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This post and the photos within it may contain affiliate links. If you purchase something through the link, I may receive a commission at no extra charge to you. It’s Jillian and Jordan from Loveleigh Loops, and we’re excited to bring you an article that’s all about brush lettering. We’re twin sisters who have taught tens of thousands of students how to master calligraphy tools and letter styles, ranging from pointed pen to flourishing to iPad lettering. But brush lettering was our first real love, and we have a lot to share with you today. Here are the contents of this guide – - Supply #1: Paper - Supply #2: Brush Pens - Warm-Up #1: Downstrokes - Warm-Up #2: Upstrokes - Warm-Up #3: Curved Strokes - The 7 fundamental strokes - Brush pen characteristics (ink type, color selection, size, flexibility, duality, etc.) - Brush pen storage tips Let’s get started with the tutorial! 1. What is brush lettering? Let’s define “brush lettering” by breaking it apart into the two words: “brush” and “lettering.” - The Brush can be a brush pen, which is a felt-tip marker with a flexible tip, or an actual paintbrush with bristles. - Lettering can be broken down into hand lettering and calligraphy. The main difference is that in hand lettering, you “draw” the letters, but in calligraphy you “write” the letters and follow specific rules (learn more about the difference here). In this article, we’ll focus on using brush pens to do calligraphy. 2. What supplies do you need? You only need two things to get started: a brush pen and paper. But you can’t just use any old paper you have sitting around. Most brush pens are felt-tipped, and they’re more fragile than they look. Dragging them across rough surfaces, even paper that’s just slightly textured can lead to fraying. This breaks down the tip and makes it harder to get crisp, thin lines, and can damage the pen. So what can we do to avoid this? It’s simple–use smooth paper! However, you’ll also want to keep in mind the absorbency. The highly absorbent paper will drain the ink from the pen. Choosing a smooth, low-absorbent paper will make your brush pens last the longest! When choosing paper, you’ll also want to think about using guidelines. You can use a pencil and ruler to draw out straight lines, or you can print guide sheets directly on the paper. Another option is to print a sheet of guides to use with a light pad, or underneath transparent marker paper. If you keep reading, you’ll see a worksheet with different guide sheet options later on. Let’s talk about the next supply you need – brush pens. Supply #2: Brush Pens When it comes to brush pens, there are hundreds of options. It can be intimidating, but we’ll break it down for you now. A few of our other favorite brush pens include: - They’re dual-sided with TWO brushes, one light and one dark of the same hue. They’re also pigment ink, so they’re long-lasting and fade-resistant. The nibs seem to resist fraying more than other similar-sized brush pens. - These pens are pigmented and fade-resistant. They come in a variety of lovely colors and are a medium-sized nib. The nibs are reversible, which makes them long-lasting. - The Kois come in a variety of really unique colors. The barrel of the pen is short, making them perfect for portability, and they can create a nice contrast in line thickness. - This small-nib brush pen is a staple in the lettering world. It comes in a hard and soft option, perfect for different levels of flexibility and ink flow. They’re durable and create beautiful hairlines. - Probably the juiciest brush pens ever! The Ecolines create stunning natural gradients and have reversible nibs to make them long-lasting. They come in both bright and pastel colors. 3. Why are brush pens great for lettering? Brush pens are great for lettering because they are much easier to get started compared with a dip pen and ink. The learning curve is much lower as well as the maintenance aspect – more on that later on. Besides the fact that they are very beginner friendly, here are a couple of more reasons why we love brush pens. First off, they come in a variety of colors and ink types. You can create some beautiful color schemes and neat visual effects! Here’s an example of blending, which can be done with water-based pens: But that’s not all… you can also get a range of sizes for the brush tip. Depending on how big you want to write, you can get fine-tipped pens (like the Pentel Sign Touch) and larger ones (like the Tombow Dual Brush). Also, some pens are more flexible than others. If you’re very heavy-handed, you might have more success with a firm tip. Very flexible tips are typically harder control and take lots of practice to feel comfortable with. By the way, practicing pressure control with brush pens can translate to other tools, such as paintbrushes or dip pens. The variety of colors, sizes, and flexibility makes it easy to find a pen that fits your needs. Whether you’re just practicing, or working on a project, or creating something to share on Instagram, there’s a pen for you. More about that later! Oh, and one last reason we love brush pens: they are SO much more portable (and mess-free) than inks or paints. You can just throw a few in your bag, and you’re good to go 🙂 Now let’s talk about how to actually *use* them. 4. How do you use a brush for calligraphy? The thing that makes script lettering look like calligraphy is the variety of stroke weights. In other words, some parts of the letters are thicker than others. So how do you do that with a brush? The key is to change the amount of pressure you’re writing with. By using lighter pressure (just touch the tip of the brush to the paper), you can create a thin line. Pressing down harder on the brush will create a thicker stroke. Sounds easy enough! But when you go to try it yourself, you might be unsure of which parts you’re supposed to make thicker. Here’s the secret: Thick down, thin up. On the word “strength,” you can see that the areas where the pen moves downward have a thicker line than the other parts of the letters: The way to achieve this is to use more pressure on the downstrokes, and less on the upstrokes. This creates a contrast between the strokes and gives it the look of calligraphy. So what does the pen look like on thick versus thin strokes? Let’s take a side-view look. The first picture below shows light pressure, with just the tip of the pen touching the page. In the second picture, more pressure is applied so that more of the nib comes in contact with the paper. Don’t be nervous about pressing down on the flexible tip. As long as you’re holding your pen at about 45-degrees to the page (and not too upright), you won’t damage it by pressing down. In practice, using different amounts of pressure on the letters will create a calligraphy effect. Let’s look at another example in the word “