?

Iqaluit ( ; ) is the capital of the Canadian territory of Nunavut , its largest community , and its only city . Until 1987 the city was known as Frobisher Bay , after the large bay on the coast of which the city is situated . In 1999 , Iqaluit became the capital of Nunavut after the division of the Northwest Territories into two separate territories . Before this event Iqaluit was ( relatively speaking ) an insignificant city and not well-known outside of the Canadian Arctic or Canada , with population and economic growth highly limited . This is due to the city 's isolation and heavy dependence on expensively imported supplies , as the city , like the rest of Nunavut , has no road , rail , or even ship connections ( for part of the year ) to the rest of Canada . The city also possesses a polar climate , influenced by the cold , deep waters of the Labrador Current just off Baffin Island ; this makes the city of Iqaluit cold , even though the city is well south of the Arctic Circle ) . The city is closer to Greenland 's capital , Nuuk ( a.k.a . Godthåb ) than it is to the capital of the Northwest Territories , the much-larger northern city of Yellowknife . As of the 2011 census the population was 6,699 , an increase of 8.3 per cent from the 2006 census . Iqaluit has the lowest population of any capital city in Canada . Inhabitants of Iqaluit are called Iqalummiut ( singular : Iqalummiuq ) . History Iqaluit has been a traditional fishing place used by Inuit for thousands of years , hence the name Iqaluit , which means place of many fish . In 1942 an American air base was built there , intended to provide a stop-over and refuelling site for short range aircraft being ferried across the Atlantic to support the war effort in Europe . Iqaluit 's first permanent resident was Nakasuk , an Inuk guide who helped American Air Force planners to choose a site with a large flat area suitable for a landing strip . The wartime airstrip was known as Crystal Two and was part of the Crimson Route . Long regarded as a campsite and fishing spot by the Inuit , the place chosen had traditionally been named Iqaluit – `` place of many fish '' in Inuktitut – but Canadian and American authorities named it Frobisher Bay , after the name of the body of water it abuts . For the history of the air base , see Frobisher Bay Air Base . The Hudson 's Bay Company moved its south Baffin operations to the neighbouring valley of Niaqunngut , officially called Apex , in 1949 to take advantage of the airfield . The population of Frobisher Bay increased rapidly during the construction of the Distant Early Warning Line ( DEW line , a system of radar stations , see North American Aerospace Defense Command ( NORAD ) ) in the mid-1950s . Hundreds of construction workers , military personnel , and administrative staff moved into the community , and several hundred Inuit followed to take advantage of the access to medical care and jobs the base provided . In 1957 , 489 of the town 's 1,200 residents were reported to be Inuit . After 1959 , the Canadian government established permanent services at Frobisher Bay , including full-time doctors , a school and social services . The Inuit population grew rapidly in response , as the government encouraged Inuit to settle permanently in communities with government services . Naval Radio Station ( NRS ) Frobisher Bay , callsign CFI , was established in July 1954 as a result of the closure of NRS Chimo , Quebec . Station CFI was part of the Supplementary Radio network . Because of its remoteness and size , it was very expensive to operate . Advancing technology eventually forced the closure of CFI in 1967 . The American military left Iqaluit in 1963 , as intercontinental ballistic missiles ( ICBM ) diminished the strategic value of the DEW line and Arctic airbases , but Frobisher Bay remained the government 's administrative and logistical centre for much of the eastern Arctic . In 1964 , the first elections were held for a community council , and in 1979 for the first mayor . The founding of the Gordon Robertson Educational Centre , now Inuksuk High School , in the early 1970s at Iqaluit confirmed the government 's commitment to the community as an administrative centre . At the time of its founding , it was the sole high school operating in more than one-seventh of Canadian territory . On 1 January 1987 , the name of this municipality was officially changed from `` Frobisher Bay '' to `` Iqaluit '' – aligning official usage with the name that the Inuit population had always used ( although , many documents still referred to Iqaluit as Frobisher Bay for several years after 1987 ) . In December 1995 , Iqaluit was selected to serve as Nunavut 's future capital in a territory-wide referendum , in which it was chosen over Rankin Inlet . On 19 April 2001 , it was officially redesignated as a city . Iqaluit was designated by Canada as the host city for the 2010 meeting of the G7 finance ministers , held on 5–6 February . The meeting strained the northern communications technology infrastructure . Timeline * 1576 – Englishman Martin Frobisher sails into Frobisher Bay believing he has found the route to China . First Anglican/Episcopalian church service in North America . * 1861 – Charles Francis Hall , an American , camps at the Sylvia Grinnell River and explores the waters of Koojesse Inlet , which he names after his Inuit guide * 1942 – U.S. Army Air Forces selects Iqaluit ’ s current location as the site of a major air base * 1949 – The HBC moves its trading post from Ward Inlet to Apex * 1955 – Frobisher Bay becomes the centre for U.S. Canada DEW Line construction operations * 1958 – Telephone exchange service established by Bell Canada * 1963 – US military move out of Iqaluit * 1964 – First community council formed ; population of Frobisher Bay is 900 * 1970 – Frobisher Bay officially recognized as a Settlement * 1974 – Settlement of Frobisher Bay gains village status * 1976 – Inuit present the Nunavut proposal to the Federal government * 1979 – First mayor elected * 1980 – Frobisher Bay designated as a town * 1982 – Government of Canada agrees in principle to the creation of Nunavut * 1987 – Frobisher Bay officially becomes Iqaluit , reverting to its original Inuktitut name meaning `` place of ( many ) fish '' * 1993 – The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement is signed in Iqaluit * 1995 – Nunavut residents select Iqaluit as capital of the new territory * 1 April 1999 – The Territory of Nunavut officially comes into being * 19 April 2001 – Iqaluit receives its order of official status as a city * 2002 – Iqaluit , along with Nuuk , Greenland , co-host the first jointly hosted Arctic Winter Games ; the Arctic Winter Games Arena was constructed in Iqaluit for the event . * 5 February 2010 – Iqaluit hosted the finance meeting as part of the 2010 G7 summit . Geography Iqaluit is located in the Everett Mountains rising from Koojesse ( Kuujussi ) Inlet , an inlet of Frobisher Bay , on the southeast part of Baffin Island . It is well to the east of Nunavut 's mainland , and northeast of Hudson Bay . Neighbourhoods * Downtown ( central ) * Happy Valley ( north ) * Lake Subdivision ( north ) – residential area * Lower Base ( south ) * Lower Iqaluit ( southeast ) * North 40 ( northwest ) – located on the north side of the airport * Plateau Subidivison ( northwest ) – residential area * Road To Nowhere ( north ) * Tundra Valley ( west ) * Tundra Ridge ( west ) – home to two of the city 's schools and youth centre * West 40 ( southwest ) – commercial area Suburbs Apex , officially and functionally part of the City of Iqaluit , is a small community about 5 km southeast ( ) from Iqaluit 's centre and is known in Inuktitut as Niaqunngut . It is located on a small peninsula separating Koojesse Inlet from Tarr Inlet . There is a women 's shelter , a church , a primary school ( Nanook Elementary School ) , a design shop and a bed-and-breakfast . Historically Apex was the place where most Inuit lived when Iqaluit was a military site , and as such it was off-limits to anyone not working at the base . Climate Iqaluit has a typically Arctic climate ( Köppen : ET ) , although it is well outside the Arctic Circle . The city has cold winters and short summers that are too cool to permit the growth of trees . Although it is north of the tree line , there are still shrubs that are classed , locally , as trees . These include the Arctic willow ( Salix arctica ) which is hard to recognize as a tree because of its low height . The permafrost does not allow the taproot to get deeper than 6 in so this does not allow vertical growth . The Arctic willow may be up to around horizontally , but only 6 in tall . Average monthly temperatures are below freezing for eight months of the year . Iqaluit averages just over 400 mm of precipitation annually , much wetter than many other localities in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago , with the summer being the wettest season . Temperatures of the winter months are comparable to other northern communities further west on the continent such as Yellowknife and to some extent even Fairbanks , even though Iqaluit is a few degrees colder than the latter . Summer temperatures are , however , much colder due to its easterly maritime position affected by the waters of the cold Baffin Island Current . This means that the tree line is much further south in the eastern part of Canada , being as southbound , in spite of low elevation , as northern Labrador . The highest temperature ever recorded in Iqaluit was on 21 July 2008 . The lowest temperature ever recorded was on 10 February 1967 . Demographics The 2011 Census reported that there were 6,699 people living in Iqaluit , an 8.3 % increase from 2006 . The land area size of the city is 52.50 km2 , therefore a population density of 127.6 people per km2 . Iqaluit has a total of 2,930 private dwellings , 2,367 of which are occupied by usual residents ( 80.8 % occupancy rate ) . The median value of these dwellings is $ 376,639 , quite a bit higher than the national median at $ 280,552 . The average household has about 2.8 people living in it , and the average family has 1.4 children living at home with them . The median ( after-tax ) household income in Iqaluit is quite high , $ 98,921 , almost double the national rate at $ 54,089 . The median income for an individual in the city , is also high , $ 60,688 . 5.9 % of people ( over 15 years old ) are either divorced or separated , which is quite a bit lower than the national rate at 8.6 % . Also , 53.3 % of the population is either married or living with a common law partner . Iqaluit has quite a young population , the median age of the population is more than 10 years younger than the national rate , 30.1 years old compared to 40.6 years old . Iqaluit has the highest number of Inuit people in both numbers ( 3,900 ) and percentages ( 59.1 % ) , of all Canadian cities with populations greater than 5,000 . The racial make up is : There is no `` majority mother tongue '' in Iqaluit , as 45.4 % reported their mother tongue as being English , and 45.4 % also reported their mother tongue as Inuktitut . However 97.2 % of Iqalummiuts can speak English , whereas only 53.1 % can speak Inuktitut . French was the mother tongue of 4.8 % of the population , which is the same figure of the population who can speak the language . As of 2012 , `` Pirurvik , Iqaluit ’ s Inuktitut language training centre , has a new goal : to train instructors from Nunavut communities to teach Inuktitut in different ways and in their own dialects when they return home . '' 74.9 % of the population practise some form of Christianity ( Anglican is the most popular at 42.6 % ) , and 22.9 % of the population identify as having no religious affiliation . There are other religions practised in the city , just not in large numbers . For those over the age of 25 : * 75.7 % are high school educated ( 15.9 % as their highest level of education ) * 59.8 % are post-secondary school educated * 24.3 % have no certificate , diploma or degree Notable Iqalummiut * Eva Aariak , politician , former MLA and second Premier of Nunavut * Paul-André Brasseur , child actor * Ann Meekitjuk Hanson , former Commissioner of Nunavut * Kenn Harper , grocer , amateur historian , and entrepreneur * Lucie Idlout , rock singer , songwriter * Matty McNair , US born explorer * Simonie Michael , first Inuk to be elected to what is now the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories in 1966 * Nakasuk , founder of Iqaluit * Paul Okalik , lawyer , politician , member of the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut , first Premier of Nunavut and former Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut . Unsuccessful federal Liberal candidate for Nunavut * Abe Okpik , politician , worked on Project Surname to obtain family names for Inuit rather than disc numbers and first Inuk to sit ( appointed ) on what is now the NWT Legislative Assembly * Dennis Patterson , politician , former MLA and Premier of the NWT ( prior to division ) , current Canadian Senator for Nunavut * Aqpik Peter , Nunavut speed skater , role model/poster boy for 2010 Winter Olympics * Ed Picco , politician , former MLA in NWT and Nunavut * Annabella Piugattuk , actress * Elisapee Sheutiapik , ex-politician & mayor * Hunter Tootoo , politician , and former speaker of the Nunavut Legislative Assembly * Sheila Watt-Cloutier , politician , environmental activist , Nobel nominee Transportation Iqaluit is the smallest Canadian capital in terms of population and the only capital that is not connected to other settlements by a highway . Located on an island remote from the Canadian highway system , Iqaluit is generally only accessible by aircraft and , subject to ice conditions , by boat . Iqaluit Airport is a fully modern facility whose originally Second World War era runway is more than long enough for most classes of modern jet . Plans are underway to build a new , larger passenger terminal building north of the current terminal , which would also include a larger apron adjacent to the new terminal . A persistent rumour that Iqaluit was an emergency landing site for the Space Shuttle is false . Iqaluit shared its runway with the Royal Canadian Air Force until the Canadian Forces stopped using Iqaluit as a Forward Operating Location ( FOL ) . The barracks and F-18 hangars are maintained . Iqaluit Airport was a centre for cold-weather testing of new aircraft , such as the Airbus A380 in February 2006 . Both Canadian North and First Air serve Iqaluit from Ottawa and Yellowknife as well as multiple communities in Nunavut . Air Canada Jazz also provided daily service to Iqaluit from Ottawa between March 28 , 2010 and July 31 , 2011 . CBC reports the Air Canada service was cancelled due to rising fuel costs , among other issues , which prevented the route from being profitable . Locally based airlines include Air Nunavut , Canadian Helicopters , Nunasi Helicopters and Unaalik Aviation . All provide air charters and Air Nunavut and Kivalliq Air provide MEDIVAC/air ambulance service . In the middle of summer , a few ships — generally no larger than a Liberty-class vessel — transport bulk and heavy goods to the city . Cargo is off-loaded onto barges as the harbour is not deep enough . The city is currently planning a deepwater port . Experienced locals also cross the Hudson Strait from the Canadian mainland when it freezes over , either on foot or by dog sled or snowmobile , a distance of over 100 km . Iqaluit has a local road system only stretching from the nearby community of Apex to the Sylvia Grinnell Territorial Park Reserve , 1 km west of town . Iqaluit currently has no public transportation , although there is city-wide taxi service . ( There was bus service in the city before , but the service was cancelled due to low ridership . ) Motor cars are increasing in number , to the extent of causing occasional traffic jams known locally as `` the rush minute . '' However , the cost of shipping automobiles and the wear-and-tear of the harsh Arctic climate combined with its notoriously rough roadways mean that snowmobiles remain the preferred form of personal transportation . All-terrain vehicles are also increasingly common in most of the Canadian Arctic . Snowmobiles are used to travel both within the city and in the surrounding area . In winter , dog sleds are still used , but primarily for recreation . In winter , the nearby Qaummaarviit Territorial Historic Park and the more remote Katannilik Territorial Park Reserve are only accessible by snowmobile , dog sled or foot . In the summer , both are accessible by boat . Both residents and businesses identify their locations mostly by building number , and occasionally by the name of a prominent structure . Residents know where in the city certain series of building numbers are located ; numbers tend to be aggregated in blocks , so someone might say that they live in the 2600s . Around 2003 , street names were developed , although there were delays in finalizing them and posting the signs . Street numbers have not been assigned , and building numbers continue to be used . Iqaluit is the only Canadian capital city not to have traffic signals . Roads Most major roads in Iqaluit are paved with asphalt , but local and smaller roads are gravel . Roads do not have traffic signals , but use stop signs to control intersections . Education The Qikiqtani School Operations based in Pond Inlet operates five schools in the area . Nanook Elementary School , located in Apex , Nakasuk School and Joamie Ilinniarvik School offer Kindergarten to grade 5 . Aqsarniit Ilinniarvik School offers grades 6 to 8 and Inuksuk High School offers grades 9 to 12 . The Commission scolaire francophone du Nunavut runs École des Trois-Soleils and offers kindergarten to grade 8 . At the post-secondary level there are two , Nunavut Arctic College ( Nunatta Campus ) and Akitsiraq Law School . Infrastructure Waste and water treatment The city 's infrastructure is stressed by growth and lack of means to upgrade . Waste from the city is disposed off into an open air dump on Akilliq Drive ( West 40 ) located south of the city . While the city has water treatment facilities , raw sewage from the city is often dumped untreated into nearby Frobisher Bay . As the dump has reached capacity , the city is planning to open a second dump 9 km north of the city . Iqaluit does not have a recycling program in place with all recyclable materials sent into the waste stream . Emergency services Emergency services ( fire and ambulance ) are provided by city from a single station on Niaqunngusiariaq . The emergency services fleet consists of : * Engine 1 – Spartan Diamond/Smeal pumper * Ladder 1 – Spartan Metro Star/Smeal 75 ' aerial * Command 1 – Ford SUV * Command 2 – Ford F250 4×4 pickup * Medic 1 and 2 – Ford F450 Type II ambulances Iqaluit Airport Emergency Services is responsible for fire services at the airport . Following a fire at the airport in 1998 , the Government of Nunavut re-opened the fire station at the airport . Their fleet consists of : * Waltek C-5500 ARFF * Oshkosh T3000 ARFF Policing in Iqaluit , as with the rest of Nunavut is contracted to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) V Division . Medical Services Qikiqtani General Hospital is the primary care facility in the city . There is also a Family Practice Clinic providing primary care services by Nurse Practitioners . There are two dental clinics located in the city . Architecture and attractions Much of Iqaluit 's architecture is functional – designed to minimize material costs , while retaining heat and withstanding the climate . Early architecture runs from the 1950s military barracks of the original DEW line installation , through the 1970s white hyper-modernist fibreglass block of the Nakasuk School and Municipal Offices and Arena , to the lines of the steel-reinforced concrete high-rise complex on the hill above it . A number of older Hudson 's Bay Company and early 1950s buildings have been retained and restored in Apex ( the former nursing station has been revived as the Rannva Bed and Breakfast , the HBC buildings as an art gallery ) . The newer buildings are more colourful and diverse , and closer to the norms of southern architecture . The principal exception is the Nunavut Legislative Assembly Building , which is remarkable for its colourful interior , adorned with some of the very best in Inuit art . A new legislative building is in planning to be developed and built outside the city on the Apex Road . Another distinctive building was St. Jude 's Anglican Cathedral , see of the Anglican Diocese of The Arctic , which was a white building shaped like an igloo . Originally built by the parishioners , under the guidance of Markoosie Peter , a traditional master carpenter , the altar was shaped like a traditional Inuit sled , and the cross composed of two crossed narwhal tusks . An incident of arson severely affected the Cathedral structure and interior on 5 November 2005 , and it was finally demolished on 1 June 2006 . The cathedral is slowly being rebuilt ( foundation 2008 super structure 2010 ) and fund-raising continues locally and internationally . As of December 2010 , the exterior of a similarly shaped replacement cathedral had been completed , and interior work was planned for 2011 with a potential opening for Christmas 2011 . The current building , informally referred to as the Igloo Cathedral , was opened on June 3 , 2012 . The unique building , in the shape of an igloo , has traditionally been a landmark and tourist attraction in Iqaluit , besides its important spiritual role for Iqalummiut ( people of Iqaluit ) . On a ridge overlooking the city is the distinctive blue and white Inuksuk High School . The school is made up of four square sections joined together that give a clover leaf shape when viewed from the air . The city is also the location of the Nunatta Sunakkutaangit Museum , which houses a large collection of Inuit and Arctic objects . The museum is housed in a restored and extended Hudson 's Bay Company building , clad in the HBC signature red and white , transported to Iqaluit from its original site on the Apex Beach . Just west of Iqaluit is the Sylvia Grinnell Territorial Park Reserve . This park is dominated by the valley of the Sylvia Grinnell River . A small visitor 's centre with viewing platform is located on top of a hill overlooking scenic waterfalls , tidal flats and traditional fishing sites . Nearby on an island near Peterhead Inlet , is the Qaummaarviit Territorial Historic Park . It is a site with a long Inuit history and numerous artifacts have been recovered , including the remains of 11 semi-buried sod houses . A little farther , across Frobisher Bay , are the Katannilik Territorial Park Reserve and the Soper Heritage River Park forming a park corridor linking Iqaluit along traditional overland travel routes with Kimmirut ( formerly Lake Harbour ) . Frobisher Bay extends for almost 70 mi to the east , with moderate hills , glaciers and traditional and summer camp sites , opening into the Davis Straits which divide Nunavut from Greenland . Iqaluit , like many Nunavut communities has a volunteer run annual spring festival . Called Toonik Tyme it involves a combination of traditional Inuit activities combined with more modern events , while the Alianait Music and Arts Festival is held for a week each June 21 . Media Radio Television Iqaluit was previously served by CFFB-TV channel 8 , a CBC Television / CBC North repeater of CFYK-DT ( Yellowknife ) ; that station closed down on July 31 , 2012 due to budget cuts affecting the CBC . Communications * Meshnet Community WiFi – Free Community WiFi and Paid Service available in most areas of city . Free services include access to Isuma.tv , and many other resources . Press * Nunatsiaq News * News/North

odql_14254--Iqaluit.txt

The capital city of Nunavut, Iqaluit lies on which large island?

The Committee on Public Information , also known as the CPI or the Creel Committee , was an independent agency of the government of the United States created to influence U.S. public opinion regarding American participation in World War I . Over just 26 months , from April 14 , 1917 , to June 30 , 1919 , it used every medium available to create enthusiasm for the war effort and enlist public support against foreign attempts to undercut America 's war aims . It primarily used propaganda techniques to accomplish these goals . Organizational history Establishment President Woodrow Wilson established the Committee on Public Information ( CPI ) through Executive Order 2594 on April 13 , 1917 . The committee consisted of George Creel ( chairman ) and as ex officio members the Secretaries of : State ( Robert Lansing ) , War ( Newton D. Baker ) , and the Navy ( Josephus Daniels ) . Creel urged Wilson to create a government agency to coordinate `` not propaganda as the Germans defined it , but propaganda in the true sense of the word , meaning the 'propagation of faith . ' '' He was a journalist with years of experience on the Denver Post and the Rocky Mountain News before accepting Wilson 's appointment to the CPI . He had a contentious relationship with Secretary Lansing . Activities Purpose The purpose of the CPI was to influence American public opinion toward supporting U.S. participation in World War I via a prolonged propaganda campaign . The CPI at first used material that was based on fact , but spun it to present an upbeat picture of the American war effort . In his memoirs , Creel claimed that the CPI routinely denied false or undocumented atrocity reports , fighting the crude propaganda efforts of `` patriotic organizations '' like the National Security League and the American Defense Society that preferred `` general thundering '' and wanted the CPI to `` preach a gospel of hate . '' The committee used newsprint , posters , radio , telegraph , cable and movies to broadcast its message . It recruited about 75,000 `` Four Minute Men , '' volunteers who spoke about the war at social events for an ideal length of four minutes , considering that the average human attention span was judged at the time to be four minutes . They covered the draft , rationing , war bond drives , victory gardens and why America was fighting . It was estimated that by the end of the war , they had made more than 7.5 million speeches to 314 million people in 5,200 communities . They were advised to keep their message positive , always use their own words and avoid `` hymns of hate . '' For ten days in May 1917 , the Four Minute Men were expected to promote `` Universal Service by Selective Draft '' in advance of national draft registration on June 5 , 1917 . The CPI staged events designed for specific ethnic groups . For instance , Irish-American tenor John McCormack sang at Mount Vernon before an audience representing Irish-American organizations . The Committee also targeted the American worker and , endorsed by Samuel Gompers , filled factories and offices with posters designed to promote the critical role of American labor in the success of the war effort . The CPI 's activities were so thorough that historians later stated , using the example of a typical midwestern American farm family , that Rejection of the word 'propaganda ' Creel wrote about the Committee 's rejection of the word propaganda , saying : `` We did not call it propaganda , for that word , in German hands , had come to be associated with deceit and corruption . Our effort was educational and informative throughout , for we had such confidence in our case as to feel that no other argument was needed than the simple , straightforward presentation of facts . '' Organizational structure During its lifetime , the organization had over twenty bureaus and divisions , with commissioner 's offices in nine foreign countries . Both a News Division and a Films Division were established to help get out the war message . The CPI 's daily newspaper , called the Official Bulletin , began at eight pages and grew to 32 . It was distributed to every newspaper , post office , government office , and military base . Stories were designed to report positive news . For example , the CPI promoted an image of well-equipped U.S. troops preparing to face the Germans that were belied by the conditions visiting Congressmen reported . The CPI released three feature-length films : Pershing 's Crusaders ( May 1918 ) , America 's Answer ( to the Hun ) ( August 1918 ) , Under Four Flags ( November 1918 ) . They were unsophisticated attempts to impress the viewer with snippets of footage from the front , far less sensational than the `` crudely fantastical '' output of Hollywood in the same period . To reach those Americans who might not read newspapers , attend meetings or watch movies , Creel created the Division of Pictorial Publicity . The Division produced 1438 designs for propaganda posters , cards buttons and cartoons in addition to 20000 lantern pictures ( slides ) to be used with the speeches . Charles Dana Gibson was America 's most popular illustrator - and an ardent supporter of the war . When Creel asked him to assemble a group of artists to help design posters for the government , Gibson was more than eager to help . Famous illustrators such as James Montgomery Flagg , Joseph Pennell , Louis D. Fancher , and N. C. Wyeth were brought together to produce some of World War I 's most lasting images . Media incidents One early incident demonstrated the dangers of embroidering the truth . The CPI fed newspapers the story that ships escorting the First Division to Europe sank several German submarines , a story discredited when newsmen interviewed the ships ' officers in England . Republican Senator Boies Penrose of Pennsylvania called for an investigation and The New York Times called the CPI `` the Committee on Public Misinformation . '' The incident turned the once compliant news publishing industry into skeptics . Early in 1918 , the CPI made a premature announcement that `` the first American built battle planes are today en route to the front in France , '' but newspapers learned that the accompanying pictures were fake , there was only one plane , and it was still being tested . At other times , though the CPI could control in large measure what newspapers printed , its exaggerations were challenged and mocked in Congressional hearings . The Committee 's overall tone also changed with time , shifting from its original belief in the power of facts to mobilization based on hate , like the slogan `` Stop the Hun ! '' on posters showing a U.S. soldier taking hold of a German soldier in the act of terrorizing a mother and child , all in support of war bond sales . International efforts The CPI extended its efforts overseas as well and found it had to tailor its work to its audience . In Latin America , its efforts were led where possible by American journalists with experience in the region , because , said one organizer , `` it is essentially a newspaperman 's job '' with the principal aim of keeping the public `` informed about war aims and activities . '' The Committee found the public bored with the battle pictures and stories of heroism supplied for years by the competing European powers . In Peru it found there was an audience for photos of shipyards and steel mills . In Chile it fielded requests for information about America 's approach to public health , forest protection , and urban policing . In some countries it provided reading rooms and language education . Twenty Mexican journalists were taken on a tour of the United States . Political conflict Creel used his overseas operations as a way to gain favor with Congressmen who controlled the CPI 's funding , sending friends of Congressman on brief assignments to Europe . Some of his business arrangements drew Congressional criticism as well , particularly his sale by competitive bidding of the sole right to distribute battlefield pictures . Despite hearings to air grievances against the CPI , the investigating committee passed its appropriation unanimously . Creel also used the CPI 's ties to the newspaper publishing industry to trace the source of negative stories about Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels , a former newsman and a political ally . He tracked them to Louis Howe , assistant to Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt and threatened to expose him to the President . As a Wilson partisan , Creel showed little respect for his Congressional critics , and Wilson enjoyed how Creel expressed sentiments the President could not express himself . Termination and disestablishment Committee work was curtailed after July 1 , 1918 . Domestic activities stopped after the Armistice was signed on November 11 , 1918 . Foreign operations ended June 30 , 1919 . Wilson abolished the CPI by executive order 3154 on August 21 , 1919 . The Committee on Public Information was formally disestablished by an act of Congress on June 30 , 1919 , although the organization 's work had been formally completed months before.Creel , How We Advertised America , pg . ix . On August 21 , 1919 , the disbanded organization 's records were turned over to the Council of National Defense . Memoirs and criticism Creel later published his memoirs of his service with the CPI , How We Advertised America . He wrote : George Creel , How We Advertised America . New York : Harper & Brothers , 1920 ; pp . 4–5 . In no degree was the Committee an agency of censorship , a machinery of concealment or repression . Its emphasis throughout was on the open and the positive . At no point did it seek or exercise authorities under those war laws that limited the freedom of speech and press . In all things , from first to last , without halt or change , it was a plain publicity proposition , a vast enterprise in salesmanship , the world 's greatest adventures in advertising ... We did not call it propaganda , for that word , in German hands , had come to be associated with deceit and corruption . Our effort was educational and informative throughout , for we had such confidence in our case as to feel that no other argument was needed than the simple , straightforward presentation of the facts . Walter Lippmann , a Wilson adviser , journalist , and co-founder of The New Republic , was a sharp critic of Creel . He had once written an editorial criticizing Creel for violating civil liberties when he was Police Commissioner of Denver . Without naming Creel , he wrote in a memo to Wilson that censorship should `` never be entrusted to anyone who is not himself tolerant , nor to anyone who is unacquainted with the long record of folly which is the history of suppression . '' After the war , Lippmann criticized the CPI 's work in Europe : `` The general tone of it was one of unmitigated brag accompanied by unmitigated gullibility '' giving shell-shocked Europe to understand that a rich bumpkin had come to town with his pockets bulging and no desire except to please . '' The Office of Censorship in World War II did not follow the CPI precedent . It used a system of voluntary cooperation with a code of conduct , and did not disseminate government propaganda . Staff Among those who participated in the CPI 's work were : * Edward Bernays , a pioneer in public relations and later theorist of the importance of propaganda to democratic governance . He directed the CPI 's Latin News Service . The CPI 's poor reputation prevented Bernays from handling American publicity at the 1919 Peace Conference as he wanted . * Vira Boarman Whitehouse , director of the CPI 's office in Switzerland . She repeatedly crossed into Germany to deliver propaganda materials . She later told of her experiences in A Year as a Government Agent ( 1920 ) . * Ernest Poole . Poole was the co Director of the Foreign Press Bureau division . Poole was awarded the very first Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for his novel , His Family . * Carl R. Byoir ( 1886 - 1957 ) , like Bernays , a founding father of public relations in America . * Maurice Lyons was the Secretary of the Committee . Lyons was a journalist who got involved in politics when he became secretary to William F. McCombs , who was Chairman of the Democratic National Committee during Woodrow Wilson 's presidential campaign of 1912 . * Charles Edward Merriam , a professor of political science at the University of Chicago and an advisor to several U.S. Presidents .

qw_8461--Committee_on_Public_Information.txt

"Which country set up the ""Committee on Public Information"" from April 1917 to June 1919 to run a propaganda campaign using newsprint, posters, radio, telegraph, cable and movies to broadcast its message, including fabrications (e.g. images of enemy soldiers killing babies and hoisting them on bayonets), and told citizens to seek out spies, which led to the creation of ""patriotic organizations,"" which spied, tapped telephones, and opened mail in an effort to ferret out ""spies and traitors"" (i.e. anyone who called for peace, questioned the war's progress, or criticized government policies)?"

In Greek mythology , Perseus ( ; ) , the legendary founder of Mycenae and of the Perseid dynasty of Danaans , was , alongside Cadmus and Bellerophon , the greatest Greek hero and slayer of monsters before the days of Heracles . Perseus beheaded the Gorgon Medusa and saved Andromeda from the sea monster Cetus . Perseus was the son of the mortal Danaë and the god Zeus . He was also the great grandfather of Heracles , also a son of Zeus . Etymology Because of the obscurity of the name Perseus and the legendary character of its bearer , most etymologists pass it by , on the presumption that it might be pre-Greek ; however , the name of Perseus ’ native city was Greek and so were the names of his wife and relatives . There is some prospect that it descended into Greek from the Proto-Indo-European language . In that regard Robert Graves has espoused the only Greek derivation available . Perseus might be from the Greek verb , `` πέρθειν '' ( perthein ) , “ to waste , ravage , sack , destroy ” , some form of which appears in Homeric epithets . According to Carl Darling Buck ( Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin ) , the –eus suffix is typically used to form an agent noun , in this case from the aorist stem , pers- . Pers-eus therefore is a sacker of cities ; that is , a soldier by occupation , a fitting name for the first Mycenaean warrior . The origin of perth- is more obscure . J . B. Hofmann lists the possible root as * bher- , from which Latin ferio , `` strike '' . This corresponds to Julius Pokorny ’ s * bher- ( 3 ) , “ scrape , cut. ” Ordinarily * bh- descends to Greek as ph- . This difficulty can be overcome by presuming a dissimilation from the –th– in perthein ; that is , the Greeks preferred not to say * pherthein . Graves carries the meaning still further , to the perse- in Persephone , goddess of death . John Chadwick in the second edition of Documents in Mycenaean Greek speculates as follows about the Mycenaean goddess pe-re- * 82 , attested on the PY Tn 316 tablet ( Linear B : ) and tentatively reconstructed as * Preswa : ” It is tempting to see ... the classical Perse ... daughter of Oceanus ... ; whether it may be further identified with the first element of Persephone is only speculative . ” A Greek folk etymology connected the name of the Persian ( Pars ) people , whom they called the Persai . The native name , however , has always had an -a- in Persian . Herodotus recounts this story , devising a foreign son , Perses , from whom the Persians took the name . Apparently the Persians themselves knew the story , as Xerxes tried to use it to suborn the Argives during his invasion of Greece , but ultimately failed to do so . Origin at Argos Perseus was the son of Zeus and Danaë , the daughter of Acrisius , King of Argos . Disappointed by his lack of luck in having a son , Acrisius consulted the oracle at Delphi , who warned him that he would one day be killed by his daughter 's son . In order to keep Danaë childless , Acrisius imprisoned her in a bronze chamber , open to the sky , in the courtyard of his palace : This mytheme is also connected to Ares , Oenopion , Eurystheus , etc . Zeus came to her in the form of a shower of gold , and impregnated her . Soon after , their child was born ; Perseus— '' Perseus Eurymedon , for his mother gave him this name as well '' ( Apollonius of Rhodes , Argonautica IV ) . Fearful for his future , but unwilling to provoke the wrath of the gods by killing the offspring of Zeus and his daughter , Acrisius cast the two into the sea in a wooden chest . Danaë 's fearful prayer , made while afloat in the darkness , has been expressed by the poet Simonides of Ceos . Mother and child washed ashore on the island of Serifos , where they were taken in by the fisherman Dictys ( `` fishing net '' ) , who raised the boy to manhood . The brother of Dictys was Polydectes ( `` he who receives/welcomes many '' ) , the king of the island . Overcoming the Gorgon When Perseus was grown , Polydectes came to fall in love with the beautiful Danaë . Perseus believed Polydectes was less than honourable , and protected his mother from him ; then Polydectes plotted to send Perseus away in disgrace . He held a large banquet where each guest was expected to bring a gift.Such a banquet , to which each guest brings a gift , was an eranos . The name of Polydectes , `` receiver of many '' , characterizes his role as intended host but is also a euphemism for the Lord of the Underworld , as in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter 9 , 17 . Polydectes requested that the guests bring horses , under the pretense that he was collecting contributions for the hand of Hippodamia , `` tamer of horses '' . Perseus had no horse to give , so he asked Polydectes to name the gift ; he would not refuse it . Polydectes held Perseus to his rash promise and demanded the head of the only mortal Gorgon , Medusa , whose eyes turned people to stone . Ovid 's account of Medusa 's mortality tells that she had once been a woman , vain of her beautiful hair , who had lain with Poseidon in the Temple of Athena . In punishment for the desecration of her temple , Athena had changed Medusa 's hair into hideous snakes `` that she may alarm her surprised foes with terror '' . Athena instructed Perseus to find the Hesperides , who were entrusted with weapons needed to defeat the Gorgon . Following Athena 's guidance , Perseus sought out the Graeae , sisters of the Gorgons , to demand the whereabouts of the Hesperides , the nymphs tending Hera 's orchard . The Graeae were three perpetually old women , who had to share a single eye . As the women passed the eye from one to another , Perseus snatched it from them , holding it for ransom in return for the location of the nymphs . When the sisters led him to the Hesperides , he returned what he had taken . From the Hesperides he received a knapsack ( kibisis ) to safely contain Medusa 's head . Zeus gave him an adamantine sword ( a Harpe ) and Hades ' helm of darkness to hide . Hermes lent Perseus winged sandals to fly , while Athena gave him a polished shield . Perseus then proceeded to the Gorgons ' cave . In the cave he came upon the sleeping Medusa . By viewing Medusa 's reflection in his polished shield , he safely approached and cut off her head . From her neck sprang Pegasus ( `` he who sprang '' ) and Chrysaor ( `` sword of gold '' ) , the result of Poseidon and Medusa 's meeting . The other two Gorgons pursued Perseus , but , wearing his helm of darkness , he escaped . From here he proceeded to visit Atlas , king of Mauretania , who had refused him hospitality ; in revenge Perseus turned him to stone . Marriage to Andromeda On the way back to Seriphos Island , Perseus stopped in the kingdom of Aethiopia . This mythical Ethiopia was ruled by King Cepheus and Queen Cassiopeia . Cassiopeia , having boasted her daughter Andromeda equal in beauty to the Nereids , drew down the vengeance of Poseidon , who sent an inundation on the land and a sea serpent , Cetus , which destroyed man and beast . The oracle of Ammon announced that no relief would be found until the king exposed his daughter Andromeda to the monster , and so she was fastened naked to a rock on the shore . Perseus slew the monster and , setting her free , claimed her in marriage . Perseus married Andromeda in spite of Phineus , to whom she had before been promised . At the wedding a quarrel took place between the rivals , and Phineus was turned to stone by the sight of Medusa 's head that Perseus had kept . Andromeda ( `` queen of men '' ) followed her husband to Tiryns in Argos , and became the ancestress of the family of the Perseidae who ruled at Tiryns through her son with Perseus , Perses . After her death she was placed by Athena amongst the constellations in the northern sky , near Perseus and Cassiopeia.Catasterismi . Sophocles and Euripides ( and in more modern times Pierre Corneille ) made the episode of Perseus and Andromeda the subject of tragedies , and its incidents were represented in many ancient works of art . As Perseus was flying in his return above the sands of Libya , according to Apollonius of Rhodes , the falling drops of Medusa 's blood created a race of toxic serpents , one of whom was to kill the Argonaut Mopsus . On returning to Seriphos and discovering that his mother had to take refuge from the violent advances of Polydectes , Perseus killed him with Medusa 's head , and made his brother Dictys , consort of Danaë , king . Oracle fulfilled Perseus then returned his magical loans and gave Medusa 's head as a votive gift to Athena , who set it on Zeus ' shield ( which she carried ) , as the Gorgoneion ( see also : Aegis ) . The fulfillment of the oracle was told several ways , each incorporating the mythic theme of exile . In Pausanias he did not return to Argos , but went instead to Larissa , where athletic games were being held . He had just invented the quoit and was making a public display of them when Acrisius , who happened to be visiting , stepped into the trajectory of the quoit and was killed : thus the oracle was fulfilled . This is an unusual variant on the story of such a prophecy , as Acrisius ' actions did not , in this variant , cause his death . In the Bibliotheca , the inevitable occurred by another route : Perseus did return to Argos , but when Acrisius learned of his grandson 's approach , mindful of the oracle he went into voluntary exile in Pelasgiotis ( Thessaly ) . There Teutamides , king of Larissa , was holding funeral games for his father . Competing in the discus throw Perseus ' throw veered and struck Acrisius , killing him instantly . In a third tradition , Acrisius had been driven into exile by his brother Proetus . Perseus turned the brother into stone with the Gorgon 's head and restored Acrisius to the throne . Then , accused by Acrisius of lying about having slain the Medusa , Perseus proves himself by showing Acrisius the Gorgon 's head , thus fulfilling the prophecy . Having killed Acrisius , Perseus , who was next in line for the throne , gave the kingdom to Megapenthes ( `` great mourning '' ) son of Proetus and took over Megapenthes ' kingdom of Tiryns . The story is related in Pausanias , which gives as motivation for the swap that Perseus was ashamed to become king of Argos by inflicting death . In any case , early Greek literature reiterates that manslaughter , even involuntary , requires the exile of the slaughterer , expiation and ritual purification . The exchange might well have been a creative solution to a difficult problem ; however , Megapenthes would have been required to avenge his father , which , in legend , he did , but only at the end of Perseus ' long and successful reign . King of Mycenae The two main sources regarding the legendary life of Perseus—for he was an authentic historical figure to the Greeks— are Pausanias and the Bibliotheca , but from them we obtain mainly folk-etymology concerning the founding of Mycenae . Pausanias asserts that the Greeks believed Perseus founded Mycenae . He mentions the shrine to Perseus that stood on the left-hand side of the road from Mycenae to Argos , and also a sacred fountain at Mycenae called Persea . Located outside the walls , this was perhaps the spring that filled the citadel 's underground cistern . He states also that Atreus stored his treasures in an underground chamber there , which is why Heinrich Schliemann named the largest tholos tomb the Treasury of Atreus . Apart from these more historical references , we have only folk-etymology : Perseus dropped his cap or found a mushroom ( both named myces ) at Mycenae , or perhaps the place was named from the lady Mycene , daughter of Inachus , mentioned in a now-fragmentary poem , the Megalai Ehoiai . For whatever reasons , perhaps as outposts , Perseus fortified Mycenae according to Apollodorus along with Midea , an action that implies that they both previously existed . It is unlikely , however , that Apollodorus knew who walled in Mycenae ; he was only conjecturing . In any case , Perseus took up official residence in Mycenae with Andromeda . Here , after a long and prosperous reign , Perseus died of old age . The gods whom he had served loyally , placed him in the skies , among the stars . And there he still shines , together with Andromeda and Cassiopeia . Descendants Perseus and Andromeda had seven sons : Perses , Alcaeus , Heleus , Mestor , Sthenelus , Electryon , and Cynurus , and two daughters , Gorgophone , and Autochthe . Perses was left in Aethiopia and became an ancestor of the Persians . The other descendants ruled Mycenae from Electryon down to Eurystheus , after whom Atreus got the kingdom . However , the Perseids included the great hero , Heracles , stepson of Amphitryon , son of Alcaeus . The Heraclides , or descendants of Heracles , successfully contested the rule of the Atreids . A statement by the Athenian orator , Isocrates helps to date Perseus roughly . He said that Heracles was four generations later than Perseus , which corresponds to the legendary succession : Perseus , Electryon , Alcmena , and Heracles , who was a contemporary of Eurystheus . Atreus was one generation later , a total of five generations . Perseus on Pegasus The replacement of Bellerophon as the tamer and rider of Pegasus by the more familiar culture hero Perseus was not simply an error of painters and poets of the Renaissance . The transition was a development of Classical times which became the standard image during the Middle Ages and has been adopted by the European poets of the Renaissance and later : Giovanni Boccaccio 's Genealogia deorum gentilium libri ( 10.27 ) identifies Pegasus as the steed of Perseus , and Pierre Corneille places Perseus upon Pegasus in Andromède . Modern representations of this image include sculptor Émile Louis Picault 's 1888 sculpture , Pegasus . Argive genealogy in Greek mythology

sfq_11490--Perseus.txt

In Greek Mythology who was the princess rescued from the Sea Monster by Perseus?

`` Step Inside Love '' is a song written by Paul McCartney ( credited as `` Lennon–McCartney '' ) for Cilla Black in 1967 as a theme for her TV series Cilla , which first aired on 30 January 1968 . Background In late 1967 McCartney was approached to write the theme by Cilla and her series producer Michael Hurll . He recorded the original demo version at his London home , accompanying himself on guitar , which consisted of just one verse and the chorus . Black 's recording of this song was used as the theme during the early weeks of the show , until it was decided that the song needed an additional verse , so McCartney came to the BBC Theatre and wrote it there . According to Hurll , the opening line of the second verse ( `` You look tired , love '' ) came from McCartney 's observation of Cilla looking tired from the long rehearsals for the TV show . McCartney then added a third verse and this version was recorded as a studio demo at Chappell Studios in London on 21 November 1967 , with McCartney on guitar accompanying Cilla on vocals . This demo was the basis for the single , although where the McCartney demos were recorded in the key of D , the final arrangement of the single version was transposed up a fourth to G , to take advantage of Cilla 's higher register . The single version of the song ( with Cilla singing live over the studio backing track ) was premiered on 5 March 1968 edition of her show ; the single was released on 8 March 1968 , and reached number eight on the British charts in April 1968 . The record also reached Number 15 in Ireland in the same month . The recording was also featured on Black 's third solo studio album Sher-oo ! Remixed club versions of Cilla 's original 1960s vocal were released in 2009 on her album Cilla All Mixed Up . In 2002 , DJ Tommy Sandhu managed to coax Cilla back into the recording studio to re-record `` Step Inside Love '' . Sandhu then remixed the song and 3,000 white labels of it were sent to British clubs under the name `` TS vs CB '' . The 12 '' charted at number three on Music Weeks club chart . A maxi single of all of these remixes was released to download worldwide on 30 November 2009 . In 2010 , during a BBC interview , Black revealed that the song had been banned in South Africa due to fears that the lyrics contained hidden sexual elements . McCartney recording McCartney recorded the song on 16 September 1968 during The Beatles ( a.k.a . `` The White Album '' ) sessions , but it did not appear on the album . After ad libbing `` Step Inside Love '' , McCartney led the group into `` Los Paranoias '' , which ( despite George Harrison not being present ) was credited to all four members of the band . The two songs were released as a single CD track on Anthology 3 in 1996 . The Beatles personnel * Paul McCartney –vocals , acoustic guitar * John Lennon –bongos * Ringo Starr –claves Personnel per The Beatles Bible Other versions Madeline Bell later of pop band Blue Mink recorded a version on her 1968/69 Doin ' Things album , released on Philips Records . The Paper Dolls recorded a version on their 1968 album Paper Dolls House , released on Pye and again on Paper Dolls House : The Pye Anthology , released on CD on Sanctuary in 2001 . On 15 September 1997 EMI Records released The Abbey Road Decade : 1963–73 , a three-disc compilation album of Black 's recordings . It featured the single version of `` Step Inside Love '' , an Italian-language version ( M'Innamoro ) , the original demo ( featuring McCartney ) , and an alternate take . Recordings of `` Step Inside Love '' as the Beatles may have performed it are available on the 1989 album by Bas Muys entitled Secret Songs : Lennon & McCartney and on the 1998 release It 's Four You by the Australian tribute band The Beatnix . Steve Dawson of rock band Saxon recorded a version on his 2003 Pandemonium Circus album , released on Angel Air Records .

qw_854--Step_Inside_Love.txt

"Whose autobiography was entitled ""Step Inside Love""?"

Aladdin Sane is the sixth album by David Bowie , released by RCA Records in 1973 . The follow-up to his breakthrough The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars , it was the first album he wrote and released as a bona fide rock star . NME editors Roy Carr and Charles Shaar Murray called the album `` oddly unsatisfying , considerably less than the sum of the parts '' , while Bowie encyclopedist Nicholas Pegg describes it as `` one of the most urgent , compelling and essential '' of his releases . The Rolling Stone review by Ben Gerson pronounced it `` less manic than The Man Who Sold The World , and less intimate than Hunky Dory , with none of its attacks of self-doubt . '' It was one of six Bowie entries in Rolling Stones list of the 500 greatest albums of all time ( at # 277 ) and ranked No . 77 on Pitchfork Media 's list of the top 100 albums of the 1970s . `` Ziggy goes to America '' The name of the album is a pun on `` A Lad Insane '' . An early variation was `` Love Aladdin Vein '' , which David Bowie dropped partly because of its drug connotations . Although technically a new Bowie 'character ' , Aladdin Sane was essentially a development of Ziggy Stardust in his appearance and persona , as evidenced on the cover by Brian Duffy and in Bowie 's live performances throughout 1973 that culminated in Ziggy 's 'retirement ' at the Hammersmith Odeon in July that year . Lacking the thematic flow found on its predecessor , Aladdin Sane was described by Bowie himself as simply `` Ziggy goes to America '' ; most of the tracks were observations he composed on the road during his 1972 US tour , which accounted for the place names following each song title on the original record labels . Biographer Christopher Sandford believed the album showed that Bowie `` was simultaneously appalled and fixated by America '' . His mixed feelings about the journey stemmed , in Bowie 's words , from `` wanting to be up on the stage performing my songs , but on the other hand not really wanting to be on those buses with all those strange people ... So Aladdin Sane was split down the middle . '' This kind of `` schizophrenia '' , as Bowie described it , was conveyed on the cover by his makeup , where a lightning bolt represents the duality of mind , although he would later tell friends that the `` lad insane '' of the album 's title track was inspired by his brother Terry , who had been diagnosed as a schizophrenic . Bowie himself came up with the idea of the lightning bolt over his face , but said the teardrop was Brian Duffy 's idea : `` He [ Brian ] put on that afterward , just popped it in there . I thought it was rather sweet . '' Production and style The majority of Aladdin Sane was recorded at Trident Studios in London in January 1973 , between legs of Bowie 's US Ziggy Stardust tour . A desire to rush release the record was blamed for mixes on the Rolling Stones influenced `` Watch That Man '' and `` Cracked Actor '' that buried vocals and harmonica , respectively . Bowie and producer Ken Scott later rebuffed this suggestion regarding `` Watch That Man '' , claiming that a remix they produced which brought the vocals forward was considered by Mainman management and RCA Records to be inferior to the original that was eventually released . Aladdin Sane featured a tougher rock sound than its predecessor Ziggy Stardust , particularly on tracks like `` Panic in Detroit '' ( built around a Bo Diddley beat ) and Bowie 's breakneck version of the Stones ' `` Let 's Spend the Night Together '' . The album was also notable for its exploration of unusual styles such as avant-garde jazz in the title track and Brechtian cabaret in `` Time '' . Both numbers were dominated by Mike Garson 's acclaimed piano work , which also featured heavily in the faux James Bond flamenco ballad `` Lady Grinning Soul '' , inspired by singer Claudia Linnear . Singles Two hit singles that would be included on the album preceded its release , `` The Jean Genie '' and `` Drive-In Saturday '' . The former ( recorded at RCA 's New York studios during the first leg of Bowie 's American tour in late 1972 ) was a heavy R & B chug with lyrics loosely based on Iggy Pop , the latter a futuristic doo-wop number describing a time when the population has to relearn sex by watching old porn movies . `` Time '' was later issued as a single in the US and Japan , and `` Let 's Spend the Night Together '' in the US and Europe . In 1974 , Lulu released a version of `` Watch That Man '' as the B-side to her single `` The Man Who Sold the World '' , produced by Bowie and Mick Ronson . Reception With a purported 100,000 copies ordered in advance , Aladdin Sane debuted at the top of the UK charts and reached No . 17 in America , making it Bowie 's most successful album commercially in both countries to that date . The album is estimated to have sold 4.6 million copies worldwide , making it one of Bowie 's highest-selling LPs . The Guinness Book of British Hit Albums notes that Bowie `` ruled the ( British ) album chart , accumulating an unprecedented 182 weeks on the list in 1973 with six different titles . '' Critical reaction was generally laudatory , if more enthusiastic in the US than in the UK . Rolling Stone remarked on `` Bowie 's provocative melodies , audacious lyrics , masterful arrangements ( with Mick Ronson ) and production ( with Ken Scott ) '' , while Billboard called it a combination of `` raw energy with explosive rock '' . In the British music press , however , letters columns accused Bowie of 'selling out ' and Let it Rock magazine found the album to be more style than substance , considering that he had `` nothing to say and everything to say it with '' . Legacy Bowie performed all the tracks , except `` Lady Grinning Soul '' , on his 1972–73 tours and many of them on the 1974 Diamond Dogs tour . Live versions of all but `` The Prettiest Star '' and `` Lady Grinning Soul '' have been released on various discs including Ziggy Stardust : The Motion Picture , David Live and Aladdin Sane – 30th Anniversary . `` The Jean Genie '' is the only song on the album that Bowie played in concert throughout his career . However `` Panic in Detroit '' also appeared regularly in Bowie 's later years , a remake of which was cut in 1979 but not released until added as a bonus track to the Rykodisc CD of Scary Monsters ( And Super Creeps ) . Belgian amateur astronomers at the MIRA Public Observatory in conjunction with Studio Brussel created a `` Bowie asterism '' in homage to David Bowie in January 2016 ; it depicts the iconic lightning bolt of Aladdin Sane using the stars Sigma Librae , Spica , Zeta Centauri , SAO 204132 , Sigma Octantis , SAO 241641 and Beta Trianguli Australis which were near Mars at the time of Bowie 's death . The album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Track listing Personnel * David Bowie – guitar , harmonica , saxophone , vocals * Mick Ronson – guitar , piano , vocals * Trevor Bolder – bass guitar * Mick `` Woody '' Woodmansey – drums Additional personnel * Mike Garson – piano , synthesizers * Ken Fordham – saxophone , flutes * Brian `` Bux '' Wilshaw – saxophone , flutes * Juanita `` Honey '' Franklin – backing vocals * Linda Lewis – backing vocals * G.A . MacCormack – backing vocals Production personnel * David Bowie – producer , arrangements * Ken Scott – producer , engineer * Mick Moran – engineer * Mick Ronson – arrangements Compact disc releases Aladdin Sane was first released on CD in 1984 by RCA . 1990 Rykodisc/EMI Dr. Toby Mountain at Northeastern Digital , Southborough , Massachusetts , remastered Aladdin Sane from the original master tapes for Rykodisc , which released it with no bonus tracks . 1999 EMI/Virgin The album was remastered by Peter Mew at Abbey Road Studios , and again released with no bonus tracks . 2003 EMI/Virgin In 2003 , a 2-disc version was released by EMI/Virgin . The second in a series of 30th Anniversary 2CD Edition sets ( along with Ziggy Stardust and Diamond Dogs ) , this release includes a remastered version of the first disc . The second disc contains ten tracks , a few of which had been previously released on the 1989 collection Sound + Vision . Bonus CD ( 2003 EMI/Virgin ) # '' John , I 'm Only Dancing '' ( 'Sax ' version ) – 2:45 # '' The Jean Genie '' ( Single mix for single A-side , 1972 ) – 4:07 # '' Time '' ( Edit for single A-Side , 1973 ) – 3:43 # '' All the Young Dudes '' ( Mono mix ) – 4:12 # '' Changes '' ( Live at Boston Music Hall , 1 October 1972 ) – 3:20 ( From Sound + Vision CD-Video ) # '' The Supermen '' ( Live at Boston Music Hall , 1 October 1972 ) – 2:42 ( From Sound + Vision CD-Video ) # '' Life on Mars ? '' ( Live at Boston Music Hall , 1 October 1972 ) – 3:25 ( Previously unreleased ) # '' John , I 'm Only Dancing '' ( Live at Boston Music Hall , 1 October 1972 ) – 2:40 ( From Sound + Vision CD-Video ) # '' The Jean Genie '' ( Live at Santa Monica Civic Auditorium , 20 October 1972 ) – 4:10 ( From Santa Monica '72 ) # '' Drive-In Saturday '' ( Live at Cleveland Public Auditorium , 25 November 1972 ) – 4:53 ( Previously unreleased ) 2013 Parlophone/AIR A 40th anniversary edition , remastered by Ray Staff at London 's AIR Studios , was released in CD and digital download formats in April 2013 . This 2013 remaster of the album was included in the 2015 box set Five Years 1969–1973 and rereleased separately , in 2015–2016 , in CD , vinyl , and digital formats . Release history ( selected ) Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications

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Aladdin Sane and Diamond Dogs were number one albums for which famous singer in the 1970's?

The red telephone box , a telephone kiosk for a public telephone designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott , was a familiar sight on the streets of the United Kingdom , Malta , Bermuda and Gibraltar . Despite a reduction in their numbers in recent years , the traditional British red telephone kiosk can still be seen in many places throughout the UK , and in current or former British colonies around the world . The colour red was chosen to make them easy to spot . From 1926 onwards , the fascias of the kiosks were emblazoned with a prominent crown , representing the British government . The red phone box is often seen as a British cultural icon throughout the world . Although production of the traditional boxes ended with the advent of the KX series in 1985 , many still stand in Britain . The paint colour used most widely today is known as `` currant red '' and is defined by a British Standard , BS381C-Red539 . This slightly brighter red was introduced with the K8 model in 1968 , but went on to be used across the estate on previous models too . Hence , for complete historical accuracy , any kiosks in pre-1968 settings should really be painted in the previous , and slightly darker , shade BS381C-Red538 . Design history K1 The first standard public telephone kiosk introduced by the United Kingdom Post Office was produced in concrete in 1920 and was designated K1 ( Kiosk No.1 ) . This design was not of the same family as the familiar red telephone boxes . Very few high-quality examples remain . One early example is located in Trinity Market in Kingston-upon-Hull , where it is still in use . Most survivors are the later ( 1928 ) version , with full height glazing – the Mk236 . K2 The red telephone box was the result of a competition in 1924 to design a kiosk that would be acceptable to the London Metropolitan Boroughs which had hitherto resisted the Post Office 's effort to erect K1 kiosks on their streets . The Royal Fine Art Commission was instrumental in the choice of the British standard kiosk . Because of widespread dissatisfaction with the GPO 's design , the Metropolitan Boroughs Joint Standing Committee organised a competition for a superior one in 1923 , but the results were disappointing . The Birmingham Civic Society then produced a design of its own—in reinforced concrete—but it was informed by the Director of Telephones that the design produced by the Office of the Engineer-in-Chief was preferred ; as the Architects ’ Journal commented , 'no one with any knowledge of design could feel anything but indignation with the pattern that seems to satisfy the official mind . ' The Birmingham Civic Society did not give up and , with additional pressure from the Royal Institute of British Architects , the Town Planning Institute and the Royal Academy , the Postmaster General was forced to think again ; and the result was that the RFAC organised a limited competition . The organisers invited entries from three respected architects and , along with the designs from the Post Office and from The Birmingham Civic Society , the Fine Arts Commission judged the competition and selected the design submitted by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott . The invitation had come at the time when Scott had been made a trustee of Sir John Soane 's Museum : his design for the competition was in the classical style , but topped with a dome reminiscent of Soane 's self-designed mausoleums in St Pancras ' Old Churchyard and Dulwich Picture Gallery , London . The original wooden prototypes of the entries were later put into public service at under-cover sites around London . That of Scott 's design is the only one known to survive and is still where it was originally placed , in the left entrance arch to the Royal Academy . The Post Office chose to make Scott 's winning design in cast iron ( Scott had suggested mild steel ) and to paint it red ( Scott had suggested silver , with a `` greeny-blue '' interior ) and , with other minor changes of detail , it was brought into service as the Kiosk No.2 or K2 . From 1926 K2 was deployed in and around London and the K1 continued to be erected elsewhere . K3 K3 , introduced in 1929 , again by Giles Gilbert Scott , was similar to K2 but was constructed from concrete and intended for nationwide use . Cheaper than the K2 , it was still significantly more costly than the K1 and so that remained the choice for low-revenue sites . The standard colour scheme for both the K1 and the K3 was cream , with red glazing bars . A rare surviving K3 kiosk can be seen beside the Penguin Beach exhibit at ZSL London Zoo , where it has been protected from the weather by the projecting eaves and recently restored to its original colour scheme . K4 K4 ( designed by the Post Office Engineering Department in 1927 ) incorporated a post box and machines for buying postage stamps on the exterior . Only a single batch of 50 K4 kiosks were built . Some contemporary reports said the noise of the stamp-machines in operation disturbed phone-users , and the rolls of stamps in the machines became damp and stuck together in wet weather . This has been widely repeated ( including by Stamp ) but Johannessen chose not to , having found no evidence to support the story . K5 K5 was a metal-faced plywood construction introduced in 1934 and designed to be assembled and dismantled and used at exhibitions . It is not known how many were produced , and there is little evidence they ever reached more than prototype stage . A fully detailed replica ( constructed using the original drawings ) can be seen at The Avoncroft Museum ( Bromsgrove , Worcestershire ) , as part of the National Telephone Kiosk Collection . K6 In 1935 the K6 ( kiosk number six ) was designed to commemorate the silver jubilee of King George V. It was consequently sometimes known as the `` Jubilee '' kiosk . It went into production in 1936 . The K6 was the first red telephone kiosk to be extensively used outside London , and many thousands were deployed in virtually every town and city , replacing most of the existing kiosks and establishing thousands of new sites . In 1935 there had been 19,000 public telephones in the UK : by 1940 , thanks to the K6 , there were 35,000 . The design was again by Scott , and was essentially a smaller and more streamlined version of the K2 , intended to be produced at a considerably cheaper cost , and to occupy less pavement space . The principal differences between the two designs were : * Size . The K6 was 8 ft tall and weighed 13.5 cwt ( 0.69 tonnes ) . This compared with 9 ft and 1.25 tons ( 1.27 tonnes ) for the K2 . * Elements of the design were simplified and streamlined , in keeping with the `` moderne '' aesthetics of the 1930s . The Grecian fluting was removed from the door and window surrounds , and the previously separate pediment and frieze were merged . * The Crown motif ( see below ) , which had previously been pierced through the ironwork to give ventilation , was now embossed in bas-relief . A new , separate ventilation slot was provided . * A new glazing pattern was introduced . The door and two glazed sides of the K2 each had 18 equal-sized panes of glass arranged in 6 rows of 3 . In the K6 the number of rows was increased to 8 , and the central column of panes was made considerably wider than those to either side . This improved visibility , and gave a more horizontal appearance to the windows , again in keeping with `` moderne '' principles . The K6 has since become a British icon , but it was not universally loved at the start . The red colour caused particular local difficulties and there were many requests for less visible colours . The Post Office was forced into allowing a less strident grey with red glazing bars scheme for areas of natural and architectural beauty . Ironically , some of these areas that have preserved their telephone boxes have now painted them red . Kiosk installation : the early years With continued demand for K6 kiosks , siting them was more widespread than ever before . A purpose built kiosk trailer was designed from 1953 to reduce the running costs of cranes . Numbers installed The K6 was the most prolific kiosk in the UK and its growth , from 1935 , can be seen from the BT archives : Fabrication The K1 and the later K3 concrete kiosks were produced at various ( and largely unrecorded ) locations , around the country . This made quality control and supervision of the manufacturing process difficult , when compared to the GPO 's experience with cast-iron posting boxes , and was an important aspect of the GPO 's move towards cast-iron telephone kiosks . Over the years , five foundries were involved in this work for the Post Office . Lion Foundry in Kirkintilloch , MacFarlane ( Saracen Foundry ) , and Carron Ironworks near Falkirk all produced batches of the K2 , the K6 and the K8 ; and , in addition , Carron produced the single batch of K4 kiosks . The other two manufacturers were McDowall Steven and Bratt Colbran , both of which produced only relatively small batches of the pre-War Mk1 K6 . Although many kiosks have been fitted with replacement backs over recent years , unmodified examples generally have the identity of their manufacturer marked on a plate on the outside at the bottom of their back panel . The only exceptions are the few Mk1 models made by Bratt Colbran , which are anonymous . A supplementary way of identifying the manufacturer is by means of casting marks on the various component parts – i.e . LF , CC , MF , MS and BC – which were used to various extents over the years . A more consistent manufacturer mark can be found at about shoulder height on the inner face of the back panel . These marks generally identify both the manufacturer and the precise model of kiosk . Up to around 1949 , the year of manufacture is also included . The more recently erected non-BT K6 kiosks ( generally painted black ) are for the most part new castings , sourced from new manufacturers . Crown From 1926 onwards , the fascias of Post Office kiosks were emblazoned with a prominent crown , representing the British government ( of which the Post Office was an agency ) . The design was initially the `` Tudor Crown '' , then in widespread use in government service . The same crown was used in all parts of the United Kingdom and British Empire . On the K2 , the design was pierced through the ironwork , and acted as a ventilation hole . On the K6 , a separate ventilation slot was provided , and the crown was embossed in bas-relief . In 1953 the new Queen , Elizabeth II , decided to replace the Tudor Crown in all contexts with a representation of the actual crown generally used for British coronations , the St Edward 's Crown . This new symbol therefore began to appear on the fascias of K6 kiosks . St Edward 's Crown was initially used on kiosks in all parts of the United Kingdom . However , from 1955 , in Scotland , the Post Office opted to use a representation of the actual Crown of Scotland , in line with a wider policy for government agencies in Scotland . To accommodate the two different designs of crown on K6 kiosks , the fascia sections were henceforth cast with a slot in them , into which a plate bearing the appropriate crown was inserted before the roof section was fitted . The crowns were originally painted the same red as the rest of the box . However , since the early 1990s , when the heritage value of red kiosks began to be widely recognised , British Telecom has picked out the crowns ( on both K2s and K6s ) in gold paint . Kiosks installed in Kingston upon Hull were not fitted with a crown , as those kiosks were installed by the Hull Corporation ( later Hull City Council , then Kingston Communications ) . All boxes in Hull were also painted in cream . Modernisation – K7 & K8 In 1959 architect Neville Conder was commissioned to design a new box . The K7 design went no further than the prototype stage . K8 was introduced in 1968 designed by Bruce Martin . It was used primarily for new sites ; around 11000 were installed , replacing earlier models only when they needed relocating or had been damaged beyond repair . The K8 retained a red colour scheme , but it was a different shade of red : a slightly brighter `` Poppy Red '' , which went on to be the standard colour across all kiosks . The K8 featured a single large glass panel on two sides and the door . While improving visibility and illumination inside the box , these were vulnerable to damage . There were two versions – the Mk1 and the Mk2 – with the most visible difference being in the detail of the roof and the surround of the 'TELEPHONE ' opals . Only 12 remain — most having been replaced with the KX100 — making the K8 as rare as the K3 . With regards to create a new box with easier access , lower maintenance and brighter lighting , the Post Office introduced a prototype run of `` Croydon '' telephone boxes from 1972 , named as such because they were erected in Croydon , Surrey . The Croydon boxes , which featured a black handset silhouette with bright yellow paintwork , were erected as an experimental prototype to replace the red telephone boxes . However , whilst the trials were successful , the quality of the materials and design made it too expensive for the Post Office to mass-produce and the design was not adopted . In either the late 1970s or late 1980s , a new , smaller hooded booth was introduced known as Booth 7A . These yellow booths were introduced into areas where previous red telephone boxes had been vandalised or even pulled out of the ground . They became known as `` Oakham '' boxes – a reference to the similarity in shape with an Oak Ham tin . Privatisation and the KX series In 1980 , in preparation for privatisation , Post Office Telephones was rebranded as British Telecom ( BT ) . In February 1981 , it was announced that all the red telephone boxes would be repainted yellow , which was BT 's new corporate colour . There was an immediate public outcry ; the Daily Mail launched a campaign `` against the yellow peril '' and questions were asked in Parliament . In the House of Lords , the Earl of Gowrie , the Minister of State for Employment , called on BT `` to abandon this ridiculous scheme '' . In the House of Commons , Mark Lennox-Boyd MP asked the Prime Minister , Margaret Thatcher , if she would treat the decision `` with the greatest possible dismay '' . Mrs Thatcher , who was responsible for the privatisation , would only say that she could `` see my honourable Friend 's point '' . Shortly afterwards , BT announced that only 90 of the 77,000 remaining traditional boxes had been painted different colours `` as an experiment '' and that no final decision had been reached . After privatisation in 1982 , British Telecom introduced the KX100 , a more utilitarian design , which began to replace most of the existing boxes . The KX100 was one of a series of designs , including the wheelchair-accessible open-sided KX200 , and the triangular-footprint KX300 . In January 1985 , Nick Kane , the Director of Marketing for BT Local Communications Services announced that the old red telephone boxes would be replaced because they `` ... no longer meet the needs of our customers . Few people like to use them . They are expensive and difficult to clean and maintain and can not be used by handicapped people '' . This time , BT did not relent , despite another vociferous campaign . Many local authorities used legislation designed to protect buildings of architectural or historic importance to keep old telephone boxes in prominent locations and around 2,000 of them were given listed status . Several thousand others were left on low-revenue mostly rural sites but many thousands of recovered K2 and K6 boxes were sold off . Some kiosks have been converted to be used as shower cubicles in private homes . In Kingston upon Thames a number of old K6 boxes have been used to form a work of art resembling a row of fallen dominoes . It is estimated that 11,000 traditional red telephone boxes remain in public service . The KX+ , better known as the KX100 PLUS , introduced in 1996 featured a domed roof reminiscent of the familiar K2 and K6 . Subsequent designs have departed significantly from the old style red boxes . BT followed the KX series with the Multi.phone in 1999 and the ST6 in 2007 . Adoption Little-used red telephone boxes can be adopted by parish councils in England for other uses . Some examples are shown below . The kiosk may be used for any legal purpose other than telephony and the contract of sale includes the following clause 5.5.4 : The buyer shall covenant not to sell , lease or license the Goods to a competitor to the Seller nor to permit a competitor to install electronic communications apparatus ( as defined in schedule 2 of the Telecommunications Act 1984 ) within the Goods or itself ( as the Buyer ) shall not install , provide or operate any form of electronic communications apparatus ( as defined in schedule 2 of the Telecommunications Act 1984 ) within the Goods . It is unclear why BT wishes to prohibit the kiosk from being re-used for electronic communications and why the regulator , Ofcom , has allowed it . In the US , there is an active movement seeking new telecom uses for little-used telephone booths , e.g . as wi-fi hotspots . Libraries During 2009 a K6 in the village of Westbury-sub-Mendip in Somerset was converted into a library or book exchange replacing the services of the mobile library which no longer visits the village . Similar libraries now exist in the villages of North Cadbury in Somerset , Great Budworth in Cheshire , Little Shelford and Upwood in Cambridgeshire , and some 150 other locations . Art gallery Also in 2009 , the town of Settle in North Yorkshire established the [ http : //www.galleryonthegreen.org.uk Gallery on the Green ] in a K6 , which had been adopted by the Parish Council . The Gallery has featured a range of exhibitions ( see the [ http : //www.galleryonthegreen.org.uk/gallery/ online gallery on the website ] ) of both notable artists and photographers ( Tessa Bunney , Martin Parr , Mariana Cook ) and local community groups . Its most famous contributor was Brian May , with his stereoscopic photography show ' A Village Lost and Found ' . Other In 2010 , in the village of Brookwood , Surrey , a project was initiated to restore and preserve the sole remaining K6 kiosk in the village . The kiosk had been adopted by Woking Borough Council in 2009 and a group of residents set about restoring the kiosk . This was achieved through private donations and sponsorship from local businesses . A blog detailed the restoration . Following a competition by a Girl Guide unit in 2011 to find a use for their local disused telephone box in Glendaruel , Argyll , it has been fitted with a defibrillator . The equipment can only be accessed by following instructions from the Scottish Ambulance Service during an emergency call . The conversion of the box was paid for by BT under the Adopt A Kiosk scheme and the defibrillator was supplied by the Community Heartbeat Trust . It is one of five similar telephone box conversions in the United Kingdom . , remanufactured units were offered for sale by X2Connect . From October 2014 , several of London 's disused K6 telephone boxes have been painted green and converted to free mobile phone chargers named Solarboxes . They have been considered an outdoor kiosk alternative to indoor chargers such as the Chargebox . Usage elsewhere Several of these distinctive telephone boxes have been installed on the Norman , Oklahoma , campus of the University of Oklahoma , where they continue to serve their originally intended function . Elsewhere in the United States , a few have also been installed in downtown Glenview , Illinois . There is also one outside the British Embassy in Washington , D.C. A red telephone box can also be found on the Courthouse Square in Oxford , Mississippi . There are two in use in Tennessee . One is located on the square in Collierville , Tennessee , and the other is located next to Pepper Palace in The Village Shops shopping center in Gatlinburg , Tennessee . In Massachusetts , there is also a red telephone box in the student centre of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In addition , there is a red telephone box outside the town building ( town hall/police station/post office ) in the tiny mountain town of Rowe , Massachusetts , which is an original installation dating back to when the town of Rowe first got telephone service . Two red telephone boxes are on display at the World Showcase area of Disney 's Epcot in Orlando , Florida , one located in the United Kingdom area and one in the Canada area . One is on display at English Gardens a Place for Weddings in Winter Park close to downtown Orlando.An original K6 can also be found outside of the Allied Building in Treasure Island , Florida . There are also a few red boxes at the Ellenton Outlet Mall , just off I-75 , near Bradenton , Florida . These still have their original STD code cards in place and have working US payphone equipment . There is a red telephone box in Westminster Maryland on the corner of West Main Street and Rt . 27 out side of Johanson 's Dining House . In Lake Havasu City , Arizona , a few K6s arrived when the old London Bridge was preserved there . As they are in the US , and not under British restriction , they are fully functional , but with updated electronics to make them code compliant . British K6 phone boxes are to be found , painted green , in the centre of Kinsale , an old historic town in County Cork within the Republic of Ireland . Red telephone boxes are also found across Malta , Gozo , parts of the Caribbean such as Antigua , Barbados , as well as in Cyprus , showing that the colonial influence is still present . Some of those telephone booths are being used as internet kiosks . A box can also be found in the centre of the town of Chinon , France and another in the German town of Bad Münstereifel . Australia and New Zealand each had their own design of red telephone box , and some examples have been preserved in sensitive or historic sites . A brief and colourful campaign was run to `` save '' the red telephone box in New Zealand by the Wizard of New Zealand . In 2008 ten K6 telephone boxes were imported from the United Kingdom to the Israeli city of Petah Tikva and installed on its main street , Haim Ozer . Kingston upon Hull Kingston upon Hull was the only area of the UK not under the Post Office monopoly , with telephones being under the control of the Corporation of Hull ( city council ) . In Hull and the surrounding area this meant that the telephone boxes were painted cream and had the crown omitted . The Hull telephone system was subsequently privatised and is now operated by Kingston Communications . Kingston Communications ( KC ) have removed many of the famous cream K6 boxes circa 2007 . An outraged public complained that they were losing part of their heritage . KC have retained approx 125 K6s in use today . KC allocated limited numbers ( approximately 1,000 ) to be sold to the general public , and many were sold off before they had even been removed from service . Crown Dependencies The telephone services of the Crown Dependencies were split at various times from the GPO . Guernsey Guernsey Telecoms painted its kiosks yellow with white window frames ; they were repainted in blue when the company was sold to Cable and Wireless in 2002 . Jersey Jersey Telecom used locally made kiosks , painted in cream and yellow . Isle of Man Manx Telecom has left its kiosks in the red colour used by its predecessors British Telecom and the GPO . A green telephone box exists in Cregneash , as was the practice in many rural areas of Britain . Overseas Territories Gibraltar Gibtelecom operate Red Kiosks of various vintages . Portugal Outside of the former British Empire , red phone boxes can be seen in Portugal – for example , they are a common sight in the city of Porto . Use in contemporary art Out of Order Scottish sculptor David Mach created the permanent public work Out of Order in 1989 in Kingston upon Thames , London . It takes the form of a row of twelve K6 telephone boxes , the first one upright , the others gradually falling over like dominoes . It was originally intended that the first upright box was to contain a working telephone . BT Artboxes In 2012 , BT helped celebrate the 25th anniversary of the free-phone charity ChildLine by commissioning eighty artists to design and decorate full-sized K6 replicas . These were displayed in public spaces across London and then auctioned by Sotheby 's as BT Artboxes . Artists included Peter Blake , Willie Christie , David Mach , Denis Masi , Zaha Hadid and Ian Ritchie . Replica telephone boxes Lightweight replica K6 telephone kiosks are manufactured as flat-packs by commercial vendors and are shipped around the world for installation in such places as bars , restaurants and offices . Galleries File : K1 Telephone Box , Lowestoft Transport Museum , 13th June 2009.JPG|K1 Telephone Box , Lowestoft Transport Museum File : Telephone Box ( 5126305081 ) .jpg|Scott 's K2 wooden prototype is a working telephone box in the left entrance arch to the Royal Academy of Arts , London File : London Big Ben Phone box.jpg|K2 with a London double-decker bus and Big Ben in the background File : K3 Telephone Kiosk , Scotland.jpg|The only K3 Mk2 kiosk still in use , near Rhynd in Perth and Kinross , Scotland File : Wall box in phone kiosk.jpg|K4 Post Office in Warrington - the vertical panels either side of the letter-slot originally housed stamp vending machines File : K6 Goathland.JPG|K6 in Goathland , North Yorkshire File : Lightmatter phonebooths.jpg|K6 kiosks , illuminated at night File : Green Telephone Box - geograph.org.uk - 1329446.jpg|A green K6 box near Stokesley in North Yorkshire File : Telephone kiosk , Hapsford.JPG|KX100 in Hapsford , Cheshire File : Preserved Hull telephone box.JPG|Preserved Kingston-upon-Hull crown-less K6 in original Hull Corporation livery in Hull Transport Museum File : Cream K6 Telephone box in Hull.JPG|Kingston Communications K6 in Hull File : K8_Golders_Green.jpg|K8 housing an internal telephone at Golders Green tube station File : KX100_PLUS_Kingston_Communications.jpg|Kingston Communications KX100 PLUS in Hull File : Black telephone boxes , Piccadilly - DSC04253.JPG|Two black K6 telephone

qb_9129--Red_telephone_box.txt

Who designed the red telephone box, which first appeared in London in 1926?

' ( ; Thus Do They All , or The School for Lovers ) , K. 588 , is an Italian-language opera buffa in two acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart first performed on 26 January 1790 at the Burgtheater in Vienna , Austria . The libretto was written by Lorenzo Da Ponte who also wrote Le nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni . Although it is commonly held that ' was written and composed at the suggestion of the Emperor Joseph II , recent research does not support this idea . There is evidence that Mozart 's contemporary Antonio Salieri tried to set the libretto but left it unfinished . In 1994 , John Rice uncovered two terzetti by Salieri in the Austrian National Library . The title , Così fan tutte , literally means `` Thus do all [ women ] '' but is usually translated into English as `` Women are like that '' . The words are sung by the three men in act 2 , scene 13 , just before the finale ; this melodic phrase is also quoted in the overture to the opera . Da Ponte had used the line `` Così fan tutte le belle '' earlier in Le nozze di Figaro ( in act 1 , scene 7 ) . Performance history The first performance of Mozart 's setting took place at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 26 January 1790 . It was given only five times before the run was stopped by the death of the Emperor Joseph II and the resulting period of court mourning . It was performed twice in June 1790 with the composer conducting the second performance , and again in July ( twice ) and August ( once ) . After that it was not played in Vienna during Mozart 's lifetime . The first British performance was in May 1811 at the King 's Theatre , London.Holden , p. 253 Così fan tutte was not performed in the U.S. until 1922 , when it was given at the Metropolitan Opera . According to William Mann , Mozart disliked prima donna Adriana Ferrarese del Bene , da Ponte 's arrogant mistress for whom the role of Fiordiligi had been created . Knowing her idiosyncratic tendency to drop her chin on low notes and throw back her head on high ones , Mozart filled her showpiece aria Come scoglio with constant leaps from low to high and high to low in order to make Ferrarese 's head `` bob like a chicken '' onstage . The subject-matter ( see synopsis below ) did not offend Viennese sensibilities of the time , but throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries , it was considered risqué , vulgar , and even immoral . The opera was rarely performed , and when it did appear it was presented in one of several bowdlerised forms . After World War II it regained its place in the standard operatic repertoire . It is frequently performed and appears 14th on the Operabase list of the most-performed operas worldwide . Roles While the use of modern fach titles and voice categories for these roles has become customary , Mozart was far more general in his own descriptions of the voice types : Fiordiligi ( soprano ) , Dorabella ( soprano ) , Guglielmo ( bass ) , Ferrando ( tenor ) , Despina ( soprano ) , and Don Alfonso ( bass ) . Occasionally these modern voice types are varied in performance practice . Don Alfonso is frequently performed by baritones such as Thomas Allen and Bo Skovhus and Dorabella is almost always performed by a mezzo-soprano . In the ensembles , Guglielmo 's music lies lower than Alfonso 's , and accordingly has been performed by basses such as James Morris and Wladimiro Ganzarolli , and Despina is occasionally ( though far less often than the other three instances cited here ) performed by a mezzo , such as Cecilia Bartoli , Frederica von Stade , Agnes Baltsa and Ann Murray . Ferrando and Fiordiligi , however , can only be sung by a tenor and a soprano because of the high tessitura of their roles . Instrumentation The instrumentation is as follows : * Woodwinds : 2 flutes , 2 oboes , 2 clarinets , 2 bassoons . Fiordiligi 's aria `` Per pietà , ben mio , perdona '' , act 2 , contains a rare instance of clarinets in B-natural ( key is E major , explaining the use of B clarinets ) . [ http : //dme.mozarteum.at/DME/nma/nma_cont.php ? vsep306 & gen edition & l1 & p1 400 Score ] . In most modern editions this is made into a part for A clarinets . The NMA keeps the notation for the ( now obsolete ) B clarinet . There is evidence that some of the clarinet writing was intended for basset clarinet due to its low range . * Brass : 2 horns , 2 trumpets * Percussion : 2 timpani ( in G and C ) – an additional military drum is used on stage * Strings : first violins , second violins , violas , violoncellos , double basses Synopsis Mozart and Da Ponte use the theme of `` fiancée swapping '' , which dates back to the 13th century ; notable earlier versions are found in Boccaccio 's Decameron and Shakespeare 's play Cymbeline . Elements from Shakespeare 's The Taming of the Shrew are also present . Furthermore , it incorporates elements of the myth of Procris as found in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , vii . Place : Naples Time : the 18th century Act 1 Scene 1 : A coffeehouse In a cafe , Ferrando and Guglielmo ( two officers ) express certainty that their fiancées ( Dorabella and Fiordiligi , respectively ) will be eternally faithful . Don Alfonso expresses skepticism and claims that there is no such thing as a faithful woman . He lays a wager with the two officers , claiming he can prove in a day 's time that those two , like all women , are fickle . The wager is accepted : the two officers will pretend to have been called off to war ; soon thereafter they will return in disguise and each attempt to seduce the other 's lover . The scene shifts to the two women , who are praising their men ( duet : Ah guarda sorella— '' Ah look sister '' ) . Alfonso arrives to announce the bad news : the officers have been called off to war . Ferrando and Guglielmo arrive , brokenhearted , and bid farewell ( quintet : Sento , o Dio , che questo piede è restio— '' I feel , oh God , that my foot is reluctant '' ) . As the boat with the men sails off to sea , Alfonso and the sisters wish them safe travel ( trio : Soave sia il vento— '' May the wind be gentle '' ) . Alfonso , left alone , gloatingly predicts that the women ( like all women ) will prove unfaithful ( arioso : Oh , poverini , per femmina giocare cento zecchini ? — '' Oh , poor little ones , to wager 100 sequins on a woman '' ) . Scene 2 : A room in the sisters ' home Despina , the maid , arrives and asks what is wrong . Dorabella bemoans the torment of having been left alone ( aria : Smanie implacabili— '' Torments implacable '' ) . Despina mocks the sisters , advising them to take new lovers while their betrotheds are away ( aria : In uomini , in soldati , sperare fedeltà ? — '' In men , in soldiers , you hope for faithfulness ? `` ) . After they leave , Alfonso arrives . He fears Despina will recognize the men through their disguises , so he bribes her into helping him to win the bet . The two men then arrive , dressed as mustachioed Albanians ( sextet : Alla bella Despinetta— '' Meet the pretty Despinetta '' ) . The sisters enter and are alarmed by the presence of strange men in their home . The `` Albanians '' tell the sisters that they were led by love to them ( the sisters ) . However , the sisters refuse to give in . Fiordiligi asks the `` Albanians '' to leave and pledges to remain faithful ( aria : Come scoglio— '' Like a rock '' ) . The `` Albanians '' continue the attempt to win over the sisters ' hearts , Guglielmo going so far as to point out all of his manly attributes ( aria : Non siate ritrosi— '' Do n't be shy '' ) , but to no avail . Ferrando , left alone and sensing victory , praises his love ( aria : Un'aura amorosa— '' A loving breath '' ) . Scene 3 : A garden The sisters are still pining . Despina has asked Don Alfonso to let her take over the seduction plan . Suddenly , the `` Albanians '' burst in the scene and threaten to poison themselves if they are not allowed the chance to woo the sisters . As Alfonso tries to calm them , they drink the `` poison '' and pretend to pass out . Soon thereafter , a doctor ( Despina in disguise ) arrives on the scene and , using magnet therapy , is able to revive the `` Albanians '' . The men , pretending to hallucinate , demand a kiss from Dorabella and Fiordiligi ( whom the `` Albanians '' call goddesses ) who stand before them . The sisters refuse , even as Alfonso and the doctor ( Despina ) urge them to acquiesce . Act 2 Scene 1 : The sisters ' bedroom Despina urges them to succumb to the `` Albanians '' ' overtures ( aria : Una donna a quindici anni— '' A fifteen year old woman '' ) . After she leaves , Dorabella confesses to Fiordiligi that she is tempted , and the two agree that a mere flirtation will do no harm and will help them pass the time while they wait for their lovers to return ( duet : Prenderò quel brunettino '' — '' I will take the dark one '' ) . Scene 2 : The garden Dorabella and the disguised Guglielmo pair off , as do the other two . The conversation is haltingly uncomfortable , and Ferrando departs with Fiordiligi . Now alone , Guglielmo attempts to woo Dorabella . She does not resist strongly , and soon she has given him a medallion ( with Ferrando 's portrait inside ) in exchange for a heart-shaped locket ( duet : Il core vi dono— '' I give you my heart '' ) . Ferrando is less successful with Fiordiligi ( Ferrando 's aria : Ah , lo veggio— '' Ah , I see it '' and Fiordiligi 's aria : Per pietà , ben mio , perdona— '' Please , my beloved , forgive '' ) , so he is enraged when he later finds out from Guglielmo that the medallion with his portrait has been so quickly given away to a new lover . Guglielmo at first sympathises with Ferrando ( aria : Donne mie , la fate a tanti— '' My ladies , you do it to so many '' ) , but then gloats , because his betrothed is faithful . Scene 3 : The sisters ' room Dorabella admits her indiscretion to Fiordiligi ( È amore un ladroncello— '' Love is a little thief '' ) . Fiordiligi , upset by this development , decides to go to the army and find her betrothed . Before she can leave , though , Ferrando arrives and continues his attempted seduction . Fiordiligi finally succumbs and falls into his arms ( duet : Fra gli amplessi— '' In the embraces '' ) . Guglielmo is distraught while Ferrando turns Guglielmo 's earlier gloating back on him . Alfonso , winner of the wager , tells the men to forgive their fiancées . After all : Così fan tutte— '' All women are like that . '' Scene 4 : The scene begins as a double wedding for the sisters and their `` Albanian '' grooms . Despina , in disguise as a notary , presents the marriage contract , which all sign . Directly thereafter , military music is heard in the distance , indicating the return of the officers . Alfonso confirms the sisters ' fears : Ferrando and Guglielmo are on their way to the house . The `` Albanians '' hurry off to hide ( actually , to change out of their disguises ) . They return as the officers , professing their love . Alfonso drops the marriage contract in front of the officers , and , when they read it , they become enraged . They then depart and return moments later , half in Albanian disguise , half as officers . Despina has been revealed to be the notary , and the sisters realize they have been duped . All is ultimately forgiven , as the entire group praises the ability to accept life 's unavoidable good times and bad times . Recordings

bb_1078--Così_fan_tutte.txt

Who composed the opera Cosi Fan Tutte?

TAAG Angola Airlines E.P . ( ) is the state-owned national airline of Angola . Based in Luanda , the airline operates an all-Boeing fleet on domestic services within Angola , medium-haul services in Africa and long-haul services to Brazil , Cuba , China , Portugal and the United Arab Emirates . The airline was originally set up by the government as DTA - Divisão dos Transportes Aéreos in 1938 , rechristened TAAG Angola Airlines in 1973 , and gained flag carrier status in 1975 . It is now a member of both the International Air Transport Association and the African Airlines Association . History DTA : 1938–1973 The origins of the carrier trace back to 1937 , when the president of Portugal Óscar Carmona commended Joaquim de Almedia Baltazar to create an airline in Angola . In September 1938 , DTA - Divisão dos Transportes Aéreos was formed as a division of the Administration of Railways , Harbours , and Air Transport of Portuguese West Africa . It was owned and run by the government , which authorised the acquisition of three Dragons and two Junkers Ju 52s , yet the latter two aircraft were not delivered due to the outbreak of the Second World War . Operations began on , using De Havilland Dragon Rapide biplanes . First routes to be operated were founded by the Aero Club of Angola and included two main lines : one running between Luanda and Pointe Noire , having connections with Aeromaritime services to Europe , and the other being Luanda–Benguela–Lobito that was later extended to Moçâmedes . Flights were intermittently discontinued during World War II due to the scarcity of spare parts , but by the end of the war the airline resumed operations . Two Stinson Reliants bought from the Belgian Congo in 1944 permitted the carrier to resume coastal services . The DC-3 and the Beech 18 joined the fleet in 1946 . In that year , a new route to Leopoldville was launched . The airline joined the International Air Transport Association in 1951 . Also this year , the company extended the Leopoldville route far east , serving Lourenço Marques , but this destination was later abandoned due to poor financial performance . DTA also operated a route linking Luanda with Lourenço Marques via Livingstone between 1951 and 1952 ; poor occupation prompted the airline to terminate the service . A 700 mi long route to São Tomé was launched in 1956 . By , the fleet was composed of four Beech 18s , seven DC-3s and three DH.89s . A year later , DTA became the third African airline in ordering the Fokker F-27 , with two aircraft acquired . At this time , the company had a route network that was 3300 mi long . The F-27s were incorporated into the fleet in 1962 . Served with these brand new aircraft , Windhoek was added to the route network that year . TAAG Angola Airlines Following renaming to TAAG - Transportes Aéreos de Angola on , the airline was reorganised and reconstituted . The company shareholders at the time were the Angolan government ( 51 % ) , TAP Air Portugal ( 29 % ) and ex-DTA employees ( 20 % ) . Four Boeing 737-200s were ordered in 1974 . The same year , a new livery including the Palança Negra was unveiled . Three F-27s and six DC-3s comprised the fleet by . Following the rise to power of the communists , that year the country gained independence from Portugal ; the airline became Angola 's flag carrier in . In , the company took delivery of the first Boeing 737-200 . In , the delivery of two Boeing 737-200Cs was blocked by the US State Department ; the embargo was lifted two months later following the end of the civil war in the country . Valued at around million , these two aircraft were finally delivered by late that year . In the same year , an ex-Allegheny Airlines Fairchild FH-227 on delivery flight to Suidwes Lugdiens was forced to land at Luanda while flying over Angolan territory . The country seized control of the aircraft , which was later reported to be in service with TAAG , along with an ex-Argentine Air Force Caravelle and two ex-THY Turkish Airlines F-27s . Three Yak-40s entered the fleet in 1977 , along with other Soviet-built aircraft ; late this year , an ex-British Caledonian Airways Boeing 707-320C was sold to TAAG . In 1978 , TAAG acquired two used F27s from Fokker , and another Boeing 737 was ordered a year later . A Lockheed L-100-20 , registration D2-FAF , was involved in an accident while landing at São Tomé . By , the carrier had a fleet of three Boeing 707-320Cs , three Boeing 737-200Cs , six Fokker F27s —four -600s and two -200s— , three L-100s —two -20s and one -30— and four Yakovlev Yak-40s to serve a number of domestic destinations , plus Brazzaville , São Tome , Lagos , Maputo , Lisbon , Moscow , Paris and Rome . The company was reorganised again during the year . On , a Yak-40 registration D2-TYC crashed near Matala killing all 19 occupants on board . On 16 May 1981 , the crew of four on board a Lockheed L-100-20 Hercules , registration D2-EAS , lost their lives in an accident at Mongua . During the early 1980s the fleet also included a small number of Antonov An-26s that started being phased out . One of these examples ( D2-TAB ) was involved in an accident at Monte Bibala on ; 15 people lost their lives . Another fatal accident took place almost a year later , on , when the crash of a Boeing 737-200 ( D2-TBN ) at Lubango resulted in 130 fatalities . Serious financial difficulties were uncovered during 1984 . In the mid-1980s , an L-100 Hercules was withdrawn from service and two Ilyushin Il-62Ms were acquired for operations to Cuba . The carrier phased in the first of these two aircraft in 1988 . On , a Boeing 707 freighter owned by the airline crashed 20 km away from Murtala Muhammed International Airport ; crewmembers lost their lives in the accident . At , TAAG Angola Airlines had TAAG-Air Charter and TAAG Aviacao Ligeira as associated companies ; the number of employees was 5,770 . At this time , the fleet consisted of Boeing 707-320s ( -320B and -320Cs ) , Boeing 737-200s , Boeing 737-200C , Lockheed L100-200 , Fokker F.27s ( -100 , -400M , -500 and -600s ) and Yakovlev Yak-40s . The carrier network comprised domestic points in Angola served from Luanda plus international flights to Berlin-Schonefeld , Brazaville , Havana , Kinshasa , Lisbon , Lusaka , Maputo , Moscow , Paris , Rio de Janeiro , Rome , Sal and Sao Tome . TAAG bought a Boeing 747-300 Combi from Singapore Airlines in 1997 . In , TAAG Angola Airlines informed that it firmed up an order for three Boeing 777-200ERs and four Boeing 737-700s , it also took options on one and two more of these aircraft , respectively . The firm-ordered aircraft were initially scheduled for delivery in . The new aircraft were aimed at replacing the ageing Boeing 747-300s and Boeing 737-200s . The order was partially fulfilled in November 2006 , when two Boeing 777-200ERs and three 737-700s were delivered . One of these Boeing 777-200ERs established a record-breaking distance for the delivery of the type , when it flew 12860 km between Seattle and Luanda in 16 hours and 47 minutes . European Union ban 2007 and subsequent restructuring In , the European Union ( EU ) banned TAAG aircraft from entering into European airspace because of safety concerns , effective early . At the same time , the United Kingdom barred TAAG from flying into its territory , just before the airline was about to start services to London-Gatwick ; in retaliation , Angola banned British Airways from landing in Angola . The carrier announced it was losing million a month owing to the ban . To continue operating flights to Europe , TAAG wet-leased a Boeing 747-400 from South African Airways ( SAA ) . Following the EU ban , in November 2008 the entire TAAG board was replaced and a new board was appointed with the objective of turning the carrier round , and in particular getting it removed from the EU blacklist . At the time , according to the Transport Minister , Augusto da Silva Tomás , in 14 months the company lost about US $ 70 million ( €55.6 million ) . The turn-round plan included staff reductions – before the action was taken , there were about 5,000 staff . During 2008 , TAAG launched a new route to Beijing . On 29 May 2009 , it was announced that TAAG had passed IATA inspections . In November the same year , TAAG restarted services to Havana ; many Cuban doctors and teachers reside in Angola and the flight exists to help transport them . On 29 April 2010 , it was announced that TAAG had ordered two Boeing 777-300ERs , with an option for two more . In January 2011 , there were concerns over inadequate maintenance on its aircraft once again , after a series of incidents involving the Boeing 777-200ER fleet . However , it was determined that the company was still complying with international safety requirements after an IATA inspection in Luanda . In , TAAG received permission to operate flights to Europe under restricted conditions ; it was allowed to fly only into Portugal , and could only use its three Boeing 777-200ERs to operate these flights . The permission was extended to its four Boeing 737-700s in late 2009 . The maximum number of flights was set at ten per week . On 1 August 2009 , TAAG 's first flight departed from Luanda to Lisbon , after nearly two years of being banned from EU airspace . TAAG then returned the Boeing 747–400 to South African Airways . In , the Boeing 747-300 fleet was retired from service . In the same year , the airline received its first newly acquired Boeing 777-300ER , out of two ordered in October 2009 ; TAAG became the first African carrier in purchasing and operating this type of aircraft . Three additional 293-seater Boeing 777-300ERs were ordered in , in a deal worth million . In late March 2010 , restrictions over TAAG operations were relented again following the announcement the airline could fly their Boeing 777-200ERs and 737-700s to all European airports . In , the ban was partially lifted , but some aircraft were still prevented to fly the European Air Space . An updated version of the list of airlines banned in the EU released in early still included part of TAAG 's fleet ; however , five Boeing 777s and four Boeing 737-700s were allowed to operate into the EU ; there were little or no changes in the list regarding the aircraft the airline was allowed to fly into the EU , following the release of the latest versions of the list in , , , and . In late , a ten-year management agreement was signed with Emirates ; the deal also covers flight codesharing and the coordination of frequent flier programmes . The agreement is subject to government approval ; it is not contemplated that Emirates will take any stake in TAAG . Corporate affairs Head office TAAG has its corporate headquarters in Luanda , Angola . The airline also has offices in Africa , Asia , Europe , and North and South America , and opened an office in Chaoyang District , Beijing , in 2010 . Ownership and structure Originally set up within a government department , TAAG Angola Airlines remains 100 % owned by the government of Angola . , Peter Hill holds the chairman and chief executive officer position . TAAG is itself the sole owner of Angola Air Charter , also based in Luanda , that operates cargo charters in Africa . Business trends Annual reports for the airline do not appear to be published . In the absence of these , the main sources for trends are press reports , and industry reports of the fleet size ; even these are only indicative , because it is not always clear whether the aircraft recorded are actually in service : Destinations , TAAG Angola Airlines serves 31 destinations , including 13 domestic , 11 in Africa , three in Latin America , two in Schengen Europe , and three in the Middle East and the Asia-Pacific region . Codeshare agreements , TAAG Angola Airlines has codeshare agreements with the following airlines : * Air France * Air Namibia * British Airways * Brussels Airlines * Kenya Airways * LAM Mozambique Airlines * Lufthansa * Royal Air Maroc Fleet Current fleet , the TAAG active fleet comprises the following aircraft : Historical fleet The company previously operated the following equipment : * Airbus A340-300 * Antonov An-26 * Boeing 707-320B * Boeing 707-320C * Boeing 727-100C * Boeing 737-200 Advanced * Boeing 737-200C * Boeing 747-300 * Boeing 747-300 Combi * Boeing 747-400 * Caravelle * Douglas C-47A * Douglas DC-8-30 * Douglas DC-8-50 * Fokker 50 * Fokker F27-100 * Fokker F27-200 * Fokker F27-400 * Fokker F27-500 * Fokker F27-600 * Ilyushin Il-62M * Lockheed L-100-20 * Lockheed L-100-30 * Lockheed L-1011-500 * Yakovlev Yak-40FG In-flight service TAAG Angola Airlines became OnAir first Sub-Saharan customer . The carrier plans to offer inflight connectivity on board the Boeing 777-300ER fleet starting . ; First Class First Class , branded as Diamond First Class , is available only on TAAG 's Boeing 777 aircraft . First class features fully flat-bed seats with AVOD in-flight entertainment . Additionally , amenity kits , pillows , and blankets are given to first class passengers . Passengers also have designated check-in desks and have access to TAAG 's Welwitchia Lounge in Luanda Airport . ; Business Class Business Class , known as Executiva Class , is found on all TAAG aircraft . On the Boeing 777 fleet , the seats are angled lie-flat with AVOD in-flight entertainment in each seat . Amenity kits , pillows , and blankets are given to all Business Class passengers . Additionally , they are entitled to priority check-in and also have access to TAAG 's Welwitchia Lounge in Luanda Airport . ; Economy Class Branded as HighFly Economic Class , TAAG 's long-haul economy class cabin is equipped with AVOD in-flight entertainment . The seats feature footrests and winged headrests for extra comfort . Pillows and blankets are given to all economy class passengers , and hot meals are served on all international flights . ; In-Flight Entertainment All TAAG long-haul aircraft are equipped with AVOD entertainment throughout all cabins . Known as Palanca , there are two variations throughout the Boeing 777 fleet . Rockwell Collins ' dTES system is installed on the B777-200ERs , while the newer B777-300ERs possess the Thales TopSeries™ Audio Video On-demand System . The B737-700 fleet features drop-down LCD screens , used to show cabin-wide movies and a moving map display . Additionally , TAAG has an in-flight magazine and an in-flight entertainment guide , both known as austral . Accidents and incidents Accidents involving fatalities * : An Antonov 26 , registration D2-TAB , that operated a non-scheduled passenger service , flew into mountainous terrain and crashed . All 15 occupants of the aircraft perished in the accident . * : A Fokker F-27-600 , tail number D2-TFP , operating a Brazzaville–Luanda cargo service , rolled right following rotation from Maya-Maya Airport , fell onto the runway it took off from and skidded until it came to rest past the end of it , breaking in two and bursting into flames . There were three reported fatalities . * : a Boeing 737–200 crashed in northern Angola . Portuguese news agency Lusa said the aircraft had taken off from the Angolan capital , Luanda , and was trying to land at M'banza-Kongo in the province of Zaire , which is in northern Angola near the border with the Democratic Republic of Congo . At least five people were killed and 66 injured . Among those killed in the accident was the municipal administrator of M'banza-Kongo and a senior Roman Catholic priest from Italy . The airplane was carrying 78 passengers when it crashed at 1330 local time ( 12.30 GMT ) . The agency said control of the aircraft was lost upon landing and it crashed into a building , destroying it . The director of Aeroportos de Angola ( the Angolan airport authority ) told national radio the pilot had missed the runway for an unknown reason while attempting an emergency landing . According to aviation sources in Luanda , the aircraft apparently punctured two tires upon landing , causing one wing to dip and touch the runway . The aircraft then veered out of control and crashed into the building . Initial press reports indicated that the aircraft touched down about halfway along the runway while attempting to land at M'banza-Kongo . Incidents involving fatalities * : A Yakovlev Yak-40K , registration D2-TYC , was shot down by a MiG-19 near Matala , Angola . There were 19 reported fatalities . * : A Lockheed L-100-20 Hercules , tail number D2-EAS , that was operating a freighter service , was shot down by a missile on approach to Menongue Airport . All four occupants of the aircraft perished in the incident . * : A Boeing 737-2M2 , registration D2-TBN , crashed immediately after takeoff from Lubango Airport bound for Quatro de Fevereiro Airport ; all 130 occupants of the aircraft —of whom 126 were passengers— died . UNITA guerrillas claimed to have shot down the airliner . Incidents involving no fatalities * : A Boeing 737-2M2 , registration D2-TDB , that had departed from Windhoek Hosea Kutako International Airport bound for Luanda operating Flight 572 , was involved in a mid-air collision over Namibian airspace with a Cessna 404 , registration V5-WAA , that took off from Windhoek Eros Airport . The collision occurred some 28 km north of Hosea Kutako Airport . The Boeing sustained minor damage to one of its wings , but continued its flight to Luanda ; the pilot of the Cessna —the only occupant of the light aircraft— managed to land it safely despite the damage it sustained in the incident . All occupants from both aircraft survived unharmed . Non-fatal hull-losses * : A Lockheed L-100-20 Hercules , registration D2-FAF , crashed on landing at São Tomé International Airport . * : A Boeing 737-2M2C , tail number D2-TAA , that landed short of the runway at Benguela Airport , slid some 900 m following the collapse of the gear ; a fire broke out on the right wing but there were no reported fatalities . The aircraft caught fire during recovery operations on November 10 , and was written off . * : A Boeing 737-2M2 , registration D2-TBV , that departed from Albano Machado Airport operating a scheduled passenger service , suffered hydraulic problems following an explosion in the rear of the aircraft and returned to the airport of departure for an emergency landing . The plane touched down fast and overran the runway . * : A Yakovlev Yak-40K , tail number D2-TYD , ran off the runway upon landing at Quatro de Fevereiro Airport . * : A Boeing 707-349C , registration D2-TOI , had its hydraulic and control lines broken after it hit an antenna on approach to Quatro de Fevereiro Airport ; the nosegear collapsed when it overran the runway . * : A Boeing 707-349C , tail number D2-TOJ , experienced a nosegear failure during taxiing at Quatro de Fevereiro Airport .

tc_704--TAAG_Angola_Airlines.txt

Which country does the airline TAAG come from?

Space Shuttle Challenger ( Orbiter Vehicle Designation : OV-099 ) was the second orbiter of NASA 's space shuttle program to be put into service following Columbia . The shuttle was built by Rockwell International 's Space Transportation Systems Division in Downey , California . Its maiden flight , STS-6 , started on April 4 , 1983 . It launched and landed nine times before breaking apart 73 seconds into its tenth mission , STS-51-L , on January 28 , 1986 , resulting in the death of all seven crew members , including a civilian school teacher . It was the first of two shuttles to be destroyed in flight , the other being Columbia in 2003 . The accident led to a two-and-a-half year grounding of the shuttle fleet ; flights resumed in 1988 with STS-26 flown by Discovery . Challenger itself was replaced by Endeavour which was built using structural spares ordered by NASA as part of the construction contracts for Discovery and Atlantis . History Challenger was named after HMS Challenger , a British corvette that was the command ship for the Challenger Expedition , a pioneering global marine research expedition undertaken from 1872 through 1876 . The Apollo 17 lunar module that landed on the Moon in 1972 was also named Challenger . Construction Because of the low production of orbiters , the Space Shuttle program decided to build a vehicle as a Structural Test Article , STA-099 , that could later be converted to a flight vehicle . The contract for STA-099 was awarded to North American Rockwell on July 26 , 1972 , and its construction was completed in February 1978 . After STA-099 's rollout , it was sent to a Lockheed test site in Palmdale , where it spent over 11 months in vibration tests designed to simulate entire shuttle flights , from launch to landing . In order to prevent damage during structural testing , qualification tests were performed to a factor of safety of 1.2 times the design limit loads . The qualification tests were used to validate computational models , and compliance with the required 1.4 factor of safety was shown by analysis . STA-099 was essentially a complete airframe of a Space Shuttle orbiter , with only a mockup crew module installed and thermal insulation placed on its forward fuselage . NASA planned to refit the prototype orbiter Enterprise ( OV-101 ) , used for flight testing , as the second operational orbiter , but design changes made during construction of the first orbiter , Columbia ( OV-102 ) , would have required extensive work . Because STA-099 's qualification testing prevented damage , NASA found that rebuilding STA-099 as OV-099 would be less expensive than refitting Enterprise . Work on converting STA-099 into Challenger began in January 1979 , starting with just the crew module ( the pressurized portion of the vehicle ) as the rest of the orbiter was still used by Lockheed . STA-099 returned to the Rockwell plant in November 1979 , and the original unfinished crew module was replaced with the newly constructed model . Major portions of STA-099 , including the payload bay doors , body flap , wings and vertical stabilizer , also had to be returned to their individual subcontractors for rework . By early 1981 , most of these components had returned to Palmdale and were reinstalled on the orbiter . Work continued on the conversion until July 1982 . Challenger ( and the orbiters built after it ) had fewer tiles in its Thermal Protection System than Columbia , though it still made heavy use of the white LRSI tiles on the cabin and main fuselage compared to the later orbiters . Most of the tiles on the payload bay doors , upper wing surfaces , and rear fuselage surfaces were replaced with DuPont white Nomex felt insulation . These modifications as well as an overall lighter structure allowed Challenger to carry 2,500 lb ( 1,100 kg ) more payload than Columbia . Challenger 's fuselage and wings were also stronger than Columbia 's despite being lighter . The hatch and vertical stabilizer tile patterns were also different from that of the other orbiters . Challenger was also the first orbiter to have a head-up display system for use in the descent phase of a mission , and the first to feature Phase I main engines rated for 104 % maximum thrust . Construction milestones ( as STA-099 ) Construction milestones ( as OV-099 ) Flights and modifications After its first flight in April 1983 , Challenger quickly became the workhorse of NASA 's Space Shuttle fleet , flying far more missions per year than Columbia . In 1983 and 1984 , Challenger flew on 85 % of all Space Shuttle missions . Even when the orbiters Discovery and Atlantis joined the fleet , Challenger flew three missions a year from 1983 to 1985 . Challenger , along with Discovery , was modified at Kennedy Space Center to be able to carry the Centaur-G upper stage in its payload bay . If flight STS-51-L had been successful , Challengers next mission would have been the deployment of the Ulysses probe with the Centaur to study the polar regions of the Sun . Challenger flew the first American woman , African-American , Dutchman and Canadian into space ; three Spacelab missions ; and performed the first night launch and night landing of a Space Shuttle . Challenger was also the first space shuttle to be destroyed in an accident during a mission . The collected debris of the vessel is currently buried in decommissioned missile silos at Launch Complex 31 , Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . A section of the fuselage recovered from Space Shuttle Challenger can also be found at the “ Forever Remembered ” memorial at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida . From time to time , further pieces of debris from the orbiter wash up on the Florida coast . When this happens , they are collected and transported to the silos for storage . Because of its early loss , Challenger was the only space shuttle that never wore the NASA `` meatball '' logo , and was never modified with the MEDS `` glass cockpit '' . The tail was never fitted with a drag chute – it was fitted to the remaining orbiters in 1992 . Also because of its early demise Challenger was also one of only two shuttles that never visited the Mir Space Station and the International Space Station the other one being its sister ship the Columbia which was in service during the time these missions were flown . The space shuttle program was completed upon the conclusion of the final flights and retirement of Discovery , Endeavour , and Atlantis in 2011 . Mission insignias

sfq_17796--Space_Shuttle_Challenger.txt

Name the space craft that exploded 72 seconds after lift off killing all 7 crew members in 1986.

John Gilbert ( July 10 , 1899 – January 9 , 1936 ) was an American actor , screenwriter and director . He rose to fame during the silent film era and became a popular leading man known as `` The Great Lover '' . At the height of his career , Gilbert rivaled Rudolph Valentino , another silent film era leading man , as a box office draw . Gilbert 's popularity began to wane when silent pictures gave way to talkies . Though Gilbert was often cited as one of the high-profile examples of an actor who was unsuccessful in making the transition to talkies , his decline as a star had far more to do with studio politics and money than with the sound of his screen voice , which was rich and distinctive . Early years Born John Cecil Pringle in Logan , Utah , to stock company actor parents , John Pringle ( 1865-1929 ) and Ida Apperly Gilbert ( 1877-1913 ) , he struggled through a childhood of abuse and neglect . His family moved frequently and Gilbert attended several schools throughout the United States . After his family settled in California , he attended Hitchcock Military Academy in San Rafael , California . Gilbert first found work as an extra with the Thomas Ince Studios , and soon became a favorite of Maurice Tourneur , who also hired him to write and direct several pictures . He quickly rose through the ranks , building his reputation as an actor in such films as Heart o ' the Hills ( 1919 ) , with Mary Pickford . In 1921 , Gilbert signed a three-year contract with Fox Film Corporation , where he was cast as a romantic leading man . Some of his films for Fox include Monte Cristo , an adaptation of The Count of Monte Cristo ; St. Elmo , an adaptation of a popular book of the period ; The Wolf Man , not a horror film , but the story of a man who believes he murdered his fiancee 's brother while drunk , and many others . Although he became a star , Gilbert did not reach the level of fame he would soon achieve . Career Success and stardom In 1924 , Gilbert moved to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer , where he became a full-fledged star with such high-profile films as His Hour directed by King Vidor and written by Elinor Glyn ; He Who Gets Slapped ( both 1924 ) , co-starring Lon Chaney , and Norma Shearer , and directed by Victor Sjöström ; and The Merry Widow ( 1925 ) directed by Erich von Stroheim and co-starring Mae Murray . In 1925 Gilbert was once again directed by Vidor in the war epic The Big Parade , which became the second-highest grossing silent film . His performance in this film made him a major star . The following year , Vidor reunited Gilbert with two of his co-stars from that picture , Renée Adorée and Karl Dane , for the film La Bohème which also starred Lillian Gish . In 1926 , Gilbert made Flesh and the Devil , his first film with Greta Garbo . They soon began a highly publicized relationship , much to the delight of their fans . Gilbert wanted to marry her , but Garbo continually balked . Legend has it that a wedding was finally planned but Garbo failed to appear at the ceremony . Recent Garbo biographers , however , have questioned the veracity of this story . Despite their rocky off-screen relationship , they continued to generate box-office revenue for the studio , and MGM paired them in two more silents Love ( 1927 ) , which was a modern adaptation of Anna Karenina , and A Woman of Affairs ( 1928 ) . The former film was slyly advertised by MGM as `` Garbo and Gilbert in Love . '' Decline Throughout his time at MGM , Gilbert frequently clashed with studio head Louis B. Mayer over creative , social and financial matters . It was said , for example , that at the alleged double-wedding of Garbo and Gilbert and director King Vidor and actress Eleanor Boardman , Mayer made a crude remark about Garbo that led Gilbert to physically attack the mogul . This story has been disputed by some historians . Although one eyewitness—the bride , Eleanor Boardman—claimed to have seen the assault , others deny that it occurred . In any case , Mayer apparently detested Gilbert and was disgruntled that the actor had signed a contract for six pictures at $ 250,000 each . It was suggested that Mayer deliberately gave Gilbert bad scripts and ineffective directors in an effort to void the contract . With the coming of sound , Gilbert 's vocal talents made a good first impression in the all-star musical comedy The Hollywood Revue of 1929 , appearing in a Technicolor sequence with Norma Shearer . They played the `` balcony scene '' from Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet , first as written , and then using current slang . Most reviewers did not note any problems with Gilbert 's voice at this time and some praised it . Audiences awaited Gilbert 's first romantic role on the talking screen . The vehicle was the Ruritanian romance His Glorious Night ( also 1929 ) . According to reviewers , audiences laughed nervously at Gilbert 's performance . The fault was not Gilbert 's voice , it was said , but the awkward scenario along with overly ardent love scenes . In one , Gilbert keeps kissing his leading lady , ( Catherine Dale Owen ) , while saying `` I love you '' over and over again . The scene was parodied in the MGM musical Singin ' in the Rain ( 1952 ) in which a preview of the fictional The Dueling Cavalier flops disastrously . Director King Vidor stated that Rudolph Valentino , Gilbert 's main rival in the 1920s for romantic leads , probably would have suffered the same fate in the talkie era , had he lived . It was rumored that L.B . Mayer ordered Gilbert 's voice to be gelded to a higher pitch to ruin him . Gilbert became increasingly depressed by progressively inferior films and idle stretches between productions , but he resolved to thwart Louis B. Mayer and see the six-picture contract through . Gilbert 's fortunes were temporarily restored when MGM 's production chief Irving Thalberg gave him two projects that were character studies , giving Gilbert an excellent showcase for his versatility . The Phantom of Paris ( 1931 ) , originally intended for Lon Chaney ( who died from cancer in 1930 ) , cast Gilbert as a debonair magician and showman who is falsely accused of murder and uses his mastery of disguise to unmask the real killer . Downstairs ( 1932 ) was based on Gilbert 's original story , with the actor playing against type as a scheming , blackmailing chauffeur . The films were well received by critics and fans but failed to revive his career . Shortly after making Downstairs , he married co-star Virginia Bruce ; the couple divorced in 1934 . Gilbert fulfilled his contract with an unimportant `` B '' picture and left the studio in 1933 . Greta Garbo insisted that Gilbert return to MGM to play her leading man in Queen Christina ( 1933 ) , directed by Rouben Mamoulian . Garbo was top-billed , with Gilbert 's name beneath the title . Again , the picture failed to revive his career . Columbia Pictures gave him what would be his final chance for a comeback in The Captain Hates the Sea ( 1934 ) in which he gave a capable performance as a frustrated playwright . But the off-screen cast of heavy drinkers encouraged his alcoholism and the film was his last . Personal life Gilbert was married four times . His first marriage was to Olivia Burwell , a native of Mississippi whom Gilbert had met after her family moved to California , on August 26 , 1918 . They separated the following year and Olivia Burwell Gilbert returned to Mississippi for a while . She filed for divorce in Los Angeles in 1921 . In February 1921 , Gilbert announced his engagement to actress Leatrice Joy . They married in Tijuana in November 1921 . As Gilbert had failed to secure a divorce from his first wife and the legality of Gilbert and Joy 's Mexican marriage was questionable , the couple separated and had the marriage annulled to avoid a scandal . They remarried on March 3 , 1922 . The marriage was tumultuous and , in June 1923 , Joy filed for legal separation after she claimed that Gilbert slapped her face after a night of heavy drinking . They reconciled several months later . In August 1924 , Joy , who was pregnant with the couple 's first child , filed for divorce . Joy later said she left Gilbert after discovering he was having an affair with actress Laurette Taylor . Joy also claimed that Gilbert had conducted affairs with Barbara La Marr ( with whom he had a romance before his marriage to Joy ) , Lila Lee and Bebe Daniels . Their daughter , Leatrice Gilbert , was born on September 4 , 1924 . Joy was granted a divorce in May 1925 . In 1929 , Gilbert eloped with actress Ina Claire to Las Vegas . They separated in February 1931 and divorced six months later . Gilbert 's fourth and final marriage was to actress Virginia Bruce in August 1932 . They had a daughter , Susan Ann , the following year before divorcing in May 1934 . Before his death , Gilbert dated actress Marlene Dietrich . When he died , he had recently been slated to play a prominent role in support of Dietrich in the film Desire . Death By 1934 , alcoholism had severely damaged Gilbert 's health . He suffered a serious heart attack in December 1935 which left him in poor health . Gilbert suffered a second heart attack at his Bel Air home on January 9 , 1936 , which was fatal . A private funeral was held on January 11 at the B.E . Mortuary in Beverly Hills . Among the mourners were Gilbert 's two ex-wives , Leatrice Joy and Virginia Bruce , his two daughters , and stars Marlene Dietrich , Gary Cooper , Myrna Loy , and Raquel Torres . Gilbert was cremated and his ashes were interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park , Glendale in Glendale , California . Gilbert left the bulk of his estate , valued at $ 363,494 ( equivalent to $ million in ) , to his last ex-wife Virginia Bruce and their daughter , Susan Ann . He left $ 10,000 to his eldest daughter Leatrice , and other amounts to friends , relatives and his servants . For his contribution to the motion picture industry , John Gilbert has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1755 Vine Street and in 1994 , he was honored with his image on a United States postage stamp designed by caricaturist Al Hirschfeld . Filmography In popular culture John Gilbert is the subject of a mini-documentary film called Rediscovering John Gilbert ( 2010 ) featuring an on-camera interview with John Gilbert 's daughter and biographer , Leatrice Gilbert Fountain . The short film , directed and produced by film historian Jeffrey Vance , has aired on the Turner Classic Movies cable channel and is also available on DVD from home video distributor Flicker Alley . Fictional portrayals Gilbert has been portrayed in several films . In 1980 , Barry Bostwick appeared as the actor in the television film The Silent Lovers . Gilbert has also been portrayed by his grandson , John Fountain , ( in 1988 's Sunset ) , Christopher Renstrom ( in 1989 's La Divina ) , and Adnan Taletovich ( in 2012 's Return to Babylon ) .

qz_4432--John_Gilbert_(actor).txt

Who was known as the Great Lover of the Silent Screen?

Suriname ( , or , also spelled Surinam ) , officially known as the Republic of Suriname ( , ) , is a sovereign state on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America . It is bordered by French Guiana to the east , Guyana to the west and Brazil to the south . At just under 165000 km2 , it is the smallest country in South America . Suriname has a population of approximately 566,000 , most of whom live on the country 's north coast , in and around the capital and largest city , Paramaribo . Originally inhabited by a number of indigenous tribes , Suriname was explored and contested by European powers before coming under Dutch rule in the late 17th century . In 1954 the country became one of the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands . On 25 November 1975 , the country of Suriname left the Kingdom of the Netherlands to become an independent state , nonetheless maintaining close economic , diplomatic , and cultural ties to its former colonizer . Suriname is considered to be a culturally Caribbean country , and is a member of the Caribbean Community ( CARICOM ) . While Dutch is the official language of government , business , media and education , Sranan , an English-based creole language , is a widely used lingua franca . Suriname is the only territory outside Europe where Dutch is spoken by a majority of the population . The people of Suriname are among the most diverse in the world , spanning a multitude of ethnic , religious , and linguistic groups . Etymology This area was occupied by various cultures of indigenous peoples long before European contact , remnants of which can be found in petroglyph sites at Werehpai and other places in Suriname . The name Suriname may derive from a Taino ( Arawak-speaking ) indigenous people called Surinen , who inhabited the area at the time of European contact . `` Suriname '' , The New Encyclopædia Britannica , Encyclopædia Britannica , Volume 5 . Edition 15 , Encyclopædia Britannica , 2002 , p. 547 British settlers , who founded the first European colony at Marshall 's Creek along the Suriname River , spelled the name as `` Surinam '' . When the territory was taken over by the Dutch , it became part of a group of colonies known as Dutch Guiana . The official spelling of the country 's English name was changed from `` Surinam '' to `` Suriname '' in January 1978 , but `` Surinam '' can still be found in English . A notable example is Suriname 's national airline , Surinam Airways . The older English name is reflected in the English pronunciation , or . In Dutch , the official language of Suriname , the pronunciation is , with the main stress on the third syllable and a schwa terminal vowel . History Settlement of Suriname dates back to 3,000 BC . The largest tribes were the Arawaks , a nomadic coastal tribe that lived from hunting and fishing . They were the first inhabitants in the area . The Caribs also settled in the area and conquered the Arawaks using their sailing ships . They settled in Galibi ( Kupali Yumï , meaning `` tree of the forefathers '' ) on the mouth of the Marowijne River . While the larger Arawak and Carib tribes lived off the coast and savanna , smaller groups of indigenous peoples lived in the inland rainforest , such as the Akurio , Trió , Warrau , and Wayana . Colonial period Beginning in the 16th century , French , Spanish , and English explorers visited the area . A century later , plantation colonies were established by the Dutch and English along the many rivers in the fertile Guiana plains . The earliest documented colony in Guiana was an English settlement named Marshall 's Creek along the Suriname River . Disputes arose between the Dutch and the English . In 1667 , during negotiations leading to the Treaty of Breda , the Dutch decided to keep the nascent plantation colony of Suriname they had conquered from the English . The English got to keep New Amsterdam , the main city of the former colony of New Netherland . Already a cultural and economic hub in those days , they renamed it after the Duke of York : New York . In 1683 , the Society of Suriname was founded by the city of Amsterdam , the Van Aerssen van Sommelsdijck family , and the Dutch West India Company . The society was chartered to manage and defend the colony . The planters of the colony relied heavily on African slaves to cultivate the coffee , cocoa , sugar cane and cotton plantations along the rivers . Planters ' treatment of the slaves was notoriously bad , and many slaves escaped the plantations . With the help of the native South Americans living in the adjoining rain forests , these runaway slaves established a new and unique culture that was highly successful in its own right . They were known collectively in English as the Maroons , in French as Nèg'Marrons ( literally meaning `` brown negroes '' , that is `` pale-skinned negroes '' ) , and in Dutch as Marrons . The Maroons gradually developed several independent tribes through a process of ethnogenesis , as they were made up of slaves from different African ethnicities . Among them are the Saramaka , the Paramaka , the Ndyuka or Aukan , the Kwinti , the Aluku or Boni , and the Matawai . The Maroons often raided the plantations to recruit new members from the slaves and capture women , as well as acquire weapons , food and supplies . The planters and their families were sometimes killed in the raids ; colonists built defenses , which were so important they were shown on 18th-century maps , but these were not sufficient . The colonists also mounted armed campaigns against the Maroons , who generally escaped through the rainforest which they knew much better than did the colonists . To end hostilities , in the 19th century the European colonial authorities signed several peace treaties with different tribes . They granted the Maroons sovereign status and trade rights in their inland territories . Abolition of slavery In 1861-63 the Lincoln administration looked abroad for places to relocate freed slaves who wanted to leave the United States . It opened U.S. negotiations with the Dutch government regarding African American migration and colonization of the Dutch colony of Suriname in South America . Nothing came of the idea , and after 1864 the idea was dropped . Slavery in Suriname was abolished by the Netherlands in 1863 , but the slaves were not fully released until 1873 , after a mandatory ten-year transition period during which time they were required to work on the plantations for minimal pay . As soon as they became truly free , the slaves largely abandoned the plantations where they had worked for several generations in favour of the city , Paramaribo . As a plantation colony , Suriname was still heavily dependent on manual labour , and to make up for the shortfall , the Dutch brought in contract labourers from the Dutch East Indies ( modern Indonesia ) and India ( through an arrangement with the British ) . In addition , during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , small numbers of labourers , mostly men , were brought in from China and the Middle East . Although Suriname 's population remains relatively small , because of this history it is one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse countries in the world . Decolonization On 23 November 1941 , under an agreement with the Netherlands government-in-exile , the United States occupied Suriname to protect bauxite mines . In 1942 , the Dutch government-in-exile expressed a desire to review the relations between the Netherlands and its colonies after the end of the war . In 1954 , Suriname became one of the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands , along with the Netherlands Antilles and the Netherlands . In this construction , the Netherlands retained control of defense and foreign affairs . In 1973 , the local government , led by the National Party of Suriname ( NPS ) ( a largely Creole , meaning ethnically African or mixed African-European , party ) started negotiations with the Dutch government leading towards full independence , which was granted on 25 November 1975 . The severance package was very substantial , and a large part of Suriname 's economy for the first decade following independence was fueled by foreign aid provided by the Dutch government . Independence The first President of the country was Johan Ferrier , the former governor , with Henck Arron ( the then leader of the NPS ) as Prime Minister . In the years leading up to independence , nearly one-third of the population of Suriname emigrated to the Netherlands , amidst concern that the new country would fare worse under independence than it had as a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands . Indeed , Surinamese politics soon degenerated into ethnic polarisation and corruption , with the NPS using Dutch aid money for partisan purposes . Its leaders were accused of fraud in the 1977 elections , in which Arron won a further term , and the discontent was such that a large chunk of the population fled to the Netherlands , joining the already significant Surinamese community there . December killings On 25 February 1980 , a military coup overthrew Arron 's government . On 15 March 1981 , and again on 12 March 1982 , failed counter-coups were attempted . The first attempt was led by Wilfred Hawker and the second by Surendre Rambocus . Hawker escaped from prison during the second counter-coup attempt but was captured and executed . Between 2 am and 5 am on 7 December 1982 , the military , under the leadership of Dési Bouterse , rounded up 13 prominent citizens who had criticized the military dictatorship in Suriname and brought them to Fort Zeelandia . They were executed over the next three days , along with Rambocus and Jiwansingh Sheombar ( who was also involved in the second counter-coup attempt ) . Bouterse , among other defendants , was tried for the murders , but the Suriname parliament extended an amnesty law in 2012 that granted Bouterse amnesty for the alleged violations before the trial was concluded . The Dutch government stated that stopping the trial was `` totally unacceptable '' . Elections were held in 1987 , and a new constitution was adopted that , among other things , allowed Bouterse to remain in charge of the army . Dissatisfied with the government , Bouterse summarily dismissed them in 1990 , by telephone . This event became popularly known as the `` Telephone Coup '' . His power began to wane after the 1991 elections ; an ongoing brutal civil war between the Suriname army and Maroons loyal to rebel leader Ronnie Brunswijk , begun in 1986 , further weakened Bouterse 's position during the 1990s . In 1999 , Bouterse was convicted in absentia in the Netherlands on drug smuggling charges . 21st century On 19 July 2010 , the former dictator Dési Bouterse returned to power when he was elected as the new President of Suriname . He was re-elected in 2015 . Politics The Republic of Suriname is a representative democratic republic , based on the Constitution of 1987 . The legislative branch of government consists of a 51-member unicameral National Assembly , simultaneously and popularly elected for a five-year term . In the most recent elections , held on Tuesday , 25 May 2010 , the `` Megacombinatie '' won 23 of the National Assembly seats followed by `` Nationale Front '' with 20 seats . A much smaller number , important for coalition-building , went to the `` A‑combinatie '' and to the `` Volksalliantie '' . Negotiations are ongoing between parties regarding the formation of coalitions . The President of Suriname , who is elected for a five-year term by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly or , failing that , by a majority of the People 's Assembly , heads the executive branch . If at least two-thirds of the National Assembly can not agree to vote for one presidential candidate , a People 's Assembly is formed from all National Assembly delegates and regional and municipal representatives who were elected by popular vote in the most recent national election . As head of government , the president appoints a sixteen-minister cabinet . A vice president , normally elected at the same time as the president , needs a simple majority in the National Assembly or People 's Assembly to be elected for a five-year term . There is no constitutional provision for removal or replacement of the president , except in the case of resignation . The judiciary is headed by the Court of Justice ( Supreme Court ) . This court supervises the magistrate courts . Members are appointed for life by the president in consultation with the National Assembly , the State Advisory Council and the National Order of Private Attorneys . In April 2005 , the regional Caribbean Court of Justice , based in Trinidad , was inaugurated . As the final court of appeal , it was intended to replace the London-based Privy Council . Foreign relations President Dési Bouterse was sentenced in the Netherlands to 11 years of imprisonment for drug trafficking . He is also the main suspect in the court case concerning the 'December murders ' , the assassination of opponents of military rule in Fort Zeelandia , Paramaribo , in 1982 . These two cases place a constraint on relations between the Netherlands and Suriname . The Dutch government has stated it will only maintain necessary contact with the president . Due to Suriname 's Dutch colonial history , Suriname had a long-standing special relationship with the Netherlands . It was strained because of the coup and the Netherlands no longer maintains Suriname as a member of its development program . Since 1991 , the United States has maintained positive relations with Suriname . The two countries work together through the Caribbean Basin Security Initiative ( CBSI ) and the U.S. President 's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief ( PEPFAR ) . Suriname also receives military funding from the U.S. Department of Defense . EU relations and cooperation with Suriname are carried out both on bilateral and regional basis , the latter within the framework of the ongoing EU-CELAC and EU-CARIFORUM dialogues . Suriname is party to the Cotonou Agreement , the partnership agreement between the members of the African , Caribbean and Pacific Group of States and the European Union . On 17 February 2005 , the leaders of Barbados and Suriname signed the `` Agreement for the deepening of bilateral cooperation between the Government of Barbados and the Government of the Republic of Suriname . '' On 23–24 April 2009 , both nations formed a Joint Commission in Paramaribo , Suriname , to improve relations between both countries and to expand into various areas of cooperation . Since the first meeting , a second one was held on 3–4 March 2011 , in Dover , Barbados . At the second meeting , several areas of mutual interest were reviewed including : agriculture , trade , investment , as well as international transport . In the late 2000s , Suriname intensified development cooperation with other developing countries . China 's South-South cooperation with Suriname has included a number of large-scale infrastructure projects , including port rehabilitation and road construction . Brazil signed agreements to cooperate with Suriname in education , health , agriculture , and energy production . Military The Armed Forces of Suriname have three branches : the Army , the Air Force , and the Navy . The President of the Republic , Dési Bouterse , is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces ( Opperbevelhebber van de Strijdkrachten ) . The President is assisted by the Minister of Defence . Beneath the President and Minister of Defense is the Commander of the Armed Forces ( Bevelhebber van de Strijdkrachten ) . The Military Branches and regional Military Commands report to the Commander . After the creation of the Statute of the Kingdom of the Netherlands , the Royal Netherlands Army was entrusted with the defence of Suriname , while the defence of the Netherlands Antilles was the responsibility of the Royal Netherlands Navy . The army set up a separate Troepenmacht in Suriname ( Forces in Suriname , TRIS ) . Upon independence in 1975 , this force was turned into the Surinaamse Krijgsmacht ( SKM ) : , Surinamese Armed Forces . On 25 February 1980 , a group of 15 non-commissioned officers and one junior SKM officer , under the leadership of sergeant major Dési Bouterse , overthrew the Government . Subsequently the SKM was rebranded as Nationaal Leger ( NL ) , National Army . Administrative divisions The country is divided into ten administrative districts , each headed by a district commissioner appointed by the president , who also has the power of dismissal . Suriname is further subdivided into 62 resorts ( ressorten ) . Geography Suriname is the smallest independent country in South America . Situated on the Guiana Shield , it lies mostly between latitudes 1° and 6°N , and longitudes 54° and 58°W . The country can be divided into two main geographic regions . The northern , lowland coastal area ( roughly above the line Albina-Paranam-Wageningen ) has been cultivated , and most of the population lives here . The southern part consists of tropical rainforest and sparsely inhabited savanna along the border with Brazil , covering about 80 % of Suriname 's land surface . The two main mountain ranges are the Bakhuys Mountains and the Van Asch Van Wijck Mountains . Julianatop is the highest mountain in the country at 1286 m above sea level . Other mountains include Tafelberg at 1026 m , Mount Kasikasima at 718 m , Goliathberg at 358 m and Voltzberg at 240 m . Borders Suriname is situated between French Guiana to the east and Guyana to the west . The southern border is shared with Brazil and the northern border is the Atlantic coast . The southernmost borders with French Guiana and Guyana are disputed by these countries along the Marowijne and Corantijn rivers , respectively , while a part of the disputed maritime boundary with Guyana was arbitrated by a tribunal convened under the rules set out in Annex VII of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on 20 September 2007 . Climate Lying 2 to 5 degrees north of the equator , Suriname has a very hot and wet tropical climate , and temperatures do not vary much throughout the year . Average relative humidity is between 80 % and 90 % . Its average temperature ranges from 29 to 34 degrees Celsius ( 84 to 93 degrees Fahrenheit ) . Due to the high humidity , actual temperatures are distorted and may therefore feel up to 6 degrees Celsius ( 11 degrees Fahrenheit ) hotter than the recorded temperature . The year has two wet seasons , from April to August and from November to February . It also has two dry seasons , from August to November and February to April . Nature reserves Located in the upper Coppename River watershed , the Central Suriname Nature Reserve has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its unspoiled forests and biodiversity . There are many national parks in the country : Galibi National Reserve , Coppename Manding National Park , and Wia Wia National Reserve along the coast ; Brownsberg Nature Park , Raleighvallen/Voltzeberg Natural Reserve , Tafelberg Nature Reserve , and Eilerts de Haan Nature Park in central Suriname ; and the Sipaliwani Nature Reserve on the Brazilian border . In all , 16 % of the country 's land area is national parks and lakes , according to the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre . Economy Suriname 's democracy gained some strength after the turbulent 1990s , and its economy became more diversified and less dependent on Dutch financial assistance . Bauxite ( aluminium ore ) mining continues to be a strong revenue source , and the discovery and exploitation of oil and gold has added substantially to Suriname 's economic independence . Agriculture , especially rice and bananas , remains a strong component of the economy , and ecotourism is providing new economic opportunities . More than 80 % of Suriname 's land-mass consists of unspoiled rain forest ; with the establishment of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve in 1998 , Suriname signalled its commitment to conservation of this precious resource . The Central Suriname Nature Reserve became a World Heritage Site in 2000 . The economy of Suriname is dominated by the bauxite industry , which accounts for more than 15 % of GDP and 70 % of export earnings . Other main export products include rice , bananas and shrimp . Suriname has recently started exploiting some of its sizeable oil and gold reserves . About a quarter of the people work in the agricultural sector . The Surinamese economy is very dependent on commerce , its main trade partners being the Netherlands , the United States , Canada , and Caribbean countries , mainly Trinidad and Tobago and the islands of the former Netherlands Antilles . After assuming power in the fall of 1996 , the Wijdenbosch government ended the structural adjustment program of the previous government , claiming it was unfair to the poorer elements of society . Tax revenues fell as old taxes lapsed and the government failed to implement new tax alternatives . By the end of 1997 , the allocation of new Dutch development funds was frozen as Surinamese Government relations with the Netherlands deteriorated . Economic growth slowed in 1998 , with decline in the mining , construction , and utility sectors . Rampant government expenditures , poor tax collection , a bloated civil service , and reduced foreign aid in 1999 contributed to the fiscal deficit , estimated at 11 % of GDP . The government sought to cover this deficit through monetary expansion , which led to a dramatic increase in inflation . It takes longer on average to register a new business in Suriname than virtually any other country in the world ( 694 days or about 99 weeks ) . * GDP ( 2010 est . ) : U.S. $ 4.794 billion . * Annual growth rate real GDP ( 2010 est . ) : 3.5 % . * Per capita GDP ( 2010 est . ) : U.S. $ 9,900 . * Inflation ( 2007 ) : 6.4 % . * Natural resources : Bauxite , gold , oil , iron ore , other minerals ; forests ; hydroelectric potential ; fish and shrimp . * Agriculture : Products—rice , bananas , timber , palm kernels , coconuts , peanuts , citrus fruits , and forest products . * Industry : Types—alumina , oil , gold , fish , shrimp , lumber . * Trade : * * Exports ( 2012 ) : $ 2.563 billion : alumina , gold , crude oil , lumber , shrimp and fish , rice , bananas . Major consumers : US 26.1 % , Belgium 17.6 % , UAE 12.1 % , Canada 10.4 % , Guyana 6.5 % , France 5.6 % , Barbados 4.7 % . * * Imports ( 2012 ) : $ 1.782 billion : capital equipment , petroleum , foodstuffs , cotton , consumer goods . Major suppliers : US 25.8 % , Netherlands 15.8 % , China 9.8 % , UAE 7.9 % , Antigua and Barbuda 7.3 % , Netherlands Antilles 5.4 % , Japan 4.2 % . Demographics According to the 2012 census , Suriname had a population of 541,638 inhabitants . The Surinamese populace is characterized by its high level of diversity , wherein no particular demographic group constitutes a majority . This is a legacy of centuries of Dutch rule , which entailed successive periods of forced , contracted , or voluntary migration by various nationalities and ethnic groups from around the world . The largest ethnic group are the East Indians , who form 27 percent of the population . They are descendants of 19th-century contract workers from India , hailing mostly from the modern Indian states of Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh along the Nepali border . Surinamese Maroons , whose ancestors are mostly runaway slaves that fled to the interior , comprise the next largest group at 21.7 percent ; they are divided into five main groups : Ndyuka ( Aucans ) , Kwinti , Matawai , Saramaccans and Paramaccans . Surinamese Creoles , mixed people descending from West African slaves and mostly Dutch Europeans , form 15.7 percent of the population . Javanese make up 14 percent of the population , and like the East Indians , descend largely from workers contracted from the island of Java in the former Dutch East Indies ( modern Indonesia ) . 13.4 percent of the population is of mixed ethnic heritage . Other sizeable groups include the Chinese , originating from 19th-century contract workers and some recent migration , who number over 40,000 ; Levantines , primarily Maronites from Lebanon , and Jews of Sephardic and Ashkenazi origin , whose center of population was the community of Jodensavanne ; and Brazilians , many of them laborers mining for gold . A small but influential number of Europeans remain in the country , comprising about 1 percent of the population . They are descended mostly from Dutch 19th-century immigrant farmers , known as `` Boeroes '' ( derived from boer , the Dutch word for `` farmer '' ) , and to a lesser degree other European groups , such as Portuguese from Madeira . Most Boeroes left after independence in 1975 . Various indigenous peoples make up 3.7 percent of the population , with the main groups being the Akurio , Arawak , Kalina ( Caribs ) , Tiriyó and Wayana . They live mainly in the districts of Paramaribo , Wanica , Marowijne and Sipaliwini . The vast majority of Suriname 's inhabitants ( about 90 percent ) live in Paramaribo or on the coast . The choice of becoming Surinamese or Dutch citizens in the years leading up to Suriname 's independence in 1975 led to a mass migration to the Netherlands . This migration continued in the period immediately after independence and during military rule in the 1980s and for largely economic reasons extended throughout the 1990s . The Surinamese community in the Netherlands numbered 350,300 ; this is compared to approximately 566,000 Surinamese in Suriname itself . Religion As with ethnicity , Suriname 's religious makeup is heterogenous and reflective of the country 's multicultural character . According to the 2012 census , around half of the population ( 48.4 percent ) adhered to Christianity , ; 21.6 percent of the population was Roman Catholic , 11.18 percent Pentecostal , 11.6 percent Moravian , and the remainder were of various other Protestant denominations . Hindus formed the second largest religious group in Suriname , comprising 22.3 percent of the population , the largest proportion of any country in the Western Hemisphere , besides Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago . Almost all practitioners of Hinduism are found among the Indo-Surinamese population . Muslims constitute 13.9 percent of the population , which is proportionally the largest in the Americas , and are found mostly among those of Javanese and to a lesser degree Indian descent . Other religious groups include Winti , an Afro-American religion practiced mostly by those of Maroon ancestry ; Javanism , a syncretic faith found among some Javanese Surinamese ; and various indigenous folk traditions that are often incorporated into one of the larger religions ( usually Christianity ) . A little over 10 percent of the population is irreligious or did not state a religion . Languages Dutch is the sole official language , and is the language of education , government , business , and the media . Over 60 % of the population speaks Dutch as a mother tongue , and most of the rest speak it as a second language . In 2004 Suriname became an associate member of the Dutch Language Union . It is the only Dutch-speaking country in South America as well

qw_9664--Suriname.txt

Under the Treaty of Breda (31 July 1667), negotiated to end the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch kept the colony of Suriname conquered from the English, and left the English with what area of land?

Abraham Darby , in his later life called Abraham Darby the Elder , now sometimes known for convenience as Abraham Darby I ( 14 April 1678 – 8 March 1717 ) was the first and best known of several men of that name . Born into an English Quaker family that played an important role in the Industrial Revolution , Darby developed a method of producing pig iron in a blast furnace fuelled by coke rather than charcoal . This was a major step forward in the production of iron as a raw material for the Industrial Revolution . Early life Abraham Darby was the son of John Darby , a yeoman farmer and locksmith by trade , and his wife Ann Baylies . He was born at Woodsettle , Woodsetton , Staffordshire , just across the county boundary from Dudley , Worcestershire . He was descended from nobility ; his great-grandmother Jane was an illegitimate child of Edward Sutton , 5th Baron Dudley . Abraham 's great-grandmother was a sister of the whole blood to Dud Dudley , who claimed to have smelted iron using coke as a fuel . Unfortunately , the iron that Dudley produced was not acceptable to the charcoal ironmasters . However , this may have inspired his great-grandnephew Darby to perfect this novel method of smelting . During the early 1690s Darby was apprenticed in Birmingham to Jonathan Freeth , a fellow Quaker and a manufacturer of brass mills for grinding malt . As well as the understanding of metallurgy necessary for the manufacture of products in an alloy like bass , Darby would also have picked up in Birmingham the use by brewers of coke to fuel malting ovens , preventing the sulphur content of coal contaminating the resulting beer , but also avoiding the use of the scarcer charcoal as a fuel . The combination of these two insights was to lead to Darby 's development of the coke-fuelled blast furnace in 1709 . Freeth encouraged Darby to become a highly active member in the Society of Friends , and he remained so all his life . In 1699 , when he completed his apprenticeship , he married Mary Sergeant ( 1678-1718 ) and moved to Bristol , where he set himself up as a malt mill maker . Bristol There was a small community of Quakers in Bristol , and Darby soon gained a reputation for skill and enterprise . In 1702 Darby joined with a number of fellow Quakers to form the Bristol Brass Company , with works at Baptist Mills in Bristol . He brought in 'Dutchmen ' to operate a brass battery work , making cooking pots and other holloware under a trip hammer . He also developed a method for casting pots in 'greensand ' moulds , previously only used for smaller castings . This enabled pots to be mass-produced and to be thinner than those made by the traditional process of casting in loam moulds . For this purpose , he established the Cheese Lane Foundry in 1704 . Initially he cast brass pots , but by 1705 , he moved on to using iron . A young Welsh apprentice , John Thomas , solved the problem by using sand for the mould , with a special casting box and core.Rolt , L.T.C. , `` Great Engineers '' , 1962 , G. Bell and Sons Ltd , ISBN Using this casting method Darby could cast pots of sufficient thinness and lightness . Darby took out a patent on the new casting method in 1707 , Darby 's successors sold pots over wide areas of England and Wales , and had a virtual monopoly in the trade . For this he used a reverberatory air furnace of a kind developed by Sir Clement Clerke , initially for smelting lead near Bristol , and applied by him or his son Talbot to iron founding at Vauxhall . Copper at Coalbrookdale In 1700 , another group of Bristol Quakers ( including Edward Lloyd and Charles Harford ) had agreed to set up a brass works 'somewhere in England ' . It is not clear where , but by 1712 , Caleb Lloyd , Jeffrey Pinnell , Abraham Darby and his brother-in-law Thomas Harvey had brass works at Coalbrookdale . This is likely to be linked to an increase in shipment of 'Callumy ' ( Calamine ) up the river Severn from 1704 and Darby 's agreement in 1710 to open a copper mine at Harmer Hill in Myddle , on behalf of a 'Company of the City of Bristol ' . However , Darby was not a partner in establishing Tern Mill , near Tern Hall ( now Attingham Park ) in 1709 , though his partners Thomas Harvey , Lloyd and Pinnell were . At this point Darby decided to leave the brass company and concentrate on his iron founding pursuits . Coalbrookdale furnace Darby leased the furnace in September 1708 , and set to work preparing to get it into blast . His first account book , running from 20 October 1708 to 4 January 1710 survives . This shows the production of 'charked ' coal in January 1709 and the furnace was brought into blast on 10 January . Darby sold 81 tons of iron goods that year . The furnace was used for the first time on 10 January 1709 and the blast appears to have been successful . Darby was probably helped by the fact that the Shropshire 'clod coal ' that he was using was fairly sulphur-free . However , experimentation with different fuels continued for some time ; for example cargoes of coal were brought up the Severn from Bristol and Neath . Some of the molten iron from the blast was run into pigs and sent down the Severn for use in Bristol foundries , but much of it was used to cast pots and other cast iron goods . The reasons why the iron produced by Darby was not used in forges to make wrought iron have been much debated . The reason may be partly that his pig iron was better for castings than charcoal pig iron , but the presence of silicon as an impurity made it an unattractive feedstock for finery forges . However recent work has thrown doubt on this explanation , which is based on data from the 1720s when the Coalbrookdale Company operated a forge : the forge could hardly even make a profit with charcoal pit iron . The business was partly financed by a loan from Thomas Goldney II of Bristol and by Graffin Prankard and James Peters becoming partners . Later John Chamberlayne became a partner , and Darby 's brother-in-law Thomas Baylies a manager . Expansion In 1712 Darby offered to instruct William Rawlinson , a fellow Quaker and ironmaster , in the techniques of smelting with coke . Apparently , Rawlinson , the founder of the Backbarrow Iron Company in Furness , did not take up the offer . In 1714 , Darby and his partners renewed their lease ( effective from 1717 ) and then built a second blast furnace . This was slightly more productive in the 1720s than the Old Blast Furnace . It is not clear when this furnace began production but it was certainly in use by 1718 . The Company also secured Vale Royal Furnace in central Cheshire , but this did not come into their possession before Abraham Darby 's death . Afterward , it was taken over by Thomas Baylies with other partners . The Company embarked on a similar venture at Dolgûn , near Dolgellau , where John Kelsall was appointed as clerk , but it is probable that the furnace there was not finished until after Darby died , when his widow and the other partners sold off their lease . Death After 18 months ' illness , Abraham Darby died in 1717 , at his home , Madeley Court , Madeley , Shropshire , aged 38 . He had built a house for himself in Coalbrookdale but did not live to occupy it . He was buried in the Quaker burial-ground at Broseley , Shropshire . His widow died only a few months later . A New Company Darby 's death left the affairs of the business in a mess . His own shares were mortgaged to Thomas Goldney , who then exchanged the debt for eight shares ( of 16 ) in the business . Richard Ford , who married Abraham 's daughter Mary had two shares and became manager , but on the widow 's death Baylies took out letters of administration as a creditor and sought to sell the works . Darby ’ s eldest son , Abraham Darby II , was only six years old and his two brothers younger still . Accordingly , their uncle Joshua Sergeant bought back some of the shares on behalf of the Darby children . The children were sent away to school , and Abraham II began assisting in the management of the works in 1728 and he was awarded four shares in the company in 1732 . His legacy Abraham Darby made an important step towards the Industrial Revolution . His method of casting pots in sand provided his successors with a viable business that operated for over two centuries . Smelting iron with coke ultimately released the iron industry from the limitation imposed by the speed of growth of trees . Coke-smelted cast iron went into steam engines , bridges , and many of the inventions of the 19th century . Only with coke smelting could there be produced the great quantities of iron made to meet the requirements of the Industrial Revolution .

sfq_22222--Abraham_Darby_I.txt

Which river is spanned by Abraham Darby's Iron Bridge?

The Big Easy is a 1987 American crime drama directed by Jim McBride and written by Daniel Petrie Jr . The film stars Dennis Quaid , Ellen Barkin , John Goodman , and Ned Beatty . The film was both set and shot on location in New Orleans , Louisiana . The film was later adapted for a television series for two seasons on the USA Network ( 1996–1997 ) . Plot Remy McSwain is a New Orleans police lieutenant who investigates the murder of a local mobster . His investigation leads him to suspect that fellow members of the police force may be involved . Anne Osborne , a state district attorney , is sent to investigate alleged police corruption . After seeing firsthand some unorthodox practices by Remy , Anne accuses him of being on the take . He argues that she does not have an understanding of how the system works in New Orleans for police . Despite Osborne 's suspicious and apprehensive feelings towards him , they form a relationship . McSwain is caught accepting payoffs in an Internal Affairs sting , and Osborne has the burden of prosecuting him . With the assistance of fellow officers within the police force , the evidence is suppressed . McSwain is cleared of the charges , at which point Anne , becoming aware of such , is faced with the conflict of her personal feelings for Remy and her duty to uphold the law . It is later revealed that Jack Kellom ( Ned Beatty ) , Remy 's boss and the two detectives De Soto ( John Goodman ) and Dodge ( Ebbe Roe Smith ) are behind the murder and a stash of heroin is hidden at a boat yard . Kellom goes to the boat and is confronted by De Soto and Dodge . Kellom suggests getting rid of the drugs but De Soto shoots Kellom . Remy and Anne arrive and are confronted by De Soto and Dodge and a shootout starts resulting in De Soto being shot by a fatally wounded Kellom and Dodge being shot with a flare gun by Remy which starts a fire and Remy and Anne run just before the boat explodes . The final scene shows Remy dancing with Anne where it appears they had just been married . Cast * Dennis Quaid as Detective Lieutenant Remy McSwain * Ellen Barkin as A.D.A . Anne Osborne * Ned Beatty as Jack Kellom * John Goodman as Detective Sergeant Andre DeSoto * Lisa Jane Persky as Detective McCabe * Tom O'Brien as Bobby McSwain * Charles Ludlam as Lamar Parmentel * Grace Zabriskie as Mam * Marc Lawrence as Vinnie 'The Cannon ' DiMotti * Solomon Burke as Daddy Mention * Gailard Sartain as Chef Paul * Jim Garrison as Judge Jim Garrison Production Filming took 50 days and the lead actors rehearsed three weeks before the start of principal photography . The original title of the script was `` Windy City '' , and was set in Chicago . The title was briefly changed to `` Nothing But The Truth '' . Well-known New Orleans district attorney Jim Garrison makes a cameo appearance as a judge . Garrison became known for his Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories and his own investigation into JFK 's murder from New Orleans in the 1960s . City of New Orleans The city of New Orleans and its atmospherics function as a protagonist in the film . This is evident from the beginning of the film : The opening is an aerial shot of the New Orleans bayou and the cajun band BeauSoleil plays `` Zydeco Gris Gris '' on the soundtrack ( title sequence ) . The producers used well-known locations such as Tipitina 's , Antoine 's , Blaine Kern 's warehouse full of Mardi Gras parade floats , and a French Quarter strip joint , to flesh out the mood of the film . Reception Box-office The film had a limited opening on August 21 , 1987 and grossed $ 353,259 . It widened a week where its gross was $ 3,626,031 from 1,138 screens and the total receipts for the run were $ 17,685,307 . In its widest release the film was featured in 1,219 theaters . The motion picture was in circulation five weeks . Critical response Roger Ebert , film critic of the Chicago Sun-Times , lauded the film , and wrote , `` The Big Easy is one of the richest American films of the year . It also happens to be a great thriller . I say 'happens , ' because I believe the plot of this movie is only an excuse for its real strength : the creation of a group of characters so interesting , so complicated and so original they make a lot of other movie people look like paint-by-number characters . '' Sheila Benson , writing for the Los Angeles Times , wrote , `` Screenwriter Daniel Petrie Jr. sets up the conflict , and director Jim McBride fleshes it out with devastating , sexy assurance ... '' Film critic Vincent Canby was a bit tougher on the film , and wrote , `` Remy and Anne are made for each other , or would have been if The Big Easy were the sophisticated comedy it could have been ... [ the film ] was directed by Jim McBride who one day is going to come up with a commercial movie that works all the way through , and not just in patches . '' The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 88 % of critics gave the film a positive review , based on 33 reviews with the consensus : `` Loaded with atmosphere and drenched in the sizzling chemistry between Dennis Quaid and Ellen Barkin , The Big Easy remains one of the strongest -- and steamiest -- thrillers of the 1980s . '' The film is praised for the accuracy of Quaid 's Cajun accent , which he meticulously researched in preparation for the role . However , residents of the New Orleans area were not so pleased , referring to it as `` cringe-inducing . '' Accolades Wins * 1987 — Cognac Festival du Film Policier , Cognac , France : Grand Prix * 1987 — Valladolid International Film Festival : Best Actor , Dennis Quaid * 1988 — Independent Spirit Awards : Best Male Lead Dennis Quaid * 1988 — Sant Jordi Awards : Sant Jordi ; Best Foreign Actress , Ellen Barkin * 1988 — Anthony Award : Best Movie Nominations * 1988 — Independent Spirit Awards : Best Director , Jim McBride ; Best Feature , Stephen J. Friedman * 1988 — Casting Society of America : Artios Award ; Best Casting for Feature Film , Drama , Lynn Stalmaster and David Rubin * 1988 — Edgar Allan Poe Awards : Edgar ; Best Motion Picture , Daniel Petrie Jr . Distribution The film was first shown in 1986 at various film festivals including the Cognac Festival du Film Policier , the Davao City Film Festival in the Philippines , the Valladolid International Film Festival in Spain , and the Sundance Film Festival before being picked up for distribution . According to Robert Redford , founder of Sundance , The Big Easy was the first film sold at the festival . Redford tells of dragging David Puttnam , then the head of Columbia Pictures , to see the film . After the screening , Puttnam decided to pick up the movie for distribution . Home media On February 2 , 1999 a video and DVD of the film were released on the Trimark label as part of the label 's `` Gold Reel Collection . '' Television adaptation The film inspired its television series , which premiered on the USA Cable Network August 11 , 1996 . Tony Crane played McSwain and Susan Walters played Anne Osbourne . Actress Leslie Bibb also appeared as a recurring role in the series . There were approximately 35 episodes broadcast over two seasons . Although Daniel Petrie Jr. ( who wrote the screenplay to the original film ) was credited as an executive producer of the series , Petrie has stated that he was `` not at all '' involved in the series , receiving only `` a credit and money '' . Soundtrack With the action taking place in New Orleans , and the main protagonist 's Cajun family background ( Remy McSwain ) , the producers of the film used cajun , zydeco , R & B , and gospel music in the soundtrack . An original motion picture soundtrack album was assembled by label executive Danny Holloway and released in 1987 on the Island label . The album contains twelve tracks including `` Tipitina , '' played by New Orleans pianist Professor Longhair , the New Orleans anthem `` Iko Iko , '' by The Dixie Cups , and a ballad , `` Closer To You , '' written and performed by actor Dennis Quaid who also performs the song in the film . Other performers on the album include BeauSoleil , Buckwheat Zydeco , Dewey Balfa , Aaron Neville and The Neville Brothers .

jp_2481--The_Big_Easy_(film).txt

"What city is called ""The Big Easy""?"

In a number of countries , plants have been chosen as symbols to represent specific geographic areas . Some countries have a country-wide floral emblem ; others in addition have symbols representing subdivisions . Different processes have been used to adopt these symbols – some are conferred by government bodies , whereas others are the result of informal public polls . The term floral emblem , which refers to flowers specifically , is primarily used in Australia and Canada . In the United States , the term state flower is more often used . National flowers Africa Asia Bangladesh The national flower and floral emblem of Bangladesh is the shapla ( ) , or Nymphaea nouchali ) See also : National Emblem of Bangladesh . Bhutan * Bhutan – Blue poppy ( Meconopsis grandis ) Brunei * Brunei – Simpoh Ayer ( Dillenia suffruticosa ) Cambodia Cambodia formally adopted the romduol ( ) as its national flower in the year 2005 by a royal decree . The royal decree designates the taxon as Mitrella mesnyi , however this is a taxonomically illegitimate synonym for Sphaerocoryne affinis Ridley . India The flower of India is also the lotus ( Nelumbo nucifera ) , a symbol of purity that remains immaculate despite growing from mud and water . Kerala 's state floral emblem is the tree Cassia fistula . Tamil Nadu 's floral emblem is Glory lily . Water-lily is the state flower of Andhra Pradesh . Bihar 's floral emblem is kachnaar and that of Uttarakhand is the rhododendron ( locally buransh ) . Indonesia There are three types of floral emblems that symbolize Indonesia : * the puspa bangsa ( national flower ) of Indonesia is melati ( Jasminum sambac ) * the puspa pesona ( flower of charm ) is anggrek bulan ( Moon Orchid , Phalaenopsis amabilis ) * the puspa langka ( rare flower ) is padma raksasa rafflesia ( Rafflesia arnoldii ) . All three were chosen on World Environment Day in 1990. and enforced by law through Presidential Decree ( Keputusan Presiden ) No . 4 1993 , On the other occasion Bunga Bangkai ( Titan arum ) was also added as puspa langka together with Rafflesia . Melati ( jasminum sambac ) , a small white flower with sweet fragrance , has long been considered as a sacred flower in Indonesian tradition , as it symbolizes purity , sacredness , graceful simplicity and sincerity . For example , on her wedding day , a traditional Indonesian bride 's hair is often adorned with arrangements of jasmine , while the groom 's kris is often adorned with a lock of jasmine . However , jasmine is also often used as floral offering for spirits and deities , and also often present during funerals which gave it its mystical and sacred properties . Moon Orchid was chosen for its beauty , while the other two rare flowers , Rafflesia arnoldii and Titan arum were chosen to demonstrate uniqueness and Indonesian rich biodiversity . Each of the 33 provinces of Indonesia also has a native plant as its provincial flower . Iran * Iran – red rose , tulip , Nymphaea , Cupressus sempervirens Iraq * Iraq – Rose Israel The Israeli national flower is the poppy anemone ( Anemone coronaria ; calanit metzuya in Hebrew ) , chosen in 2013 to replace Cyclamen persicum . Jordan * Jordan – Black iris ( Iris nigricans ) Kuwait * Kuwait – Rhanterium epapposum Laos The national flower is the plumeria ( champa ) , despite it being no longer endemic . Malaysia The national flower of Malaysia is the bunga raya ( Chinese Hibiscus , Hibiscus rosa-sinensis ) . The flower of the eastern Malaysian state of Sarawak is the orchid Phalaenopsis bellina , while that of the state of Kedah is the pokok padi . Malacca 's state flower is the bread-flower , Vallaris glabra ( local name bunga kesidang ) . Maldives * Maldives – pink polyantha rose ( fiyaathoshi finifenmaa ) Myanmar * Myanmar – Pterocarpus indicus ( paduak ) Nepal * Nepal – Rhododendron North Korea * Magnolia ( Magnolia sieboldii ) ( Korean : 목란/ mongnan ) Pakistan Plant symbols include : Poet 's Jasmine ( national flower ) , deodar ( national tree ) , mango ( national fruit ) , For thousands of years , the jasmine plant has been cultivated not only for the beauty of its small , white , star-like flowers , but it has also been prized for its intoxicating scent . Originating in the foot hills of the Western Himalayas and the Indus Valley plains of the Punjab , the plant was cultivated and brought to the rest of the Indian subcontinent , China , the Middle East and other regions of Asia . From there , it spread into France , Italy and the Mediterranean , and eventually it was introduced to the rest of Western Europe and Britain . Today , jasmine is grown and cultivated all over the world in its many varieties . Since jasmine has been cultivated all over the world for its flowers and scent , there are different varieties , and each type of jasmine is associated with different meanings . In Pakistan , Jasmine is a very common plant and one can find it in any garden . Because of its attractive scent , the white jasmine symbolizes attachment and represents amiability and modesty . Palestine Palestine 's unofficial national flower would supposedly be Poppy . Philippines The Philippines adopted the sampaguita ( Arabian jasmine , Jasminum sambac ) in 1934 as its national flower because it symbolises purity and cleanliness due to its colour and sweet smell . It is popularly strung into garlands that are presented to visitors and dignitaries , and is a common offering to religious images . Singapore The national flower for Singapore is the orchid Vanda Miss Joaquim . South Korea * Rose of Sharon ( Hibiscus syriacus ) ( Korean : 무궁화/ mugunghwa ) Sri Lanka Sri Lanka – Nil mānel , blue-star water-lily ( Nymphaea stellata ) . Although nil means ‘ blue ’ in Sinhala , the Sinhalese name of this plant is often rendered as `` water-lily '' in English . This beautiful aquatic flower appears in the Sigiriya frescoes and has been mentioned in ancient Sanskrit , Pali and Sinhala literary works . Buddhist lore in Sri Lanka claims that this flower was one of the 108 auspicious signs found on Prince Siddhartha 's footprint . Taiwan The national flower was officially designated as the plum blossom by the Executive Yuan of the Republic of China on July 21 , 1964 . The plum blossom , known as the meihua ( ) , is symbol for resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity , because plum trees often bloom most vibrantly even during the harshest winters . The triple grouping of stamens represents Dr. Sun Yat-sen 's Three Principles of the People , while the five petals symbolize the five branches of the government . Thailand The national flower for Thailand is Golden Shower Tree ( Cassia fistula ) , locally known as dok khuen or rachapruek . Turkey * Turkey – Tulip Vietnam * Vietnam – Red Lotus Europe Albania The floral emblem of Albania is the red and black poppy . The poppy can be found everywhere in the country , though they originate from Anatolia . Poppies are recognized for their beauty , medicinal value , and seeds . Its colors are red and black , just as in the flag of Albania . Austria * Austria – Alpine gentian ( German : Enzian ) , edelweiss Belarus * Belarus – Wild blue flax , Centaurea ( unofficial ) Belgium * Red poppy Bosnia and Herzegovina * Bosnia and Herzegovina – Bosnian lily Lilium bosniacum Bulgaria * Bulgaria – Rose Croatia * Croatia – Iris croatica , Degenia velebitica , Tilia Cyprus * Cyprus – Cyprus cyclamen Czech Republic * Czech Republic – Tilia cordata England * England – rose ( see the Tudor rose ) Estonia * Estonia – cornflower Faroe Islands * Faroe Islands – Marsh Marigold Finland * Finland – Lily of the valley , white rose France The lily is the national flower of France as represented in Fleur-de-lis emblem , the symbol of French monarchy . Germany The cornflower ( or cyani flower ) became a German symbol for its Prussian blue color in the 19th century , although it is not as common as the Oak as a national plant . Gibraltar * Gibraltar – Candytuft ( Iberis gibraltarica ) Greece * Greece – Laurel branch , violets , cyclamen ( cyclamen graecum ) , Bear 's breech ( Acanthus mollis ) [ http : //pixdaus.com/national-flowers-greece-bear-s-breech-acanthus-mollis-bear-b/items/view/245686/ ] Hungary * Hungary – Tulip Iceland * Iceland – white dryad ( Dryas octopetala ) Ireland * The shamrock ( or trefoil ) is widely used as an official symbol for Ireland . Italy * Italy – Cyclamen , Strawberry tree Latvia * Latvia – oxeye daisy Lithuania * Lithuania – Rue Macedonia * Republic of Macedonia – Wheat ( Macedonian : жито ) , tobacco ( тутун ) and opium poppy ( афион ) All three of them appear on the national emblem . Malta * Malta – Maltese Rock Centaury , Widnet il-Baħar Monaco * Monaco – Carnation Norway * Norway – Saxifraga cotyledon , Calluna vulgaris Poland * Poland – Red poppy Portugal * Portugal – Lavender , Olive leaves , Cork Oak , Red Carnation and Blue-White Hydrangea Romania * Romania – Dog Rose , Edelweiss , Romanian Peony Russia * Russia – Chamomile Scotland * Scotland - Thistle Serbia * Plum and its products are of great importance to Serbs and part of numerous customs . A saying goes that the best place to build a house is where a plum tree grows best . The fertile region of Šumadija in central Serbia is particularly known for its plums and Šljivovica , the national drink . * The oak is a symbol of Serbia , having been part of the historical coat of arms . In the coat of arms , the oak at one side symbolized strength and longevity , while the olive branch at the other symbolized peace and fertility . At troublesome times , when there were no churches , people prayed under oak trees where they would carve a cross , zapis ; some of these oaks are over 600 years old and are considered sacred . The oak is used in the Serbian Christmas tradition of Badnjak . * Several flowers are regarded national symbols . The autochthonous common lilac ( Syringa vulgaris ) is part of Serb tradition and history , often mention in folk songs and Serbian epic poetry . Ramonda nathaliae is considered a symbol of the Serbian Army 's struggle during World War I . The Ramonda serbica was named after Serbia . Slovakia * Slovakia – Rose , Tilia cordata Slovenia * Slovenia – Carnation , Linden leaf Spain * Spain – Carnation The national flower of Spain is considered to be the carnation ( ) . Essentially it is associated with Spanish folklore , especially in southern Spain , or Andalusia . In Spain and Hispanic America it symbolizes passion , and it is a very common gesture to hold the clavel between one 's teeth . In the Spanish language of flowers represents caprice , passion and desire . Switzerland * Switzerland – Edelweiss ; alpenrose ( Rhododendron ferrugineum ) ; Alpine gentian ( Gentiana alpina ) Ukraine * Ukraine – viburnum , Sunflower , cherry Wales The national flower of Wales is the Daffodil . North America Antigua and Barbuda The national flower of Antigua and Barbuda is Agave karatto , also known as ‘ dagger log ’ or ‘ batta log ’ . The Bahamas The national flower of the Bahamas is the Yellow Elder ( Tecoma stans ) . Barbados The national flower of Barbados is the known locally as the Pride of Barbados ( Caesalpinia pulcherrima ) . Bermuda * Bermuda – Strict blue-eyed grass ( Sisyrinchium montanum ) Mexico * Mexico – Dahlia Canada The maple leaf is widely used as a symbol for Canada . The maple tree was officially recognized as Canada 's arboreal emblem in 1996 . The official Provincial and Territorial floral emblems are : * Ontario : white trillium ( Trillium grandiflorum ) , adopted in 1937 * Quebec : blue flag ( Iris versicolor Linné ) , adopted in November 1999 * Nova Scotia : mayflower ( Epigea repens ) , adopted in 1901 * New Brunswick : purple violet ( Viola cucullata ) , adopted in 1936 * Manitoba : prairie crocus ( Pulsatilla ludoviciana ) , adopted in 1906 * British Columbia : Pacific dogwood ( Cornus nuttallii ) , adopted in 1956 * Prince Edward Island : lady 's slipper ( Cypripedium acaule ) , a species of orchid , adopted in 1947 * Saskatchewan : western red lily ( Lilium philadelphicum L. var . andi num ) , adopted in 1941 * Alberta : wild rose ( Rosa acicularis ) , also known as the prickly rose , adopted in 1930 * Newfoundland and Labrador : pitcher plant ( Sarracenia purpurea L. ) , adopted in 1954 . It was first chosen as a symbol of Newfoundland by Queen Victoria , and was used on the island 's coinage until 1938 . * Northwest Territories : mountain avens ( Dryas octopetala ) , adopted in 1957 * Yukon : fireweed ( Epilobium angustifolium ) , adopted in 1957 * Nunavut : purple saxifrage ( Saxifraga oppositifolia ) , unanimously adopted by the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut on May 1 , 2000 Many Canadian flags and coat of arms have floral emblems on them . The flag of Montreal has four floral emblems . On the right side of the flag of Saskatchewan overlapping both green and gold halves is the western red lily , the provincial floral emblem . The coat of arms of Port Coquitlam has the City 's floral emblem , the azalea displayed on a collar . The coat of arms of Prince Edward Island displays Lady 's Slippers , the floral emblem of the Island . The coat of arms of Nova Scotia has the trailing arbutus or mayflower , the floral emblem of Nova Scotia , added when the arms were reassumed in 1929 . United States In 1986 President Ronald Reagan signed legislation to make the rose the floral emblem of the United States . [ http : //www.growerflowers.com/SENation.asp National Flower of United States - Fresh from the Grower ] In the United States , state flowers and trees have been adopted as symbols by state legislatures . The Caribbean Cuba * Cuba – Mariposa ( Hedychium coronarium ) Dominica * Dominica – Caribwood or bois kwaib ( Poitea carinalis ) Dominican Republic The Dominican Republic 's national flower was the flower of the caoba ( mahogany tree , Swietenia mahagoni ) . In 2011 , the mahogany was dubbed the national tree , vacating the national flower spot for the Bayahibe rose ( Pereskia quisqueyana ) in order to bring attention to its conservation . Haiti * Choeblack or rose kayenn ( Hibiscus ) Jamaica The national flower of Jamaica is the lignum vitae ( Guaiacum officinale ) . Saint Kitts and Nevis * Saint Kitts and Nevis – red Royal Poinciana Trinidad and Tobago * Trinidad and Tobago – Chaconia ( Warszewiczia coccinea ) Central America Belize The national flower of Belize is the Black Orchid ( Prosthechea cochleata ) Costa Rica * Costa Rica – Guaria morada ( Guarianthe skinneri ) Plays a role in local folk tradition . There are a number of color forms in addition to the typical orchid-lavender , notably alba and coerulea . Gur . skinneri is highly awarded with nearly thirty flower quality awards and numerous awards for culture . Of course , one of the most attractive characteristics of this orchid is that even un-awarded examples can put on a spectacular display . El Salvador The national flower of El Salvador is the izote ( yucca flower ) . Guatemala * Monja blanca ( white Lycaste skinneri ) Honduras * Orquídea brassavola ( Rhyncholaelia orchid ) Nicaragua Nicaragua 's national flower is the sacuanjoche ( Plumeria alba ) since August 17 , 1971 . Its name is derived from the Nicarao , a Nahuatl-speaking tribe : xacuan ( sacuan ) means ‘ beautiful yellow petals ’ and xochilt ( joche ) means ‘ flower ’ . The flower can be found in the Masaya Volcano National Park , among other places . Panama Panama 's national flower is the Holy Ghost orchid ( Peristeria elata ) , or the flor del Espiritu Santo . It is best known for its ivory color petals and beautiful blossoms . Oceania Australia The Golden Wattle ( Acacia pycnantha ) was officially proclaimed the floral emblem of Australia on 1 September 1988 . French Polynesia The Tahitian gardenia ( tiare flower ) is the national flower of Tahiti , French Polynesia and the Cook Islands . Fiji The national flower is tagimaucia ( Medinilla waterhousei ) , a vine with red and white flowers endemic to the highlands of the island of Taveuni . New Zealand New Zealand does not have an official national flower however the Silver Fern ( foliage ) is acknowledged as a national emblem in New Zealand . The Kowhai ( Sophora spp. , native trees with yellow cascading flowers ) is usually regarded as the national flower . Other plant emblems are : Koru ( a curled fern symbol ) and the crimson-flowered Pohutukawa ( Metrosideros excelsa ) , also called New Zealand 's Christmas tree . Tonga The heilala ( Garcinia sessilis ) is Tonga 's national flower . The name of Tonga 's beauty pageant , the Heilala Festival , is taken from this flower . Resorts , as well as products , are also often named after this flower , such as the Heilala Lodge and Heilala Vanilla . The flower is also used in Tonga for medicinal and ornamental purposes . South America Argentina The national flower of Argentina is the flower of the ceibo tree ( Erythrina crista-galli ) , also known as seibo or bucaré Bolivia Bolivian national flowers are the kantuta ( Cantua buxifolia ) and patujú ( Heliconia rostrata ) . Brazil The nation flower of Brazil is the flower of the Golden Trumpet Tree ( Handroanthus albus ) . Chile * Chile – Copihue ( Lapageria rosea ) Colombia Cattleya trianae is the national flower of Colombia and is the orchid which flowers in May . The May flower was chosen because the colors are the same as those of the Colombian flag . Guyana * Guyana – Victoria regia lily Peru The national flower of Peru is the cantuta ( also spelled kantuta or qantuta , from Quechua qantu ) . It can be found at the high valleys of the Andean territory , in Peru and Bolivia . Paraguay * Paraguay – Mburucuyá Suriname Called faya lobi ( `` fiery love '' ) in Sranantongo , the ixora coccinea is a commonly considered a symbol of Suriname . Uruguay * Uruguay – Ceibo Venezuela * Venezuela – Flor de Mayo ( Cattleya mossiae , an orchid ) Subnational flowers Australia * Australian Capital Territory – Royal Bluebell ( Wahlenbergia gloriosa ) * New South Wales – New South Wales Waratah ( Telopea speciosissima ) * Northern Territory – Sturt 's Desert Rose ( Gossypium sturtianum ) * Queensland – Cooktown Orchid ( Dendrobium phalaenopsis ) * South Australia – Sturt 's Desert Pea ( Swainsona formosa ) * Tasmania – Tasmanian Blue Gum ( Eucalyptus globulus ) * Victoria – Pink ( Common ) Heath ( Epacris impressa ) * Western Australia – Red and Green Kangaroo Paw ( Anigozanthos manglesii ) Norway * Lily-of-the-valley was chosen as the county flower of Østfold * Globe flower is the county flower of Troms United Kingdom Each of the four countries of the United Kingdom has a traditional floral emblem . * England - officially the Tudor rose or unofficially the red rose and English Oak . * Northern Ireland – the flax , orange lily , or shamrock * Scotland – the Scotch thistle , Scottish bluebell ( harebell ) or heather * Wales - the daffodil , leek or sessile oak County flowers A county flower is a flowering plant chosen to symbolise a county . They exist primarily in the United Kingdom , but some counties in other countries also have them . One or two county flowers have a long history in England – the red rose of Lancashire dates from the Middle Ages , for instance . However , the county flower concept was only extended to cover the whole United Kingdom in 2002 , as a promotional tool by a charity . In that year , the plant conservation charity Plantlife ran a competition to choose county flowers for all counties , to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II . Plantlife 's scheme is loosely based on Britain 's historic counties , and so some current local government areas are not represented by a flower , and some of the counties included no longer exist as administrative areas . Flowers were also chosen for thirteen major cities : Belfast , Birmingham , Bristol , Cardiff , Edinburgh , Glasgow , Leeds , Liverpool , London , Manchester , Newcastle upon Tyne , Nottingham and Sheffield . The Isles of Scilly was also treated as a county ( distinct from Cornwall ) for the purpose of the scheme . The Isle of Man was included , even though it is not a county , but a self-governing territory outside of the United Kingdom with an existing national flower : the ragwort or cushag . The Channel Islands were not included . A total of 94 flowers was chosen in the competition . 85 of the 109 counties have a unique county flower , but several species were chosen by more than one county . Foxglove or Digitalis purpurea was chosen for four counties – Argyll , Birmingham , Leicestershire and Monmouthshire – more than any other species . The following species were chosen for three counties each : * Bog Rosemary Andromeda polifolia ( Cardiganshire , Kirkcudbright and Tyrone ) * Cowslip Primula veris ( Northamptonshire , Surrey and Worcestershire ) * Harebell Campanula rotundifolia ( Antrim , Dumfriesshire and Yorkshire ) * Thrift Armeria maritima ( Buteshire , Pembrokeshire and the Isles of Scilly ) And the following species were chosen for two counties : * Grass-of-parnassus Parnassia palustris ( Cumberland and Sutherland ) * Pasqueflower Pulsatilla vulgaris ( Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire ) * Common Poppy Papaver rhoeas ( Essex and Norfolk ) In addition , Sticky Catchfly Lychnis viscaria was chosen for both Edinburgh and Midlothian , the county containing Edinburgh . For most counties , native species were chosen , but for a small number of counties , non-natives were chosen , mainly archaeophytes . For example , Hampshire has a Tudor rose as its county flower , even though it is not a native species . Unofficial flowers Armenia No plant or flower seems to be among the current official symbols . Some flowering plants from the area include Althaea armeniaca , Armenian Basket , Muscari armeniacum , Armenian Poppy , Armenian vartig ( vargit ) , and Tulipa armena . Azerbaijan Azerbaijan currently has no official national flower . Traditionally , various regions have different designations where national symbols are concerned . Country 's Shusha city named the Khari Bulbul ( ) the floral emblem of the Nagorno-Karabakh . China China currently has no official national flower . Traditionally , various regions have different designations where national symbols are concerned . In 1903 , the Qing Dynasty named the peony ( ) the floral emblem of the nation . The peony has long been considered a flower of wealth and honor in China . The puppet state Manchukuo followed Japan 's model of dual floral emblems : the `` spring orchid '' ( Cymbidium goeringii ) for the Emperor and the imperial household , and the sorghum blossom ( Sorghum bicolor ) for the state and the nation . The plum blossom , meihua ( ) , has also been one of the most beloved flowers in Chinese culture . The Republic of China government named the plum blossom as the national flower in 1964 . The plum blossom is symbol for resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity , because plum blossoms often bloom most vibrantly even amidst the harsh winter snow . The People 's Republic of China , which has controlled mainland China since 1949 , has no official floral emblem . There have been several petitions in recent years to officially adopt one . However , the government has not taken any action yet . A poll in 2005 showed that 41 % of the public supports peony as the national flower while 36 % supported the plum blossom . Some scholars have suggested that the peony and plum blossoms may be designated as dual national flowers . In addition , the orchid , jasmine , daffodil and chrysanthemum have also been held as possible floral symbols of China . Denmark Denmark has no official floral emblem . The daisy won an unofficial competition on a national flower in the 1980s , but it was not officially adopted . In 1936 , the Danish foreign office responded to Argentina that it would be the red clover , due to its significance in agriculture . The letter is obscure and was soon forgotten . Denmark has never used a floral emblem . Ecuador No flower has been officially declared as a national symbol . Unofficially the rose and the orchid are claimed to hold that title . Japan Japan 's national government has never formally named a national flower , as with other symbols such as the green pheasant , which was named as national bird by a non-government body in 1947 . In 1999 , the national flag and anthem were standardised by law . A de facto national

bb_1522--Floral_emblem.txt

The white pinwheel shaped Tiare is the national flower of which South Pacific island group?

An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight . Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements . Generally , airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body . Airlines vary in size , from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines . Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental , domestic , regional , or international , and may be operated as scheduled services or charters . The largest airline currently is American Airlines Group . History The first airlines DELAG , Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the world 's first airline . It was founded on November 16 , 1909 with government assistance , and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation . Its headquarters were in Frankfurt . The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1 , 1914 from St. Petersburg , Florida to Tampa , Florida . The four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands ' KLM ( 1919 ) , Colombia 's Avianca ( 1919 ) , Australia 's Qantas ( 1921 ) , and the Czech Republic 's Czech Airlines ( 1923 ) . European airline industry Beginnings The earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel , formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916 . Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage , it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent . On 15 July 1919 , the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel , despite a lack of support from the British government . Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport , the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger . On 25 August 1919 , the company used DH.16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget , the first regular international service in the world . The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability , despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition . In November 1919 , it won the first British civil airmail contract . Six Royal Air Force Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company , to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne . In 1920 , they were returned to the Royal Air Force . Other British competitors were quick to follow - Handley Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the company 's converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with a capacity for 19 passengers , to run a London-Paris passenger service . The first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère , later known as Aéropostale , which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain . The Société Générale des Transports Aériens was created in late 1919 , by the Farman brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane flew scheduled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley , near Croydon , England . Another early French airline was the Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes , established in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet , offering a mail and freight service between Le Bourget Airport , Paris and Lesquin Airport , Lille . The first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919 . In its first year , the D.L.R . operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles . By 1921 the D.L.R . network was more than 3000 km ( 1865 miles ) long , and included destinations in the Netherlands , Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics . Another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr , which began operations in 1921 . It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers , which became a separate company in 1924 . It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , Hungary , Latvia , Norway , Poland , Sweden and Switzerland . The Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920 , and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world . Established by aviator Albert Plesman , it was immediately awarded a `` Royal '' predicate from Queen Wilhelmina Its first flight was from Croydon Airport , London to Amsterdam , using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16 , and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers . In 1921 , KLM started scheduled services . In Finland , the charter establishing Aero O/Y ( now Finnair ) was signed in the city of Helsinki on September 12 , 1923 . Junkers F.13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company , when Aero took delivery of it on March 14 , 1924 . The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn , capital of Estonia , and it took place on March 20 , 1924 , one week later . In the Soviet Union , the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921 . One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. ( Deruluft ) , a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West . Domestic air service began around the same time , when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod . Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the name Aeroflot . Early European airlines tend to favour comfort - the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors - over speed and efficiency . The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace . Rationalization By the early 1920s , small airlines were struggling to compete , and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation . In 1924 , Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company , British Marine Air Navigation , Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport Co Ltd. , to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies . The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of the British Empire and to enhance trade and integration . The first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways , was the Handley Page W8f City of Washington , delivered on 3 November 1924 . In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters . In April 1925 , the film The Lost World became the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route . Two French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 January 1923 . This later merged with four other French airlines to become Air France , the country 's flagship carrier to this day , on 7 October 1933 . Germany 's Deutsche Luft Hansa was created in 1926 by merger of two airlines , one of them Junkers Luftverkehr . Luft Hansa , due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most other airlines at the time , became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe , providing capital to Varig and Avianca . German airliners built by Junkers , Dornier , and Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the time . Global expansion In 1926 , Alan Cobham surveyed a flight route from the UK to Cape Town , South Africa , following this up with another proving flight to Melbourne , Australia . Other routes to British India and the Far East were also charted and demonstrated at this time . Regular services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and was extended to Karachi in 1929 . The London-Australia service was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP 42 airliners . Further services were opened up to Calcutta , Rangoon , Singapore , Brisbane and Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong . Imperial 's aircraft were small , most seating fewer than twenty passengers , and catered for the rich - only about 50,000 passengers used Imperial Airways in the 1930s . Most passengers on intercontinental routes or on services within and between British colonies were men doing colonial administration , business or research . Like Imperial Airways , Air France and KLM 's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions ( North Africa and Indochina for the French and the East Indies for the Dutch ) . France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927 , renamed Aéropostale , and injected with capital to become a major international carrier . In 1933 , Aéropostale went bankrupt , was nationalized and merged into Air France . Although Germany lacked colonies , it also began expanding its services globally . In 1931 , the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America , usually every two weeks , which continued until 1937 . In 1936 , the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst , New Jersey on May 6 , 1937 . From February 1934 until World War II began in 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from Stuttgart , Germany via Spain , the Canary Islands and West Africa to Natal in Brazil . This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean . By the end of the 1930s Aeroflot had become the world 's largest airline , employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft ( of which 75 % were considered obsolete by its own standards ) . During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation , as it was the only air carrier . It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104 . EU airline deregulation Deregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there . The shift towards 'budget ' airlines on shorter routes has been significant . Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines . There has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer Lingus and British Airways . Other national airlines , including Italy 's Alitalia , have suffered - particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008 . U.S. airline industry Early development Tony Jannus conducted the United States ' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line . The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg , Florida and Tampa , Florida , passing some 50 ft above Tampa Bay in Jannus ' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat . His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg , who paid $ 400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit . The Airboat line operated for about four months , carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $ 5 each . Chalk 's International Airlines began service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919 . Based in Ft. Lauderdale , Chalk 's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008 . Following World War I , the United States found itself swamped with aviators . Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns , performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds . In 1918 , the United States Postal Service won the financial backing of Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service , initially using Curtiss Jenny aircraft that had been procured by the United States Army Air Service . Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery . During the Army 's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties . By the mid-1920s , the Postal Service had developed its own air mail network , based on a transcontinental backbone between New York City and San Francisco . To supplant this service , they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders . Some of the carriers that won these routes would , through time and mergers , evolve into Pan Am , Delta Air Lines , Braniff Airways , American Airlines , United Airlines ( originally a division of Boeing ) , Trans World Airlines , Northwest Airlines , and Eastern Air Lines . Service during the early 1920s was sporadic : most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail . In 1925 , however , the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor , which became the first successful American airliner . With a 12-passenger capacity , the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable . Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network . At the same time , Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world , and he achieved this goal through his airline , Pan American World Airways , with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London . Pan Am and Northwest Airways ( which began flights to Canada in the 1920s ) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s . With the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s , the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable , even during the Great Depression . This trend continued until the beginning of World War II . Development since 1945 As governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war , the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom ; U.S. airline companies were not as hard-hit as European and the few Asian ones had been . This preference for `` open skies '' operating regimes continues , with limitations , to this day . World War II , like World War I , brought new life to the airline industry . Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military , and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport , for both passengers and cargo . They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser , Lockheed Constellation , and Douglas DC-6 . Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29 , which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization . Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload . In the 1950s , the De Havilland Comet , Boeing 707 , Douglas DC-8 , and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West , while the Eastern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA , Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug . The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport . The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s , when the Boeing 747 , McDonnell Douglas DC-10 , and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody ( `` jumbo jet '' ) service , which is still the standard in international travel . The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart , Concorde , made supersonic travel a reality . Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003 . In 1972 , Airbus began producing Europe 's most commercially successful line of airliners to date . The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed , but in passenger capacity , payload , and range . Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training . US airline deregulation The 1978 U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation 's economy occurred . New start-ups entered during the downturn , during which time they found aircraft and funding , contracted hangar and maintenance services , trained new employees , and recruited laid off staff from other airlines . Major airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings , often swamping new start-ups . In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation , the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing . In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes , below the cost of operating on it , choking out any chance a start-up airline may have . The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality . Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40 % . So has airline employee pay . By incurring massive losses , the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business . America West Airlines ( which has since merged with US Airways ) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era , as dozens , even hundreds , have gone under . In many ways , the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger . Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation , indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel . Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers , even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying . New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city , do business , and return the same day , from almost any point in the country . Air travel 's advantages put long distance intercity railroad travel and bus lines under pressure , with most of the latter having withered away , whilst the former is still protected under nationalization through the continuing existence of Amtrak . By the 1980s , almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S. , and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide . Toward the end of the century , a new style of low cost airline emerged , offering a no-frills product at a lower price . Southwest Airlines , JetBlue , AirTran Airways , Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called `` legacy airlines '' , as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries . Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers . However , of these , ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations . Increasingly since 1978 , US airlines have been reincorporated and spun off by newly created and internally led management companies , and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control . Among some of these holding companies and parent companies which are relatively well known , are the UAL Corporation , along with the AMR Corporation , among a long list of airline holding companies sometime recognized worldwide . Less recognized are the private equity firms which often seize managerial , financial , and board of directors control of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of capital in air carriers , to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization or liquidating an air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations . Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable , to devastatingly depressed . As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978 , U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region . In fact , no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free . Amongst the outspoken critics of deregulation , former CEO of American Airlines , Robert Crandall has publicly stated : `` Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake. `` The airline industry bailout Congress passed the [ http : //ostpxweb.ost.dot.gov/aviation/Data/stabilizationact.pdf Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act ] ( P.L . 107-42 ) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks . Through the ATSB Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through December 31 , 2001 as a result of the terrorist attacks . This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century . Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $ 30 billion with wage cuts of over $ 15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off . In recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system , Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $ 5 billion in cash subject to review by the Department of Transportation and up to $ 10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly created Air Transportation Stabilization Board ( ATSB ) . The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by the Government Accountability Office and the DOT Inspector General . Ultimately , the federal government provided $ 4.6 billion in one-time , subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers , with no provision for repayment , essentially a gift from the taxpayers . ( Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $ 4 billion , subject to tax . ) In addition , the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $ 1.6 billion . Data from the US Treasury Department show that the government recouped the $ 1.6 billion and a profit of $ 339 million from the fees , interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees . Asian airline industry Although Philippine Airlines ( PAL ) was officially founded on February 26 , 1941 , its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company ( PATCO ) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on December 3 , 1930 , making it Asia 's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation . Commercial air service commenced three weeks later from Manila to Baguio , making it Asia 's first airline route . Bachrach 's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia 's oldest airline . It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name . Bachrach 's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity . Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger . PAL restarted service on March 15 , 1941 with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft , which started its daily services between Manila ( from Nielson Field ) and Baguio , later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount . India was also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation . One of the first West Asian airline companies was Air India , which had its beginning as Tata Airlines in 1932 , a division of Tata Sons Ltd. ( now Tata Group ) . The airline was founded by India 's leading industrialist , JRD Tata . On October 15 , 1932 , J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail ( postal mail of Imperial Airways ) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad . The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent . Tata Airlines was also one of the world 's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government . With the outbreak of World War II , the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt , with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses . Following the end of the war in 1945 , regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on July 29 , 1946 under the name Air India . After the independence of India , 49 % of the airline was acquired by the Government of India . In return , the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International . On July 31 , 1946 , a chartered Philippine Airlines ( PAL ) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland , California , from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam , Wake Island , Johnston Atoll and Honolulu , Hawaii , making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean . A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December . It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines . During the era of decolonization , newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport . Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong ( founded in September 1946 ) , Orient Airways ( later Pakistan International Airlines ; founded in October 1946 ) , Air Ceylon ( later SriLankan Airlines ; founded in 1947 ) , Malayan Airways Limited in 1947 ( later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines ) , El Al in Israel in 1948 , Garuda Indonesia in 1948 , Japan Airlines in 1951 , Thai Airways International in 1960 , and Korean National Airlines in 1947 . Latin American airline industry Among the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America were Bolivia with Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano , Cuba with Cubana de Aviación , Colombia with Avianca , Argentina with Aerolineas Argentinas , Chile with LAN Chile ( today LAN Airlines ) , Brazil with Varig , Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviación , Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación , Trinidad and Tobago with BWIA West Indies Airways ( today Caribbean Airlines ) , Venezuela with Aeropostal , and TACA based in El Salvador and representing several airlines of Central America ( Costa Rica , Guatemala , Honduras and Nicaragua ) . All the previous airlines started regular operations well before World War II . The air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America . Some industry estimates indicate that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region . These airlines serve domestic flights within their countries , as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America , Europe , Australia , and Asia . Only three airlines : Avianca , LAN , and TAM Airlines have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents . LAN with Chile as the central operation along with Peru , Ecuador , Colombia and Argentina and some operations in the Dominican Republic . The recently formed AviancaTACA group has control of Avianca Brazil , VIP Ecuador and a strategic alliance with AeroGal . And TAM with its Mercosur base in Asuncion , Paraguay . As of 2010 , talks of uniting LAN and TAM have strongly developed to create a joint airline named LATAM . Regulatory considerations National Many countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates . Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic , political , and safety concerns . For instance , governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people , communications , and goods between different regions without compromising safety . The United States , Australia , and to a lesser extent Brazil , Mexico , India , the United Kingdom , and Japan have `` deregulated '' their airlines . In

qg_3574--Airline.txt

What successful, no-frills airline is headquartered at Love Field in Dallas, and is one of the few that doesn't charge a baggage handling fee?

The International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) is a humanitarian institution based in Geneva , Switzerland and a three-time Nobel Prize Laureate . State parties ( signatories ) to the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 ( Protocol I , Protocol II ) and 2005 have given the ICRC a mandate to protect victims of international and internal armed conflicts . Such victims include war wounded , prisoners , refugees , civilians , and other non-combatants . The ICRC is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement along with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies ( IFRC ) and 190 National Societies . It is the oldest and most honoured organization within the Movement and one of the most widely recognized organizations in the world , having won three Nobel Peace Prizes in 1917 , 1944 , and 1963 . History Solferino , Henry Dunant and the foundation of ICRC Up until the middle of the 19th century , there were no organized and well-established army nursing systems for casualties and no safe and protected institutions to accommodate and treat those who were wounded on the battlefield . In June 1859 , the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant travelled to Italy to meet French emperor Napoléon III with the intention of discussing difficulties in conducting business in Algeria , at that time occupied by France . When he arrived in the small town of Solferino on the evening of 24 June , he witnessed the Battle of Solferino , an engagement in the Franco-Austrian War . In a single day , about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were left wounded on the field . Henry Dunant was shocked by the terrible aftermath of the battle , the suffering of the wounded soldiers , and the near-total lack of medical attendance and basic care . He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for several days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment and care for the wounded . He succeeded in organizing an overwhelming level of relief assistance by motivating the local population to aid without discrimination . Back in his home in Geneva , he decided to write a book entitled A Memory of Solferino which he published with his own money in 1862 . He sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout Europe . In addition to penning a vivid description of his experiences in Solferino in 1859 , he explicitly advocated the formation of national voluntary relief organizations to help nurse wounded soldiers in the case of war . In addition , he called for the development of international treaties to guarantee the neutrality and protection of those wounded on the battlefield as well as medics and field hospitals . On 9 February 1863 in Geneva , Henry Dunant founded the `` Committee of the Five '' ( together with four other leading figures from well-known Geneva families ) as an investigatory commission of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare . Their aim was to examine the feasibility of Dunant 's ideas and to organize an international conference about their possible implementation . The members of this committee , aside from Dunant himself , were Gustave Moynier , lawyer and chairman of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare ; physician Louis Appia , who had significant experience working as a field surgeon ; Appia 's friend and colleague Théodore Maunoir , from the Geneva Hygiene and Health Commission ; and Guillaume-Henri Dufour , a Swiss Army general of great renown . Eight days later , the five men decided to rename the committee to the `` International Committee for Relief to the Wounded '' . In October ( 26–29 ) 1863 , the international conference organized by the committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battle field . The conference was attended by 36 individuals : eighteen official delegates from national governments , six delegates from other non-governmental organizations , seven non-official foreign delegates , and the five members of the International Committee . The states and kingdoms represented by official delegates were Baden , Bavaria , France , Britain , Hanover , Hesse , Italy , the Netherlands , Austria , Prussia , Russia , Saxony , Sweden , and Spain . Among the proposals written in the final resolutions of the conference , adopted on 29 October 1863 , were : * The foundation of national relief societies for wounded soldiers ; * Neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers ; * The utilization of volunteer forces for relief assistance on the battlefield ; * The organization of additional conferences to enact these concepts in legally binding international treaties ; and * The introduction of a common distinctive protection symbol for medical personnel in the field , namely a white armlet bearing a red cross . Only one year later , the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries , as well as the United States , Brazil , and Mexico , to attend an official diplomatic conference . Sixteen countries sent a total of twenty-six delegates to Geneva . On 22 August 1864 , the conference adopted the first Geneva Convention `` for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field '' . Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention : Baden , Belgium , Denmark , France , Hesse , Italy , the Netherlands , Portugal , Prussia , Switzerland , Spain , and Württemberg . The convention contained ten articles , establishing for the first time legally binding rules guaranteeing neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers , field medical personnel , and specific humanitarian institutions in an armed conflict . Furthermore , the convention defined two specific requirements for recognition of a national relief society by the International Committee : * The national society must be recognized by its own national government as a relief society according to the convention , and * The national government of the respective country must be a state party to the Geneva Convention . Directly following the establishment of the Geneva Convention , the first national societies were founded in Belgium , Denmark , France , Oldenburg , Prussia , Spain , and Württemberg . Also in 1864 , Louis Appia and Charles van de Velde , a captain of the Dutch Army , became the first independent and neutral delegates to work under the symbol of the Red Cross in an armed conflict . Three years later in 1867 , the first International Conference of National Aid Societies for the Nursing of the War Wounded was convened . Also in 1867 , Henry Dunant was forced to declare bankruptcy due to business failures in Algeria , partly because he had neglected his business interests during his tireless activities for the International Committee . Controversy surrounding Dunant 's business dealings and the resulting negative public opinion , combined with an ongoing conflict with Gustave Moynier , led to Dunant 's expulsion from his position as a member and secretary . He was charged with fraudulent bankruptcy and a warrant for his arrest was issued . Thus , he was forced to leave Geneva and never returned to his home city . In the following years , national societies were founded in nearly every country in Europe . The project resonated well with patriotic sentiments that were on the rise in the late-nineteenth-century , and national societies were often encouraged as signifiers of national moral superiority . In 1876 , the committee adopted the name `` International Committee of the Red Cross '' ( ICRC ) , which is still its official designation today . Five years later , the American Red Cross was founded through the efforts of Clara Barton . More and more countries signed the Geneva Convention and began to respect it in practice during armed conflicts . In a rather short period of time , the Red Cross gained huge momentum as an internationally respected movement , and the national societies became increasingly popular as a venue for volunteer work . When the first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in 1901 , the Norwegian Nobel Committee opted to give it jointly to Henry Dunant and Frédéric Passy , a leading international pacifist . More significant than the honor of the prize itself , the official congratulation from the International Committee of the Red Cross marked the overdue rehabilitation of Henry Dunant and represented a tribute to his key role in the formation of the Red Cross . Dunant died nine years later in the small Swiss health resort of Heiden . Only two months earlier his long-standing adversary Gustave Moynier had also died , leaving a mark in the history of the Committee as its longest-serving president ever . In 1906 , the 1864 Geneva Convention was revised for the first time . One year later , the Hague Convention X , adopted at the Second International Peace Conference in The Hague , extended the scope of the Geneva Convention to naval warfare . Shortly before the beginning of the First World War in 1914 , 50 years after the foundation of the ICRC and the adoption of the first Geneva Convention , there were already 45 national relief societies throughout the world . The movement had extended itself beyond Europe and North America to Central and South America ( Argentina , Brazil , Chile , Cuba , Mexico , Peru , El Salvador , Uruguay , Venezuela ) , Asia ( the Republic of China , Japan , Korea , Siam ) , and Africa ( South Africa ) . World War I With the outbreak of World War I , the ICRC found itself confronted with enormous challenges which it could only handle by working closely with the national Red Cross societies . Red Cross nurses from around the world , including the United States and Japan , came to support the medical services of the armed forces of the European countries involved in the war . On 15 October 1914 , immediately after the start of the war , the ICRC set up its International Prisoners-of-War ( POW ) Agency , which had about 1,200 mostly volunteer staff members by the end of 1914 . By the end of the war , the Agency had transferred about 20 million letters and messages , 1.9 million parcels , and about 18 million Swiss francs in monetary donations to POWs of all affected countries . Furthermore , due to the intervention of the Agency , about 200,000 prisoners were exchanged between the warring parties , released from captivity and returned to their home country . The organizational card index of the Agency accumulated about 7 million records from 1914 to 1923 , each card representing an individual prisoner or missing person . The card index led to the identification of about 2 million POWs and the ability to contact their families , as part of the Restoring Family Links effort of the organization . The complete index is on loan today from the ICRC to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva . The right to access the index is still strictly restricted to the ICRC . During the entire war , the ICRC monitored warring parties ’ compliance with the Geneva Conventions of the 1907 revision and forwarded complaints about violations to the respective country . When chemical weapons were used in this war for the first time in history , the ICRC vigorously protested against this new type of warfare . Even without having a mandate from the Geneva Conventions , the ICRC tried to ameliorate the suffering of civil populations . In territories that were officially designated as `` occupied territories , '' the ICRC could assist the civilian population on the basis of the Hague Convention 's `` Laws and Customs of War on Land '' of 1907 . This convention was also the legal basis for the ICRC 's work for prisoners of war . In addition to the work of the International Prisoner-of-War Agency as described above this included inspection visits to POW camps . A total of 524 camps throughout Europe were visited by 41 delegates from the ICRC until the end of the war . Between 1916 and 1918 , the ICRC published a number of postcards with scenes from the POW camps . The pictures showed the prisoners in day-to-day activities such as the distribution of letters from home . The intention of the ICRC was to provide the families of the prisoners with some hope and solace and to alleviate their uncertainties about the fate of their loved ones . After the end of the war , the ICRC organized the return of about 420,000 prisoners to their home countries . In 1920 , the task of repatriation was handed over to the newly founded League of Nations , which appointed the Norwegian diplomat and scientist Fridtjof Nansen as its `` High Commissioner for Repatriation of the War Prisoners . '' His legal mandate was later extended to support and care for war refugees and displaced persons when his office became that of the League of Nations `` High Commissioner for Refugees . '' Nansen , who invented the Nansen passport for stateless refugees and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922 , appointed two delegates from the ICRC as his deputies . A year before the end of the war , the ICRC received the 1917 Nobel Peace Prize for its outstanding wartime work . It was the only Nobel Peace Prize awarded in the period from 1914 to 1918 . In 1923 , the Committee adopted a change in its policy regarding the selection of new members . Until then , only citizens from the city of Geneva could serve in the Committee . This limitation was expanded to include Swiss citizens . As a direct consequence of World War I , an additional protocol to the Geneva Convention was adopted in 1925 which outlawed the use of suffocating or poisonous gases and biological agents as weapons . Four years later , the original Convention was revised and the second Geneva Convention `` relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War '' was established . The events of World War I and the respective activities of the ICRC significantly increased the reputation and authority of the Committee among the international community and led to an extension of its competencies . As early as in 1934 , a draft proposal for an additional convention for the protection of the civil population during an armed conflict was adopted by the International Red Cross Conference . Unfortunately , most governments had little interest in implementing this convention , and it was thus prevented from entering into force before the beginning of World War II . Chaco War In the Interwar period , Bolivia and Paraguay were disputing possession of the Gran Chaco - a desert region between the two countries . The dispute escalated into a full-scale conflict in 1932 . During the war the ICRC visited 18,000 Bolivian prisoners of war and 2,500 Paraguayan detainees . With the help of the ICRC both countries made improvements to the conditions of the detainees . World War II The most reliable primary source on the role of the Red Cross during World War II are the three volumes of the `` Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its activities during the second world war ( September 1 , 1939 – June 30 , 1947 ) '' written by the International Committee of the Red Cross itself . The report can be read online . The legal basis of the work of the ICRC during World War II was the Geneva Conventions in their 1929 revision . The activities of the Committee were similar to those during World War I : visiting and monitoring POW camps , organizing relief assistance for civilian populations , and administering the exchange of messages regarding prisoners and missing persons . By the end of the war , 179 delegates had conducted 12,750 visits to POW camps in 41 countries . The Central Information Agency on Prisoners-of-War ( Zentralauskunftsstelle für Kriegsgefangene ) had a staff of 3,000 , the card index tracking prisoners contained 45 million cards , and 120 million messages were exchanged by the Agency . One major obstacle was that the Nazi-controlled German Red Cross refused to cooperate with the Geneva statutes including blatant violations such as the deportation of Jews from Germany and the mass murders conducted in the concentration camps run by the German government . Moreover , two other main parties to the conflict , the Soviet Union and Japan , were not party to the 1929 Geneva Conventions and were not legally required to follow the rules of the conventions . During the war , the ICRC failed to obtain an agreement with Nazi Germany about the treatment of detainees in concentration camps , and it eventually abandoned applying pressure to avoid disrupting its work with POWs . The ICRC also failed to develop a response to reliable information about the extermination camps and the mass killing of European Jews . This is still considered the greatest failure of the ICRC in its history . After November 1943 , the ICRC achieved permission to send parcels to concentration camp detainees with known names and locations . Because the notices of receipt for these parcels were often signed by other inmates , the ICRC managed to register the identities of about 105,000 detainees in the concentration camps and delivered about 1.1 million parcels , primarily to the camps Dachau , Buchenwald , Ravensbrück , and Sachsenhausen . Swiss historian Jean-Claude Favez , who conducted an 8-year review of the Red Cross records , says that even though the Red Cross knew by November 1942 about the Nazi ’ s annihilation plans for the Jews – and even discussed it with U.S. officials – the group did nothing to inform the public , maintaining silence even in the face of pleas by Jewish groups . Because the Red Cross was based in Geneva and largely funded by the Swiss government , it was very sensitive to Swiss wartime attitudes and policies . On October 1942 , the Swiss government and the Red Cross ’ board of members vetoed a proposal by several Red Cross board members to condemn the persecution of civilians by the Nazis . For the rest of the war , the Red Cross took its cues from Switzerland in avoiding acts of opposition or confrontation with the Nazis . On 12 March 1945 , ICRC president Jacob Burckhardt received a message from SS General Ernst Kaltenbrunner accepting the ICRC 's demand to allow delegates to visit the concentration camps . This agreement was bound by the condition that these delegates would have to stay in the camps until the end of the war . Ten delegates , among them Louis Haefliger ( Mauthausen Camp ) , Paul Dunant ( Theresienstadt Camp ) and Victor Maurer ( Dachau Camp ) , accepted the assignment and visited the camps . Louis Haefliger prevented the forceful eviction or blasting of Mauthausen-Gusen by alerting American troops , thereby saving the lives of about 60,000 inmates . His actions were condemned by the ICRC because they were deemed as acting unduly on his own authority and risking the ICRC 's neutrality . Only in 1990 , his reputation was finally rehabilitated by ICRC president Cornelio Sommaruga . In 1944 , the ICRC received its second Nobel Peace Prize . As in World War I , it received the only Peace Prize awarded during the main period of war , 1939 to 1945 . At the end of the war , the ICRC worked with national Red Cross societies to organize relief assistance to those countries most severely affected . In 1948 , the Committee published a report reviewing its war-era activities from 1 September 1939 to 30 June 1947 . Since January 1996 , the ICRC archive for this period has been open to academic and public research . After World War II On 12 August 1949 , further revisions to the existing two Geneva Conventions were adopted . An additional convention `` for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded , Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea '' , now called the second Geneva Convention , was brought under the Geneva Convention umbrella as a successor to the 1907 Hague Convention X . The 1929 Geneva convention `` relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War '' may have been the second Geneva Convention from a historical point of view ( because it was actually formulated in Geneva ) , but after 1949 it came to be called the third Convention because it came later chronologically than the Hague Convention . Reacting to the experience of World War II , the Fourth Geneva Convention , a new Convention `` relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War , '' was established . Also , the additional protocols of 8 June 1977 were intended to make the conventions apply to internal conflicts such as civil wars . Today , the four conventions and their added protocols contain more than 600 articles , a remarkable expansion when compared to the mere 10 articles in the first 1864 convention . In celebration of its centennial in 1963 , the ICRC , together with the League of Red Cross Societies , received its third Nobel Peace Prize . Since 1993 , non-Swiss individuals have been allowed to serve as Committee delegates abroad , a task which was previously restricted to Swiss citizens . Indeed , since then , the share of staff without Swiss citizenship has increased to about 35 % . On 16 October 1990 , the UN General Assembly decided to grant the ICRC observer status for its assembly sessions and sub-committee meetings , the first observer status given to a private organization . The resolution was jointly proposed by 138 member states and introduced by the Italian ambassador , Vieri Traxler , in memory of the organization 's origins in the Battle of Solferino . An agreement with the Swiss government signed on 19 March 1993 , affirmed the already long-standing policy of full independence of the Committee from any possible interference by Switzerland . The agreement protects the full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive , grants members and staff legal immunity , exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees , guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods , services , and money , provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies , and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland . The ICRC continued its activities throughout the 1990s . It broke its customary media silence when it denounced the Rwandan Genocide in 1994 . It struggled to prevent the crimes that happened in and around Srebrenica in 1995 but admitted , `` We must acknowledge that despite our efforts to help thousands of civilians forcibly expelled from the town and despite the dedication of our colleagues on the spot , the ICRC 's impact on the unfolding of the tragedy was extremely limited . '' It went public once again in 2007 to decry `` major human rights abuses '' by Burma 's military government including forced labor , starvation , and murder of men , women , and children . Fatalities At the end of the Cold War , the ICRC 's work actually became more dangerous . In the 1990s , more delegates lost their lives than at any point in its history , especially when working in local and internal armed conflicts . These incidents often demonstrated a lack of respect for the rules of the Geneva Conventions and their protection symbols . Among the slain delegates were : * Frédéric Maurice . He died on 19 May 1992 at the age of 39 , one day after a Red Cross transport he was escorting was attacked in the former Yugoslavian city of Sarajevo . * Fernanda Calado ( Spain ) , Ingeborg Foss ( Norway ) , Nancy Malloy ( Canada ) , Gunnhild Myklebust ( Norway ) , Sheryl Thayer ( New Zealand ) , and Hans Elkerbout ( Netherlands ) . They were shot at point-blank range while sleeping in the early hours of 17 December 1996 in the ICRC field hospital in the Chechen city of Nowije Atagi near Grozny . Their murderers have never been caught and there was no apparent motive for the killings . * Rita Fox ( Switzerland ) , Véronique Saro ( Democratic Republic of Congo , formerly Zaire ) , Julio Delgado ( Colombia ) , Unen Ufoirworth ( DR Congo ) , Aduwe Boboli ( DR Congo ) , and Jean Molokabonge ( DR Congo ) . On 26 April 2001 , they were en route with two cars on a relief mission in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of Congo when they came under fatal fire from unknown attackers . * Ricardo Munguia ( El Salvador ) . He was working as a water engineer in Afghanistan and travelling with local colleagues on March 27 , 2003 when their car was stopped by unknown armed men . He was killed execution-style at point-blank range while his colleagues were allowed to escape . He was 39 years old . The killing prompted the ICRC to temporarily suspend operations across Afghanistan . * Vatche Arslanian ( Canada ) . Since 2001 , he worked as a logistics coordinator for the ICRC mission in Iraq . He died when he was travelling through Baghdad together with members of the Iraqi Red Crescent . Their car accidentally came into the crossfire of fighting in the city . * Nadisha Yasassri Ranmuthu ( Sri Lanka ) . He was killed by unknown attackers on 22 July 2003 , when his car was fired upon near the city of Hilla in the south of Baghdad . * Emmerich Pregetter ( Austria ) . He was an ICRC Logistics Specialist who was killed by a swarm of bees on 11 August 2008 . Emmerich was participating in a field trip along with the ICRC Water and Habitat team on a convoy which was delivering construction material for reconstruction of a rural surgical health clinic in the area of Jebel Marra , West Darfur , Sudan . The Holocaust By taking part in the 1995 ceremony to commemorate the liberation of the Auschwitz concentration camp , the President of the ICRC , Cornelio Sommaruga , sought to show that the organization was fully aware of the gravity of The Holocaust and the need to keep the memory of it alive , so as to prevent any repetition of it . He paid tribute to all those who had suffered or lost their lives during the war and publicly regretted the past mistakes and shortcomings of the Red Cross with regard to the victims of the concentration camps . In 2002 , an ICRC official outlined some of the lessons the organization has learned from the failure : * from a legal point of view , the work that led to the adoption of the Geneva Convention relative to the protection of civilian persons in time of war ; * from an ethical point of view , the adoption of the declaration of the Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross and Red Crescent , building on the distinguished work of Max Huber and Jean Pictet , to prevent any more abuses such as those that occurred within the Movement after Hitler rose to power in 1933 ; * on a political level , the ICRC 's relationship with Switzerland was redesigned to ensure its independence ; * with a view to keeping memories alive , the ICRC accepted , in 1955 , to take over the direction of the International Tracing Service where records from concentration camps are maintained ; * finally , to establish the historical facts of the case , the ICRC invited Jean-Claude Favez to carry out an independent investigation of its activities on behalf of the victims of Nazi persecution , and gave him unfettered access to its archives relating to this period ; out of concern for transparency , the ICRC also decided to give all other historians access to its archives dating back more than 50 years ; having gone over the conclusions of Favez 's work , the ICRC acknowledged its past failings and expressed its regrets in this regard . In an official statement made on 27 January 2005 , the 60th anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz , the ICRC stated : Auschwitz also represents the greatest failure in the history of the ICRC , aggravated by its lack of decisiveness in taking steps to aid the victims of Nazi

odql_13755--International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross.txt

Which organisation was founded in 1863 after the publication of the book 'A Memory Of Solferino' by the Swiss businessman Henri Dunant?

The following is an overview of events in 1980 in film , including the highest-grossing films , award ceremonies and festivals , a list of films released and notable deaths . Highest-grossing films ( U.S . ) The top ten 1980 released films by box office gross in North America are as follows : Events * May 21 – Star Wars Episode V : The Empire Strikes Back is released and is the biggest grosser of the year ( just as its predecessor , Star Wars , was three years prior ) . * May 23 - The Shining is released . Notable for being the first `` epic '' horror film . It has since become one of the most referenced and popular films of all time . * June 20 – The Blues Brothers is released and in addition to becoming one of the top grossing films of the year it also became the first feature film to be based on characters created on Saturday Night Live . * November 19 – Heaven 's Gate becomes one of the biggest box office bombs of all-time and its colossal failure bankrupted United Artists . Awards Academy Awards : Best Picture : Ordinary People Best Director : Robert Redford - Ordinary People Best Actor : Robert De Niro – Raging Bull Best Actress : Sissy Spacek – Coal Miner 's Daughter Best Supporting Actor : Timothy Hutton – Ordinary People Best Supporting Actress : Mary Steenburgen – Melvin and Howard Best Foreign Language Film : Moscow Does Not Believe in Tears ( Москва Слезам Не Верит ) , directed by Vladimir Menshov , USSR Golden Globe Awards : Drama : Best Picture : Ordinary People Best Actor : Robert De Niro – Raging Bull Best Actress : Mary Tyler Moore – Ordinary People Musical or comedy : Best Picture : Coal Miner 's Daughter Best Actor : Ray Sharkey – The Idolmaker Best Actress : Sissy Spacek – Coal Miner 's Daughter Other Best Director : Robert Redford – Ordinary People Best Foreign Language Film : Tess , United Kingdom Golden Globe Award for World film favourite male : Roger Moore – Golden Globe Award for World film favourite female : Jane Fonda – Golden Raspberry Awards : Worst Picture : Ca n't Stop the Music Worst Director : Robert Greenwald – Xanadu Worst Actor : Neil Diamond – The Jazz Singer Worst Actress : Brooke Shields – The Blue Lagoon Worst Supporting Actor : John Adames – Gloria ; Laurence Olivier – The Jazz Singer Worst Supporting Actress : Amy Irving – Honeysuckle Rose Palme d'Or ( Cannes Film Festival ) : All That Jazz , directed by Bob Fosse , United States Kagemusha , 影武者 ( Shadow Warrior ) , directed by Akira Kurosawa , Japan Golden Lion ( Venice Film Festival ) : Atlantic City , directed by Louis Malle , USA / Canada / France Gloria , directed by John Cassavetes , United States Golden Bear ( Berlin Film Festival ) : Heartland , directed by Richard Pearce , United States Palermo or Wolfsburg ( Palermo oder Wolfsburg ) , directed by Werner Schroeter , West Germany Notable films released in 1980 U.S.A. unless stated # * 9 to 5 , directed by Colin Higgins , starring Jane Fonda , Lily Tomlin , Dolly Parton , Dabney Coleman A * The Agency , starring Robert Mitchum , Lee Majors , Valerie Perrine – ( Canada ) * Airplane ! , starring Robert Hays , Julie Hagerty , Leslie Nielsen , Peter Graves , Lloyd Bridges , Robert Stack , Kareem Abdul-Jabbar * Alligator , starring Robert Forster * Altered States , directed by Ken Russell , starring William Hurt and Blair Brown * American Gigolo , directed by Paul Schrader , starring Richard Gere , Lauren Hutton and Héctor Elizondo * Any Which Way You Can , starring Clint Eastwood , Geoffrey Lewis , William Smith , Barry Corbin , Ruth Gordon * Arrebato ( Rapture ) , cult film – ( Spain ) * Atlantic City , directed by Louis Malle , starring Burt Lancaster and Susan Sarandon – ( Canada/France ) – Golden Lion winner * The Awakening , starring Charlton Heston , Susannah York and Stephanie Zimbalist – ( U.K . ) B * Babylon , starring Brinsley Forde – ( U.K . ) * A Bad Son ( un mauvais fils ) , directed by Claude Sautet – ( France ) * Bad Timing , directed by Nicolas Roeg , starring Art Garfunkel , Theresa Russell , Harvey Keitel – ( U.K . ) * The Baltimore Bullet , starring James Coburn * Berlin Alexanderplatz , a TV mini-series directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder , starring Gunther Lamprecht , Hanna Schygulla , Barbara Sukowa – ( West Germany ) * The Big Brawl , starring Jackie Chan – ( Hong Kong/U.S.A . ) * The Big Red One , directed by Samuel Fuller , starring Lee Marvin , Mark Hamill , Robert Carradine * Bizalom ( Confidence ) , directed by István Szabó – ( Hungary ) * The Black Marble , directed by Harold Becker , starring Robert Foxworth , Paula Prentiss , Harry Dean Stanton * The Blood of Hussain , directed by Jamil Dehlavi – ( Pakistan ) * The Blue Lagoon , starring Brooke Shields and Christopher Atkins * The Blues Brothers , directed by John Landis , starring John Belushi , Dan Aykroyd , Cab Calloway , Carrie Fisher , John Candy , Henry Gibson * Bon Voyage , Charlie Brown ( and Do n't Come Back ! ! ) * Breaker Morant , directed by Bruce Beresford , starring Edward Woodward – ( Australia ) * Bronco Billy , directed by and starring Clint Eastwood , with Sondra Locke , Geoffrey Lewis , Sam Bottoms , Scatman Crothers * Brubaker , directed by Stuart Rosenberg , starring Robert Redford , David Keith , Jane Alexander , Yaphet Kotto C * Caboblanco , directed by J. Lee Thompson , starring Charles Bronson , Jason Robards , Dominique Sanda * Caddyshack , directed by Harold Ramis , starring Chevy Chase , Rodney Dangerfield , Ted Knight , Michael O'Keefe , Cindy Morgan , Bill Murray * The Candidate ( Der Kandidat ) , directed by Volker Schlöndorff – ( West Germany ) * Cannibal Holocaust , directed by Ruggero Deodato , starring Robert Kerman – ( Italy ) * Ca n't Stop the Music , directed by Nancy Walker , starring Valerie Perrine , Bruce Jenner , Village People * Carny , starring Jodie Foster and Gary Busey * Chann Pardesi , starring Kulbhushan Kharbanda and Om Puri – ( India ) * A Change of Seasons , starring Shirley MacLaine , Anthony Hopkins , Bo Derek * The Changeling , starring George C. Scott – ( Canada ) * Cheech & Chong 's Next Movie * Children 's Island ( Barnens ö ) – ( Sweden ) * La Cicala ( The Cicada ) , starring Anthony Franciosa and Virna Lisi – ( Italy ) * City of Women ( La città delle donne ) , directed by Federico Fellini , starring Marcello Mastroianni – ( Italy ) * The Club , starring Jack Thompson – ( Australia ) * Coal Miner 's Daughter , starring Sissy Spacek and Tommy Lee Jones * The Competition , starring Richard Dreyfuss , Amy Irving , Lee Remick , Sam Wanamaker * The Constant Factor ( Constans ) – ( Poland ) * The Crime of Cuenca ( El crimen de Cuenca ) – ( Spain ) * Cruising , directed by William Friedkin , starring Al Pacino * Cutting It Short ( Postřižiny ) , directed by Jiří Menzel – ( Czechoslovakia ) D * Dadar Kirti ( Deeds of My Elder Brother ) – ( India ) * Death Watch ( La Mort en direct ) , directed by Bertrand Tavernier , starring Romy Schneider and Harvey Keitel – ( France ) * Delusion directed by Alan Beattie , starring Patricia Pearcy and Joseph Cotten * Die Laughing , starring Robby Benson and Bud Cort * The Dogs of War , starring Christopher Walken – ( U.S.A./U.K . ) * Dostana ( Friendship ) , starring Amitabh Bachchan – ( India ) * Dressed to Kill , directed by Brian De Palma , starring Michael Caine , Nancy Allen , Keith Gordon , Angie Dickinson E * Elisita – ( Spain ) * The Elephant Man , directed by David Lynch , starring John Hurt and Anthony Hopkins – ( U.S.A./U.K . ) * Encounters of the Spooky Kind ( Gui da gui ) , directed by and starring Sammo Hung – ( Hong Kong ) * Every Man for Himself ( Sauve qui peut ( la vie ) ) , directed by Jean-Luc Godard , starring Jacques Dutronc and Isabelle Huppert – ( France ) * The Exterminator , starring Robert Ginty and Samantha Eggar F * Fade to Black , starring Dennis Christopher * The Falls , directed by Peter Greenaway – ( U.K . ) * Fame , directed by Alan Parker , starring Irene Cara * Fatso , directed by and starring Anne Bancroft , with Dom DeLuise * The Final Countdown , starring Kirk Douglas , Katharine Ross , Martin Sheen * The First Deadly Sin , starring Frank Sinatra , David Dukes , Martin Gabel , Brenda Vaccaro , Faye Dunaway * First Family , directed by Buck Henry , starring Bob Newhart , Madeline Kahn , Gilda Radner * Flash Gordon , directed by Mike Hodges , starring Sam J. Jones , Melody Anderson , Chaim Topol – ( U.S.A./U.K . ) * The Fog , directed by John Carpenter , starring Adrienne Barbeau and Jamie Lee Curtis * Foolin ' Around , starring Gary Busey , Annette O'Toole , Eddie Albert , Cloris Leachman * The Formula , starring George C. Scott and Marlon Brando * Foxes , directed by Adrian Lyne , starring Jodie Foster , Cherie Currie , Scott Baio and Adam Faith * Friday the 13th , directed by Sean S. Cunningham , starring Betsy Palmer , Adrienne King and Harry Crosby G * The Gamekeeper , directed by Ken Loach – ( U.K . ) * Gamera : Super Monster ( Uchu Kaijū Gamera ) – ( Japan ) * Germany , Pale Mother ( Deutschland bleiche Mutter ) , starring Eva Mattes – ( West Germany ) * Gilda Live , starring Gilda Radner , Father Guido Sarducci * Gloria , directed by John Cassavetes , starring Gena Rowlands – Golden Lion winner * The Gods Must Be Crazy , directed by Jamie Uys , starring N ! xau , Sandra Prinsloo and Marius Weyers – ( South Africa ) * Good Riddance ( Les Bons débarras ) – ( Canada ) * The Great Rock 'n ' Roll Swindle , a mockumentary directed by Julien Temple , featuring The Sex Pistols and Malcolm McLaren – ( U.K . ) H * Hangar 18 , starring Darren McGavin and Robert Vaughn * Health , aka H.E.A.L.T.H. , directed by Robert Altman , starring Carol Burnett , Lauren Bacall , Glenda Jackson , James Garner * Heart Beat , starring Nick Nolte , Sissy Spacek , John Heard * He Knows You 're Alone , starring Don Scardino and Caitlin O'Heaney * Heaven 's Gate , directed by Michael Cimino , starring Kris Kristofferson , Christopher Walken , Isabelle Huppert , John Hurt , Sam Waterston , Jeff Bridges * Herbie Goes Bananas , directed by Vincent McEveety , starring Cloris Leachman , Harvey Korman and Charles Martin Smith * Hero at Large , starring John Ritter and Anne Archer * Hey Babe ! , starring Yasmine Bleeth and Buddy Hackett – ( Canada ) * Hirak Rajar Deshe ( Kingdom of Diamonds ) , directed by Satyajit Ray – ( India ) * The Hit ( Trhák ) – ( Czechoslovakia ) * Home Movies , directed by Brian De Palma , starring Kirk Douglas , Vincent Gardenia , Gerrit Graham , Nancy Allen * Hopscotch , directed by Ronald Neame , starring Walter Matthau and Glenda Jackson * How to Beat the High Cost of Living , starring Susan Saint James , Jessica Lange , Jane Curtin , Dabney Coleman , Richard Benjamin * Humanoids from the Deep , starring Vic Morrow , Doug McClure , Ann Turkel * The Hunter , starring Steve McQueen ( in his final film ) , Kathryn Harrold , LeVar Burton , Ben Johnson , Eli Wallach I * The Idolmaker , directed by Taylor Hackford , starring Ray Sharkey and Peter Gallagher * Inferno , directed by Dario Argento – ( Italy ) * Inside Moves , directed by Richard Donner , starring John Savage , David Morse , Diana Scarwid * The Island , directed by Michael Ritchie , starring Michael Caine * It 's My Turn , directed by Claudia Weill , starring Jill Clayburgh , Michael Douglas , Charles Grodin JK * The Jazz Singer , starring Neil Diamond , Lucie Arnaz , Laurence Olivier * Just Tell Me What You Want , directed by Sidney Lumet , starring Ali MacGraw , Alan King , Peter Weller , Myrna Loy * Karz ( In Debt ) , starring Rishi Kapoor – ( India ) * Kagemusha , directed by Akira Kurosawa , starring Tatsuya Nakadai , Tsutomu Yamazaki , Kenichi Hagiwara – ( Japan ) – Palme d'Or winner * Khubsoorat , starring Ashok Kumar and Rekha – ( India ) * Klondike Fever , starring Jeff East , Rod Steiger , Angie Dickinson , Gordon Pinsent – ( Canada ) L * Ladies ' Choice ( Dami Kanyat ) , directed by Ivan Andonov , starring Stefan Danailov – ( Bulgaria ) * The Last Flight of Noah 's Ark , starring Elliott Gould , Geneviève Bujold , Ricky Schroder * The Last Married Couple in America , starring Natalie Wood , George Segal , Valerie Harper , Richard Benjamin * The Last Metro ( Le dernier metro ) , directed by François Truffaut , starring Catherine Deneuve and Gérard Depardieu – ( France ) * The Last Witness ( Choehuui jeungin ) – ( South Korea ) * The Lathe of Heaven , starring Bruce Davison * Legend of Tianyun Mountain ( Tiān yún shān chuán qí ) – ( China ) * The Life and Times of Rosie the Riveter , a documentary film * Little Darlings , starring Tatum O'Neal and Kristy McNichol * Little Miss Marker , starring Walter Matthau , Julie Andrews , Tony Curtis , Bob Newhart * The Long Good Friday , directed by John Mackenzie , starring Bob Hoskins and Helen Mirren – ( U.K . ) * The Long Riders , directed by Walter Hill , starring the Keach brothers , Carradine brothers and Quaid brothers * Loulou , starring Isabelle Huppert and Gérard Depardieu – ( France ) * Loving Couples , directed by Jack Smight , starring Shirley MacLaine , James Coburn , Stephen Collins , Susan Sarandon * Lulu ( 1980 film ) ( not same as above ) – ( France/Italy/West Germany ) M * The Magician of Lublin , starring Alan Arkin , Valerie Perrine , Louise Fletcher * The Man with Bogart 's Face , starring Robert Sacchi , Misty Rowe , Victor Buono , Yvonne De Carlo , Herbert Lom * Manila by Night – ( Philippines ) * McVicar , directed by Tom Clegg , starring Roger Daltrey , Adam Faith , Cheryl Campbell – ( U.K . ) * Melvin and Howard , directed by Jonathan Demme , starring Paul Le Mat , Jason Robards , Mary Steenburgen * Midnight Madness * The Mirror Crack 'd , directed by Guy Hamilton , starring Angela Lansbury , Elizabeth Taylor , Kim Novak , Tony Curtis , Rock Hudson – ( U.K . ) * Mon oncle d'Amérique , directed by Alain Resnais , starring Gérard Depardieu – ( France ) – Cannes Special Jury Prize * Motel Hell , starring Rory Calhoun * Mother 's Day , starring Nancy Hendrickson * The Mountain Men , starring Charlton Heston and Brian Keith * My Bodyguard , directed by Tony Bill , starring Matt Dillon , Adam Baldwin , Chris Makepeace , Martin Mull N * The Nest ( El Nido ) – ( Spain ) * Nightkill , starring Robert Mitchum * Nijinsky , starring George de la Peña and Alan Bates * The Ninth Configuration , directed by William Peter Blatty , starring Stacy Keach , Scott Wilson , Jason Miller O * O Megalexandros ( Alexander the Great ) , directed by Theodoros Angelopoulos – ( Greece ) * Oh , God ! Book II , starring George Burns * One Trick Pony , written by and starring Paul Simon , with Blair Brown , Joan Hackett , Rip Torn * The Orchestra Conductor ( Dyrygent ) , directed by Andrzej Wajda , starring John Gielgud – ( Poland ) * Ordinary People , directed by Robert Redford , starring Donald Sutherland , Mary Tyler Moore , Timothy Hutton , Judd Hirsch , Elizabeth McGovern * Out of the Blue , directed by and starring Dennis Hopper , with Linda Manz , Raymond Burr – ( Canada ) PQ * Pepi , Luci , Bom , directed by Pedro Almodóvar – ( Spain ) * Palermo or Wolfsburg – ( West Germany ) – Golden Bear winner * Permanent Vacation , directed by Jim Jarmusch * The Pilot , directed by and starring Cliff Robertson , with Diane Baker and Gordon MacRae * Playing for Time , directed by Daniel Mann , starring Vanessa Redgrave and Jane Alexander * Popeye , directed by Robert Altman , starring Robin Williams and Shelley Duvall * Pray TV , starring Dabney Coleman * Private Benjamin , directed by Howard Zieff , starring Goldie Hawn , Eileen Brennan , Armand Assante , Robert Webber , Harry Dean Stanton * The Private Eyes , starring Tim Conway and Don Knotts * Qurbani ( Sacrifice ) , directed by and starring Feroz Khan – ( India ) R * Raging Bull , directed by Martin Scorsese , starring Robert De Niro , Joe Pesci , Cathy Moriarty * Resurrection , starring Ellen Burstyn and Eva Le Gallienne * The Return of the King , animated film , voices of Orson Bean , John Huston , William Conrad * Return of the Secaucus 7 , directed by John Sayles * El Retorno del Hombre Lobo ( Return of the Werewolf ) – ( Spain ) * Roadie , directed by Alan Rudolph , starring Meat Loaf and Kaki Hunter * Le Roi et l'oiseau ( The King and the Mocking Bird ) , animated film – ( France ) * Rockshow , concert film featuring Paul McCartney and Wings – ( U.K . ) * Rough Cut , directed by Don Siegel , starring Burt Reynolds , Lesley-Anne Down , David Niven * Rude Boy , a rockumentary featuring The Clash – ( U.K . ) S * Sällskapsresan ( The Charter Trip ) , directed by and starring Lasse Åberg – ( Sweden ) * The Sea Wolves , starring Gregory Peck , David Niven , Roger Moore – ( U.K./U.S.A./Switzerland ) * See You in the Next War ( enja u sledećem ratu ) – ( Yugoslavia ) * Seems Like Old Times , starring Goldie Hawn and Chevy Chase * Serial , starring Martin Mull , Tuesday Weld , Christopher Lee , Bill Macy , Sally Kellerman , Tom Smothers * The Shining , directed by Stanley Kubrick , starring Jack Nicholson , Shelley Duvall , Danny Lloyd , Scatman Crothers * Simon , starring Alan Arkin * A Small Circle of Friends , starring Brad Davis and Karen Allen * Solo Sunny – ( East Germany ) * Somewhere in Time , starring Christopher Reeve and Jane Seymour * Special Treatment ( Poseban tretman ) – ( Yugoslavia ) * Star Wars Episode V : The Empire Strikes Back , directed by Irvin Kershner , starring Harrison Ford , Mark Hamill , Carrie Fisher * Stardust Memories , directed by and starring Woody Allen , with Charlotte Rampling and Jessica Harper * Stir Crazy , directed by Sidney Poitier , starring Richard Pryor and Gene Wilder * The Stunt Man , directed by Richard Rush , starring Peter O'Toole , Barbara Hershey , Steve Railsback * Sunday Lovers , starring Gene Wilder , Roger Moore , Lino Ventura * Superman II , starring Christopher Reeve , Gene Hackman , Margot Kidder , Terence Stamp T * Terror Train * La terrazza ( The Terrace ) , starring Marcello Mastroianni , Vittorio Gassman , Ugo Tognazzi – ( Italy ) * That Sinking Feeling , directed by Bill Forsyth , starring John Gordon Sinclair – ( U.K . ) * Those Lips , Those Eyes , starring Frank Langella , Glynnis O'Connor , Tom Hulce * Times Square , directed by Allen Moyle , starring Robin Johnson , Trini Alvarado , Tim Curry * To Love the Damned ( Maledetti vi amerò ) – ( Italy ) * Tom Horn , starring Steve McQueen , Richard Farnsworth , Linda Evans * Tribute , starring Jack Lemmon – ( Canada ) * Twelve Months ( Sekai Meisaku Douwa Mori wa Ikiteiru / Dvenadtsat mesyatsev ) – ( Japan/U.S.S.R . ) UV * The Unseen , starring Barbara Bach and Stephen Furst * Up the Academy , directed by Robert Downey , Sr . * Urban Cowboy , directed by James Bridges , starring John Travolta , Debra Winger , Scott Glenn , Madolyn Smith , Barry Corbin * Used Cars , directed by Robert Zemeckis , starring Kurt Russell , Deborah Harmon , Jack Warden , Gerrit Graham * Virus ( Fukkatsu no hi ) , starring Sonny Chiba and Glenn Ford – ( Japan ) * Le Voyage en douce , starring Dominique Sanda and Geraldine Chaplin – ( France ) W * Waiter , Scarper ! ( Vrchní , prchni ! ) – ( Czechoslovakia ) * The Watcher in the Woods , starring Bette Davis – ( U.K./U.S.A . ) * When Time Ran Out , starring Paul Newman , Jacqueline Bisset , William Holden , Burgess Meredith , Ernest Borgnine , Red Buttons * Where the Buffalo Roam , directed by Art Linson , starring Bill Murray * Wholly Moses ! , starring Dudley Moore , Laraine Newman , Paul Sand , Dom DeLuise * Who 's Singin ' Over There ? ( Ko to tamo peva ) – ( Yugoslavia ) * Why Would I Lie ? , starring Treat Williams , Lisa Eichhorn , Valerie Curtin * Willie & Phil , directed by Paul Mazursky , starring Margot Kidder , Ray Sharkey , Michael Ontkean * Windows , starring Talia Shire and Elizabeth Ashley * Witches ' Brew , starring Teri Garr and Richard Benjamin X * Xanadu , starring Olivia Newton-John , Michael Beck , Gene Kelly Y * The Young Master ( Shi di chu ma ) , directed by and starring Jackie Chan – ( Hong Kong ) * Yūgure made – ( Japan ) Z * Zigeunerweisen ( Gypsy Airs ) , directed by Seijun Suzuki – ( Japan ) 1980 Wide-release movies U.S.A. unless stated January–March * January 1980 * * January 18 * * * Just Tell Me What You Want * * * Windows * * January 30 * * * To All a Goodnight * February 1980 * * February 1 * * * Fatso * * February 8 * * * American Gigolo * * * The Fog * * * Midnight Madness * * February 15 * * * Caligula * * * Cruising * * February 29 * * * Do n't Answer the Phone * * * Foxes * * * The Ninth Configuration * March 1980 * * March 7 * * * Coal Miner 's Daughter * * March 14 * * * Defiance * * March 21 * * * Forbidden Zone * * * Little Miss Marker * * March 28 * * * Serial * * * Tom Horn * * * When Time Ran Out April–June * April 1980 * * April 1 * * * The Baltimore Bullet * * April 17 * * * The Private Eyes * * April 25 * * * Where the Buffalo Roam * May 1980 * * May 9 * * * Friday the 13th * * * The Nude Bomb * * May 16 * * * Fame * * * The Long Riders * * May 21 * * * The Empire Strikes Back * * May 23 * * * Carny * * * The Gong Show Movie * * * The Shining * * May 30 * * * Bon Voyage , Charlie Brown ( and Do n't Come Back ! ! ) * * * The Hollywood Knights * June 1980 * * June 1 * * * The Alien Dead * * * The Mountain Men * * June 4 * * * The Happy Hooker Goes Hollywood * * June 6 * * * Galaxina * * * Up the Academy * * * Urban Cowboy * * June 11 * * * Bronco Billy * * June 13 * * * The Children * * * The Island * * * Roadie * * * Wholly Moses ! * * June 19 * * * Rough Cut * * June 20 * * * The Blues Brothers * * * Brubaker * * * Ca n't Stop the Music * * June 25 * * * Herbie Goes Bananas * * * The Last Flight of Noah 's Ark July–September * July 1980 * * July 2 * * * Airplane ! * * * Alligator * * July 5 * * * The Blue Lagoon * * July 11 * * * Oh ! Heavenly Dog * * * Used Cars * * July 18 * * * Cheech & Chong 's Next Movie * * * Honeysuckle Rose * * * The Little Dragons * * July 24 * * * The Earthling * * July 25 * * * Caddyshack * * * Dressed to Kill * August 1980 * * August 1 * * * The Final Countdown * * * The Hunter * * * Loose Shoes * * * Raise the Titanic * * August 8 * * * The Fiendish Plot of Dr. Fu Manchu * * * Xanadu * * August 14 * * * The Octagon * * August 15 * * * The Kidnapping of the President * * * Smokey and the Bandit II * * * Those Lips , Those Eyes * September 1980 * * September 9 * * * Phobia * *

sfq_273--1980_in_film.txt

"Which actress/singer starred as Doralee Rhodes in the 1980 film, ""Nine to Five""?"

A television program is a segment of content intended for broadcast on over-the-air , cable television , or Internet television , other than a commercial , trailer , or any other segment of content not serving as attraction for viewership . It may be a single production , or more commonly , a series of related productions ( also called a television series or a television show ) . A limited number of episodes of a television drama may be called a miniseries or a serial or limited series . Series without a fixed length are usually divided into seasons ( U.S. ) or series ( UK ) , yearly or semiannual sets of new episodes . While there is no defined length , U.S. industry practice has traditionally favored longer television seasons than those of other countries . A one-time broadcast may be called a `` special '' , or particularly in the UK a `` special episode '' . A television film ( `` made-for-TV movie '' or `` television movie '' ) is a film that is initially broadcast on television rather than released in theaters or direct-to-video . A program can be either recorded , as on video tape , other various electronic media forms , played with an on-demand player or viewed on live television . Formats Television programs may be fictional ( as in comedies and dramas ) , or non-fictional ( as in documentary , news , and reality television ) . It may be topical ( as in the case of a local newscast and some made-for-television movies ) , or historical ( as in the case of many documentaries and fictional series ) . They could be primarily instructional or educational , or entertaining as is the case in situation comedy and game shows . A drama program usually features a set of actors playing characters in a historical or contemporary setting . The program follows their lives and adventures . Except for soap opera-type serials , many shows especially before the 1980s , remained static without story arcs , and the main characters and premise changed little . If some change happened to the characters ' lives during the episode , it was usually undone by the end . ( Because of this , the episodes could be broadcast in any order . ) Since the 1980s , there are many series that feature progressive change to the plot , the characters , or both . For instance , Hill Street Blues and St . Elsewhere were two of the first American prime time drama television series to have this kind of dramatic structure , while the later series , Babylon 5 , is an extreme example of such production that had a predetermined story running over its intended five-season run . In 2012 , it was reported that television was growing into a larger component of major media companies ' revenues than film . Some also noted the increase in quality of some television programs . In 2012 , Academy-Award winning film director Steven Soderbergh , commenting on ambiguity and complexity of character and narrative , stated : `` I think those qualities are now being seen on television and that people who want to see stories that have those kinds of qualities are watching television . '' Genres Scripted entertainment * Animated * Award shows ( partially scripted ) * Drama , which includes : * * Action-adventure or Thriller * * Comedy-drama * * Legal drama * * Medical drama * * Police procedural * * Political drama * * Science-fiction , fantasy , horror , supernatural drama * * Serial drama * * Soap opera * * Teen drama * Miniseries and Television movies * Comedy * * Mockumentary * * Satire * * Sitcom * * Sketch comedy Unscripted entertainment * Game shows * Reality * Talk shows * Talent shows Informational * Infomercials – Paid advertising spots that are up to an hour long * News programs * Documentaries * Television news magazine – Dealing with current affairs Development United States When a person or company decides to create a new series , they develop the show 's elements , consisting of the concept , the characters , the crew , and cast . Then they offer ( `` pitch '' ) it to the various networks in an attempt to find one interested enough to order a prototype first episode of the series , known as a pilot . Eric Coleman , an animation executive at Disney , told an interviewer , `` One misconception is that it ’ s very difficult to get in and pitch your show , when the truth is that development executives at networks want very much to hear ideas . They want very much to get the word out on what types of shows they ’ re looking for . '' To create the pilot , the structure and team of the whole series must be put together . If the network likes the pilot , they pick up the show to air it the next season ( usually Fall ) . Sometimes they save it for mid-season , or request rewrites and further review ( known in the industry as development hell ) . Other times , they pass entirely , forcing the show 's creator to `` shop it around '' to other networks . Many shows never make it past the pilot stage . The show hires a stable of writers , who usually work in parallel : the first writer works on the first episode , the second on the second episode , etc . When all the writers have been used , episode assignment starts again with the first writer . On other shows , however , the writers work as a team . Sometimes they develop story ideas individually , and pitch them to the show 's creator , who folds them together into a script and rewrites them . If the show is picked up , the network orders a `` run '' of episodes—usually only six or 13 episodes at first , though a season typically consists of at least 22 episodes . ( The midseason seven and last nine episodes are sometimes called the `` mid-seven '' and `` back nine '' —borrowing the colloquial terms from bowling and golf ) . United Kingdom In contrast to the U.S. model illustrated above , the UK procedure is operated on a sometimes similar , but much smaller scale . The method of `` team writing '' is employed on some longer dramatic series ( usually running up to a maximum of around 13 episodes ) . The idea for such a program may be generated `` in-house '' by one of the networks ; it could originate from an independent production company ( sometimes a product of both ) . For example , the BBC 's long-running soap opera EastEnders is wholly a BBC production , whereas its popular drama Life on Mars was developed by Kudos in association with the broadcaster . However , there are still a significant number of programs ( usually sitcoms ) that are built around just one or two writers and a small , close-knit production team . These are `` pitched '' in the traditional way , but since the creator ( s ) handle all the writing requirements , there is a run of six or seven episodes per series once approval has been given . Many of the most popular British comedies have been made this way , including Monty Python 's Flying Circus ( albeit with an exclusive team of six writer-performers ) , Fawlty Towers , Blackadder and The Office . Production At the production company , which is often separate from the broadcaster , the executive producer , often the show 's creator , is in charge of running the show . They pick the crew and help cast the actors , approve and sometimes write series plots ( some even write or direct major episodes ) . Various other producers help to ensure that the show runs smoothly . As with filmmaking or other electronic media production , producing of an individual episode can be divided into three parts . These are : Pre-production Pre-production begins when a script is approved . A director is chosen to plan the episode 's final look . Pre-production tasks include storyboarding , construction of sets , props , and costumes , casting guest stars , budgeting , acquiring resources like lighting , special effects , stunts , etc . Once the show is planned , it must then be scheduled ; scenes are often filmed out of sequence , guest actors or even regulars may only be available at certain times . Sometimes the principal photography of different episodes must be done at the same time , complicating the schedule ( a guest star might shoot scenes from two episodes on the same afternoon ) . Complex scenes are translated from storyboard to animatics to further clarify the action . Scripts are adjusted to meet altering requirements . Some shows have a small stable of directors , but also usually rely on outside directors . Given the time constraints of broadcasting , a single show might have two or three episodes in pre-production , one or two episodes in principal photography , and a few more in various stages of post-production . The task of directing is complex enough that a single director can usually not work on more than one episode or show at a time , hence the need for multiple directors . Principal photography Principal photography is the actual filming of the episode . Director , actors and crew gather at a television studio or on location for filming or videoing a scene . A scene is further divided into shots , which should be planned during pre-production . Depending on scheduling , a scene may be shot in non-sequential order of the story . Conversations may be filmed twice from different camera angles , often using stand-ins , so one actor might perform all their lines in one set of shots , and then the other side of the conversation is filmed from the opposite perspective . To complete a production on time , a second unit may be filming a different scene on another set or location at the same time , using a different set of actors , an assistant director , and a second unit crew . A director of photography supervises the lighting of each shot to ensure consistency . Post production Once principal photography is complete , producers coordinate tasks to begin the video editing . Visual and digital video effects are added to the film ; this is often outsourced to companies specializing in these areas . Often music is performed with the conductor using the film as a time reference ( other musical elements may be previously recorded ) . An editor cuts the various pieces of film together , adds the musical score and effects , determines scene transitions , and assembles the completed show . Budgets and revenues Most television networks throughout the world are 'commercial ' , dependent on selling advertising time or acquiring sponsors . Broadcasting executives ' main concern over their programming is on audience size . Once the number of 'free to air ' stations was restricted by the availability of channel frequencies , but cable TV ( outside the United States , satellite television ) technology has allowed an expansion in the number of channels available to viewers ( sometimes at premium rates ) in a much more competitive environment . In the United States , the average broadcast network drama costs $ 3 million an episode to produce , while cable dramas cost $ 2 million on average . The pilot episode may be more expensive than a regular episode . In 2004 , Lost 's two-hour pilot cost $ 10– $ 14 million , in 2008 Fringe 's two-hour pilot cost $ 10 million , and in 2010 , Boardwalk Empire was $ 18 million for the first episode . In 2011 , Game of Thrones was $ 5– $ 10 million , Pan Am cost an estimated $ 10 million , while Terra Nova 's two-hour pilot was between $ 10 to $ 20 million . Many scripted network television shows in the United States are financed through Deficit financing : a studio finances the production cost of a show and a network pays a license fee to the studio for the right to air the show . This license fee does not cover the show 's production costs , leading to the deficit . Although the studio does not make its money back in the original airing of the show , it retains ownership of the show . This ownership retention allows the studio to make its money back and earn a profit through syndication and DVD and Blu-ray disc sales . This system places most of the financial risk on the studios , however a show that is a hit in the syndication and home video markets can more than make up for the misses . Although the deficit financing system places minimal financial risk on the networks , they lose out on the future profits of big hits , since they are only licensing the shows . Costs are recouped mainly by advertising revenues for broadcast networks and some cable channels , while other cable channels depend on subscription revenues . In general , advertisers , and consequently networks that depend on advertising revenues , are more interested in the number of viewers within the 18–49 age range than the total number of viewers . Advertisers are willing to pay more to advertise on shows successful with young adults because they watch less television and are harder to reach than older adults . According to Advertising Age , during the 2007–08 season , Grey 's Anatomy was able to charge $ 419,000 per commercial , compared to only $ 248,000 for a commercial during CSI , despite CSI having almost five million more viewers on average . Due to its strength in young demos , Friends was able to charge almost three times as much for a commercial as Murder , She Wrote , even though the two series had similar total viewer numbers during the seasons they were on the air together . Glee and The Office drew fewer total viewers than NCIS during the 2009–10 season , but earned an average of $ 272,694 and $ 213,617 respectively , compared to $ 150,708 for NCIS . Distribution After production , the show is turned over to the television network , which sends it out to its affiliate stations , which broadcast it in the specified broadcast programming time slot . If the Nielsen ratings are good , the show is kept alive as long as possible . If not , the show is usually canceled . The show 's creators are then left to shop around remaining episodes , and the possibility of future episodes , to other networks . On especially successful series , the producers sometimes call a halt to a series on their own like Seinfeld , The Cosby Show , Corner Gas , and M * A * S * H and end it with a concluding episode , which sometimes is a big series finale . On rare occasions , a series that has not attracted particularly high ratings and has been canceled can be given a reprieve if DVD sales have been particularly strong . This has happened in the cases of Family Guy in the U.S. and Peep Show in the UK . If the show is popular or lucrative , and a number of episodes ( usually 100 episodes or more ) are made , it goes into broadcast syndication ( in the United States ) where rights to broadcast the program are then resold . Seasons/series The terminology used to define a set of episodes produced by a television series varies from country to country . North American usage In North American television , a series is a connected set of television program episodes that run under the same title , possibly spanning many seasons . Since the late 1960s , this broadcast programming schedule typically includes between 20 and 26 episodes . ( Before then , a regular television season could average out to at least 30 episodes . ) Up until the 1980s , most ( but certainly not all ) new programs for the broadcast networks debuted in the `` Fall Season '' , which ran from September through March and nominally contained from 24 to 26 episodes . These episodes were rebroadcast during the Spring ( or Summer ) Season , from April through August . Because of cable television and the Nielsen sweeps , the `` fall '' season now normally extends to May . Thus , a `` full season '' on a broadcast network now usually runs from September through May for at least 22 episodes . A full season is sometimes split into two separate units with a hiatus around the end of the calendar year , such as the first season of Jericho on CBS . When this split occurs , the last half of the episodes sometimes are referred to with the letter B as in `` The last nine episodes ( of The Sopranos ) will be part of what is being called either `` Season 6 , Part 2 '' or `` Season 6B '' , or in `` Futurama is splitting its seasons similar to how South Park does , doing half a season at a time , so this is season 6B for them . '' Since the 1990s , these shorter seasons also have been referred to as `` .5 '' or half seasons , where the run of shows between September and December is labeled `` Season X '' , and the second run between January and May labeled `` Season X.5 '' . Examples of this include the 2004 incarnation of Battlestar Galactica , ABC 's FlashForward , and ABC Family 's Make It or Break It . Nowadays , a new series is often ordered ( funded ) for just the first 10 to 13 episodes , to gauge the audience interest . If it is `` picked up '' , the season is completed to the regular 20 to 26 episodes . A midseason replacement is an inexpensive short-run ( 10–13 episode ) show designed to take the place of an original series that failed to garner an audience and has not been picked up . A `` series finale '' is the last show of the series before the show is no longer produced . ( In the UK , it means the end of a season , what is known in the United States as a `` season finale '' ) . UK and Australia usage In the United Kingdom and other countries , these sets of episodes are referred to as a `` series '' . In Australia , the broadcasting may be different from North American usage ; however , the terms series and season are both used and are the same . For example , Battlestar Galactica has an original series as well as a remake , both are considered different series with their own number of individual seasons . Australian television does not follow `` seasons '' in the way that U.S. television does ; for example , there is no `` fall season '' or `` fall schedule '' . For many years , popular night-time dramas in Australia would run for much of the year , and would only go into recess during the summer period ( December–February , as Australia is in the Southern Hemisphere ) , when ratings are not taken . Therefore , popular dramas would usually run from February through November each year . This schedule was used in the 1970s for popular dramas including Number 96 . Many drama series , such as McLeod 's Daughters , have received in the majority of between 22 and 32 episodes per season . Typically , a soap opera such as Home and Away would begin a new season in late January and the season finale would air in late November , with 220–230 episodes per season . However , during the Olympics , Home and Away would often go on hiatus , which is referred to as an `` Olympic cliffhanger '' . Therefore , the number of episodes would decrease . This is no longer the case , as the Olympics no longer broadcast in winter on the Seven Network as of 2012 . Australian situation comedy series ' seasons are approximately 13 episodes long and premiere any time in between February and November . British shows have tended toward shorter series in recent years . For example , the first series of long-running science fiction show Doctor Who in 1963 featured forty-two 25‑minute episodes , this dropped to 25 by 1970 to accommodate changes in production and continued to 1984 . For 1985 fewer but longer episodes were shown , but even after a return to shorter episodes in 1986 , lack of support within the BBC meant fewer episodes were commissioned leading to only fourteen 25‑minute episodes up to those in 1989 after which it was cancelled . The revival of Doctor Who from 2005 has comprised thirteen 45‑minute installments . However , there are some series in the UK that have a larger number of episodes , for example Waterloo Road started with 8 to 12 episodes , but from series three onward it increased to 20 episodes , and series seven will contain 30 episodes . Recently , American non-cable networks have also begun to experiment with shorter series for some programs , particularly reality shows , such as Survivor . However , they often air two series per year , resulting in roughly the same number of episodes per year as a drama . This is a reduction from the 1950s , in which many American shows ( e.g . Gunsmoke ) had between 29 and 39 episodes per season . Actual storytelling time within a commercial television hour has also gradually reduced over the years , from 50 minutes out of every 60 to the current 44 ( and even less on some networks ) , beginning in the early 21st century . The usage of `` season '' and `` series '' differ for DVD and Blu-ray releases in both in Australia and UK . In Australia , many locally produced shows are termed differently on home video releases . For example , a set of the television drama series Packed to the Rafters or Wentworth is referred to as `` season '' ( `` The Complete First Season '' , etc . ) , whereas drama series such as Tangle are known as a `` series '' ( `` Series 1 '' , etc . ) . However , British-produced shows such as Mrs. Brown 's Boys are referred to as `` season '' in Australia for the DVD and Blu-ray releases . In the UK , most British-produced shows are referred to as `` series '' for DVD and Blu-ray , except for shows such as the drama series Hex and Echo Beach , which are known as `` season '' . `` Season '' is only used for releases of American , Australian , and international shows . Although , in the past when an American series was released , it was referred to as `` series '' , for example , Friends : Series 1 . However , any subsequent re-release are now known as `` season '' . In the United States , dramas produced for hour-long time slots typically are 39 to 42 minutes in length ( excluding advertisements ) , while sitcoms produced for 30-minute time slots typically are 18 to 21 minutes long . There are exceptions as subscription-based TV channels ( like Showtime ) have episodes with 45 to 48 minutes of program , similar to Britain . In Britain dramas run from about 45 to 48 minutes , with 57 to 59 minutes on BBC1 . Sitcoms vary greatly and are between 22 and 27 minutes generally and 27 to 29 minutes on BBC1 . The longer duration on the national television channels ( BBC1 and BBC2 ) is due to the lack of advertising , requiring time only for bridging commentary and trailers in each program slot . Program Guides by Country * Australia * India

qb_9001--Television_program.txt

In which year was the UK television series ‘Doctor Who’ first broadcast?

George Galloway ( born 16 August 1954 ) is a British politician , broadcaster , and writer . Between the general elections in 1987 and 2015 , with a gap between 2010 and 2012 , he represented four constituencies as a Member of Parliament , elected as a candidate for the Labour Party and later the Respect Party . After becoming the youngest ever chairman of the Scottish Labour Party in 1981 , he became General Secretary of the London-based charity War on Want in 1983 , remaining in the post until he was elected as a Labour MP for Glasgow Hillhead at the 1987 general election . From 1997 , Galloway represented its successor constituency Glasgow Kelvin , and remained as the MP for the seat until the 2005 general election . In October 2003 , Galloway was expelled from Labour , having been found guilty by the party 's national constitutional committee of four of the five charges of bringing the party into disrepute . Although a number of Labour MPs opposed the Iraq War , Galloway was the only one to be expelled from the party for his statements concerning the conflict . In 2004 , he became a member of Respect – The Unity Coalition , later known as the Respect Party ( eventually becoming its leader by late 2013 ) , and was elected as MP for Bethnal Green and Bow at the general election the following year . Galloway stood for election as a Respect Party candidate in the London Assembly election , 2008 , but was not selected . After unsuccessfully contesting the seat of Poplar and Limehouse in the 2010 General Election , where he came third , with 17.5 % of the vote , he stood as a Respect candidate for Glasgow electoral region in the Scottish Parliament general election , 2011 , but failed to win the seat , receiving 6,972 votes ( 3.3 % ) . He returned to Westminster at the Bradford West by-election in 2012 . He was defeated at the 2015 general election , after a campaign in which he was accused of making false statements about the Labour candidate , Naz Shah , and was reported to the police for allegedly breaking election law . During the general election campaign , Galloway announced that if he lost Bradford West , he would stand in the election for London Mayor in 2016 . Galloway also said , `` I 've always fancied being Mayor '' , and attacked Labour 's Mayoral candidate , Sadiq Khan , who subsequently won the contest , as an “ unprincipled , speak-your-weight machine '' . During the Mayoral campaign , he praised Labour Leader , Jeremy Corbyn , but was accused of making `` cutting personal attacks '' on Sadiq Khan . He told a public meeting that `` Sadiq Khan supports Jeremy Corbyn like the rope supports the hanging man '' . Galloway was defeated , coming seventh , on 1.4 % of the vote . In the 2016 EU membership referendum , he backed the Grassroots Out campaign which advocated a 'Leave ' vote . Early in his career , Galloway was an opponent of Saddam Hussein , but he has been accused by David Aaronovitch and Christopher Hitchens of changing his mind about the Iraqi leader when it became Western policy not to support him . Galloway visited Iraq in 1994 and delivered a speech to Saddam Hussein , which ended with the statement : `` Sir , I salute your courage , your strength , your indefatigability . '' He has maintained that he was addressing the Iraqi people in the speech . Galloway testified to the United States Senate in 2005 over alleged illicit payments from the United Nations ' Oil for Food Program . Galloway supports the Palestinian side of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , taking an anti-Zionist stance , and was involved in the Viva Palestina aid convoys . Galloway was described by Tom Happold of The Guardian in 2005 as being `` renowned for his colourful rhetoric and combative debating style . '' The Spectator awarded him Debater of the Year in 2001 . Early life and career Background and education Galloway was born on 16 August 1954 in Dundee ; the eldest of three , he has a younger brother and sister , Graham and Colette . His teetotal parents were George Galloway senior , a Scottish trade unionist , and Sheila ( née Reilly ) who is of Irish descent . Initially raised in the Lochee area of Dundee , he has described himself as `` born in an attic in a slum tenement in the Irish quarter of Dundee , which is known as Tipperary . '' His father began as an electrician , before becoming an electro-mechanical engineer at NCR . After being laid off , he retrained as a teacher . His mother was a cleaner , and then a factory worker . According to Galloway , his father was patriotic , while his mother had Irish republican sympathies , and was critic of British pretensions in the world . Galloway took his mother 's side in arguments . David Morley , Galloway 's biographer , however , writes that people who knew both father and son have said that they shared similar Marxist opinions , common in the local Labour movement of the time . He grew up in Charleston , Dundee and attended Charleston Primary and then Harris Academy , a non-denominational school , playing for the school football team as well as for West End United U12s , Lochee Boys Club U16s and St Columbus U18s . According to Galloway , he grew a moustache at 15 , and refused to shave it off when his headmaster objected . He decided , at the age of 18 , never to drink alcohol ; the reason was originally derived from comments by his father , and he has described alcohol as having a `` very deleterious effect on people '' . Labour Party organiser Galloway joined the Labour Party Young Socialists at 13 years old ( although he said he was 15 ) and was still a teenager when he became secretary of the Dundee Labour Party . He recalled in 2007 : `` As a teenager , I fell in love with the example of Che Guevara , '' the Argentinian revolutionary . Galloway wrote in the same year that he still admires Guevara . Galloway became Vice-Chairman of the Labour Party in the City of Dundee and a member of the Scottish Executive Committee in 1975 . On 5 May 1977 , he contested his first election campaign in the Scottish district elections , but failed to hold the safe Labour Gillburn ward in Dundee . He was defeated by the Independent candidate Bunty Turley , who stood on a 'moral ticket . ' A local controversy at the time was Galloway 's allocation , with his girlfriend Elaine Fyffe ( later his first wife ) , of a three-bedroom council flat ( soon rejected by the couple ) , which may have influenced the result . Galloway became the secretary organiser of Dundee Labour Party in 1977 and was the youngest ever chairman ( a post held for a year ) of the Scottish Labour Party in March 1981 at 26 years old , after holding the vice-chairman post over the previous year . After a trip to Beirut , Lebanon during 1977 , he became a passionate supporter of Palestine stating during his libel case against the Daily Telegraph in 2004 that `` barely a week after my return I made a pledge , in the Tavern Bar in Dundee 's Hawkhill District , to devote the rest of my life to the Palestinian and Arab cause . '' He supported Dundee City Council when it flew the Palestinian flag inside the City Chambers , and was involved in the twinning of Dundee with the Palestinian West Bank town of Nablus in 1980 . `` Unbelievably controversial , and I did it without preparing people properly for the storm '' , he recalled more than 30 years later . In late 1981 , Galloway was interviewed for the Scottish Marxist in which Galloway supported Communist Party ( CPGB ) affiliation with the Labour Party , in the same way as the Fabian Society does . Believing that a deficiency in political theory was being filled by the entryist infiltration of the party by the Trotskyists ( such as the Militant group ) Galloway thought the problem was better resolved by Communist thinking from members of the CPGB . ( He was later opposed to the expulsion of members of Militant . ) In response , Denis Healey , Deputy Leader of the Labour Party , tried and failed to remove Galloway from the list of Prospective Parliamentary Candidates . Healey lost his motion by 13 votes to 5 . Galloway once quipped that , to overcome a £1.5 million deficit which had arisen in Dundee 's city budget , he , Ernie Ross , and leading Councillors should be placed in the stocks in the city square : `` we would allow people to throw buckets of water over us at 20p a time . '' Galloway attempted in 1983 to stand for the safe Labour seat of Rhondda after the Welsh Transport and General Workers ' Union and the National Union of Miners had both nominated him to succeed Alec Jones , who had died . He also hoped to be selected in the newly created seat of Dunfermline East where no incumbent was standing . Galloway failed to be selected in either seat , with Rhondda selecting Allan Rogers and Dunfermline East selecting future Prime Minister Gordon Brown . Standing as a candidate for a place on the Labour Party National Executive Committee in 1986 ; in a large field of 18 candidates , Galloway finished second from the bottom . War on Want From November 1983 to 1987 , Galloway was the General Secretary of War on Want , a British charity campaigning against poverty worldwide . In this post he travelled widely , and wrote eye-witness accounts of the famine in Eritrea in 1985 which were published in The Sunday Times and The Spectator . His deputy at the charity , Simon Stocker , recalled : `` If you went into a fight with George , you knew you would never walk out with a win . '' On 28 October 1986 , the Daily Mirror , in a front-page story by Alastair Campbell , accused Galloway of spending £20,000 in expenses and thus `` enjoying a life of luxury . '' An internal investigation , and later , an independent auditor cleared him of misuse of funds , though he did repay £1,720 in contested expenses . More than two years after Galloway stepped down to serve as a Labour MP , the UK Charity Commission investigated War on Want . It found accounting irregularities from 1985 to 1989 , but little evidence that money was used for non-charitable purposes . The Commission said responsibility lay largely with auditors , and did not single out individuals for blame . Political career ( 1987–2005 ) Member of Parliament for a Glasgow seat In the 1987 general election , Galloway was elected the MP for Glasgow Hillhead in a Labour Party gain from the Social Democratic Party defeating Roy Jenkins with a majority of 3,251 . Although known for his left-wing views , Galloway was never a member of the Campaign Group , Labour 's leftist groupings of MPs . In a 2002 Guardian interview , Galloway said he had supported the Soviet Union and asserted that its end was `` the biggest catastrophe of my life '' . Galloway told Robert Chalmers of The Independent on Sunday in June 2012 : `` I am not a pacifist . I am a revolutionary . I am a Socialist who does n't like Capitalism and who likes Imperialism less . I am a revolutionary and I support the armed struggle where there is no alternative . '' At a press gathering for War on Want in September 1987 , when Galloway had stood down as General Secretary to the organisation , a journalist asked him about his personal arrangements during the previous year 's War on Want conference on the Greek island of Mykonos . The new MP replied : `` I travelled and spent lots of time with people in Greece , many of whom were women , some of whom were known carnally to me . I actually had sexual intercourse with some of the people in Greece . '' By then separated from his first wife , Galloway made front page headlines in the tabloid press at the time . Many years later , in a 2016 New Internationalist interview , he speculated that an incident of sexual abuse from a Colonel , which he suffered when he was 12 , has led to a `` lifelong fear of being gay and this led me into ostentatious , rapacious heterosexual promiscuity '' . In February 1988 the Executive Committee of his Constituency Labour Party passed a vote of no confidence in him by 15-to-8 . The constituency 's general management committee voted 54-to-44 in favour of the motion a fortnight later on 22 February , although only 3 of the 25 members in the trade union section supported it . According to Tam Dalyell in 2003 , the new member `` was [ the ] only one MP that I can recollect making speeches about human rights in Iraq '' in the House of Commons . Galloway gained re-selection when challenged by Trish Godman ( wife of fellow MP Norman Godman ) in June 1989 , but failed to get a majority of the electoral college on the first ballot . This was the worst result for any sitting Labour MP who was reselected , but in the final vote , Galloway gained 62 % in total . In his acceptance speech , Galloway assured his party there would be a `` summer of peace and reconciliation '' , but this did not happen . Many members of the party who had supported Godman reportedly refused to work for Galloway in the next election , including Johann Lamont , many years later leader of the Scottish Labour Party . The following August , 13 of the 26 members of the Constituency Party 's Executive Committee resigned . Lamont was one of those who resigned . According to her , Galloway `` has done nothing to build bridges with the members of the executive [ committee of the constituency labour party ] who opposed his selection . '' She told a journalist from The Guardian : `` The quarrel we have is all about accountability , and democracy ... working in harmony , rather than any personal matters . '' In 1990 , a classified advertisement appeared in the left-wing Labour weekly Tribune newspaper : `` Lost . One MP , balding . Answers to name George but also known as Gorgeous . Last heard of in Romania ... '' , and claimed that the MP had not been present at a meeting of his constituency party for a year . [ http : //www.heraldscotland.com/sport/spl/aberdeen/no-headline-present-1.571326 `` [ Diary ] '' ] , The Glasgow Herald , 22 June 1990 Galloway took legal action against Tribune and pointed out that he had been to five constituency meetings in the previous year . He eventually settled for an out-of-court payment from the newspaper . The Labour Party leadership election in 1992 saw Galloway voting for the eventual winners , John Smith for Leader and Margaret Beckett as Deputy Leader . In 1994 , after Smith 's death , Galloway declined to cast a vote in the leadership election ( one of only three MPs to do so ) . In a debate with the Leader of the Scottish National Party Alex Salmond , Galloway responded to one of Salmond 's jibes against the Labour Party by declaring `` I do n't give a fuck what Tony Blair thinks . '' Although facing a challenge for the Labour nomination as the candidate for Glasgow Kelvin at the 1997 general election , Galloway defeated Shiona Waldron . He was unchallenged for the nomination for the 2001 election . Galloway was elected with majorities of 16,643 and 12,014 respectively . During the 2001 Parliament , he voted against the Whip 27 times . During the 2001–02 session , he was the 9th most rebellious Labour MP . Iraq from 1991 The first Gulf war Galloway opposed the 1991 Gulf War and was critical of the effect that the subsequent sanctions had on the people of Iraq . In his book I 'm Not the Only One ( 2004 ) , Galloway expresses the opinion that Kuwait is `` clearly a part of the greater Iraqi whole , stolen from the motherland by perfidious Albion '' , although Christopher Hitchens pointed out that the state existed long before Iraq had a name . The massacre of Kurds and Shias just after the 1991 Gulf war , according to Galloway was `` a civil war that involved massive violence on both sides '' . Writing for The Observer in April 2003 , David Aaronovitch speculated that Galloway changed his opinion of Saddam Hussein under `` the belief that my enemy 's enemy is my friend . Or , in the context of the modern world , any anti-American will do . When Iraq stopped being a friend of the West it became a friend of George 's . '' Meeting with Saddam Hussein in 1994 In January 1994 , Galloway faced some of his strongest criticism on his return from a Middle-Eastern visit during which he had met Saddam Hussein . At his meeting with the Iraqi leader , he reported the support given to Saddam by the people of the Gaza Strip which he had just visited : `` I can honestly tell you that there was not a single person to whom I told I was coming to Iraq and hoping to meet with yourself who did not wish me to convey their heartfelt , fraternal greetings and support . '' He ended his speech with the statement `` Sir , I salute your courage , your strength , your indefatigability . '' Galloway has asserted that he was saluting the Iraqi people rather than Saddam Hussein in the speech , which was translated for the Iraqi leader . As news of the incident reached Britain , Labour leader John Smith , in a statement , said : `` ' I deeply deplore the foolish statement made in Iraq by Mr George Galloway . In no way did he speak for the Labour Party and I wholly reject his comments . '' Shortly after his return , Galloway was given a `` severe reprimand '' by the Labour Chief Whip , Derek Foster , for his unauthorised trip to Iraq . The MP apologised for his conduct and undertook to follow future instruction from the whips . For his contact with Saddam , Galloway was dubbed the `` MP for Baghdad North . '' Galloway said , when he spoke before the U.S. senate on 17 May 2005 , that he had `` met Saddam Hussein exactly the same number of times as Donald Rumsfeld met him . '' Whereas `` Rumsfeld met him to sell him guns '' , Galloway had `` met him to try to bring about an end to sanctions , suffering and war . '' The Mariam Appeal In 1998 Galloway founded the Mariam Appeal which was intended , according to its website 's welcome page in 1999 , `` to campaign against sanctions on Iraq which are having disastrous effects on the ordinary people of Iraq . '' The campaign was named after Mariam Hamza , a child flown by the fund from Iraq to Britain to receive treatment for leukaemia . The intention was to raise awareness of the suffering and death of hundreds of thousands of other Iraqi children due to poor health conditions and lack of suitable medicines and facilities , and to campaign for the lifting of the Iraq sanctions that many maintained were responsible for that situation . In 1999 , Galloway was criticised for spending Christmas in Iraq with Tariq Aziz , who was Iraq 's Deputy Prime Minister . In a 17 May 2005 hearing of the United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations , Galloway stated that he had had many meetings with Aziz , and characterised their relationship as friendly . In all , he has admitted to more than 10 meetings with Aziz . The fund received scrutiny during the 2003 invasion of Iraq , after a complaint that Galloway used some donated money to pay for his travel expenses . Galloway said that the expenses were incurred in his capacity as the Appeal 's chairman . Although the Mariam Appeal was never a registered charity and never intended to be such , it was investigated by the Charity Commission . The report of this year-long inquiry , published in June 2004 , found that the Mariam Appeal was doing charitable work ( and so ought to have registered with them ) , but did not substantiate allegations that any funds had been misused . It emerged some years later that Galloway had appealed in a letter dated 24 April 2003 to Lord Goldsmith , the attorney-general , to stop the investigation into the Mariam Appeal . `` It received no money from Iraq '' , Galloway falsely asserted in the letter . A further Charity Commission Report published on 7 June 2007 found that the Appeal had received funds from Fawaz Zureikat that originated from the Oil For Food programme , and concluded that : `` Although Mr Galloway , Mr Halford and Mr Al-Mukhtar have confirmed that they were unaware of the source of Mr Zureikat ’ s donations , the Commission has concluded that the charity trustees should have made further enquiries when accepting such large single and cumulative donations to satisfy themselves as to their origin and legitimacy . The Commission 's conclusion is that the charity trustees did not properly discharge their duty of care as trustees to the Appeal in respect of these donations . '' They added : `` The Commission is also concerned , having considered the totality of the evidence before it , that Mr Galloway may also have known of the connection between the Appeal and the Programme . '' Galloway responded : `` I 've always disputed the Commission 's retrospective view that a campaign to win a change in national and international policy—a political campaign—was , in fact , a charity . '' Iraq and Saddam Hussein In a House of Commons debate on 6 March 2002 , Foreign Office Minister Ben Bradshaw said Galloway was `` not just an apologist , but a mouthpiece , for the Iraqi regime over many years . '' Galloway called the Minister a liar and refused to withdraw on the grounds that Bradshaw 's claim was `` a clear imputation of dishonour '' , and the sitting was suspended due to the dispute . Bradshaw later withdrew his allegation , and Galloway apologised for using unparliamentary language . In an article by Ewen MacAskill published by The Guardian in March 2000 about a visit by Galloway to Iraq and the middle east , the politician describes himself as a supporter of the Iraqi people and the Ba'ath Party , but not Saddam Hussein himself . In August 2002 , Galloway returned to Iraq and met Saddam Hussein for a second and final time . According to Galloway , the intention of the trip was to persuade Saddam to re-admit Hans Blix , and the United Nations weapons inspectors into the country . His interview with Saddam was published in The Mail on Sunday . It was on this occasion that Galloway was offered Quality Street confectionery by Saddam . Giving evidence in his libel case against the Daily Telegraph newspaper in 2004 , Galloway testified that he regarded Saddam as a `` bestial dictator '' and would have welcomed his removal from power , but not by means of a military attack on Iraq . Galloway also pointed that he was a prominent critic of Saddam Hussein 's government in the 1980s , as well as of the role of Margaret Thatcher 's government in supporting arms sales to Iraq during the Iran/Iraq war . In his memoir , I 'm Not the Only One first published in 2004 , Galloway wrote that `` just as Stalin industrialised the Soviet Union , so on a different scale Saddam plotted Iraq 's own Great Leap Forward . '' He continued : `` He managed to keep his country together until 1991 . Indeed , he is likely to have been the leader in history who came closest to creating a truly Iraqi national identity , and he developed Iraq and the living , health , social and education standards of his own people . '' In 2006 a video surfaced showing Galloway greeting Uday Hussein , Saddam 's eldest son , with the title of `` Excellency '' at Uday 's palace in 1999 . Galloway is heard saying he will be with Uday `` until the end '' . By his own account in I 'm Not the Only One , Galloway advised members of Saddam Hussein 's government about the ways to deal with a potential American invasion . He writes : The Iraq war and Labour Party expulsion Galloway became the Vice-President of the Stop the War Coalition in 2001 . Actively involved , he often delivered speeches from StWC platforms at anti-war demonstrations . After permission for a rally in Hyde Park , during the international anti-war protests on 15 February 2003 was initially refused , Galloway said the government had a choice between `` half a million people at the rally or half a million people in a riot '' . Just over a month later , Galloway said in a 28 March 2003 interview with Abu Dhabi TV that Tony Blair and George W. Bush had `` lied to the British Air Force and Navy , when they said the battle of Iraq would be very quick and easy . They attacked Iraq like wolves '' and added that `` the best thing British troops can do is to refuse to obey illegal orders . '' This incitement for `` British troops to defy orders '' was later among the formal reasons for his expulsion from the Labour Party . He called the Labour Government `` Tony Blair 's lie machine . '' On 18 April 2003 , The Sun published an interview with Tony Blair who said : `` His comments were disgraceful and wrong . The National Executive will deal with it . '' At this time , Labour MP Tam Dalyell commented in Galloway 's defence : `` I think he is a deeply serious , committed politician and a man of great sincerity about the causes he takes up . '' On 6 May 2003 , David Triesman , then General Secretary of the Labour Party , suspended Galloway from holding office in the party , pending a hearing on charges that he had violated the party 's constitution by `` bringing the Labour Party into disrepute through behaviour that is prejudicial or grossly detrimental to the Party . '' Speaking on BBC Radio , Galloway said he stood by every word of the Abu Dhabi interview . The National Constitutional Committee , responsible for internal disciplinary matters , held a hearing on 22 October 2003 , to consider the charges , taking evidence from Galloway himself , from other party witnesses , viewing media interviews , and hearing character testimony from former Cabinet Minister Tony Benn , among others . The following day , the committee decided in favour of four of the five charges accusing Galloway of `` bringing the party into disrepute , '' and expelled Galloway from the Labour Party . A claim that , in a speech , he had congratulated a successful anti-war candidate from the Socialist Alliance in Preston was rejected . According to Ian McCartney , then Labour Party chairman , Galloway was the only Labour MP who `` incited foreign forces to rise up against British troops '' in the Iraq War . Galloway said after the NCC had decided on his expulsion : `` This was a politically motivated kangaroo court whose verdict had been written in advance in the best tradition of political show trials . '' Galloway claimed at the time that other MPs who had opposed the war , such as Bob Marshall Andrews and Glenda Jackson , would be expelled in due course ,

qw_8192--George_Galloway.txt

"In 2006 English politician George Galloway was widely quoted as saying that it would be ""morally justified if someone chose to assassinate "" whom?"

A proton is a subatomic particle , symbol or , with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge and mass slightly less than that of a neutron . Protons and neutrons , each with masses of approximately one atomic mass unit , are collectively referred to as `` nucleons '' . One or more protons are present in the nucleus of every atom . The number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an element , and is referred to as the atomic number ( represented by the symbol Z ) . Since each element has a unique number of protons , each element has its own unique atomic number . The word proton is Greek for `` first '' , and this name was given to the hydrogen nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1920 . In previous years Rutherford had discovered that the hydrogen nucleus ( known to be the lightest nucleus ) could be extracted from the nuclei of nitrogen by collision . Protons were therefore a candidate to be a fundamental particle and a building block of nitrogen and all other heavier atomic nuclei . In the modern Standard Model of particle physics , protons are hadrons , and like neutrons , the other nucleon ( particle present in atomic nuclei ) , are composed of three quarks . Although protons were originally considered fundamental or elementary particles , they are now known to be composed of three valence quarks : two up quarks and one down quark . The rest masses of quarks contribute only about 1 % of a proton 's mass , however . The remainder of a proton 's mass is due to quantum chromodynamics binding energy , which includes the kinetic energy of the quarks and the energy of the gluon fields that bind the quarks together . Because protons are not fundamental particles , they possess a physical size ; the radius of a proton is about 0.84–0.87 fm or to . At sufficiently low temperatures , free protons will bind to electrons . However , the character of such bound protons does not change , and they remain protons . A fast proton moving through matter will slow by interactions with electrons and nuclei , until it is captured by the electron cloud of an atom . The result is a protonated atom , which is a chemical compound of hydrogen . In vacuum , when free electrons are present , a sufficiently slow proton may pick up a single free electron , becoming a neutral hydrogen atom , which is chemically a free radical . Such `` free hydrogen atoms '' tend to react chemically with many other types of atoms at sufficiently low energies . When free hydrogen atoms react with each other , they form neutral hydrogen molecules ( H2 ) , which are the most common molecular component of molecular clouds in interstellar space . Such molecules of hydrogen on Earth may then serve ( among many other uses ) as a convenient source of protons for accelerators ( as used in proton therapy ) and other hadron particle physics experiments that require protons to accelerate , with the most powerful and noted example being the Large Hadron Collider . Description Protons are spin-½ fermions and are composed of three valence quarks , making them baryons ( a sub-type of hadrons ) . The two up quarks and one down quark of a proton are held together by the strong force , mediated by gluons . A modern perspective has a proton composed of the valence quarks ( up , up , down ) , the gluons , and transitory pairs of sea quarks . Protons have an approximately exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm . Protons and neutrons are both nucleons , which may be bound together by the nuclear force to form atomic nuclei . The nucleus of the most common isotope of the hydrogen atom ( with the chemical symbol `` H '' ) is a lone proton . The nuclei of the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium contain one proton bound to one and two neutrons , respectively . All other types of atomic nuclei are composed of two or more protons and various numbers of neutrons . History The concept of a hydrogen-like particle as a constituent of other atoms was developed over a long period . As early as 1815 , William Prout proposed that all atoms are composed of hydrogen atoms ( which he called `` protyles '' ) , based on a simplistic interpretation of early values of atomic weights ( see Prout 's hypothesis ) , which was disproved when more accurate values were measured . In 1886 , Eugen Goldstein discovered canal rays ( also known as anode rays ) and showed that they were positively charged particles ( ions ) produced from gases . However , since particles from different gases had different values of charge-to-mass ratio ( e/m ) , they could not be identified with a single particle , unlike the negative electrons discovered by J. J. Thomson . Following the discovery of the atomic nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1911 , Antonius van den Broek proposed that the place of each element in the periodic table ( its atomic number ) is equal to its nuclear charge . This was confirmed experimentally by Henry Moseley in 1913 using X-ray spectra . In 1917 ( in experiments reported in 1919 ) , Rutherford proved that the hydrogen nucleus is present in other nuclei , a result usually described as the discovery of protons . Rutherford had earlier learned to produce hydrogen nuclei as a type of radiation produced as a product of the impact of alpha particles on nitrogen gas , and recognize them by their unique penetration signature in air and their appearance in scintillation detectors . These experiments were begun when Rutherford had noticed that , when alpha particles were shot into air ( mostly nitrogen ) , his scintillation detectors showed the signatures of typical hydrogen nuclei as a product . After experimentation Rutherford traced the reaction to the nitrogen in air , and found that when alphas were produced into pure nitrogen gas , the effect was larger . Rutherford determined that this hydrogen could have come only from the nitrogen , and therefore nitrogen must contain hydrogen nuclei . One hydrogen nucleus was being knocked off by the impact of the alpha particle , producing oxygen-17 in the process . This was the first reported nuclear reaction , 14N + α → 17O + p. ( This reaction would later be observed happening directly in a cloud chamber in 1925 ) . Rutherford knew hydrogen to be the simplest and lightest element and was influenced by Prout 's hypothesis that hydrogen was the building block of all elements . Discovery that the hydrogen nucleus is present in all other nuclei as an elementary particle , led Rutherford to give the hydrogen nucleus a special name as a particle , since he suspected that hydrogen , the lightest element , contained only one of these particles . He named this new fundamental building block of the nucleus the proton , after the neuter singular of the Greek word for `` first '' , πρῶτον . However , Rutherford also had in mind the word protyle as used by Prout . Rutherford spoke at the British Association for the Advancement of Science at its Cardiff meeting beginning 24 August 1920 . Rutherford was asked by Oliver Lodge for a new name for the positive hydrogen nucleus to avoid confusion with the neutral hydrogen atom . He initially suggested both proton and prouton ( after Prout ) . Rutherford later reported that the meeting had accepted his suggestion that the hydrogen nucleus be named the `` proton '' , following Prout 's word `` protyle '' . The first use of the word `` proton '' in the scientific literature appeared in 1920 . Recent research has shown that thunderstorms can produce protons with energies of up to several tens of MeV . Stability The free proton ( a proton not bound to nucleons or electrons ) is a stable particle that has not been observed to break down spontaneously to other particles . Free protons are found naturally in a number of situations in which energies or temperatures are high enough to separate them from electrons , for which they have some affinity . Free protons exist in plasmas in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with electrons . Free protons of high energy and velocity make up 90 % of cosmic rays , which propagate in vacuum for interstellar distances . Free protons are emitted directly from atomic nuclei in some rare types of radioactive decay . Protons also result ( along with electrons and antineutrinos ) from the radioactive decay of free neutrons , which are unstable . The spontaneous decay of free protons has never been observed , and protons are therefore considered stable particles according to the Standard Model . However , some grand unified theories ( GUTs ) of particle physics predict that proton decay should take place with lifetimes between 1031 to 1036 years and experimental searches have established lower bounds on the mean lifetime of a proton for various assumed decay products . Experiments at the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan gave lower limits for proton mean lifetime of for decay to an antimuon and a neutral pion , and for decay to a positron and a neutral pion . Another experiment at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada searched for gamma rays resulting from residual nuclei resulting from the decay of a proton from oxygen-16 . This experiment was designed to detect decay to any product , and established a lower limit to a proton lifetime of . However , protons are known to transform into neutrons through the process of electron capture ( also called inverse beta decay ) . For free protons , this process does not occur spontaneously but only when energy is supplied . The equation is : + → + The process is reversible ; neutrons can convert back to protons through beta decay , a common form of radioactive decay . In fact , a free neutron decays this way , with a mean lifetime of about 15 minutes . Quarks and the mass of a proton In quantum chromodynamics , the modern theory of the nuclear force , most of the mass of protons and neutrons is explained by special relativity . The mass of a proton is about 80–100 times greater than the sum of the rest masses of the quarks that make it up , while the gluons have zero rest mass . The extra energy of the quarks and gluons in a region within a proton , as compared to the rest energy of the quarks alone in the QCD vacuum , accounts for almost 99 % of the mass . The rest mass of a proton is , thus , the invariant mass of the system of moving quarks and gluons that make up the particle , and , in such systems , even the energy of massless particles is still measured as part of the rest mass of the system . Two terms are used in referring to the mass of the quarks that make up protons : current quark mass refers to the mass of a quark by itself , while constituent quark mass refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the gluon particle field surrounding the quark . These masses typically have very different values . As noted , most of a proton 's mass comes from the gluons that bind the current quarks together , rather than from the quarks themselves . While gluons are inherently massless , they possess energy—to be more specific , quantum chromodynamics binding energy ( QCBE ) —and it is this that contributes so greatly to the overall mass of protons ( see mass in special relativity ) . A proton has a mass of approximately 938 MeV/c2 , of which the rest mass of its three valence quarks contributes only about 9.4 MeV/c2 ; much of the remainder can be attributed to the gluons ' QCBE . The internal dynamics of protons are complicated , because they are determined by the quarks ' exchanging gluons , and interacting with various vacuum condensates . Lattice QCD provides a way of calculating the mass of a proton directly from the theory to any accuracy , in principle . The most recent calculations claim that the mass is determined to better than 4 % accuracy , even to 1 % accuracy ( see Figure S5 in Dürr et al . ) . These claims are still controversial , because the calculations can not yet be done with quarks as light as they are in the real world . This means that the predictions are found by a process of extrapolation , which can introduce systematic errors . It is hard to tell whether these errors are controlled properly , because the quantities that are compared to experiment are the masses of the hadrons , which are known in advance . These recent calculations are performed by massive supercomputers , and , as noted by Boffi and Pasquini : `` a detailed description of the nucleon structure is still missing because ... long-distance behavior requires a nonperturbative and/or numerical treatment ... '' More conceptual approaches to the structure of protons are : the topological soliton approach originally due to Tony Skyrme and the more accurate AdS/QCD approach that extends it to include a string theory of gluons , various QCD-inspired models like the bag model and the constituent quark model , which were popular in the 1980s , and the SVZ sum rules , which allow for rough approximate mass calculations . These methods do not have the same accuracy as the more brute-force lattice QCD methods , at least not yet . Charge radius The problem of defining a radius for an atomic nucleus ( proton ) is similar to the problem of atomic radius , in that neither atoms nor their nuclei have definite boundaries . However , the nucleus can be modeled as a sphere of positive charge for the interpretation of electron scattering experiments : because there is no definite boundary to the nucleus , the electrons `` see '' a range of cross-sections , for which a mean can be taken . The qualification of `` rms '' ( for `` root mean square '' ) arises because it is the nuclear cross-section , proportional to the square of the radius , which is determining for electron scattering . The internationally accepted value of a proton 's charge radius is ( see orders of magnitude for comparison to other sizes ) . This value is based on measurements involving a proton and an electron ( namely , electron scattering measurements and complex calculation involving scattering cross section based on Rosenbluth equation for momentum-transfer cross section ) , and studies of the atomic energy levels of hydrogen and deuterium . However , in 2010 an international research team published a proton charge radius measurement via the Lamb shift in muonic hydrogen ( an exotic atom made of a proton and a negatively charged muon ) . Their measurement of the root-mean-square charge radius of a proton is `` , which differs by 5.0 standard deviations from the CODATA value of `` . In January 2013 , an updated value for the charge radius of a proton——was published . The precision was improved by 1.7 times , but the difference with CODATA value persisted at 7σ significance . The international research team that obtained this result at the Paul Scherrer Institut ( PSI ) in Villigen ( Switzerland ) includes scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics ( MPQ ) in Garching , the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität ( LMU ) Munich and the Institut für Strahlwerkzeuge ( IFWS ) of the Universität Stuttgart ( both from Germany ) , and the University of Coimbra , Portugal . They are now attempting to explain the discrepancy , and re-examining the results of both previous high-precision measurements and complex calculations involving scattering cross section . If no errors are found in the measurements or calculations , it could be necessary to re-examine the world 's most precise and best-tested fundamental theory : quantum electrodynamics . The proton radius remains a puzzle as of early 2015 . Perhaps the discrepancy is due to new physics or the explanation is an ordinary physics effect that has been missed . The radius is linked to the form factor and momentum transfer cross section . The atomic form factor G modifies the cross section corresponding to point-like proton . R_e^2 -6 { \frac { dG_e } { dq^2 } \ , \Bigg\vert\ , } _ { q^2 0 } \frac { d\sigma } { d\Omega } \ = { \frac { d\sigma } { d\Omega } \ , \Bigg\vert\ , } _ { point } G^2 ( q^2 ) The atomic form factor is related to the wave function density of the target : G ( q^2 ) = \int e^ { i qr } \psi ( r ) ^2 dr^3 The form factor can be split in electric and magnetic form factors . These can be further written as linear combinations of Dirac and Pauli form factors . G_m = F_D + F_P G_e = F_D - \tau F_P \frac { d\sigma } { d\Omega } \ = { \frac { d\sigma } { d\Omega } \ , \Bigg\vert\ , } _ { NS } \frac { 1 } { 1+\tau } ( G_e^2 ( q^2 ) + \frac { \tau } { \epsilon } G_m^2 ( q^2 ) ) Interaction of free protons with ordinary matter Although protons have affinity for oppositely charged electrons , free protons must lose sufficient velocity ( and kinetic energy ) in order to become closely associated and bound to electrons , since this is a relatively low-energy interaction . High energy protons , in traversing ordinary matter , lose energy by collisions with atomic nuclei , and by ionization of atoms ( removing electrons ) until they are slowed sufficiently to be captured by the electron cloud in a normal atom . However , in such an association with an electron , the character of the bound proton is not changed , and it remains a proton . The attraction of low-energy free protons to any electrons present in normal matter ( such as the electrons in normal atoms ) causes free protons to stop and to form a new chemical bond with an atom . Such a bond happens at any sufficiently `` cold '' temperature ( i.e. , comparable to temperatures at the surface of the Sun ) and with any type of atom . Thus , in interaction with any type of normal ( non-plasma ) matter , low-velocity free protons are attracted to electrons in any atom or molecule with which they come in contact , causing the proton and molecule to combine . Such molecules are then said to be `` protonated '' , and chemically they often , as a result , become so-called Bronsted acids . Proton in chemistry Atomic number In chemistry , the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number , which determines the chemical element to which the atom belongs . For example , the atomic number of chlorine is 17 ; this means that each chlorine atom has 17 protons and that all atoms with 17 protons are chlorine atoms . The chemical properties of each atom are determined by the number of ( negatively charged ) electrons , which for neutral atoms is equal to the number of ( positive ) protons so that the total charge is zero . For example , a neutral chlorine atom has 17 protons and 17 electrons , whereas a Cl− anion has 17 protons and 18 electrons for a total charge of −1 . All atoms of a given element are not necessarily identical , however , as the number of neutrons may vary to form different isotopes , and energy levels may differ forming different nuclear isomers . For example , there are two stable isotopes of chlorine : with 35 − 17 18 neutrons and with 37 − 17 20 neutrons . Hydrogen ion In chemistry , the term proton refers to the hydrogen ion , . Since the atomic number of hydrogen is 1 , a hydrogen ion has no electrons and corresponds to a bare nucleus , consisting of a proton ( and 0 neutrons for the most abundant isotope protium ) . The proton is a `` bare charge '' with only about 1/64,000 of the radius of a hydrogen atom , and so is extremely reactive chemically . The free proton , thus , has an extremely short lifetime in chemical systems such as liquids and it reacts immediately with the electron cloud of any available molecule . In aqueous solution , it forms the hydronium ion , H3O+ , which in turn is further solvated by water molecules in clusters such as [ H5O2 ] + and [ H9O4 ] + . The transfer of in an acid–base reaction is usually referred to as `` proton transfer '' . The acid is referred to as a proton donor and the base as a proton acceptor . Likewise , biochemical terms such as proton pump and proton channel refer to the movement of hydrated ions . The ion produced by removing the electron from a deuterium atom is known as a deuteron , not a proton . Likewise , removing an electron from a tritium atom produces a triton . Proton nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) Also in chemistry , the term `` proton NMR '' refers to the observation of hydrogen-1 nuclei in ( mostly organic ) molecules by nuclear magnetic resonance . This method uses the spin of the proton , which has the value one-half . The name refers to examination of protons as they occur in protium ( hydrogen-1 atoms ) in compounds , and does not imply that free protons exist in the compound being studied . Human exposure The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Packages ( ALSEP ) determined that more than 95 % of the particles in the solar wind are electrons and protons , in approximately equal numbers . Protons also have extrasolar origin from galactic cosmic rays , where they make up about 90 % of the total particle flux . These protons often have higher energy than solar wind protons , and their intensity is far more uniform and less variable than protons coming from the Sun , the production of which is heavily affected by solar proton events such as coronal mass ejections . Research has been performed on the dose-rate effects of protons , as typically found in space travel , on human health . To be more specific , there are hopes to identify what specific chromosomes are damaged , and to define the damage , during cancer development from proton exposure . Another study looks into determining `` the effects of exposure to proton irradiation on neurochemical and behavioral endpoints , including dopaminergic functioning , amphetamine-induced conditioned taste aversion learning , and spatial learning and memory as measured by the Morris water maze . Electrical charging of a spacecraft due to interplanetary proton bombardment has also been proposed for study . There are many more studies that pertain to space travel , including galactic cosmic rays and their possible health effects , and solar proton event exposure . The American Biostack and Soviet Biorack space travel experiments have demonstrated the severity of molecular damage induced by heavy ions on micro organisms including Artemia cysts . Antiproton CPT-symmetry puts strong constraints on the relative properties of particles and antiparticles and , therefore , is open to stringent tests . For example , the charges of a proton and antiproton must sum to exactly zero . This equality has been tested to one part in . The equality of their masses has also been tested to better than one part in . By holding antiprotons in a Penning trap , the equality of the charge to mass ratio of protons and antiprotons has been tested to one part in . The magnetic moment of antiprotons has been measured with error of nuclear Bohr magnetons , and is found to be equal and opposite to that of a proton .

odql_241--Proton.txt

Protons and Neutrons are both examples of which class of sub-atomic particle that takes its name from the Greek for 'heavy'?

My Brother Is an Only Child ( ) is a 2007 Italian drama film directed by Daniele Luchetti . It is based on an Antonio Pennacchi novel . The title comes from a song by Rino Gaetano from 1976 . Plot Accio ( Elio Germano ) and Manrico ( Riccardo Scamarcio ) are working class brothers who live in Italy in the 1960s . While his brother becomes drawn into left-wing politics , Accio , the hotheaded younger brother , is taken under the wing of a market trader and while under his influence , joins the Fascist party . Accio ( `` Bully '' ) is a nickname he is proud of because it makes him seem tough . Manrico and their sister Violetta are alarmed to hear their brother listening to Benito Mussolini 's speeches in his room . Manrico often physically torments his brother , including stuffing his head in the barrel under the drain pipe of their house . Accio once runs away from home because his mother voted for the Houses Party . Their house is falling apart and she thinks the Houses Party will help them rebuild it . As Accio and Manrico get older they start demonstrating as members of the Fascist party and the Communist movement respectively . ( There are scenes of a factory occupation , and the occupation of the Rome conservatoire , where the sister is studying the cello . ) The film is relatively even handed in its treatment of politics . If the young fascists seem absurd with their chanting of 'Duce ! Duce ! ' , and their actions constantly tending to violence , the communists are hardly less so : Schiller 's words in the final movement of Beethoven 's choral symphony are replaced by a hymn in praise of Mao Zedong , Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin ; a meeting of activists consists of a room full of bearded men all shouting at once and only agreeing when the time comes to shout a slogan . Francesca , Manrico 's girlfriend , becomes Accio 's friend . Accio secretly likes her and thinks that she should not stay with Manrico because `` he ca n't be depended on '' . The viewer is in little doubt that Accio is also attracted to Francesca himself . At the same time , he has himself become sexually involved with the wife of his fascist friend , the market trader , who has been imprisoned for his violent political activities . She buys him a car through an installment plan . Eventually Accio ends up leaving the Fascist party and tearing up his membership card when party members burn his brother 's car . He also breaks up with his older lover , telling her that he cares for someone else , but not replying when asked if he is loved in return . But while Accio largely pulls out of political activism , his brother is drawn deeper into revolutionary violence . After disappearing for two years , he calls home . Accio travels to meet him and telephones Francesca , who twice quickly hangs up on him . When they meet in a cafe , Manrico sees Francesca arriving unexpectedly , but also the police who have perhaps been tailing her or tapping her telephone . He flees but dies in an exchange of ( handgun ) fire with the pursuing police . Accio then breaks into the corrupt and inefficient housing office to seize the waiting keys and the records of the homeless . He distributes keys and a party of homeless families take possession in the middle of the same night . The film ends with Accio living with his family , including his brother 's small son . Cast * Elio Germano as Accio Benassi * Riccardo Scamarcio as Manrico Benassi * Angela Finocchiaro as Amelia Benassi * Massimo Popolizio as Ettore Benassi * Ascanio Celestini as Padre Cavalli * Diane Fleri as Francesca * Alba Rohrwacher as Violetta Benassi * Vittorio Emanuele Propizio as Young Accio * Claudio Botosso as Prof. Montagna * Ninni Bruschetta as Segretario Bombacci * Anna Bonaiuto as Bella Nastri * Luca Zingaretti as Mario Nastri * Pasquale Sammarco as Padre Tosi * Lorenzo Pagani as Bertini * Matteo Sacchi as Ragazzo Biliardino Critical reception The film received generally positive reviews from critics . The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 86 % of critics gave the film positive reviews , based on 59 reviews . Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 71 out of 100 , based on 19 reviews . Awards The film won four David di Donatello Awards—Best Actor ( Elio Germano ) , Best Supporting Actress ( Angela Finocchiaro ) , Best Screenplay , Best Editing .

qw_869--My_Brother_Is_an_Only_Child.txt

Which 2007 Italian drama film directed by Daniele Luchetti is based on Antonio Pennacchi's novel?

David Alexander De Horne `` Dave '' Rowntree ( born 8 May 1964 ) https : //books.google.co.uk/books ? id XjIDAwAAQBAJ & pgPT54 & lpg PT54 & dqDAVE+ROWNTREE+1964 & source bl & otsh0xgXWghIh & sig -ZtXhLoJhyZ2BX9Jkyex8MdXSm0 & hlen & sa X & ved0ahUKEwiNjMH2gd_NAhXELhoKHfTtDgM4ChDoAQguMAQ # v onepage & qDAVE % 20ROWNTREE % 201964 & f false is an English musician , solicitor , animator and political activist . He is best known as the drummer for the rock band Blur . Early life Born in Colchester , Essex , Rowntree was born to musical parents – Susan , a viola player , and John , a sound engineer at the BBC . He attended the Gilberd School , Colchester during the week , and the Landermere Music School , Thorpe-le-Soken , at weekends , where he studied percussion . He played percussion with his father in the Colchester Silver Band , a brass band . After leaving school he studied for a Higher National Diploma ( HND ) in Computer Science at Thames Polytechnic , and started his career as a computer programmer for Colchester Borough Council . Career Rowntree had played in bands with Graham Coxon while the two were growing up in Colchester , and knew Coxon 's father who taught jazz classes at Landermere . In 1989 Coxon introduced Rowntree to Damon Albarn , who was forming a band around Goldsmiths , University of London . Rowntree was asked to join , and left his job to move to London . With the addition of Alex James , and after many name changes , the band settled on Blur and were signed to EMI . Rowntree is a computer animator , and owns an animation company called Nanomation . He directed two series of the South Park-esque animated show Empire Square , which made its TV debut on Channel 4 on 18 February 2005 . He is also interested in computer graphics and has contributed to three research papers on topics related to non-photorealistic rendering . Rowntree trained to become a solicitor when Blur took a hiatus in 2006 . He is employed in the criminal department of Kingsley Napley , a firm of solicitors based in Farringdon , central London . He is also a presenter for Global Radio 's alternative rock radio station Radio X ( United Kingdom ) in the UK and hosts a regular show on Sunday nights from 9pm to 11pm . Politics Rowntree has been a keen activist and supporter of the Labour Party since becoming a member in 2002 , and is chairman of London 's West End branch . In April 2007 he unsuccessfully contested the safe Conservative seat of Marylebone High Street on Westminster City Council . In July 2008 he fought the Labour seat of Church Street , a Labour stronghold since its creation in the 1960s , but a swing from Labour to the Conservatives of 14.1 % meant that he was again unsuccessful as the Conservatives gained the seat . In February 2008 , he was selected by the Cities of London and Westminster Constituency Labour Party to stand against Conservative MP Mark Field at the 2010 General Election . He was defeated at that election . In 2011 , Rowntree contested to become the Labour candidate for Norwich South at the next election . He lost to Clive Lewis , a journalist and former soldier , who went on to be elected . Rowntree supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq and in 2007 said , `` I 'm not a pacifist , I do believe that some things are worth fighting for , and dying for . I understand that that 's easier to say , I 'm not being the one who 's asked to die , but Saddam was such an illegal ruthless bastard I did n't shed any tears for it [ the war ] . '' Rowntree is a committed opponent of the death penalty and patron of Amicus , an organisation that provides legal representation to those on Death Row in the United States . In August 2014 , Rowntree was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September 's referendum on that issue . Other interests He has continued to take an interest in computer science , and in the early days of the Linux operating system wrote a device driver to enable a particular CD-ROM card to work with the operating system . He has also campaigned against prosecution of internet music filesharers , and is a member of the Advisory Council of the Open Rights Group , a United Kingdom-based digital rights NGO . When asked on Blur 's website how he felt about single `` Out of Time '' being leaked on the Internet before its release he replied `` I 'd rather it gushed '' . Rowntree obtained a full pilot 's licence in 1995 . Rowntree also holds a foundation licence for amateur radio in the UK using the callsign M6DRQ Rowntree is a founding director of the Featured Artists Coalition .

odql_3370--Dave_Rowntree.txt

Daman Albarn, Graham Coxon,Alex James and Dave Rowntree form or formed which band?

Morris Cowley was a name given to various cars produced by Morris from 1915 to 1958 . Morris Cowley Bullnose ( 1915 ) The Continental Cowley , shown to the press in April 1915 , was a larger engined ( 1495 cc against 1018 cc ) , longer , wider and better equipped version of the first Morris Oxford with the same `` Bullnose '' radiator ; in addition it could carry a four-passenger body . To reduce the price many components were bought from United States suppliers . The 1495 cc , side valve , four cylinder engine was made by Continental Motor Manufacturing Company of Detroit , and the clutch and three speed gearbox by Detroit Gear & Machine Co. Back axle , front axle and steering gear also came from the USA . Supply of these components was badly affected by World War I . The suspension used semi elliptic leaf springs at the front and three quarter elliptics at the rear.L P Jarman and R I Barraclough , The Bullnose and Flatnose Morris , David & Charles , Newton Abbott , UK 1976 The central position of the handbrake and ball change gear lever revealed the gearbox 's US origin . It also made for easy entry through the driver 's door and no cold steel up a driver 's leg . The petrol tank was in the scuttle and its filler was above the gear lever in the centre of the dashboard . The US-made back axle was the first helically cut drive in a quantity produced British car . Electric lighting was standard . It was the first Morris car to be sold like that . The 6-volt Lucas lamps were a set of five , powered by a belt-driven dynamo fixed to the engine by its cylinder head studs . The cost of these few electrical components was equivalent to 59 % of the cost of the imported engine . The delivery van body was not provided with electric lighting . More expensive than Oxford There was no austerity for the Cowley though it was at first slightly cheaper than the Oxford . There was diamond patterned buttoned upholstery in real leather set off by mahogany cappings , and a proper door for the driver . The mudguards were black and the standard body colour was a chocolate brown . The Cowley did not become a stripped down Oxford until 1919 . McKenna duties Although first shown to the press in April 1915 the new car was not generally available until late summer that year just when the government suddenly imposed the McKenna duties . A tax of 33 % was imposed on imported `` luxury '' goods but demand for the Cowleys seemed to ignore the price rises . source The last Continental Cowley was assembled in 1920 finishing the stock of original engines . Three thousand engines were despatched to Morris but more than half were lost by enemy action while crossing the Atlantic leaving around 1,500 sets of certain chassis components unsold . More recent research suggests that there may have been only one shipment of about 150 lost through enemy action and orders for more shipments were cancelled . Designed for mass production Excellent American automobile engineering and production techniques made the first Cowley a great success . The cars were the right design for quantity production when Morris entered quantity production in the 1920s and their high quality engineering created a reputation for utter reliability and resistance to the most shocking abuse . Bullnose and Flatnose engines U.S. and Coventry made Morris Cowley Bullnose ( 1919 ) The updated Cowley for 1919 had an engine made by the British branch of the French Hotchkiss company , which was essentially a copy of the early Continental unit which was no longer being made . It was the basic model of the Morris two car range of the time with the Oxford , which used the same 1.5L 26 bhp engine until 1923 , having leather upholstery and upgraded lighting as the de-luxe version . Morris acquired the British interests of Hotchkiss in 1923 and renamed them Morris engines branch . File : Morris COWLEY dutch licence registration ZZ-08-71 pic2.JPG|Open two-seater c. 1922 File : BullnoseMorris.jpg|Four door tourerregistered 7 March 1922 Museum of Lincolnshire Life , Lincoln , England - DSCF1840.JPG|Drophead coupé c. 1922 1926 Morris Cowley 2-seater with dickey.jpg|Head down dickey open 1926 Morris Bullnose Cowley RW6677.jpg|Head up dickey closed 1926 Morris Bullnose Cowley front RW6677.jpg|Cowley narrow bullnose Morris Cowley Flatnose ( 1926–1931 ) The Bullnose radiator was replaced by a more conventional flat radiator announced 11 September 1926 on new cars now with doors either side and a longer list of accessories supplied as standard . All steel bodies were coming available . The engines remained the same , but the Cowley unlike the Oxford , retained braking on the rear wheels only as standard , although a front brake system was available at extra cost ( featured car has this fitted ) . The chassis was new and the suspension was updated with semi elliptic leaf springs all round plus Smiths friction type scissor shock absorbers . The brakes are rod and spring operated with cams inside the drums to actuate . Interesting to note that the rear brake drums include two sets of shoes , one of which is connected directly to the handbrake . The chassis was further modified in 1931 to bring it in line with the Morris Major . Wire wheels became an option instead of the solid spoked artillery ones previously fitted . 1925 Morris Cowley 8051496928.jpg|Four-door tourer 1926 1925 Morris Cowley 8051491193.jpg|rear view 1930 Morris Cowley 9117982897.jpg|4-dr 6-light saloon 1930 1929 Morris Cowley 8953585611.jpg|Two-seater tourer 1929 1929 Morris Cowley ( 8954805146 ) .jpg|rear view 1929 Morris Cowley instruments & controls.jpg|Instruments and controls Morris Cowley ( 1931 ) A considerably changed Cowley was announced on 29 August 1931 . In common with the rest of the Morris range the coachwork of the now six models of Cowley was redesigned for a more pleasing appearance with a fashionable `` eddy-free '' leading edge to the roof of closed cars , petrol tanks located at the rear of the chassis , chrome finish to all bright parts , Magna type wire wheels as standard . There was a new chassis frame giving a lower body . Springs had been made longer and more resilient . Bigger brake drums were provided and the brakes were now actuated hydraulically and supplied by Lockheed . There was a new radiator to match with the large hub wire wheels . The engine 's connecting rods were now Duralumin . A sports coupé body was added to the range . Either the 11.9 or 14/32 engine was supplied to order for the same price.Cars Of 1932 . The Times , Saturday , Aug 29 , 1931 ; pg . 3 ; Issue 45914 There were no more four seater tourers . Revised A revised ( `` transformed '' said the advertising ) lower body with a new 11.9 hp engine behind a new , sloping , radiator and still of the same 1548 cc was announced 28 August 1933 along with a four-speed Twin-Top syncromesh gearbox , shorter stronger cruciform chassis , leather upholstery , draught excluders over the gear lever and pedal slots and a battery master switch ( in case of fire ) . Closed cars were given a sun visor . Additional equipment included bumpers front and rear and luggage grid and parcel net Morris Twelve From late 1934 this car was badged Morris Twelve Four . Morris Cowley Six Announced 28 August 1933 the 1934 Cowley Six replaced the Morris Major keeping the same 1938 cc six cylinder , side valve engine but with a new lower chassis . Along with all other Morris cars the Cowley now has a syncromesh four-speed gearbox , dipping headlights , hydraulic shock absorbers , leather upholstery , hydraulic brakes , rear petrol tank , direction indicators , safety glass , battery master switches and automatic ignition . There was a matching smaller 12 hp 1378 cc Morris Ten Six.Cars Of 1934 . The Times , Monday , Aug 28 , 1933 ; pg . 6 ; Issue 46534 Prices : * Saloon £215 or £220 fixed or sliding head * Special coupé £265 The Cowley Six became the Fifteen-Six in 1935 . Morris Cowley MCV ( 1950–1956 ) The Cowley name never appeared on the commercial vehicles but became associated nomenclature in 1950 when a range of commercial vehicles based on the Morris Oxford MO was introduced . The Cowley MCV was offered in van , pick-up and chassis-cab versions . The 10cwt MCV van was a replacement for the Morris Y-series van and had a capacity of 120 cuft or 138 cuft without the passenger seat . ½-ton series III The Morris ½-ton series III was a commercial vehicle variant of the Morris Oxford series III . [ http : //www.aronline.co.uk/blogs/2011/09/25/ar-commercials-car-derived-vanspick-ups/ Commercials : Car derived vans/pick-ups , www.aronline.co.uk ] Retrieved on 23 April 2012 It was introduced in 1956 , replacing the Morris Cowley MCV and was offered in van , pick-up and chassis-cab body styles . The series III was replaced by a Morris version of the Austin A55 van in 1962 . The commercials never had the series III bonnet and headlamp cowels . Again the Cowley name never appeared on the vehicles and it is very likely that no more left the factory after 1960 . A gown van based on this vehicle appears in the Peter Sellars film Wrong Arm of the Law . 1954 Morris Cowley The 1954 Morris Cowley was a four-cylinder midsize car produced from 1954 to 1959 . It was essentially a budget version of the Morris Oxford series III with less chrome , no heater , fixed front quarter lights and a simplified dashboard . Morris Cowley 1200 This new Morris Cowley was launched on 14 July 1954 as a smaller engined more simply furnished supplement to the Morris Oxford series II launched two months earlier.The Motor , 21 July 1954 The engine , the 1.2 L ( 1200 cc ) B-Series unit was a new design also used in the Austin A40 and Nash Metropolitan . Its power output was 42 bhp at 4,500 rpm . The monocoque body shell was that of the four door Morris Oxford series II , the Cowley also sharing its torsion beam front suspension and live rear axle but with smaller 8 in brake drums on early models . Some of the Oxford 's exterior chrome has been removed to simplify the appearance and some has been replaced with stainless steel . Plastic-covered felt has been used in place of interior carpet . Quarter lights are fixed on the Cowley though the main windows wind down in the usual way . Steering was of the conventional rack and pinion type . The car had a top speed of just over 70 mi/h . The British Motor magazine tested a Cowley saloon in 1955 recording a top speed of and acceleration from 0–60 mph in 31.5 seconds and a fuel consumption of . The test car cost £702 including taxes . Morris Cowley 1500 On 12 October 1956 it was announced that the 1200 engine had been replaced by the Oxford 's larger 1.5 L ( 1489 cc ) engine and the exterior styling amended in line with the Morris Oxford Series III .

dpql_4525--Morris_Cowley.txt

What nickname was given to the Morris Cowley due to its appearance?

RMS Titanic was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean in the early morning of 15 April 1912 , after colliding with an iceberg during her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City . Of the 2,224 passengers and crew aboard , more than 1,500 died in the sinking , making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history . The largest ship afloat at the time it entered service , the RMS Titanic was the second of three Olympic class ocean liners operated by the White Star Line , and was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast . Thomas Andrews , her architect , died in the disaster . Under the command of Edward Smith , the ship carried some of the wealthiest people in the world , as well as hundreds of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland , Scandinavia and elsewhere throughout Europe seeking a new life in North America . A high-power radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger `` marconigrams '' and for the ship 's operational use . Although Titanic had advanced safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors , there were not enough lifeboats to accommodate all of those aboard due to outdated maritime safety regulations . Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people—slightly more than half of the number on board , and one third of her total capacity . After leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912 , Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown ( now Cobh ) in Ireland before heading west to New York . On 14 April 1912 , four days into the crossing and about 375 mi south of Newfoundland , she hit an iceberg at 11:40 p.m. ship 's time . The collision caused the ship 's hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea ; the ship gradually filled with water . Meanwhile , passengers and some crew members were evacuated in lifeboats , many of which were launched only partially loaded . A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a `` women and children first '' protocol for loading lifeboats . At 2:20 a.m. , she broke apart and foundered—with well over one thousand people still aboard . Just under two hours after Titanic sank , the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene of the sinking , where she brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors . The disaster was greeted with worldwide shock and outrage at the huge loss of life and the regulatory and operational failures that had led to it . Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to major improvements in maritime safety . One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea ( SOLAS ) , which still governs maritime safety today . Additionally , several new wireless regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications—which could have saved many more passengers . The wreck of Titanic remains on the seabed , split in two and gradually disintegrating at a depth of 12415 ft . Since her discovery in 1985 , thousands of artefacts have been recovered and put on display at museums around the world . Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history ; her memory is kept alive by numerous works of popular culture , including books , folk songs , films , exhibits , and memorials . Background The name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic . Built in Belfast , Ireland , in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ( as it was then known ) , the RMS Titanic was the second of the three Olympic-class ocean liners—the first was the RMS Olympic and the third was the HMHS Britannic . They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line 's fleet , which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912 . The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line 's chairman , J. Bruce Ismay , and the American financier J. P. Morgan , who controlled the White Star Line 's parent corporation , the International Mercantile Marine Co. ( IMM ) . The White Star Line faced an increasing challenge from its main rivals Cunard , which had recently launched the and the —the fastest passenger ships then in service—and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd . Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be larger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury . The company sought an upgrade in their fleet primarily in response to the Cunard giants but also to replace their oldest pair of passenger ships still in service , being the SS Teutonic of 1889 and SS Majestic of 1890 . Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic . Majestic would be brought back into her old spot on White Star 's New York service after Titanics loss . The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff , who had a long-established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867 . Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line ; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design . Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships , plus a five percent profit margin . In the case of the Olympic-class ships , a cost of £3 million for the first two ships was agreed plus `` extras to contract '' and the usual five percent fee . Harland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing the Olympic-class vessels . The design was overseen by Lord Pirrie , a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line ; naval architect Thomas Andrews , the managing director of Harland and Wolff 's design department ; Edward Wilding , Andrews ' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship 's design , stability and trim ; and Alexander Carlisle , the shipyard 's chief draughtsman and general manager . Carlisle 's responsibilities included the decorations , equipment and all general arrangements , including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design . On 29 July 1908 , Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives . Ismay approved the design and signed three `` letters of agreement '' two days later authorising the start of construction . At this point the first ship—which was later to become Olympic—had no name , but was referred to simply as `` Number 400 '' , as it was Harland and Wolff 's four hundredth hull . Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401 . Dimensions and layout Titanic was 882 ft long with a maximum breadth of 92 ft . Her total height , measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge , was 104 ft. She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 ft , she displaced 52,310 tons . All three of the Olympic-class ships had ten decks ( excluding the top of the officers ' quarters ) , eight of which were for passenger use . From top to bottom , the decks were : * The Boat Deck , on which the lifeboats were housed . It was from here during the early hours of 15 April 1912 that Titanics lifeboats were lowered into the North Atlantic . The bridge and wheelhouse were at the forward end , in front of the captain 's and officers ' quarters . The bridge stood 8 ft above the deck , extending out to either side so that the ship could be controlled while docking . The wheelhouse stood directly behind and above the bridge . The entrance to the First Class Grand Staircase and gymnasium were located midships along with the raised roof of the First Class lounge , while at the rear of the deck were the roof of the First Class smoke room and the relatively modest Second Class entrance . The wood-covered deck was divided into four segregated promenades : for officers , First Class passengers , engineers , and Second Class passengers respectively . Lifeboats lined the side of the deck except in the First Class area , where there was a gap so that the view would not be spoiled . * A Deck , also called the Promenade Deck , extended along the entire 546 ft length of the superstructure . It was reserved exclusively for First Class passengers and contained First Class cabins , the First Class lounge , smoke room , reading and writing rooms and Palm Court . * B Deck , the Bridge Deck , was the top weight-bearing deck and the uppermost level of the hull . More First Class passenger accommodation was located here with six palatial staterooms ( cabins ) featuring their own private promenades . On Titanic , the A La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien provided luxury dining facilities to First Class passengers . Both were run by subcontracted chefs and their staff ; all were lost in the disaster . The Second Class smoking room and entrance hall were both located on this deck . The raised forecastle of the ship was forward of the Bridge Deck , accommodating Number 1 hatch ( the main hatch through to the cargo holds ) , numerous pieces of machinery and the anchor housings . Aft of the Bridge Deck was the raised Poop Deck , 106 ft long , used as a promenade by Third Class passengers . It was where many of Titanics passengers and crew made their last stand as the ship sank . The forecastle and Poop Deck were separated from the Bridge Deck by well decks . * C Deck , the Shelter Deck , was the highest deck to run uninterrupted from stem to stern . It included both well decks ; the aft one served as part of the Third Class promenade . Crew cabins were housed below the forecastle and Third Class public rooms were housed below the Poop Deck . In between were the majority of First Class cabins and the Second Class library . * D Deck , the Saloon Deck , was dominated by three large public rooms—the First Class Reception Room , the First Class Dining Saloon and the Second Class Dining Saloon . An open space was provided for Third Class passengers . First , Second and Third Class passengers had cabins on this deck , with berths for firemen located in the bow . It was the highest level reached by the ship 's watertight bulkheads ( though only by eight of the fifteen bulkheads ) . * E Deck , the Upper Deck , was predominantly used for passenger accommodation for all three classes plus berths for cooks , seamen , stewards and trimmers . Along its length ran a long passageway nicknamed Scotland Road , in reference to a famous street in Liverpool . Scotland Road was used by Third Class passengers and crew members . * F Deck , the Middle Deck , was the last complete deck and mainly accommodated Second and Third Class passengers and several departments of the crew . The Third Class dining saloon was located here , as were the swimming pool and Turkish bath . * G Deck , the Lower Deck , was the lowest complete deck that carried passengers , and had the lowest portholes , just above the waterline . The squash court was located here along with the travelling post office where letters and parcels were sorted ready for delivery when the ship docked . Food was also stored here . The deck was interrupted at several points by orlop ( partial ) decks over the boiler , engine and turbine rooms . * The Orlop Decks and the Tank Top were on the lowest level of the ship , below the waterline . The orlop decks were used as cargo spaces , while the Tank Top—the inner bottom of the ship 's hull—provided the platform on which the ship 's boilers , engines , turbines and electrical generators were housed . This area of the ship was occupied by the engine and boiler rooms , areas which passengers would not be permitted to see . They were connected with higher levels of the ship by flights of stairs ; twin spiral stairways near the bow provided access up to D Deck . Features Power Titanic was equipped with three main engines—two reciprocating four-cylinder , triple-expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low-pressure Parsons turbine—each driving a propeller . The two reciprocating engines had a combined output of 30,000 hp and a further 16,000 hp was contributed by the turbine . The White Star Line had used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner , the SS Laurentic , where it had been a great success . It provided a good combination of performance and speed ; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic-class liner at the desired speeds , while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations , a problem that affected the all-turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania . By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine , fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased , while using the same amount of steam . The two reciprocating engines were each 63 ft long and weighed 720 tons , with their bedplates contributing a further 195 tons . They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers , 24 of which were double-ended and five single-ended , which contained a total of 159 furnaces . The boilers were 15 ft in diameter and 20 ft long , each weighing 91.5 tons and capable of holding 48.5 tons of water . They were heated by burning coal , 6,611 tons of which could be carried in Titanics bunkers with a further 1,092 tons in Hold 3 . The furnaces required over 600 tons of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand , requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock . 100 tons of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea . The work was relentless , dirty and dangerous , and although firemen were paid relatively generously there was a high suicide rate among those who worked in that capacity . Exhaust steam leaving the reciprocating engines was fed into the turbine , which was situated aft . From there it passed into a condenser , to increase the efficiency of the turbine and so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused . The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers . There were three , one for each engine ; the outer ( or wing ) propellers were the largest , each carrying three blades of manganese-bronze alloy with a total diameter of . The middle propeller was slightly smaller at 17 ft in diameter , and could be stopped but not reversed . Titanics electrical plant was capable of producing more power than an average city power station of the time . Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400 kW steam-driven electric generators , used to provide electrical power to the ship , plus two 30 kW auxiliary generators for emergency use . Their location in the stern of the ship meant that they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship sank . Technology Watertight compartments and funnels The interiors of the Olympic-class ships were subdivided into 16 primary compartments divided by 15 bulkheads which extended well above the waterline . Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency . The ships ' exposed decking was made of pine and teak , while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation . Standing above the decks were four funnels , each painted buff with black tops , ( though only three were functional—the last one was a dummy , installed for aesthetic purposes and also for kitchen ventilation ) —and two masts , each 155 ft high , which supported derricks for working cargo . Rudder and steering engines Titanics rudder was large enough—at 78 ft high and 15 ft long , weighing over 100 tons—that it required steering engines to move it . Two steam-powered steering engines were installed though only one was used at any one time , with the other one kept in reserve . They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs , to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction . As a last resort , the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans . The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship 's five anchors ( one port , one starboard , one in the centreline and two kedging anchors ) . Water , ventilation and heating The ship was equipped with her own waterworks , capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves . The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port , but in an emergency the ship could also distil fresh water from seawater , though this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant quickly became clogged by salt deposits . A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air , driven by electric fans , around the ship , and First Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters . Radio communications Titanics radiotelegraph equipment ( then known as wireless telegraphy ) was leased to the White Star Line by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company , which also supplied two of its employees , Jack Phillips and Harold Bride , as operators . The service maintained a 24-hour schedule , primarily sending and receiving passenger telegrams , but also handling navigation messages including weather reports and ice warnings . The radio room was located on the Boat Deck , in the officers ' quarters . A soundproofed `` Silent Room '' , next to the operating room , housed loud equipment , including the transmitter and a motor-generator used for producing alternating currents . The operators ' living quarters were adjacent to the working office . The ship was equipped with a 'state of the art ' 5 kilowatt rotary spark-gap transmitter , operating under the radio callsign MGY , and communication was conducted in Morse code . This transmitter was one of the first Marconi installations to use a rotary spark gap , which gave Titanic a distinctive musical tone that could be readily distinguished from other signals . The transmitter was one of the most powerful in the world , and guaranteed to broadcast over a radius of 350 mi . An elevated T-antenna that spanned the length of the ship was used for transmitting and receiving . The normal operating frequency was 500 kHz ( 600 m wavelength ) , however the equipment could also operate on the `` short '' wavelength of 1000 kHz ( 300 m wavelength ) that was employed by smaller vessels with shorter antennas . Passenger facilities The passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury . According to Titanics general arrangement plans , the ship could accommodate 833 First Class Passengers , 614 in Second Class and 1,006 in Third Class , for a total passenger capacity of 2,453 . In addition , her capacity for crew members exceeded 900 , as most documents of her original configuration have stated that her full carrying capacity for both passengers and crew was approximately 3,547 . Her interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners , which had typically been decorated in the rather heavy style of a manor house or an English country house . Titanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high-class hotels—the Ritz Hotel was a reference point—with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style . A variety of other decorative styles , ranging from the Renaissance to Victorian , were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship . The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship ; as one passenger recalled , on entering the ship 's interior a passenger would `` at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship , and seem instead to be entering the hall of some great house on shore '' . Passengers could use an on-board telephone system , a lending library and a large barber shop . The First Class section had a swimming pool , a gymnasium , a squash court , a Turkish bath , an electric bath and a Verandah Cafe . First Class common rooms were adorned with ornate wood panelling , expensive furniture and other decorations , while the Third Class general room had pine panelling and sturdy teak furniture . The Café Parisien was located on a sunlit veranda fitted with trellis decorations and offered the best French haute cuisine for First Class passengers . Third Class ( also commonly referred to as Steerage ) accommodations aboard Titanic were not as luxurious as First Class , but even so were better than on many other ships of the time . They reflected the improved standards which the White Star Line had adopted for trans-Atlantic immigrant and lower-class travel . On most other North Atlantic passenger ships at the time , Third Class accommodations consisted of little more than open dormitories in the forward end of the vessels , in which hundreds of people were confined , often without adequate food or toilet facilities . The White Star Line had long since broken that mould . As seen aboard Titanic , all White Star Line passenger ships divided their Third Class accommodations into two sections , always at opposite ends of the vessel from one another . The established arrangement was that single men were quartered in the forward areas , while single women , married couples and families were quartered aft . In addition , while other ships provided only open berth sleeping arrangements , White Star Line vessels provided their Third Class passengers with private , small but comfortable cabins capable of accommodating two , four , six , eight and 10 passengers . Third Class accommodations also included their own dining rooms , as well as public gathering areas including adequate open deck space , which aboard Titanic included the Forecastle Deck forward , the Poop Deck aft , both well decks and a large open space on D Deck which could be used as a social hall . This was supplemented by the addition of a smoking room for men and a reading room for women , and although they were not as glamorous in design as spaces seen in upper class accommodations , they were still far above average for the period . Leisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time . As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library , smoking rooms , and gymnasium , it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck , promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches . A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board , and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage . One of Titanics most distinctive features was her First Class staircase , known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway . This descended through seven decks of the ship , from the Boat Deck to E deck in the elegant style depicted in photographs and movies , and then as a more functional and less elegant staircase from there down to F deck . It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light . Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls lit by gold-plated light fixtures . At the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock , with figures of `` Honour and Glory Crowning Time '' flanking the clock face . The Grand Staircase was destroyed in Titanics sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks . During the filming of James Cameron 's Titanic in 1997 , his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set . It has been suggested that during the real event , the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome . Mail and cargo Although Titanic was primarily a passenger liner , she also carried a substantial amount of cargo . Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship ( RMS ) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail ( and also for the United States Post Office Department ) . For the storage of letters , parcels and specie ( bullion , coins and other valuables ) 26800 cuft of space in her holds was allocated . The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks ; three Americans and two Britons , who worked 13 hours a day , seven days a week sorting up to 60,000 items daily . The ship 's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage ; another 19455 cuft was taken up by first- and second-class baggage . In addition , there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo , ranging from furniture to foodstuffs and even motor cars . Despite later myths , the cargo on Titanics maiden voyage was fairly mundane ; there was no gold , exotic minerals or diamonds , and one of the more famous items lost in the shipwreck , a jewelled copy of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam , was valued at only £405 ( £ today ) . According to the claims for compensation filed with Commissioner Gilchrist , following the conclusion of the Senate Inquiry , the single most highly valued item of luggage or cargo was a large neoclassical oil painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain by French artist Merry-Joseph Blondel . The painting ’ s owner , first class passenger Mauritz Håkan Björnström-Steffansson , filed a claim for $ 100,000 ( $ 2.4 million equivalent in 2014 ) in compensation for the loss of the artwork . Titanic was equipped with eight electric cranes , four electric winches and three steam winches to lift cargo and baggage in and out of the hold . It is estimated that the ship used some 415 tons of coal whilst in Southampton , simply generating steam to operate the cargo winches and provide heat and light . Lifeboats Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats : 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt `` collapsible '' ( wooden bottom , collapsible canvas sides ) lifeboats ( identified as A to D ) with a capacity of 47 people each . In addition , she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each . Olympic herself did not even carry the four collapsibles A–D during the 1911–12 season . All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and , except for collapsible lifeboats A and B , connected to davits by ropes . Those on the starboard side were odd-numbered 1–15 from bow to stern , while those on the port side were even-numbered 2–16 from bow to stern . The two cutters were kept swung out , hanging from the davits , ready for immediate use , while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck ( connected to davits ) immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively . A and B were stored on

sfq_261--RMS_Titanic.txt

Which Cunard liner launched in 1903 rescued 705 survivors of the Titanic disaster in 1912?

A letter is a grapheme ( written character ) in an alphabetic system of writing , such as the Greek alphabet and its descendants . Letters also appear in abjads and abugidas ( variants of alphabets in which vowel marking is secondary or absent ) . Letters broadly denote phonemes in the spoken form of the language , although there is rarely a consistent exact correspondence between letters and phonemes . Written signs in other writing systems are best called syllabograms ( which denote a syllable ) or logograms ( which denote a word or phrase ) . Definition and usage `` Letter , '' borrowed from Old French lettre , entered Middle English around AD 1200 , eventually displacing the native English term bocstaf ( i.e . bookstaff ) . Letter derives from Latin littera , which may have derived , via Etruscan , from the Greek `` διφθέρα '' ( writing tablet ) . The Middle English plural lettres could refer to an epistle or written document , reflecting the use of the Latin plural litteræ . Use of the singular letter to refer to a written document emerged in the 14th century . As symbols that denote segmental speech , letters are associated with phonetics . In a purely phonemic alphabet , a single phoneme is denoted by a single letter , but in history and practice letters often denote more than one phoneme . A pair of letters designating a single phoneme is called a digraph . Examples of digraphs in English include `` ch '' , `` sh '' and `` th '' . A phoneme can also be represented by three letters , called a trigraph . An example is the combination `` sch '' in German . A letter may also be associated with more than one phoneme , with the phoneme depending on the surrounding letters or etymology of the word . As an example of positional effects , the Spanish letter c is pronounced [ k ] before a , o , or u ( e.g . cantar , corto , cuidado ) , but is pronounced [ θ ] before e or i ( e.g . centimo , ciudad ) . Letters also have specific names associated with them . These names may differ with language , dialect and history . Z , for example , is usually called zed in all English-speaking countries except the U.S. , where it is named zee . Letters , as elements of alphabets , have prescribed orders . This may generally be known as `` alphabetical order '' though collation is the science devoted to the complex task of ordering and sorting of letters and words in different languages . In Spanish , for instance , ñ is a separate letter being sorted after n. In English , n and ñ are sorted alike . Letters may also have numerical value . This is true of Roman numerals and the letters of other writing systems . In English , Arabic numerals are typically used instead of letters . Letters may be used as words . The words a ( lower or uppercase ) and I ( always uppercase ) are the most common English letter-words . Sometimes O is used for `` Oh '' in poetic situations . In extremely informal cases of writing ( such as SMS language ) individual letters may replace words , e.g . u may be used instead of `` you '' in English , when the letter name is pronounced as a homophone of the word . People and objects are sometimes named after letters , for one of these reasons : # The letter is an abbreviation , e.g . `` G-man '' as slang for a Federal Bureau of Investigation agent , arose as short for `` Government Man '' . # Alphabetical order used as a counting system , e.g . Plan A , Plan B , etc . ; alpha ray , beta ray , gamma ray , delta ray , epsilon ray # The shape of the letter , e.g . D-ring , F-clamp , G-clamp , H-block , H engine , O-ring , R-clip , U engine , V engine , Z-drive , a river delta # Other reasons , e.g . X-ray after `` x the unknown '' in algebra , because the discoverer did not know what they were . A classical definition Guilhem Molinier , a member of the Consistori del Gay Saber , which was the first literary academy in the world and held the Floral Games to award the best troubadour with the violeta d'aur top prize , gave a definition of the letter in his Leys d'Amors ( 1328–1337 ) , a book aimed at regulating the then flourishing Occitan poetry : History The first consonantal alphabet found has emerged around 2000 BCE to represent the language of Semitic workers in Egypt ( see Middle Bronze Age alphabets ) , and was derived from the alphabetic principles of the Egyptian hieroglyphs . Nearly all alphabets in the world today either descend directly from this development or were inspired by its design . The Greek alphabet , invented around 800 BCE , was the first alphabet assigning letters not only to consonants , but also to vowels . Types of letters Various scripts The following alphabets , abjads , and individual letters are discussed in related articles . Each represents a different script : Bangla alphabet : অ , আ , ই , ঈ , উ , ঊ , ঋ , এ , ঐ , ও , ঔ , ক , খ , গ , ঘ , ঙ , চ , ছ , জ , ঝ , ঞ , ট , ঠ , ড , ঢ , ণ , ত , থ , দ , ধ , ন , প , ফ , ব , ভ , ম , য , ৰ , ল , ৱ , শ , ষ , স , হ , ড় , ঢ় , য় , ৎ , ং , ঃ , ঁ Arabic alphabet : ( Alphabetical from right to left ) , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Syriac alphabet : ( Alphabetical from right to left ) ܐ , ܒ , ܓ , ܕ , ܗ , ܘ , ܙ , ܚ , ܛ , ܝ , ܟܟ , ܠ , ܡܡ , ܢܢ , ܣ , ܥ , ܦ , ܨ , ܩ , ܪ , ܫ , ܬ . Cyrillic script : А , Б , В , Г , Ґ , Ѓ , Д , Е , Є , Ж , З , Ѕ , И , І , Ї , Й , К , Ќ , Л , М , Н , О , П , Р , С , Т , У , Ф , Х , Ц , Ч , Ш , Щ , Ю , Я , Ъ , Ь , Ђ , Љ , Њ , Ћ , Џ , Ы . Georgian script : ა , ბ , გ , დ , ე , ვ , ზ , თ , ი , კ , ლ , მ , ნ , ო , პ , ჟ , რ , ს , ტ , უ , ფ , ქ , ღ , ყ , შ , ჩ , ც , ძ , წ , ჭ , ხ , ჯ , ჰ Greek alphabet : Α , Β , Γ , Δ , Ε , Ζ , Η , Θ , Ι , Κ , Λ , Μ , Ν , Ξ , Ο , Π , Ρ , Σ , Τ , Υ , Φ , Χ , Ψ , Ω . Hebrew alphabet : ( Alphabetical from right to left ) א , ב , ג , ד , ה , ו , ז , ח , ט , י , כ , ל , מ , נ , ס , ע , פ , צ , ק , ר , ש , ת . English alphabet : A , B , C , D , E , F , G , H , I , J , K , L , M , N , O , P , Q , R , S , T , U , V , W , X , Y , Z . Hangul : ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅢ ㅣ Bopomofo : ㄅ ㄆ ㄇ ㄈ ㄉ ㄊ ㄋ ㄌ ㄍ ㄎ ㄏ ㄐ ㄑ ㄒ ㄓ ㄔ ㄕ ㄖ ㄗ ㄘ ㄙ ㄚ ㄛ ㄜ ㄝ ㄞ ㄟ ㄠ ㄡ ㄢ ㄣ ㄤ ㄥ ㄦ ㄧ ㄨ ㄩ ㄭ Ogham : ᚁ ᚂ ᚃ ᚄ ᚅ ᚆ ᚇ ᚈ ᚉ ᚊ ᚋ ᚌ ᚍ ᚎ ᚏ ᚐ ᚑ ᚒ ᚓ ᚔ ᚕ ᚖ ᚗ ᚘ ᚙ ᚚ ᚛ ᚜ Ethiopic ሀ ለ ሐ መ ሠ ረ ሰ ቀ በ ተ ኀ ነ አ ከ ወ ዐ ዘ የ ደ ገ ጠ ጰ ጸ ፀ ፈ ፐ International Phonetic Alphabet - used to represent exact pronunciation For other writing systems and their letters , see List of writing systems . Upper and lower case Some writing systems have two major forms for each letter : an upper case form ( also called capital or majuscule ) and a lower case form ( also called minuscule ) . Upper and lower case forms represent the same sound , but serve different functions in writing . Capital letters are most often used at the beginning of a sentence , as the first letter of a proper name , or in inscriptions or headers . They may also serve other functions , such as in the German language where all nouns begin with capital letters . Typeface and font A letter may be printed in a number of different sizes or forms , depending on choice of typeface . A typeface is a single , stylistically consistent set of forms for letters ( or glyphs ) . A particular typeface may alter standard forms of characters , may present them with different optical weight , or may angle or embellish their forms . A font is more specific than a typeface , since it specifies the size of the letters as well as the form . In calligraphy , letters are written artistically and may or may not be consistent throughout a work . Letter frequencies The average distribution of letters , or the relative frequency of each letter 's occurrence in text in a given language can be obtained analyzing large amounts of representative text . This information can be useful in cryptography and for other purposes as well . Letter frequencies vary in different types of writing . In English , the most frequently appearing ten letters are e , t , a , o , i , n , s , h , r , and d , in that order , with the letter e appearing about 13 % of the time . Footnotes

bb_4678--Letter_(alphabet).txt

Which letter appears in various alphabets in the traditional Wikipedia globe logo?

Edward Elgar composed his Variations , Op . 36 , popularly known as the Enigma Variations , between October 1898 and February 1899 . It is an orchestral work comprising fourteen variations on an original theme . Elgar dedicated the work 'to my friends pictured within ' , each variation being a musical sketch of one of his circle of close acquaintances ( see musical cryptogram ) . Those portrayed include Elgar 's wife Alice , his friend and publisher Augustus J. Jaeger and Elgar himself . In a programme note for a performance in 1911 Elgar wrote : In naming his theme ‘ Enigma ’ Elgar posed a challenge which has generated much speculation but has never been conclusively answered . The Enigma is widely believed to involve a hidden melody . After its 1899 London premiere the Variations achieved immediate popularity and established Elgar 's international reputation . The work has been recorded over 60 times . History Elgar described how on the evening of 21 October 1898 , after a tiring day 's teaching , he sat down at the piano . A melody he played caught the attention of his wife , and he began to improvise variations on it in styles which reflected the character of some of his friends . These improvisations , expanded and orchestrated , became the Enigma Variations . Elgar considered including variations portraying Arthur Sullivan and Hubert Parry , but was unable to assimilate their musical styles without pastiche , and dropped the idea . The piece was finished on 18 February 1899 and published by Novello & Co . It was first performed at St James 's Hall in London on 19 June 1899 , conducted by Hans Richter . Critics were at first irritated by the layer of mystification , but most praised the substance , structure , and orchestration of the work . Elgar later revised the final variation , adding 96 new bars and an organ part . The new version , the one usually played today , was first heard at the Worcester Three Choirs Festival on 13 September 1899 , with Elgar conducting.Moore , pp . 273 and 289 The European continental premiere was performed in Düsseldorf , Germany on 7 February 1901 , under Julius Buths ( who would also conduct the European premiere of The Dream of Gerontius in December 1901 ) . The work quickly achieved many international performances , from Saint Petersburg , where it delighted Alexander Glazunov and Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov in 1904 , to New York , where Gustav Mahler conducted it in 1910 . Orchestration The work is scored for an orchestra consisting of 2 flutes ( one doubling piccolo ) , 2 oboes , 2 clarinets in B flat , 2 bassoons , contrabassoon , 4 horns in F , 3 trumpets in F , 3 trombones , tuba , timpani , side drum , triangle , bass drum , cymbals , organ ( ad lib ) and strings . Structure The theme is followed by 14 variations . The variations spring from the theme 's melodic , harmonic and rhythmic elements , and the extended fourteenth variation forms a grand finale . Elgar dedicated the piece to 'my friends pictured within ' and in the score each variation is prefaced the initials , name or nickname of the friend depicted . As was common with painted portraits of the time , Elgar 's musical portraits depict their subjects at two levels . Each movement conveys a general impression of its subject 's personality . In addition , many of them contain a musical reference to a specific characteristic or event , such as a laugh , a habit of speech or a memorable conversation . The sections of the work are as follows . Theme ( Enigma : Andante ) The unusual melodic contours of the G minor opening theme convey a sense of searching introspection : \relative c { \clef treble \time 4/4 \tempo `` Andante '' 4 = 63 \key g \minor r4^ '' legato e sostenuto '' bes8 -- \p_ '' molto espress . '' g -- c4 ( a ) | r d ( ^ '' ten . '' bes ) a8 -- c -- | r4 bes8 -- \ a , \ ! ) | r\pp f'\ > ( g , ) \ ! a8 -- bes -- | r4 a8 -- _ '' cresc . '' g -- d ' 4 ( bes ) | r bes ( ^ '' ten. '' _ '' dim . '' g ) a8 -- g -- \bar `` || '' b4 } A switch to the major key introduces a flowing motif which briefly lightens the mood before the first theme returns , now accompanied by a sustained bass line and emotionally charged counterpoints . In a programme note for a 1912 performance of his setting of Arthur O ’ Shaughnessy ’ s ode The Music Makers Elgar wrote of this theme ( which he quoted in the later work ) , 'it expressed when written ( in 1898 ) my sense of the loneliness of the artist as described in the first six lines of the Ode , and to me , it still embodies that sense ' . Elgar ’ s personal identification with the theme is evidenced by his use of its opening phrase ( which matches the rhythm and inflection of his name ) as a signature in letters to friends . The theme leads into Variation I without a pause . Variation I ( L'istesso tempo ) ' C.A.E . ' Caroline Alice Elgar , Elgar 's wife . The variation repeats a four-note melodic fragment which Elgar reportedly whistled when arriving home to his wife . After Alice 's death , Elgar wrote , 'The variation is really a prolongation of the theme with what I wished to be romantic and delicate additions ; those who knew C.A.E . will understand this reference to one whose life was a romantic and delicate inspiration ' . ( In these notes Elgar ’ s words are quoted from his posthumous publication My Friends Pictured Within which draws on the notes he provided for the Aeolian Company 's 1929 pianola rolls edition of the Variations . ) \relative c { \clef treble \key g \minor \time 4/4 \tempo `` L'istesso tempo . '' 4 = 63 r4\f^ '' largamente '' _ '' espress . '' \times 2/3 { d8 ( bes d ) } c4~ c8 r8 } Variation II ( Allegro ) ' H.D.S-P . ' Hew David Steuart-Powell . Elgar wrote , 'Hew David Steuart-Powell was a well-known amateur pianist and a great player of chamber music . He was associated with B.G.N . ( cello ) and the composer ( violin ) for many years in this playing . His characteristic diatonic run over the keys before beginning to play is here humorously travestied in the semiquaver passages ; these should suggest a Toccata , but chromatic beyond H.D.S-P. 's liking ' . \relative c { \clef treble \key g \minor \time 3/8 \tempo `` Allegro . '' r16 g-. ] \p_ '' stacc . '' d'- . [ gis , - . ] cis- . [ a- . ] | c ! - . [ a- . ] bes- . [ g ! - . ] es- . [ c ! - . ] | cis- . d- . } Variation III ( Allegretto ) ' R.B.T . ' Richard Baxter Townshend , Oxford don and author of the Tenderfoot series of books ; brother-in-law of the W.M.B . depicted in Variation IV . This variation references R.B.T 's presentation of an old man in some amateur theatricals ‒ the low voice flying off occasionally into 'soprano ' timbre . Variation IV ( Allegro di molto ) ' W.M.B . ' William Meath Baker , squire of Hasfield , Gloucestershire and benefactor of several public buildings in Fenton , Stoke-on-Trent , brother-in-law of R.B.T . depicted in Variation III , and ( step ) uncle of Dora Penny in Variation X . He 'expressed himself somewhat energetically ' . This is the shortest of the variations . Variation V ( Moderato ) ' R.P.A . ' Richard Penrose Arnold , the son of the poet Matthew Arnold , and an amateur pianist . This variation leads into the next without pause . Variation VI ( Andantino ) 'Ysobel ' Isabel Fitton , a viola pupil of Elgar . Elgar explained , 'It may be noticed that the opening bar , a phrase made use of throughout the variation , is an ‘ exercise ’ for crossing the strings – a difficulty for beginners ; on this is built a pensive and , for a moment , romantic movement ' . \relative c ' { \clef alto \time 3/2 \key c \major \tempo `` Andantino . '' 2 = 48 g-.\p c , - . e ' 2~\ d8 ) \ ! r8 } Variation VII ( Presto ) 'Troyte ' Arthur Troyte Griffith , a Malvern architect and one of Elgar 's firmest friends . The variation good-naturedly mimics his enthusiastic incompetence on the piano . It may also refer to an occasion when Griffith and Elgar were out walking and got caught in a thunderstorm . The pair took refuge in the house of Winifred and Florence Norbury ( Sherridge , Leigh Sinton , near Malvern ) , to which the next variation refers . Variation VIII ( Allegretto ) ' W.N . ' Winifred Norbury , one of the secretaries of the Worcester Philharmonic Society . 'Really suggested by an eighteenth-century house . The gracious personalities of the ladies are sedately shown . W.N . was more connected with the music than others of the family , and her initials head the movement ; to justify this position a little suggestion of a characteristic laugh is given . ' This variation is linked to the next by a single note held by the first violins . Variation IX ( Adagio ) 'Nimrod ' Augustus J. Jaeger was employed as music editor by the London publisher Novello & Co . He was a close friend of Elgar , giving him useful advice but also severe criticism , something Elgar greatly appreciated . Elgar later related how Jaeger had encouraged him as an artist and had stimulated him to continue composing despite setbacks . The name of the variation refers to Nimrod , an Old Testament patriarch described as ' a mighty hunter before the Lord ' – Jäger being German for hunter . In 1904 Elgar told Dora Penny ( 'Dorabella ' ) that this variation is not really a portrait , but 'the story of something that happened ' . Once , when Elgar had been very depressed and was about to give it all up and write no more music , Jaeger had visited him and encouraged him to continue composing . He referred to Ludwig van Beethoven , who had a lot of worries , but wrote more and more beautiful music . `` And that is what you must do '' , Jaeger said and he sang the theme of the second movement of Beethoven 's Piano Sonata No . 8 Pathétique . Elgar disclosed to Dora that the opening bars of 'Nimrod ' were made to suggest that theme . `` Can ’ t you hear it at the beginning ? Only a hint , not a quotation . '' This variation has become popular in its own right and is sometimes used at British funerals , memorial services , and other solemn occasions . It is always played at the Cenotaph , Whitehall in London on Remembrance Sunday . A version was also played during the Hong Kong handover ceremony in 1997 and at the opening ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games . It was also the last piece ever played by the Greek Symphonical Orchestra ( besides the Greek National Anthem ) when it closed down in June 2013 . Variation X ( Intermezzo : Allegretto ) 'Dorabella ' Dora Penny , a friend whose stutter is gently parodied by the woodwinds . Dora , later Mrs. Richard Powell , was the daughter of the Revd ( later Canon ) Alfred Penny . Her stepmother was the sister of William Meath Baker , the subject of Variation IV . She was the recipient of another of Elgar 's enigmas , the so-called Dorabella Cipher . She described the 'Friends Pictured Within ' and 'The Enigma ' in two chapters of her book Edward Elgar , Memories of a Variation . This variation features a melody for solo viola . \relative c { \clef treble \time 3/4 \key g \major \tempo `` Allegretto . '' 4 = 80 r4 r4 32 \pp ( 32 32 ) r32 r8 | 32 ( 32 32 ) r32 r8 16 -- - . - . - . } Variation XI ( Allegro di molto ) ' G.R.S . ' George Robertson Sinclair , the energetic organist of Hereford Cathedral . In the words of Elgar : 'The variation , however , has nothing to do with organs or cathedrals , or , except remotely , with G.R.S . The first few bars were suggested by his great bulldog , Dan ( a well-known character ) falling down the steep bank into the River Wye ( bar 1 ) ; his paddling upstream to find a landing place ( bars 2 and 3 ) ; and his rejoicing bark on landing ( second half of bar 5 ) . G.R.S . said , `` Set that to music '' . I did ; here it is . ' Variation XII ( Andante ) ' B.G.N . ' Basil G. Nevinson , an accomplished amateur cellist who played chamber music with Elgar . The variation is introduced and concluded by a solo cello . This variation leads into the next without pause . Variation XIII ( Romanza : Moderato ) ' * * * ' Lady Mary Lygon of Madresfield Court near Malvern , a sponsor of a local music festival . 'The asterisks take the place of the name of a lady who was , at the time of the composition , on a sea voyage . The drums suggest the distant throb of the engines of a liner , over which the clarinet quotes a phrase from Mendelssohn ’ s Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage . ' \relative c { \clef treble \time 3/4 \key g \major \tempo `` Moderato . '' 4 = 76 r4^ '' Solo '' r c~ ( \pp | c^ '' molto espress . '' bes4 . aes8 ) | aes4~ aes8 } Elgar may have withheld Lady Mary ’ s initials because of superstition surrounding the number 13 , or he may have felt uneasy about publicly associating the name of a prominent local figure with music that had taken on a powerful emotional intensity . There is credible evidence to support the view that the variation ’ s atmosphere of brooding melancholy and its subtitle ‘ Romanza ’ are tokens of a covert tribute to another woman , the name most frequently mentioned in this connection being that of Helen Weaver , who had broken off her engagement to Elgar in 1884 before sailing out of his life forever aboard a ship bound for New Zealand . Variation XIV ( Finale : Allegro ) ' E.D.U . ' Elgar himself , nicknamed Edu by his wife , from the German Eduard . The themes from two variations are echoed : 'Nimrod ' and ' C.A.E . ' , referring to Jaeger and Elgar´s wife Alice , 'two great influences on the life and art of the composer ' , as Elgar wrote in 1927 . Elgar called these references 'entirely fitting to the intention of the piece ' . The original version of this variation is nearly 100 bars shorter than the one now usually played . In July 1899 , one month after the original version was finished Jaeger urged Elgar to make the variation a little longer . After some cajoling Elgar agreed , and also added an organ part . The new version was played for the first time at the Worcester Three Choirs Festival , with Elgar himself conducting , on 13 September 1899 . Arrangements Arrangements of the Variations include : * The composer 's arrangement of the complete work for piano solo * The composer 's arrangement of the complete work for piano duet ( two pianos ) * Duet ( piano , four hands ) – by John E. West F.R.A.M. , F.R.C.O ( 1863–1929 ) , organist , composer and musical adviser to Novello 's * Transcription for chamber ensemble/orchestra by George Morton ( UK ) * Brass band – by composer Eric Ball * There are many arrangements of individual variations , particularly Variation IX 'Nimrod ' * Variation X 'Dorabella ' was published separately in its orchestral version * Transcription for Wind Band by Earl Slocum ( USA ) * Transcription for Symphonic Wind Band by John Morrison ( UK ) * Transcription for the Wanamaker Organ by Peter Richard Conte * 2013 – Transcription for Symphonic Wind Ensemble by Donald C. Patterson for the United States Marine Band The Enigma The word ‘ Enigma ’ , serving as a title for the theme of the Variations , was added to the score at a late stage , after the manuscript had been delivered to the publisher . Despite a series of hints provided by Elgar , the precise nature of the implied puzzle remains unknown . Confirmation that Enigma is the name of the theme is provided by Elgar ’ s 1911 programme note ( ' ... Enigma , for so the theme is called ' ) and in a letter to Jaeger dated 30 June 1899 he associates this name specifically with what he calls the ‘ principal motive ’ – the G minor theme heard in the work ’ s opening bars , which ( perhaps significantly ) is terminated by a double bar . Whatever the nature of the attendant puzzle , it is likely to be closely connected with this ‘ Enigma theme ’ . Elgar ’ s first public pronouncement on the Enigma appeared in Charles A. Barry ’ s programme note for the first performance of the Variations : Far from clarifying matters , this utterance seems to envelop the Enigma in further mysteries . The phrase ‘ dark saying ’ can be read straightforwardly as an archaic synonym for enigma but might equally plausibly be interpreted as a cryptic clue , while the word ‘ further ’ seems to suggest that the ‘ larger theme ’ is distinct from the Enigma , forming a separate component of the puzzle . Elgar provided another clue in an interview he gave in October 1900 to the editor of the Musical Times , F. G. Edwards , who reported : Five years later , Robert Buckley stated in his biography of Elgar ( written with the composer ’ s close cooperation ) : Attempted solutions to the Enigma commonly propose a well-known melody which is claimed to be either a counterpoint to Elgar ’ s theme or in some other way linked to it . Musical solutions of this sort are supported by Dora Penny and Carice Elgar ’ s testimony that the solution was generally understood to involve a tune , Powell pp . 119,120 and by the evidence from an anecdote describing how Elgar encoded the solution in a numbered sequence of piano keys . A rival school of thought holds that the ‘ larger theme ’ which ‘ goes ’ ‘ through and over the whole set ’ is an abstract idea rather than a musical theme . The interpretation placed on the ‘ larger theme ’ forms the basis of the grouping of solutions in the summary that follows . Julian Rushton has suggested that any solution should satisfy five criteria : a 'dark saying ' must be involved ; the theme 'is not played ' ; the theme should be 'well known ' ( as Elgar stated multiple times ) ; it should explain Elgar 's remark that Dora Penny should have been , 'of all people ' the one to solve the Enigma ; and fifthly , some musical observations in the notes Elgar provided to accompany the pianola roll edition may be part of the solution . Furthermore , the solution ( if it exists ) ‘ must be multivalent , must deal with musical as well as cryptographic issues , must produce workable counterpoint within Elgar ’ s stylistic range , and must at the same time seem obvious ( and not just to its begetter ) ’ . Elgar accepted none of the solutions proposed in his lifetime , and took the secret with him to the grave . The prospect of gaining new insights into Elgar ’ s character and composition methods , and perhaps revealing new music , continues to motivate the search for a definitive solution . But Norman Del Mar expressed the view that 'there would be considerable loss if the solution were to be found , much of the work 's attraction lying in the impenetrability of the riddle itself ' , and that interest in the work would not be as strong had the Enigma been solved during Elgar 's lifetime . Counterpoints Solutions in this category suggest a well-known tune which ( in the proponent 's view ) forms a counterpoint to the theme of the Variations . • After Elgar ’ s death in 1934 Richard Powell ( husband of Dorabella ) published a solution proposing Auld Lang Syne as the countermelody . This theory has been elaborated by Roger Fiske , Eric Sams and Derek Hudson . Elgar himself , however , is on record as stating ‘ Auld Lang Syne wo n't do ’ .Westrup , J . A. , [ http : //www.jstor.org/stable/766020 `` Elgar 's Enigma '' , ] Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association , 86th Sess . ( 1959–1960 ) , pp . 79–97 , Taylor & Francis , Ltd for the Royal Musical Association , accessed 2 December 2010 • Reviewing published Enigma solutions in 1939 , Ernest Newman failed to identify any that met what he considered to be the required musical standard.Newman , Ernest ( 16,23,30 Apr , 7 May 1939 ) . Sunday Times • A competition organized by the American magazine The Saturday Review in 1953 yielded one proposed counterpoint – the aria Una bella serenata from Mozart ’ s Così fan tutte ( transposed to the minor key ) . • In 1993 Brian Trowell , surmising that Elgar conceived the theme in E minor , proposed a simple counterpoint consisting of repeated semibreve E ’ s doubled at the octave – a device occasionally used by Elgar as a signature . • In 1999 Julian Rushton reviewed solutions based on counterpoints with melodies including Home , Sweet Home , Loch Lomond , a theme from Brahms ’ s fourth symphony , the Meditation from Elgar ’ s oratorio The Light of Life and God Save the Queen – the last being Troyte Griffith ’ s suggestion from 1924 , which Elgar had dismissed with the words “ Of course not , but it is so well-known that it is extraordinary no-one has found it ” . A few more solutions of this type have been published in recent years . In the following three examples the counterpoints involve complete renditions of both the Enigma theme and the proposed ‘ larger theme ’ , and the associated texts have obvious ‘ dark ’ connotations . • In his book on the Variations Patrick Turner advanced a solution based on a counterpoint with a minor key version the nursery rhyme Twinkle , twinkle , little star . • Clive McClelland has proposed a counterpoint with S. Baring-Gould ’ s tune for the hymn Now the Day Is Over ( also transposed to the minor ) . •Tallis ’ s canon , the tune for the hymn Glory to Thee , my God , this night , features as a cantus firmus in a solution which interprets the Enigma as a puzzle canon . This reading is suggested by the words ‘ for fuga ’ which appear among Elgar ’ s annotations to his sketch of the theme . Hans Westgeest has argued that the real theme of the work consists of only nine notes : G - E flat - A flat - F - B flat - F - F - A flat - G. The rhythm of this theme ( in 4/4 time , with a crotchet rest on the first beat of each bar ) is based on the rhythm of Edward Elgar 's own name ( `` Edward Elgar '' : short-short-long-long , then reversed long-long-short-short and a final note ) . Elgar meaningfully composed this `` Elgar theme '' as a countermelody to the beginning of the hidden `` principal Theme '' of the piece , the theme of the slow movement of Beethoven 's Pathétique sonata ( transposed to E flat ) . When the two themes are combined each note of the first part of the Beethoven theme is followed by the same note in the Elgar theme . So musically Elgar “ follows ” Beethoven , as Jaeger told him to do ( see above , Var . IX ) . The minor melody of the beginning , the variations and the Finale are all based on this `` Elgar theme '' . Although Elgar had told Dora Penny in private about the Beethoven story and the Pathétique theme behind the Jaeger/Nimrod-variation ( see above , Var . IX ) she could not solve the enigma because she did not see the connection between this and the enigma . Elgar had expected she would : ‘ I ’ m surprised . I thought that you of all people would guess it . ’ Other musical themes If Robert Buckley ’ s statement about the theme being ‘ a counterpoint to some well-known melody ’ ( which is endorsed by what Elgar himself disclosed to F. G. Edwards in 1900 ) is disregarded or discounted the field opens up to admit other kinds of connection with well-known themes . • Entries in this category submitted to the Saturday Review competition included the suggestions When I am laid in earth from Purcell ’ s Dido and Aeneas , the Agnus Dei from Bach 's Mass in B minor , the song None shall part us from Iolanthe and the theme from the slow movement of Beethoven 's Pathétique sonata . Elgar himself affirmed that this Beethoven theme is alluded to in variation IX . • In 1985 Marshall Portnoy suggested that the key to the Enigma is Bach 's The Art of Fugue . Contrapunctus XIV of that work contains the B A C H motif ( in English notation , B A C B ) which , in Portnoy ’ s view , can also be found in the Variations . • Theodore van Houten proposed Rule , Britannia ! as the hidden melody on the strength of a resemblance between one of its phrases and the opening of the Enigma theme . The word which is sung to this phrase – a thrice-repeated ‘ never ’ – appears twice in Elgar ’ s programme note , and the figure of Britannia on the penny coin provides a link with Dora Penny . The hypothesis has been further elaborated by van Houten and others , and its credibility has received a boost from a report that it was endorsed by Elgar himself . • Other tunes which have been suggested on the basis of a postulated melodic or harmonic connection to Elgar 's theme include Chopin 's Nocturne in G minor , John Dunstable 's Ave Maris Stella , the Benedictus from Stanford 's Requiem , Pop Goes the Weasel , Brahms 's `` Four Serious Songs '' , William Boyce 's Heart of Oak ( transposed to the minor ) , the Dies Irae plainchant and Gounod 's March to Calvary . Non-musical themes • Ian Parrott wrote in his book on Elgar that the ‘ dark saying ’ , and possibly the whole of the Enigma , had

odql_1897--Enigma_Variations.txt

How many Enigma Variations did Edward Elgar compose?

X-radiation ( composed of X-rays ) is a form of electromagnetic radiation . Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers , corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz ( 3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz ) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV . X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays . In many languages , X-radiation is referred to with terms meaning Röntgen radiation , after Wilhelm Röntgen , who is usually credited as its discoverer , and who had named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation . Spelling of X-ray ( s ) in the English language includes the variants x-ray ( s ) , xray ( s ) , and X ray ( s ) . X-rays with high photon energies ( above 5–10 keV , below 0.2–0.1 nm wavelength ) are called hard X-rays , while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays . Due to their penetrating ability , hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects , e.g. , in medical radiography and airport security . As a result , the term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to a radiographic image produced using this method , in addition to the method itself . Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms they are also useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography . By contrast , soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air ; the attenuation length of 600 eV ( ~2 nm ) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer . There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays . One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source : X-rays are emitted by electrons , while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus . This definition has several problems : other processes also can generate these high-energy photons , or sometimes the method of generation is not known . One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength ( or , equivalently , frequency or photon energy ) , with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength , such as 10−11 m ( 0.1 Å ) , defined as gamma radiation . This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category , but is only possible if wavelength is known . ( Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths . ) However , these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei . Occasionally , one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent , based on measurement ( detection ) technique , or based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source . Thus , gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses , for example radiotherapy , in the ranges of 6–20 MeV , can in this context also be referred to as X-rays . Properties X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds . This makes it a type of ionizing radiation , and therefore harmful to living tissue . A very high radiation dose over a short period of time causes radiation sickness , while lower doses can give an increased risk of radiation-induced cancer . In medical imaging this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination . The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy . It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy . Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered . For this reason , X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects . The most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners , but similar techniques are also important in industry ( e.g . industrial radiography and industrial CT scanning ) and research ( e.g . small animal CT ) . The penetration depth varies with several orders of magnitude over the X-ray spectrum . This allows the photon energy to be adjusted for the application so as to give sufficient transmission through the object and at the same time good contrast in the image . X-rays have much shorter wavelength than visible light , which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than what can be seen using a normal microscope . This can be used in X-ray microscopy to acquire high resolution images , but also in X-ray crystallography to determine the positions of atoms in crystals . Interaction with matter X-rays interact with matter in three main ways , through photoabsorption , Compton scattering , and Rayleigh scattering . The strength of these interactions depends on the energy of the X-rays and the elemental composition of the material , but not much on chemical properties , since the X-ray photon energy is much higher than chemical binding energies . Photoabsorption or photoelectric absorption is the dominant interaction mechanism in the soft X-ray regime and for the lower hard X-ray energies . At higher energies , Compton scattering dominates . Photoelectric absorption The probability of a photoelectric absorption per unit mass is approximately proportional to Z3/E3 , where Z is the atomic number and E is the energy of the incident photon . This rule is not valid close to inner shell electron binding energies where there are abrupt changes in interaction probability , so called absorption edges . However , the general trend of high absorption coefficients and thus short penetration depths for low photon energies and high atomic numbers is very strong . For soft tissue photoabsorption dominates up to about 26 keV photon energy where Compton scattering takes over . For higher atomic number substances this limit is higher . The high amount of calcium ( Z=20 ) in bones together with their high density is what makes them show up so clearly on medical radiographs . A photoabsorbed photon transfers all its energy to the electron with which it interacts , thus ionizing the atom to which the electron was bound and producing a photoelectron that is likely to ionize more atoms in its path . An outer electron will fill the vacant electron position and produce either a characteristic photon or an Auger electron . These effects can be used for elemental detection through X-ray spectroscopy or Auger electron spectroscopy . Compton scattering Compton scattering is the predominant interaction between X-rays and soft tissue in medical imaging . Compton scattering is an inelastic scattering of the X-ray photon by an outer shell electron . Part of the energy of the photon is transferred to the scattering electron , thereby ionizing the atom and increasing the wavelength of the X-ray . The scattered photon can go in any direction , but a direction similar to the original direction is more likely , especially for high-energy X-rays . The probability for different scattering angles are described by the Klein–Nishina formula . The transferred energy can be directly obtained from the scattering angle from the conservation of energy and momentum . Rayleigh scattering Rayleigh scattering is the dominant elastic scattering mechanism in the X-ray regime . Inelastic forward scattering gives rise to the refractive index , which for X-rays is only slightly below 1 . Production Whenever charged particles ( electrons or ions ) of sufficient energy hit a material , x-rays are produced . Production by electrons X-rays can be generated by an X-ray tube , a vacuum tube that uses a high voltage to accelerate the electrons released by a hot cathode to a high velocity . The high velocity electrons collide with a metal target , the anode , creating the X-rays . In medical X-ray tubes the target is usually tungsten or a more crack-resistant alloy of rhenium ( 5 % ) and tungsten ( 95 % ) , but sometimes molybdenum for more specialized applications , such as when softer X-rays are needed as in mammography . In crystallography , a copper target is most common , with cobalt often being used when fluorescence from iron content in the sample might otherwise present a problem . The maximum energy of the produced X-ray photon is limited by the energy of the incident electron , which is equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge , so an 80 kV tube can not create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV . When the electrons hit the target , X-rays are created by two different atomic processes : # Characteristic X-ray emission ( X-ray fluorescence ) : If the electron has enough energy it can knock an orbital electron out of the inner electron shell of a metal atom , and as a result electrons from higher energy levels then fill up the vacancy and X-ray photons are emitted . This process produces an emission spectrum of X-rays at a few discrete frequencies , sometimes referred to as the spectral lines . The spectral lines generated depend on the target ( anode ) element used and thus are called characteristic lines . Usually these are transitions from upper shells into K shell ( called K lines ) , into L shell ( called L lines ) and so on . # Bremsstrahlung : This is radiation given off by the electrons as they are scattered by the strong electric field near the high-Z ( proton number ) nuclei . These X-rays have a continuous spectrum . The intensity of the X-rays increases linearly with decreasing frequency , from zero at the energy of the incident electrons , the voltage on the X-ray tube . So the resulting output of a tube consists of a continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage , plus several spikes at the characteristic lines . The voltages used in diagnostic X-ray tubes range from roughly 20 kV to 150 kV and thus the highest energies of the X-ray photons range from roughly 20 keV to 150 keV . Both of these X-ray production processes are inefficient , with a production efficiency of only about one percent , and thus most of the electric power consumed by the tube is released as waste heat . When producing a usable flux of X-rays , the X-ray tube must be designed to dissipate the excess heat . Short nanosecond bursts of X-rays peaking at 15-keV in energy may be reliably produced by peeling pressure-sensitive adhesive tape from its backing in a moderate vacuum . This is likely to be the result of recombination of electrical charges produced by triboelectric charging . The intensity of X-ray triboluminescence is sufficient for it to be used as a source for X-ray imaging . Using sources considerably more advanced than sticky tape , at least one startup firm is exploiting tribocharging in the development of highly portable , ultra-miniaturized X-ray devices . A specialized source of X-rays which is becoming widely used in research is synchrotron radiation , which is generated by particle accelerators . Its unique features are X-ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those of X-ray tubes , wide X-ray spectra , excellent collimation , and linear polarization . Production by fast positive ions X-rays can also be produced by fast protons or other positive ions . The proton-induced X-ray emission or particle-induced X-ray emission is widely used as an analytical procedure . For high energies , the production cross section is proportional to Z12Z2−4 , where Z1 refers to the atomic number of the ion , Z2 to that of the target atom . An overview of these cross sections is given in the same reference . Detectors X-ray detectors vary in shape and function depending on their purpose . Imaging detectors such as those used for radiography were originally based on photographic plates and later photographic film , but are now mostly replaced by various digital detector types such as image plates and flat panel detectors . For radiation protection direct exposure hazard is often evaluated using ionization chambers , while dosimeters are used to measure the radiation dose a person has been exposed to . X-ray spectra can be measured either by energy dispersive or wavelength dispersive spectrometers . Medical uses Since Röntgen 's discovery that X-rays can identify bone structures , X-rays have been used for medical imaging . The first medical use was less than a month after his paper on the subject . Up until 2010 , 5 billion medical imaging studies have been conducted worldwide . Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50 % of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States . Radiographs A radiograph is an X-ray image obtained by placing a part of the patient in front of an X-ray detector and then illuminating it with a short X-ray pulse . Bones contain much calcium , which due to its relatively high atomic number absorbs x-rays efficiently . This reduces the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones , making them clearly visible on the radiograph . The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly because of lower absorption compared to tissue , while differences between tissue types are harder to see . Radiographs are useful in the detection of pathology of the skeletal system as well as for detecting some disease processes in soft tissue . Some notable examples are the very common chest X-ray , which can be used to identify lung diseases such as pneumonia , lung cancer , or pulmonary edema , and the abdominal x-ray , which can detect bowel ( or intestinal ) obstruction , free air ( from visceral perforations ) and free fluid ( in ascites ) . X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as gallstones ( which are rarely radiopaque ) or kidney stones which are often ( but not always ) visible . Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brain or muscle . Dental radiography is commonly used in the diagnoses of common oral problems , such as cavities . In medical diagnostic applications , the low energy ( soft ) X-rays are unwanted , since they are totally absorbed by the body , increasing the radiation dose without contributing to the image . Hence , a thin metal sheet , often of aluminium , called an X-ray filter , is usually placed over the window of the X-ray tube , absorbing the low energy part in the spectrum . This is called hardening the beam since it shifts the center of the spectrum towards higher energy ( or harder ) x-rays . To generate an image of the cardiovascular system , including the arteries and veins ( angiography ) an initial image is taken of the anatomical region of interest . A second image is then taken of the same region after an iodinated contrast agent has been injected into the blood vessels within this area . These two images are then digitally subtracted , leaving an image of only the iodinated contrast outlining the blood vessels . The radiologist or surgeon then compares the image obtained to normal anatomical images to determine whether there is any damage or blockage of the vessel . Computed tomography Computed tomography ( CT scanning ) is a medical imaging modality where tomographic images or slices of specific areas of the body are obtained from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken in different directions . These cross-sectional images can be combined into a three-dimensional image of the inside of the body and used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in various medical disciplines . Fluoroscopy Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique commonly used by physicians or radiation therapists to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through the use of a fluoroscope . In its simplest form , a fluoroscope consists of an X-ray source and a fluorescent screen , between which a patient is placed . However , modern fluoroscopes couple the screen to an X-ray image intensifier and CCD video camera allowing the images to be recorded and played on a monitor . This method may use a contrast material . Examples include cardiac catheterization ( to examine for coronary artery blockages ) and barium swallow ( to examine for esophageal disorders ) . Radiotherapy The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as radiation therapy and is largely used for the management ( including palliation ) of cancer ; it requires higher radiation doses than those received for imaging alone . X-rays beams are used for treating skin cancers using lower energy x-ray beams while higher energy beams are used for treating cancers within the body such as brain , lung , prostate , and breast . Adverse effects Diagnostic X-rays ( primarily from CT scans due to the large dose used ) increase the risk of developmental problems and cancer in those exposed . X-rays are classified as a carcinogen by both the World Health Organization 's International Agency for Research on Cancer and the U.S. government . It is estimated that 0.4 % of current cancers in the United States are due to computed tomography ( CT scans ) performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5-2 % with 2007 rates of CT usage . Experimental and epidemiological data currently do not support the proposition that there is a threshold dose of radiation below which there is no increased risk of cancer . However , this is under increasing doubt . It is estimated that the additional radiation will increase a person 's cumulative risk of getting cancer by age 75 by 0.6–1.8 % . The amount of absorbed radiation depends upon the type of X-ray test and the body part involved . CT and fluoroscopy entail higher doses of radiation than do plain X-rays . To place the increased risk in perspective , a plain chest X-ray will expose a person to the same amount from background radiation that people are exposed to ( depending upon location ) every day over 10 days , while exposure from a dental X-ray is approximately equivalent to 1 day of environmental background radiation . Each such X-ray would add less than 1 per 1,000,000 to the lifetime cancer risk . An abdominal or chest CT would be the equivalent to 2–3 years of background radiation to the whole body , or 4–5 years to the abdomen or chest , increasing the lifetime cancer risk between 1 per 1,000 to 1 per 10,000 . This is compared to the roughly 40 % chance of a US citizen developing cancer during their lifetime . For instance , the effective dose to the torso from a CT scan of the chest is about 5 mSv , and the absorbed dose is about 14 mGy . A head CT scan ( 1.5mSv , 64mGy ) that is performed once with and once without contrast agent , would be equivalent to 40 years of background radiation to the head . Accurate estimation of effective doses due to CT is difficult with the estimation uncertainty range of about ±19 % to ±32 % for adult head scans depending upon the method used . The risk of radiation is greater to unborn babies , so in pregnant patients , the benefits of the investigation ( X-ray ) should be balanced with the potential hazards to the unborn fetus . In the US , there are an estimated 62 million CT scans performed annually , including more than 4 million on children . Avoiding unnecessary X-rays ( especially CT scans ) reduces radiation dose and any associated cancer risk . Medical X-rays are a significant source of man-made radiation exposure . In 1987 , they accounted for 58 % of exposure from man-made sources in the United States . Since man-made sources accounted for only 18 % of the total radiation exposure , most of which came from natural sources ( 82 % ) , medical X-rays only accounted for 10 % of total American radiation exposure ; medical procedures as a whole ( including nuclear medicine ) accounted for 14 % of total radiation exposure . By 2006 , however , medical procedures in the United States were contributing much more ionizing radiation than was the case in the early 1980s . In 2006 , medical exposure constituted nearly half of the total radiation exposure of the U.S. population from all sources . The increase is traceable to the growth in the use of medical imaging procedures , in particular computed tomography ( CT ) , and to the growth in the use of nuclear medicine . [ http : //www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090303125809.htm Medical Radiation Exposure Of The U.S. Population Greatly Increased Since The Early 1980s ] , Science Daily , March 5 , 2009 Dosage due to dental X-rays varies significantly depending on the procedure and the technology ( film or digital ) . Depending on the procedure and the technology , a single dental X-ray of a human results in an exposure of 0.5 to 4 mrem . A full mouth series may therefore result in an exposure of up to 6 ( digital ) to 18 ( film ) mrem , for a yearly average of up to 40 mrem . Other uses Other notable uses of X-rays include * X-ray crystallography in which the pattern produced by the diffraction of X-rays through the closely spaced lattice of atoms in a crystal is recorded and then analysed to reveal the nature of that lattice . A related technique , fiber diffraction , was used by Rosalind Franklin to discover the double helical structure of DNA . * X-ray astronomy , which is an observational branch of astronomy , which deals with the study of X-ray emission from celestial objects . * X-ray microscopic analysis , which uses electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very small objects . * X-ray fluorescence , a technique in which X-rays are generated within a specimen and detected . The outgoing energy of the X-ray can be used to identify the composition of the sample . * Industrial radiography uses X-rays for inspection of industrial parts , particularly welds . * Authentication and quality control , X-ray is used for authentication and quality control of packaged items . * Industrial CT ( computed tomography ) is a process which uses X-ray equipment to produce three-dimensional representations of components both externally and internally . This is accomplished through computer processing of projection images of the scanned object in many directions . * Paintings are often X-rayed to reveal underdrawings and pentimenti , alterations in the course of painting or by later restorers . Many pigments such as lead white show well in radiographs . * X-ray spectromicroscopy has been used to analyse the reactions of pigments in paintings . For example , in analysing colour degradation in the paintings of van Gogh * Airport security luggage scanners use X-rays for inspecting the interior of luggage for security threats before loading on aircraft . * Border control truck scanners use X-rays for inspecting the interior of trucks . * X-ray art and fine art photography , artistic use of X-rays , for example the works by Stane Jagodič * X-ray hair removal , a method popular in the 1920s but now banned by the FDA . * Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes were popularized in the 1920s , banned in the US in the 1960s , banned in the UK in the 1970s , and even later in continental Europe . * Roentgen stereophotogrammetry is used to track movement of bones based on the implantation of markers * X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is a chemical analysis technique relying on the photoelectric effect , usually employed in surface science . History Discovery German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen is usually credited as the discoverer of X-rays in 1895 , because he was the first to systematically study them , though he is not the first to have observed their effects . He is also the one who gave them the name `` X-rays '' ( signifying an unknown quantity ) though many others referred to these as `` Röntgen rays '' ( and the associated X-ray radiograms as , `` Röntgenograms '' ) for several decades after their discovery and even to this day in some languages , including Röntgen 's native German . X-rays were found emanating from Crookes tubes , experimental discharge tubes invented around 1875 , by scientists investigating the cathode rays , that is energetic electron beams , that were first created in the tubes . Crookes tubes created free electrons by ionization of the residual air in the tube by a high DC voltage of anywhere between a few kilovolts and 100 kV . This voltage accelerated the electrons coming from the cathode to a high enough velocity that they created X-rays when they struck the anode or the glass wall of the tube . Many of the early Crookes tubes undoubtedly radiated X-rays , because early researchers noticed effects that were attributable to them , as detailed below . Wilhelm Röntgen was the first to systematically study them , in 1895 . The discovery of X-rays stimulated a veritable sensation . Röntgen 's biographer Otto Glasser estimated that , in 1896 alone , as many as 49 essays and 1044 articles about the new rays were published . This was probably a conservative estimate , if one considers that nearly every paper around the world extensively reported about the new discovery , with a magazine such as Science dedicating as many as 23 articles to it in that year alone . Sensationalist reactions to the new discovery included publications linking the new kind of rays to occult and paranormal theories , such as telepathy . Early research Both William Crookes ( in the 1880s ) and German physicist Johann Hittorf , a co-inventor and early researcher of the Crookes tube , found that paper wrapped photographic plates placed near the tube became unaccountably fogged or flawed by shadows , although they had not been exposed to light . Neither found the cause nor investigated this effect . In 1877 Ukrainian-born Ivan Pulyui , a lecturer in experimental physics at the University of Vienna , constructed various designs of vacuum discharge tube to investigate their properties . He continued his investigations when appointed professor at the Prague Polytechnic and in 1886 he found that sealed photographic plates became dark when exposed to the emanations from the tubes . Early in 1896 , just a few weeks after Röntgen published his first X-ray photograph , Pulyui published high-quality X-ray images in journals in Paris and London . Although Pulyui had studied with Röntgen at the University of Strasbourg in the years 1873–75 , his biographer Gaida ( 1997 ) asserts that his subsequent research was conducted independently . X-rays were generated and detected by Fernando Sanford ( 1854–1948 ) , the foundation Professor of Physics at Stanford University , in 1891 . From 1886 to 1888 he had studied in the Hermann Helmholtz laboratory in Berlin , where he became familiar with the cathode rays generated in vacuum tubes when a voltage was applied across separate electrodes , as previously studied by Heinrich Hertz and Philipp Lenard . His letter of January 6 , 1893 ( describing his discovery as `` electric photography '' ) to The Physical Review was duly published and an article entitled Without Lens or Light , Photographs Taken With Plate and Object in Darkness appeared in the San Francisco Examiner . Starting in 1888 , Philipp Lenard , a student of Heinrich Hertz , conducted experiments to see whether cathode rays could pass out of the Crookes tube into the air . He built a Crookes tube ( later called a `` Lenard tube '' ) with a `` window '' in the end made of thin aluminum , facing the cathode so the cathode rays would strike it . He found that something came through , that would expose photographic plates and cause fluorescence . He measured the penetrating power of these rays through various materials . It has been suggested that at least some of these `` Lenard rays '' were actually X-rays . Hermann von Helmholtz formulated mathematical equations for X-rays . He postulated a dispersion theory before Röntgen made his discovery and announcement . It was formed on the basis of the electromagnetic theory of light . However ,

qg_218--X-ray.txt

By what name are Rontgen rays more commonly known?

Aristotle ( ; , Aristotélēs ; 384–322 BC ) was a Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira , Chalkidice , on the northern periphery of Classical Greece . His father , Nicomachus , died when Aristotle was a child , whereafter Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian . At eighteen , he joined Plato 's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven ( c. 347 BC ) . His writings cover many subjects – including physics , biology , zoology , metaphysics , logic , ethics , aesthetics , poetry , theater , music , rhetoric , linguistics , politics and government – and constitute the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy . Shortly after Plato died , Aristotle left Athens and , at the request of Philip of Macedon , tutored Alexander the Great starting from 343 BC . Teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies . He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books . The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views of Platonism , but , following Plato 's death , Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism to empiricism . He believed all peoples ' concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception . Aristotle 's views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works . Aristotle 's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship . Their influence extended into the Renaissance and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics . Some of Aristotle 's zoological observations , such as on the hectocotyl ( reproductive ) arm of the octopus , were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century . His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic , which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic . In metaphysics , Aristotelianism profoundly influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophical and theological thought during the Middle Ages and continues to influence Christian theology , especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church . Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as `` The First Teacher '' ( ) . His ethics , though always influential , gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics . All aspects of Aristotle 's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today . Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his literary style as `` a river of gold '' – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived . Life Aristotle , whose name means `` the best purpose '' , was born in 384 BC in Stagira , Chalcidice , about 55 km ( 34 miles ) east of modern-day Thessaloniki . His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon . Although there is little information on Aristotle 's childhood , he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace , making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy . At about the age of eighteen , Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato 's Academy . He remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC . The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy 's direction after control passed to Plato 's nephew Speusippus , although it is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Plato died . Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor . There , he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos , where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island . Aristotle married Pythias , either Hermias 's adoptive daughter or niece . She bore him a daughter , whom they also named Pythias . Soon after Hermias ' death , Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC . Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon . During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander , but also to two other future kings : Ptolemy and Cassander . Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest and his attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric . In one famous example , he counsels Alexander to be `` a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians , to look after the former as after friends and relatives , and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants '' . By 335 BC , Artistotle had returned to Athens , establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum . Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years . While in Athens , his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira , who bore him a son whom he named after his father , Nicomachus . According to the Suda , he also had an eromenos , Palaephatus of Abydus . This period in Athens , between 335 and 323 BC , is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works . He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived . Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not , for the most part , intended for widespread publication ; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students . His most important treatises include Physics , Metaphysics , Nicomachean Ethics , Politics , De Anima ( On the Soul ) and Poetics . Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time , but made significant contributions to most of them . In physical science , Aristotle studied anatomy , astronomy , embryology , geography , geology , meteorology , physics and zoology . In philosophy , he wrote on aesthetics , ethics , government , metaphysics , politics , economics , psychology , rhetoric and theology . He also studied education , foreign customs , literature and poetry . His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge . Near the end of his life , Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander 's relationship with Persia and Persians . A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander 's death , but there is little evidence . Following Alexander 's death , anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled . In 322 BC , Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety , prompting him to flee to his mother 's family estate in Chalcis , at which occasion he was said to have stated : `` I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy '' - a reference to Athens 's prior trial and execution of Socrates . He died in Euboea of natural causes later that same year , having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife . Charles Walston argues that the tomb of Aristotle is located on the sacred way between Chalcis and Eretria and to have contained two styluses , a pen , a signet-ring and some terra-cottas as well as what is supposed to be the earthly remains of Aristotle in the form of some skull fragments . In general , the details of the life of Aristotle are not well-established . The biographies of Aristotle written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points . Thought Logic With the Prior Analytics , Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic , and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th century advances in mathematical logic . Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that Aristotle 's theory of logic completely accounted for the core of deductive inference . History Aristotle `` says that 'on the subject of reasoning ' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of ' '' . However , Plato reports that syntax was devised before him , by Prodicus of Ceos , who was concerned by the correct use of words . Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics ; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like reductio ad absurdum in their discussions , but never truly understood the logical implications . Even Plato had difficulties with logic ; although he had a reasonable conception of a deductive system , he could never actually construct one , thus he relied instead on his dialectic . Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from premises , hence he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the conclusion would logically follow . Consequently , Plato realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most beneficial . He never succeeded in devising such a method , but his best attempt was published in his book Sophist , where he introduced his division method . Analytics and the Organon What we today call Aristotelian logic , Aristotle himself would have labeled `` analytics '' . The term `` logic '' he reserved to mean dialectics . Most of Aristotle 's work is probably not in its original form , because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers . The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century CE : # Categories # On Interpretation # Prior Analytics # Posterior Analytics # Topics # On Sophistical Refutations The order of the books ( or the teachings from which they are composed ) is not certain , but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle 's writings . It goes from the basics , the analysis of simple terms in the Categories , the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation , to the study of more complex forms , namely , syllogisms ( in the Analytics ) and dialectics ( in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations ) . The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu : the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning . There is one volume of Aristotle 's concerning logic not found in the Organon , namely the fourth book of Metaphysics . Aristotle 's epistemology Like his teacher Plato , Aristotle 's philosophy aims at the universal . Aristotle 's ontology , however , finds the universal in particular things , which he calls the essence of things , while in Plato 's ontology , the universal exists apart from particular things , and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar . For Aristotle , therefore , epistemology is based on the study of particular phenomena and rises to the knowledge of essences , while for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms ( or ideas ) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these . For Aristotle , `` form '' still refers to the unconditional basis of phenomena but is `` instantiated '' in a particular substance ( see Universals and particulars , below ) . In a certain sense , Aristotle 's method is both inductive and deductive , while Plato 's is essentially deductive from a priori principles . In Aristotle 's terminology , `` natural philosophy '' is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world , and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics , biology and other natural sciences . In modern times , the scope of philosophy has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries , such as ethics and metaphysics , in which logic plays a major role . Today 's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the scientific method . In contrast , Aristotle 's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry . In the larger sense of the word , Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning , which he also would describe as `` science '' . Note , however , that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term `` scientific method '' . For Aristotle , `` all science ( dianoia ) is either practical , poetical or theoretical '' ( Metaphysics 1025b25 ) . By practical science , he means ethics and politics ; by poetical science , he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts ; by theoretical science , he means physics , mathematics and metaphysics . If logic ( or `` analytics '' ) is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy , the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of : ( 1 ) Logic ; ( 2 ) Theoretical Philosophy , including Metaphysics , Physics and Mathematics ; ( 3 ) Practical Philosophy and ( 4 ) Poetical Philosophy . In the period between his two stays in Athens , between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum , Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is renowned today . In fact , most of Aristotle 's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science . Aristotle 's metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to mathematics . He did , however , perform original research in the natural sciences , e.g. , botany , zoology , physics , astronomy , chemistry , meteorology , and several other sciences . Aristotle 's writings on science are largely qualitative , as opposed to quantitative . Beginning in the 16th century , scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences , and Aristotle 's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate . His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass , velocity , force and temperature . He had a conception of speed and temperature , but no quantitative understanding of them , which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices , like clocks and thermometers . His writings provide an account of many scientific observations , a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors . For example , in his History of Animals he claimed that human males have more teeth than females . In a similar vein , John Philoponus , and later Galileo , showed by simple experiments that Aristotle 's theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect . On the other hand , Aristotle refuted Democritus 's claim that the Milky Way was made up of `` those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun 's rays , '' pointing out ( correctly , even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time ) that , given `` current astronomical demonstrations '' that `` the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun , then ... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them . '' In places , Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe ' from simple observation and over-stretched reason . Today 's scientific method assumes that such thinking without sufficient facts is ineffective , and that discerning the validity of one 's hypothesis requires far more rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotle used to support his laws . Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots . He posited a geocentric cosmology that we may discern in selections of the Metaphysics , which was widely accepted up until the 16th century . From the 3rd century to the 16th century , the dominant view held that the Earth was the rotational center of the universe . Because he was perhaps the philosopher most respected by European thinkers during and after the Renaissance , these thinkers often took Aristotle 's erroneous positions as given , which held back science in this epoch . However , Aristotle 's scientific shortcomings should not mislead one into forgetting his great advances in the many scientific fields . For instance , he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia . Moreover , he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants . Geology As quoted from Charles Lyell 's Principles of Geology : He [ Aristotle ] refers to many examples of changes now constantly going on , and insists emphatically on the great results which they must produce in the lapse of ages . He instances particular cases of lakes that had dried up , and deserts that had at length become watered by rivers and fertilized . He points to the growth of the Nilotic delta since the time of Homer , to the shallowing of the Palus Maeotis within sixty years from his own time ... He alludes ... to the upheaving of one of the Eolian islands , previous to a volcanic eruption . The changes of the earth , he says , are so slow in comparison to the duration of our lives , that they are overlooked ; and the migrations of people after great catastrophes , and their removal to other regions , cause the event to be forgotten . He says [ 12th chapter of his Meteorics ] 'the distribution of land and sea in particular regions does not endure throughout all time , but it becomes sea in those parts where it was land , and again it becomes land where it was sea , and there is reason for thinking that these changes take place according to a certain system , and within a certain period . ' The concluding observation is as follows : 'As time never fails , and the universe is eternal , neither the Tanais , nor the Nile , can have flowed for ever . The places where they rise were once dry , and there is a limit to their operations , but there is none to time . So also of all other rivers ; they spring up and they perish ; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others The same tracts , therefore , of the earth are not some always sea , and others always continents , but every thing changes in the course of time . ' Physics Five elements Aristotle proposed a fifth element , aether , in addition to the four proposed earlier by Empedocles . * Earth , which is cold and dry ; this corresponds to the modern idea of a solid . * Water , which is cold and wet ; this corresponds to the modern idea of a liquid . * Air , which is hot and wet ; this corresponds to the modern idea of a gas . * Fire , which is hot and dry ; this corresponds to the modern ideas of plasma and heat . * Aether , which is the divine substance that makes up the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies ( stars and planets ) . Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place . All that is earthly tends toward the center of the universe , i.e. , the center of the Earth . Water tends toward a sphere surrounding the center . Air tends toward a sphere surrounding the water sphere . Fire tends toward the lunar sphere ( in which the Moon orbits ) . When elements are moved out of their natural place , they naturally move back towards it . This is `` natural motion '' —motion requiring no extrinsic cause . So , for example , in water , earthy bodies sink while air bubbles rise up ; in air , rain falls and flame rises . Outside all the other spheres , the heavenly , fifth element , manifested in the stars and planets , moves in the perfection of circles . Motion Aristotle defined motion as the actuality of a potentiality as such . Aquinas suggested that the passage be understood literally ; that motion can indeed be understood as the active fulfillment of a potential , as a transition toward a potentially possible state . Because actuality and potentiality are normally opposites in Aristotle , other commentators either suggest that the wording which has come down to us is erroneous , or that the addition of the `` as such '' to the definition is critical to understanding it . Causality , the four causes Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors : * Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed . Thus the material cause of a table is wood , and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel . It is not about action . It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino . * The formal cause is its form , i.e. , the arrangement of that matter . It tells us what a thing is , that any thing is determined by the definition , form , pattern , essence , whole , synthesis or archetype . It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws , as the whole ( i.e. , macrostructure ) is the cause of its parts , a relationship known as the whole-part causation . Plainly put , the formal cause is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor , and in the second place as intrinsic , determining cause , embodied in the matter . Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation . A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist , architect , or engineer to create his drawings . * The efficient cause is `` the primary source '' , or that from which the change under consideration proceeds . It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed ' and so suggests all sorts of agents , nonliving or living , acting as the sources of change or movement or rest . Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect , this covers the modern definitions of `` cause '' as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs . So , take the two dominoes , this time of equal weighting , the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over . * The final cause is its purpose , or that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done , including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities . The final cause or teleos is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve . This covers modern ideas of motivating causes , such as volition , need , desire , ethics , or spiritual beliefs . Additionally , things can be causes of one another , causing each other reciprocally , as hard work causes fitness and vice versa , although not in the same way or function , the one is as the beginning of change , the other as the goal . ( Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect ) . Moreover , Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects ; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes . Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event . Our two dominoes require someone or something to intentionally knock over the first domino , because it can not fall of its own accord . Aristotle marked two modes of causation : proper ( prior ) causation and accidental ( chance ) causation . All causes , proper and incidental , can be spoken as potential or as actual , particular or generic . The same language refers to the effects of causes , so that generic effects assigned to generic causes , particular effects to particular causes , operating causes to actual effects . Essentially , causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect . Optics Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day . The second oldest written evidence of a camera obscura ( after Mozi c. 400 BC ) can be found in Aristotle 's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in Problemata . Aristotle 's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole , or aperture , to allow for sunlight to enter . Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was , the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object . In modern cameras , this is analogous to the diaphragm . Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased , the image was magnified . Chance and spontaneity According to Aristotle , spontaneity and chance are causes of some things , distinguishable from other types of cause . Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things . It is `` from what is spontaneous '' ( but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance ) . For a better understanding of Aristotle 's conception of `` chance '' it might be better to think of `` coincidence '' : Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place , but with the result of another thing ( not intended ) taking place . For example : A person seeks donations . That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum . However , if the person seeking the donations met the person donating , not for the purpose of collecting donations , but for some other purpose , Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance . It must be unusual that something happens by chance . In other words , if something happens all or most of the time , we can not say that it is by chance . There is also more specific kind of chance , which Aristotle names `` luck '' , that can only apply to human beings , because it is in the sphere of moral actions . According to Aristotle , luck must involve choice ( and thus deliberation ) , and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice . `` What is not capable of action can not do anything by chance '' . Metaphysics Aristotle defines metaphysics as `` the knowledge of immaterial being , '' or of `` being in the highest degree of abstraction . '' He refers to metaphysics as `` first philosophy '' , as well as `` the theologic science . '' Substance , potentiality and actuality Aristotle examines the concepts of substance and essence ( ousia ) in his Metaphysics ( Book VII ) , and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form . In book VIII , he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum , or the stuff of which it is composed . For example , the matter of a house is the bricks , stones , timbers etc. , or whatever constitutes the potential house , while the form of the substance is the actual house , namely 'covering for bodies and chattels ' or any other differentia ( see also predicables ) that let us define something as a house . The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter , and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form . With regard to the change ( kinesis ) and its causes now , as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b–320a , he distinguishes the coming to be from : # growth and diminution , which is change in quantity ; # locomotion , which is change in space ; and #

bb_7608--Aristotle.txt

Which student of Socrates, and teacher of Aristole, wrote Republic?

Lincoln is a cathedral city and the county town of Lincolnshire , within the East Midlands of England . The non-metropolitan district of Lincoln has a 2012 population of 94,600 . The 2011 census gave the entire urban area of Lincoln ( which includes North Hykeham and Waddington ) a population of 130,200 . Lincoln developed from the Roman town of Lindum Colonia , which developed from an Iron Age settlement . Lincoln 's major landmarks are Lincoln Cathedral , a famous example of English Gothic architecture , and Lincoln Castle , an 11th-century Norman castle . The city is also home to the University of Lincoln and Bishop Grosseteste University . Lincoln is situated in a gap in the Lincoln Cliff 141 mi north of London , at an elevation of above sea level by the River Witham , stretching up to 75 m above sea level in the uphill area around the cathedral . History Earliest history : Lincoln The earliest origins of Lincoln can be traced to the remains of an Iron Age settlement of round wooden dwellings ( which were discovered by archaeologists in 1972 ) that have been dated to the 1st century BC . This settlement was built by a deep pool ( the modern Brayford Pool ) in the River Witham at the foot of a large hill ( on which the Normans later built Lincoln Cathedral and Lincoln Castle ) . The origins of the name Lincoln may come from this period , when the settlement is thought to have been named in the Brythonic language of Iron Age Britain 's Celtic inhabitants as Lindon `` The Pool '' , presumably referring to the Brayford Pool ( compare the etymology of the name Dublin , from the Gaelic dubh linn `` black pool '' ) . The extent of this original settlement is unknown as its remains are now buried deep beneath the later Roman and medieval ruins , and modern Lincoln . Roman history : Lindum Colonia The Romans conquered this part of Britain in AD 48 and shortly afterwards built a legionary fortress high on a hill overlooking the natural lake formed by the widening of the River Witham ( the modern day Brayford Pool ) and at the northern end of the Fosse Way Roman road ( A46 ) . The Celtic name Lindon was subsequently Latinised to Lindum and given the title Colonia when it was converted into a settlement for army veterans . The conversion to a colonia was made when the legion moved on to York ( Eboracum ) in AD 71 . Lindum colonia or more fully , Colonia Domitiana Lindensium , after its founder Domitian , was established within the walls of the hilltop fortress with the addition of an extension of about equal area , down the hillside to the waterside below . It became a major flourishing settlement , accessible from the sea both through the River Trent and through the River Witham . On the basis of the patently corrupt list of British bishops who attended the 314 Council of Arles , the city is now often considered to have been the capital of the province of Flavia Caesariensis which was formed during the late-3rd century Diocletian Reforms . Subsequently , however , the town and its waterways fell into decline . By the close of the 5th century the city was largely deserted , although some occupation continued under a Praefectus Civitatis , for Saint Paulinus visited a man of this office in Lincoln in AD 629 . AD 410–1066 During this period the Latin name Lindum Colonia was shortened in Old English to become first Lindocolina , then Lincylene . After the first destructive Viking raids , the city once again rose to some importance , with overseas trading connections . In Viking times Lincoln was a trading centre that issued coins from its own mint , by far the most important in Lincolnshire and by the end of the 10th century , comparable in output to the mint at York . After the establishment of Dane Law in 886 , Lincoln became one of The Five Boroughs in the East Midlands . Excavations at Flaxengate reveal that this area , deserted since Roman times , received new timber-framed buildings fronting a new street system in about 900 . Lincoln experienced an unprecedented explosion in its economy with the settlement of the Danes . Like York , the Upper City seems to have been given over to purely administrative functions up to 850 or so , while the Lower City , running down the hill towards the River Witham , may have been largely deserted . By 950 , however , the banks of the Witham were newly developed with the Lower City being resettled and the suburb of Wigford quickly emerging as a major trading centre . In 1068 , two years after the Norman conquest , William I ordered Lincoln Castle to be built on the site of the former Roman settlement , for the same strategic reasons and controlling the same road . Cathedral Construction of the first Lincoln Cathedral , within its close or walled precinct facing the castle , began when the see was removed from the quiet backwater of Dorchester-on-Thames , Oxfordshire , and was completed in 1092 ; it was rebuilt after a fire but was destroyed by an unusual earthquake in 1185 . The rebuilt Lincoln Minster , enlarged to the east at each rebuilding , was on a magnificent scale , its crossing tower crowned by a spire reputed to have been 525 ft high , the highest in Europe . When completed the central of the three spires is widely accepted to have succeeded the Great Pyramids of Egypt as the tallest man-made structure in the world . The bishops of Lincoln were among the magnates of medieval England : the diocese of Lincoln , the largest in England , had more monasteries than the rest of England put together , and the diocese was supported by large estates . When Magna Carta was drawn up in 1215 , one of the witnesses was Hugh of Wells , Bishop of Lincoln . One of only four surviving originals of the document is preserved in Lincoln Castle . Among the most famous bishops of Lincoln were Robert Bloet , the magnificent justiciar to Henry I , Hugh of Avalon , the cathedral builder canonised as St Hugh of Lincoln , Robert Grosseteste , the 13th-century intellectual , Henry Beaufort , chancellor of Henry V and Henry VI , Thomas Rotherham , a politician deeply involved in the Wars of the Roses , Philip Repyngdon , chaplain to Henry IV and defender of Wycliffe , and Thomas Wolsey , the lord chancellor of Henry VIII . The administrative centre was the Bishop 's Palace , the third element in the central complex . When it was built in the late 12th century , the Bishop 's Palace was one of the most important buildings in England . Built by Hugh of Lincoln , its East Hall range over a vaulted under-croft is the earliest surviving example of a roofed domestic hall . The chapel range and entrance tower were built by Bishop William of Alnwick , who modernised the palace in the 1430s . Both Henry VIII and James I were guests of bishops here ; the palace was sacked by royalist troops during the Civil War in 1648 . Following a recent break-in , some of the stained glass windows of the cathedral have had to be replaced . Medieval town During the Anarchy , in 1141 Lincoln was the site of a battle between King Stephen and the forces of Empress Matilda , led by her illegitimate halfbrother Robert , 1st Earl of Gloucester . After fierce fighting in the city 's streets , Stephen 's forces were defeated . Stephen himself was captured and taken to Bristol . By 1150 , Lincoln was among the wealthiest towns in England . The basis of the economy was cloth and wool , exported to Flanders ; Lincoln weavers had set up a guild in 1130 to produce Lincoln Cloth , especially the fine dyed 'scarlet ' and 'green ' , the reputation of which was later enhanced by Robin Hood wearing woollens of Lincoln green . In the Guildhall that surmounts the city gate called the Stonebow , the ancient Council Chamber contains Lincoln 's civic insignia , a particularly fine collection of civic regalia . Outside the precincts of cathedral and castle , the old quarter clustered around the Bailgate , and down Steep Hill to the High Bridge , which bears half-timbered housing , with the upper storeys jutting out over the river . There are three ancient churches : St Mary le Wigford and St Peter at Gowts are both 11th century in origin and St Mary Magdalene , built in the late 13th century , is an unusual English dedication to the saint whose cult was coming greatly into vogue on the European continent at that time . Lincoln was home to one of the five most important Jewish communities in England , well established before it was officially noted in 1154 . In 1190 , anti-Semitic riots that started in King 's Lynn , Norfolk , spread to Lincoln ; the Jewish community took refuge with royal officials , but their habitations were plundered . The so-called House of Aaron has a two-storey street frontage that is essentially 12th century and a nearby Jew 's House likewise bears witness to the Jewish population . In 1255 , the affair called 'The Libel of Lincoln ' in which prominent Jews of Lincoln , accused of the ritual murder of a Christian boy ( 'Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln ' in medieval folklore ) were sent to the Tower of London and 18 were executed . The Jews were expelled en masse in 1290 . During the 13th century , Lincoln was the third largest city in England and was a favourite of more than one king . During the First Barons ' War , it became caught up in the strife between the king and the rebel barons , who had allied with the French . It was here and at Dover that the French and Rebel army was defeated . In the aftermath of the battle , the town was pillaged for having sided with Prince Louis . During the 14th century , the city 's fortunes began to decline . The lower city was prone to flooding , becoming increasingly isolated , and plagues were common . In 1409 , the city was made a county corporate . 16th century The Dissolution of the Monasteries exacerbated Lincoln 's problems , cutting off its main source of diocesan income and drying up the network of patronage controlled by the bishop , with no fewer than seven monasteries closed down within the city alone . A number of nearby abbeys were also closed , which led to a further diminution of the region 's political power . When the cathedral 's great spire rotted and collapsed in 1549 and was not replaced , it was a significant symbol of Lincoln 's economic and political decline . However , the comparative poverty of post-medieval Lincoln preserved pre-medieval structures that would probably have been lost in a more prosperous scenario . Civil War Between 1642 and 1651 , during the English Civil War , Lincoln was on the frontier between the Royalist and Parliamentary forces and changed hands several times . Many buildings were badly damaged . Lincoln now had no major industry and no easy access to the sea and was poorly situated . Thus while the rest of the country was beginning to prosper at the beginning of the 18th century , Lincoln suffered immensely , travellers often commenting on the state of what had essentially become a one-street town . Georgian Age By the Georgian era , Lincoln 's fortunes began to pick up , thanks in part to the Agricultural Revolution . The re-opening of the Foss Dyke canal allowed coal and other raw materials vital to industry to be more easily brought into the city . As well as the economic growth of Lincoln during this era , the city boundaries expanded to include the West Common . To this day , an annual Beat the Boundaries walk takes place along the perimeter of the common . Industrial Revolution Coupled with the arrival of the railway links , Lincoln boomed again during the Industrial Revolution , and several world-famous companies arose , such as Ruston 's , Clayton 's , Proctor 's and William Foster 's . Lincoln began to excel in heavy engineering , building locomotives , steam shovels and all manner of heavy machinery . A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of the `` Old Barracks '' ( now the Museum of Lincolnshire Life ) in 1857 ; these were replaced by the `` New Barracks '' ( now Sobraon Barracks ) in 1890 . 20th century Lincoln was hit by a major typhoid epidemic between November 1904 and August 1905 caused by polluted drinking water from Hartsholme Lake and the River Witham . Over 1,000 people contracted the disease and fatalities totalled 131 , including the very man responsible for the city 's water supply , Liam Kirk of Baker Crescent . Near the beginning of the epidemic , Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston installed a chlorine disinfection system just ahead of the poorly operating slow sand filter to kill the bacteria causing the epidemic . Chlorination of the water supply continued until 1911 when a new water supply was implemented . The Lincoln chlorination episode was one of the first uses of the chemical to disinfect a water supply . Westgate Water Tower was constructed to provide new water supplies to the city . In the two world wars , Lincoln switched to war production . The first ever tanks were invented , designed and built in Lincoln by William Foster & Co. during the First World War and population growth provided more workers for even greater expansion . The tanks were tested on land now covered by Tritton Road ( in the south-west suburbs of the city ) . During the Second World War , Lincoln produced a vast array of war goods , from tanks , aircraft , munitions and military vehicles . Ruston & Hornsby produced diesel engines for ships and locomotives , then by teaming up with former colleagues of Frank Whittle and Power Jets Ltd , in the early 1950s , R & H ( which became RGT ) opened the first-ever production line to build gas turbine engines for land-based and sea-based energy production . Hugely successful , it was the largest single employer in the city , providing over 5,000 jobs in its factory and research facilities , making it a rich takeover target for industrial conglomerates . It was subsumed by English Electric in November 1966 , which was then bought by GEC in 1968 , with diesel engine production being transferred to the Ruston Diesels Division in Newton-le-Willows , Lancashire , at the former Vulcan Foundry , which was eventually bought by the German MAN Diesel ( now MAN Diesel & Turbo ) in June 2000 . It merged with Alstom of France in the late 1980s , then in 2003 was bought out by Siemens AG of Germany , now being called Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery . This also includes what is left of Napier Turbochargers . Plans were announced early in 2008 for the construction of a new plant just outside the city boundary at Teal Park , North Hykeham . Unfortunately Siemens made large scale redundancies and moved jobs to both Sweden and the Netherlands . The factory now employs 1300 people . R & H 's former Beevor Foundry is now owned by Hoval Group who make industrial boilers ( wood chip ) . The Aerospace Manufacturing Facility ( AMF ) at the Firth Road site was divested to ITP Engines UK , in January 2009 from Alstom Aerospace Ltd . Lincoln 's second largest private employer is James Dawson and Son , a belting and hose manufacturer founded in Lincoln in the late 19th century , which is located on the city 's Tritton Road next to the University of Lincoln , it still operates using a coal-fired boiler . Dawson 's became part of the Hull-based Fenner group in the late 1970s . In the post-war years after 1945 , new suburbs were built , but heavy industry declined towards the end of the 20th century , mimicking the wider economic profile of the United Kingdom . More people are nevertheless still employed today in Lincoln building gas turbines than anything else . Economy Lincoln 's economy is based mainly on public administration , commerce , arable farming and tourism , with industrial relics like Ruston ( now Siemens ) still in existence . However , many of Lincoln 's industrial giants have long ceased production in the city , leaving large empty industrial warehouse-like buildings . More recently , these buildings have become multi-occupant units , with the likes of Lincs FM radio station ( in the Titanic Works ) and LA Fitness gym taking up space . The main employment sectors in Lincoln are ; public administration , education and health , which accounts for 34 per cent of the workforce . Distribution , restaurants and hotels account for 25 per cent of the workforce . Like many other cities in Britain , Lincoln has developed a growing IT economy , with many e-commerce mail order companies setting up in or around the city . A plethora of other , more conventional small industrial businesses are located in and around Lincoln . One of the reasons for building the University of Lincoln was to increase inward investment and act as a springboard for small companies . The University 's presence has also drawn many more licensed premises to the town centre around the Brayford Pool . A new small business unit next door to a university accommodation building , the Think Tank , opened in June 2009 . The Extra motorway services company is based on Castle Hill , with most new UK service areas being built by Swayfields who are the parent company . There are two main electronics companies in the town : Chelmsford-based e2V ( formerly Associated Electrical Industries before 1961 ) is situated between Carholme Road ( A57 ) and the Foss Dyke next-door to Carholme Golf Club ; and Dynex Semiconductor ( formerly Marconi Electronic Devices ) is on Doddington Road ( B1190 ) near the A46 bypass just inside the borough boundary , and near North Hykeham . Bifrangi , an Italian company , makes crankshafts for off-road vehicles ( tractors ) , using a screw press ; it is based at the former Tower Works formerly owned by Smith-Clayton Forge . Lincoln is also the functional hub of a wider area that encompasses several satellite settlements such as Welton , Saxilby , Skellingthorpe and Washingborough . These villages look to Lincoln for most of their service and employment needs , and effectively boost its population to around 165,000 . Due to its size and central location , Lincoln is the main centre for jobs and facilities in Central Lincolnshire , and performs a wider regional role that extends to cover much of Lincolnshire and parts of Nottinghamshire . According to a document entitled `` Central Lincolnshire Local Plan Core Strategy '' Lincoln is within a `` travel-to-work '' area with a population of about 300,000 . This `` includes a large part of Lincolnshire and extends into Nottinghamshire . '' Retail parks Around the Tritton Road ( B1003 ) trading estate , many new businesses have begun trading from large units with car parking . Lincoln has a choice of five large national supermarkets . The St Mark 's Square complex has Debenhams as its flagship store and has an accompanying trading estate with well-known chain stores such as BHS . Another development , originally expected to be completed by 2015 , is named [ http : //www.lindongate.com/index.html Lindongate ] . It includes plans for a new department store , shops , hotel , flats and new transport facilities . The viability of proposed developments such as this was , however , called into question by the sudden economic downturn which started late in 2007 . The scheme depends on a continuing demand for retail space , and a continuation of a strong housing market , but by mid-2008 both of these factors had become conspicuously absent . Outline planning permission was granted , however , by Lincoln City Council in 2012 and financing arrangements are being put into place to commence the project . Tourism The city is a tourist centre and those who come do so to visit the numerous historic buildings including the cathedral , the castle , and the Medieval Bishop 's Palace . The Collection , of which the Usher Gallery is now a part , is an important attraction . Housed partly in a recently opened , purpose-built venue , it currently contains over 2,000,000 objects , and was one of the four finalists for the 2006 Gulbenkian Prize . Any material from official archaeological excavations in Lincolnshire is eventually deposited in The Collection so it is growing all the time . Other attractions include the Museum of Lincolnshire Life and the Sir Joseph Banks Conservatory at the Lawn , adjacent to Lincoln Castle . Tranquil destinations close by include Whisby Nature Reserve and Hartsholme Country Park ( including the Swanholme Lakes Local Nature Reserve ) , while noisier entertainment can be found at Waddington airfield , Scampton airfield ( base of the RAF 's Red Arrows jet aerobatic team ) , the County Showground or the Cadwell Park motor racing circuit near Louth . Because of its climate , Lincoln attracts many of its tourists in summer , but also on the first Thursday of December until the following Sunday when the Bailgate area of the city holds its annual Christmas Market in and around the Castle grounds . The market is based upon the traditional German-style Christmas market as found in several German cities , including Lincoln 's 'twin town ' Neustadt an der Weinstrasse . In 2010 , for the first time in the history of the Christmas Market , the event was cancelled due to 'atrocious conditions ' of heavy snowfall across Lincolnshire and most of the United Kingdom . Topography : `` Uphill '' and `` Downhill '' Lincoln is situated in a gap in the Lincoln Cliff ( a major escarpment that runs north–south through Lindsey and Kesteven , in central Lincolnshire and rising to 200 ft in height ) . The River Witham flows through this gap . Lincoln is thus divided informally into two zones , known locally as `` Uphill '' and `` Downhill '' , with Uphill at above sea level in the area near Lincoln Cathedral , and Downhill at a height of above sea level by the River Witham . The uphill area comprises the northern part of the city , on top of the Lincoln Cliff ( to the north of the gap ) . This area includes the historical quarter , including Lincoln Cathedral , Lincoln Castle and the Medieval Bishop 's Palace , known locally as The Bail ( although described in tourist promotional literature as the Cathedral Quarter ) . It also includes residential suburbs to the north and north-east . The downhill area comprises the city centre ( located in the gap ) and the suburbs to the south and south-west . The aptly named Steep Hill is a narrow , pedestrian street connecting the two ( too steep for vehicular traffic ) . This divide marks out Lincoln from many other historic cities in England and elsewhere in Europe . The divide was also once an important class distinction , with Uphill ' more affluent and Downhill less so . This distinction dates from the time of the Norman conquest , when the religious and military elite occupied the hilltop . The construction and expansion of suburbs in both parts of the city since the mid-19th century has diluted this distinction , nevertheless Uphill residential property continues to fetch a premium , and is almost invariably referred to as such by local estate agents . Climate Like the rest of the British Isles , Lincoln has a maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters . The nearest Met Office weather station is at Waddington , about 4 mi to the south of the city centre . Temperature extremes since 1948 have ranged from as high as in August 1990 , to as low as in February 1956 . A now closed weather station still holds the record for the lowest daytime maximum temperature recorded in England in the month of December : on 17 December 1981 . The coldest temperature reported in recent years was during December 2010 , although another weather station , at Scampton , a similar distance north of the city centre , fell to , thus equalling Waddington 's record low set in 1956 . Transport Rail Lincoln was once served by two railway stations , but since the closure of Lincoln St. Marks in 1985 , Lincoln Central is the only station serving the city . Lincoln Central has five platforms and a steady flow of trains and passengers . Trains run to various destinations including Newark-on-Trent , Grimsby and Peterborough . Virgin Trains East Coast run a direct train service to London , calling at Newark , Peterborough and Stevenage . One service in each direction operates daily . Road The £19-million A46 bypass was opened in December 1985 . The B1190 is an east-west road through Lincoln , starting from the Nottinghamshire-Lincolnshire boundary on the ( Roman ) Foss Dyke and A57 and finishing in the east at Thimbleby on the A158 near Horncastle . It originally terminated at the Canwick Road junction , then was extended to the west . For many years the two main roads through Lincoln were the A46 and A15 ; there were no other main roads , and they both passed along the High Street . At the intersection of Guildhall Street and the High Street , these two roads met the A57 , where it terminated . North of the city centre , the former route of the A15 , Riseholme Road is the B1226 , and that of the A46 , Nettleham Road , is the B1182 . The early northern inner ring-road , formed of Yarborough Road and Yarborough Crescent was originally the B1193 , then an A road for many years , the A1102 , from the mid-1930s and after the bypass was built , this distributor road became the B1273 . Education Higher education Lincoln has two higher education institutions , the older being Bishop Grosseteste University , which started life as a teacher training college linked to the Anglican Church in 1862 . During the 1990s , the college branched out into new subject areas with a focus on the arts and drama . Bishop Grosseteste College , as it was , became a University College in 2006 when it was awarded taught degree powers , so that students graduate with degrees from BGUC and not the University of Leicester as previously . The college became a university in 2012 . A graduation celebration takes place every year in Lincoln Cathedral . Bishop Grosseteste University has no links with the University of Lincoln . The larger University of Lincoln started life as the University of Lincolnshire and Humberside in 1996 , when the University of Humberside opened a Lincoln campus next to Brayford Pool , attracting additional students to the city . Lincoln School of Art & Design ( which was Lincolnshire 's main outlet for higher education ) and Riseholme Agricultural College , which had previously been part of De Montfort University in Leicester , were absorbed into the University of Lincoln in 2001 , and subsequently the Lincoln campus took priority over the Hull campus . Most buildings were built after 2001 . The University changed its name to the University of Lincoln in September 2002 . In the 2005–06 academic year , 8,292 full-time undergraduates were studying at the university and by 2010–11 , 11,900 students were registered as studying there . Further education Further education courses in Lincoln are provided by Lincoln College , which is the largest education institution in Lincolnshire , with 18,500 students , of whom 2,300 are

qw_16513--Lincoln,_England.txt

Which English road in Anglo-Saxon times went from Axminster via Bath, Cirencester, Leicester and Newark to Lincoln?

Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester , England , with a population of 514,417 . It lies within the United Kingdom 's second-most populous urban area , with a population of 2.55 million . Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south , the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation . The local authority is Manchester City Council . The recorded history of Manchester began with the civilian settlement associated with the Roman fort of Mamucium or Mancunium , which was established in about 79 AD on a sandstone bluff near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and Irwell . It was historically a part of Lancashire , although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century . Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a manorial township but began to expand `` at an astonishing rate '' around the turn of the 19th century . Manchester 's unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution , and resulted in it becoming the world 's first industrialised city.• • Manchester achieved city status in 1853 . The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894 , creating the Port of Manchester and linking the city to sea , 36 mi to the west . Its fortunes declined after the Second World War , owing to deindustrialisation . The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996 , but it led to extensive investment and regeneration that has since helped it turn into a thriving 'reborn ' modern city . In 2014 , the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city , the highest-ranked British city apart from London . Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK . It is notable for its architecture , culture , musical exports , media links , scientific and engineering output , social impact , sports clubs and transport connections . Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the world 's first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom and developed the stored-program computer . Name The name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians . These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name , either from mamm- ( `` breast '' , in reference to a `` breast-like hill '' ) or from mamma ( `` mother '' , in reference to a local river goddess ) . Both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic , mam meaning `` breast '' in Irish and `` mother '' in Welsh . The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster ( `` fort ; fortified town '' ) . History Early history The Brigantes were the major Celtic tribe in what is now Northern England ; they had a stronghold in the locality at a sandstone outcrop on which Manchester Cathedral now stands , opposite the banks of the River Irwell . Their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford . Following the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century , General Agricola ordered the construction of a fort named Mamucium in the year 79 to ensure that Roman interests in Deva Victrix ( Chester ) and Eboracum ( York ) were protected from the Brigantes . Central Manchester has been permanently settled since this time . A stabilised fragment of foundations of the final version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield . The Roman habitation of Manchester probably ended around the 3rd century ; its civilian settlement appears to have been abandoned by the mid-3rd century , although the fort may have supported a small garrison until the late 3rd or early 4th century . After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest , the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell and Irk sometime before the arrival of the Normans after 1066 . Much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North . Thomas de la Warre , lord of the manor , founded and constructed a collegiate church for the parish in 1421 . The church is now Manchester Cathedral ; the domestic premises of the college house Chetham 's School of Music and Chetham 's Library . The library , which opened in 1653 and is still open to the public today , is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom . Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282 . Around the 14th century , Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers , sometimes credited as the foundation of the region 's textile industry . Manchester became an important centre for the manufacture and trade of woollens and linen , and by about 1540 , had expanded to become , in John Leland 's words , `` The fairest , best builded , quickest , and most populous town of all Lancashire . '' The cathedral and Chetham 's buildings are the only significant survivors of Leland 's Manchester . During the English Civil War Manchester strongly favoured the Parliamentary interest . Although not long-lasting , Cromwell granted it the right to elect its own MP . Charles Worsley , who sat for the city for only a year , was later appointed Major General for Lancashire , Cheshire and Staffordshire during the Rule of the Major Generals . He was a diligent puritan , turning out ale houses and banning the celebration of Christmas ; he died in 1656 . Significant quantities of cotton began to be used after about 1600 , firstly in linen/cotton fustians , but by around 1750 pure cotton fabrics were being produced and cotton had overtaken wool in importance . The Irwell and Mersey were made navigable by 1736 , opening a route from Manchester to the sea docks on the Mersey . The Bridgewater Canal , Britain 's first wholly artificial waterway , was opened in 1761 , bringing coal from mines at Worsley to central Manchester . The canal was extended to the Mersey at Runcorn by 1776 . The combination of competition and improved efficiency halved the cost of coal and halved the transport cost of raw cotton . Manchester became the dominant marketplace for textiles produced in the surrounding towns . A commodities exchange , opened in 1729 , and numerous large warehouses , aided commerce . In 1780 , Richard Arkwright began construction of Manchester 's first cotton mill . In the early 1800s , John Dalton formulated his atomic theory in Manchester . Industrial Revolution Manchester 's history is concerned with textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution . The great majority of cotton spinning took place in the towns of south Lancashire and north Cheshire , and Manchester was for a time the most productive centre of cotton processing , and later the world 's largest marketplace for cotton goods . Manchester was dubbed `` Cottonopolis '' and `` Warehouse City '' during the Victorian era . In Australia , New Zealand and South Africa , the term `` manchester '' is still used for household linen : sheets , pillow cases , towels , etc . The industrial revolution brought about huge change in Manchester and was key to the increase in Manchester 's population . Manchester began expanding `` at an astonishing rate '' around the turn of the 19th century as people flocked to the city for work from Scotland , Wales , Ireland and other areas of England as part of a process of unplanned urbanisation brought on by the Industrial Revolution . It developed a wide range of industries , so that by 1835 `` Manchester was without challenge the first and greatest industrial city in the world . '' Engineering firms initially made machines for the cotton trade , but diversified into general manufacture . Similarly , the chemical industry started by producing bleaches and dyes , but expanded into other areas . Commerce was supported by financial service industries such as banking and insurance . Trade , and feeding the growing population , required a large transport and distribution infrastructure : the canal system was extended , and Manchester became one end of the world 's first intercity passenger railway—the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . Competition between the various forms of transport kept costs down . In 1878 the GPO ( the forerunner of British Telecom ) provided its first telephones to a firm in Manchester . The Manchester Ship Canal was built between 1888 and 1894 , in some sections by canalisation of the Rivers Irwell and Mersey , running 36 mi from Salford to Eastham Locks on the tidal Mersey . This enabled oceangoing ships to sail right into the Port of Manchester . On the canal 's banks , just outside the borough , the world 's first industrial estate was created at Trafford Park . Large quantities of machinery , including cotton processing plant , were exported around the world . A centre of capitalism , Manchester was once the scene of bread and labour riots , as well as calls for greater political recognition by the city 's working and non-titled classes . One such gathering ended with the Peterloo Massacre of 16 August 1819 . The economic school of Manchester capitalism developed there , and Manchester was the centre of the Anti-Corn Law League from 1838 onward . Manchester has a notable place in the history of Marxism and left-wing politics ; being the subject of Friedrich Engels ' work The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 ; Engels spent much of his life in and around Manchester , and when Karl Marx visited Manchester , they met at Chetham 's Library . The economics books Marx was reading at the time can be seen in the library , as can the window seat where Marx and Engels would meet . The first Trades Union Congress was held in Manchester ( at the Mechanics ' Institute , David Street ) , from 2 to 6 June 1868 . Manchester was an important cradle of the Labour Party and the Suffragette Movement . At that time , it seemed a place in which anything could happen—new industrial processes , new ways of thinking ( the Manchester School , promoting free trade and laissez-faire ) , new classes or groups in society , new religious sects , and new forms of labour organisation . It attracted educated visitors from all parts of Britain and Europe . A saying capturing this sense of innovation survives today : `` What Manchester does today , the rest of the world does tomorrow . `` •• Manchester 's golden age was perhaps the last quarter of the 19th century . Many of the great public buildings ( including Manchester Town Hall ) date from then . The city 's cosmopolitan atmosphere contributed to a vibrant culture , which included the Hallé Orchestra . In 1889 , when county councils were created in England , the municipal borough became a county borough with even greater autonomy . Although the Industrial Revolution brought wealth to the city , it also brought poverty and squalor to a large part of the population . Historian Simon Schama noted that `` Manchester was the very best and the very worst taken to terrifying extremes , a new kind of city in the world ; the chimneys of industrial suburbs greeting you with columns of smoke '' . An American visitor taken to Manchester 's blackspots saw `` wretched , defrauded , oppressed , crushed human nature , lying and bleeding fragments '' . The number of cotton mills in Manchester itself reached a peak of 108 in 1853 . Thereafter the number began to decline and Manchester was surpassed as the largest centre of cotton spinning by Bolton in the 1850s and Oldham in the 1860s . However , this period of decline coincided with the rise of city as the financial centre of the region . Manchester continued to process cotton , and in 1913 , 65 % of the world 's cotton was processed in the area . The First World War interrupted access to the export markets . Cotton processing in other parts of the world increased , often on machines produced in Manchester . Manchester suffered greatly from the Great Depression and the underlying structural changes that began to supplant the old industries , including textile manufacture . Manchester Blitz Like most of the UK , the Manchester area was mobilised extensively during the Second World War . For example , casting and machining expertise at Beyer , Peacock and Company 's locomotive works in Gorton was switched to bomb making ; Dunlop 's rubber works in Chorlton-on-Medlock made barrage balloons ; and just outside the city in Trafford Park , engineers Metropolitan-Vickers made Avro Manchester and Avro Lancaster bombers and Ford built the Rolls-Royce Merlin engines to power them . Manchester was thus the target of bombing by the Luftwaffe , and by late 1940 air raids were taking place against non-military targets . The biggest took place during the `` Christmas Blitz '' on the nights of 22/23 and 24 December 1940 , when an estimated 467 long ton of high explosives plus over 37,000 incendiary bombs were dropped . A large part of the historic city centre was destroyed , including 165 warehouses , 200 business premises , and 150 offices . 376 were killed and 30,000 houses were damaged . Manchester Cathedral was among the buildings seriously damaged ; its restoration took 20 years . Post-Second World War Cotton processing and trading continued to fall in peacetime , and the exchange closed in 1968 . By 1963 the port of Manchester was the UK 's third largest , • and employed over 3,000 men , but the canal was unable to handle the increasingly large container ships . Traffic declined , and the port closed in 1982 . Heavy industry suffered a downturn from the 1960s and was greatly reduced under the economic policies followed by Margaret Thatcher 's government after 1979 . Manchester lost 150,000 jobs in manufacturing between 1961 and 1983 . Regeneration began in the late 1980s , with initiatives such as the Metrolink , the Bridgewater Concert Hall , the Manchester Arena , and ( in Salford ) the rebranding of the port as Salford Quays . Two bids to host the Olympic Games were part of a process to raise the international profile of the city . Manchester has a history of attacks attributed to Irish Republicans , including the Manchester Martyrs of 1867 , arson in 1920 , a series of explosions in 1939 , and two bombs in 1992 . On Saturday 15 June 1996 , the Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) carried out the 1996 Manchester bombing , the detonation of a large bomb next to a department store in the city centre . The largest to be detonated on British soil , the bomb injured over 200 people , heavily damaged nearby buildings , and broke windows away . The cost of the immediate damage was initially estimated at £50 million , but this was quickly revised upwards . The final insurance payout was over £400 million ; many affected businesses never recovered from the loss of trade . Spurred by the investment after the 1996 bomb , and aided by the XVII Commonwealth Games , Manchester 's city centre has undergone extensive regeneration.• • New and renovated complexes such as The Printworks and The Triangle have become popular shopping and entertainment destinations . The Manchester Arndale is the UK 's largest city centre shopping centre . Large sections of the city dating from the 1960s have been either demolished and re-developed or modernised with the use of glass and steel . Old mills have been converted into modern apartments , Hulme has undergone extensive regeneration programmes , and million-pound lofthouse apartments have since been developed . The 169-metre tall , 47-storey Beetham Tower , completed in 2006 , is the tallest building in the UK outside London and when finished was the highest residential accommodation in Europe . In January 2007 , the independent Casino Advisory Panel awarded Manchester a licence to build the only supercasino in the UK , however plans were officially abandoned in February 2008 . Since around the turn of the 21st century , Manchester has been regarded by sections of the international press , British public , and government ministers as being the second city of the United Kingdom . The BBC reports that redevelopment of recent years has heightened claims that Manchester is the second city of the UK.•• Manchester and Birmingham have traditionally competed as frontrunners for this unofficial title . Governance The City of Manchester is governed by the Manchester City Council . The earlier Greater Manchester County Council was abolished in 1986 so it is effectively a unitary authority . Manchester has been a member of the English Core Cities Group since its inception in 1995 . The town of Manchester was granted a charter by Thomas Grelley in 1301 , but lost its borough status in a court case of 1359 . Until the 19th century local government was largely in the hands of manorial courts , the last of which was dissolved in 1846 . From a very early time , the township of Manchester lay within the historic or ceremonial county boundaries of Lancashire . Pevsner wrote `` That [ neighbouring ] Stretford and Salford are not administratively one with Manchester is one of the most curious anomalies of England '' . A stroke of a Norman baron 's pen is said to have divorced Manchester and Salford , though it was not Salford that became separated from Manchester , it was Manchester , with its humbler line of lords , that was separated from Salford . It was this separation that resulted in Salford becoming the judicial seat of Salfordshire , which included the ancient parish of Manchester . Manchester later formed its own Poor Law Union using the name `` Manchester '' . In 1792 , Commissioners—usually known as `` Police Commissioners '' —were established for the social improvement of Manchester . Manchester regained its borough status in 1838 , and comprised the townships of Beswick , Cheetham Hill , Chorlton upon Medlock and Hulme . By 1846 , with increasing population and greater industrialisation , the Borough Council had taken over the powers of the `` Police Commissioners '' . In 1853 , Manchester was granted `` city status '' in the United Kingdom . In 1885 , Bradford , Harpurhey , Rusholme and parts of Moss Side and Withington townships became part of the City of Manchester . In 1889 , the city became a county borough as did many larger Lancashire towns , and therefore not governed by Lancashire County Council . Between 1890 and 1933 , more areas were added to the city which had been administered by Lancashire County Council , including former villages such as Burnage , Chorlton-cum-Hardy , Didsbury , Fallowfield , Levenshulme , Longsight , and Withington . In 1931 , the Cheshire civil parishes of Baguley , Northenden and Northen Etchells from the south of the River Mersey were added . In 1974 , by way of the Local Government Act 1972 , the City of Manchester became a metropolitan district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester . That year , Ringway , the town where the Manchester Airport is located , was added to the City . In November 2014 it was announced that Greater Manchester would receive a new directly elected Mayor . The Mayor would have fiscal control over health , transport , housing and police in the area . The move was dubbed `` Devo Manc '' , a play on the phrase Devo Max . Geography At , 160 mi northwest of London , Manchester lies in a bowl-shaped land area bordered to the north and east by the Pennines , a mountain chain that runs the length of northern England , and to the south by the Cheshire Plain . Manchester is north-east of Liverpool and north-west of Sheffield , making the city the halfway point between the two . The city centre is on the east bank of the River Irwell , near its confluences with the Rivers Medlock and Irk , and is relatively low-lying , being between 115 to above sea level . The River Mersey flows through the south of Manchester . Much of the inner city , especially in the south , is flat , offering extensive views from many highrise buildings in the city of the foothills and moors of the Pennines , which can often be capped with snow in the winter months . Manchester 's geographic features were highly influential in its early development as the world 's first industrial city . These features are its climate , its proximity to a seaport at Liverpool , the availability of water power from its rivers , and its nearby coal reserves . The name Manchester , though officially applied only to the metropolitan district within Greater Manchester , has been applied to other , wider divisions of land , particularly across much of the Greater Manchester county and urban area . The `` Manchester City Zone '' , `` Manchester post town '' and the `` Manchester Congestion Charge '' are all examples of this . For purposes of the Office for National Statistics , Manchester forms the most populous settlement within the Greater Manchester Urban Area , the United Kingdom 's third-largest conurbation . There is a mixture of high-density urban and suburban locations in Manchester . The largest open space in the city , at around 260 ha , is Heaton Park . Manchester is contiguous on all sides with several large settlements , except for a small section along its southern boundary with Cheshire . The M60 and M56 motorways pass through the south of Manchester , through Northenden and Wythenshawe respectively . Heavy rail lines enter the city from all directions , the principal destination being Manchester Piccadilly station Climate Manchester experiences a temperate Oceanic climate , like much of the British Isles , with mild summers and cool winters . Summer daytime temperatures regularly top 20 Celsius , typically reaching 25 Celsius on sunny days throughout July and August in particular . In more recent years , temperatures now reach over 30 Celsius on occasions . In Winter , temperatures rarely dip below freezing anymore . There is regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year . The city 's average annual rainfall is compared to the UK average of , and its mean rain days are 140.4 per annum , compared to the UK average of 154.4 . Manchester however has a relatively high humidity level and this , along with the abundant supply of soft water , was one of the factors that led to the localisation of the textile industry in the area . Snowfalls are not common in the city , due to the urban warming effect . However , the Pennine and Rossendale Forest hills that surround the city to its east and north receive more snow and roads leading out of the city can be closed due to snow . notably the A62 road via Oldham and Standedge , the A57 ( Snake Pass ) towards Sheffield , and the M62 over Saddleworth Moor . Demography Historically the population of Manchester began to increase rapidly during the Victorian era , peaking at 766,311 in 1931 . From then the population began to decrease rapidly , due to slum clearance and the increased building of social housing overspill estates by Manchester City Council after the Second World War such as Hattersley and Langley . The 2012 Mid-Year Estimate for the population of Manchester was 510,700 . This was an increase of 7,900 , or 1.6 % , since the 2011 MYE . Since 2001 , the population has grown by 87,900 , or 20.8 % . Manchester was the third fastest-growing of the areas in the 2011 census . The city experienced the greatest percentage population growth outside London , with an increase of 19 % to over 500,000 . Manchester 's population is projected to reach 532,200 by 2021 , an increase of 5.8 % from 2011 . This represents a slower rate of growth than the previous decade . The Greater Manchester Built-up Area had a population of 2,553,400 ( 2011 est. , ) . An estimated 2,702,200 people live in Greater Manchester ( 2012 est. , ) . 6,547,000 people live within 30 mi of Manchester ( 2012 est. , ) and 11,694,000 within 50 mi ( 2012 est. , ) . Between the beginning of July 2011 and end of June 2012 ( Mid-Year Estimate date ) , births exceeded deaths by 4,800 . Migration ( internal and international ) and other changes accounted for a net increase of 3,100 people between July 2011 and June 2012 . Compared to Greater Manchester and England , Manchester has a younger population , with a particularly large 20–35 age group . There were 76,095 under- and post-graduate students at the Manchester Metropolitan University , the University of Manchester and Royal Northern College of Music during the academic year 2011/12 . Since the 2001 census , the proportion of Christians in Manchester has decreased by 22 % from 62.4 % to 48.7 % . The proportion of people with no religious affiliation increased by 58.1 % from 16 % to 25.3 % , whilst the proportion of Muslims increased by 73.6 % from 9.1 % to 15.8 % . The size of the Jewish population in Greater Manchester is the largest in Britain outside London . Manchester has a disproportionately high number of gay and lesbian people . Of all households in Manchester , 0.23 % were Same-Sex Civil Partnership couple households , compared to the English national average of 0.16 % in 2011 . In terms of ethnic composition , the City of Manchester has the highest non-white proportion of any district in Greater Manchester . Statistics from the 2011 census showed that 66.7 % of the population was White ( 59.3 % White British , 2.4 % White Irish , 0.1 % Gypsy or Irish Traveller , 4.9 % Other White – although those of mixed European and British ancestry is unknown ; there are reportedly over 25,000 Mancunians of at least partial Italian descent alone which represents 5.5 % of the city 's population ) . 4.7 % were mixed race ( 1.8 % White and Black Caribbean , 0.9 % White and Black African , 1.0 % White and Asian , 1.0 % Other Mixed ) , 17.1 % Asian ( 2.3 % Indian , 8.5 % Pakistani , 1.3 % Bangladeshi , 2.7 % Chinese , 2.3 % Other Asian ) , 8.6 % Black ( 5.1 % African , 1.6 % Other Black ) , 1.9 % Arab and 1.2 % of other ethnic heritage . Kidd identifies Moss Side , Longsight , Cheetham Hill , Rusholme , as centres of population for ethnic minorities . Manchester 's Irish Festival , including a St Patrick 's Day parade , is one of Europe 's largest . There is also a well-established Chinatown in the city with a substantial number of oriental restaurants and Chinese supermarkets . The area also attracts large numbers of Chinese students to the city who , in attending the local universities , contribute to Manchester having the third-largest Chinese population in Europe . The Manchester Larger Urban Zone , a Eurostat measure of the functional city-region approximated to local government districts , has a population of 2,539,100 in 2004 . In addition to Manchester itself , the LUZ includes the remainder of the county of Greater Manchester . The Manchester LUZ is the second largest within the United Kingdom , behind that of London . Economy The Office for National Statistics does not produce economic data for the City of Manchester alone , but includes four other metropolitan boroughs , Salford , Stockport , Tameside , Trafford , in an area named Greater Manchester South , which had a GVA of £34.8bn . The economy grew relatively strongly between 2002 and 2012 , where growth was 2.3 % above the national average . With a GDP of $ 88.3bn ( 2012 est. , PPP ) the wider metropolitan economy is the third-largest in the United Kingdom . It is ranked as a beta world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network . As the UK economy continues to recover from the downturn experienced in 2008–10 , Manchester compares favourably to other geographies according to

qw_10365--Manchester.txt

What is the name of the test cricket venue in Manchester, England?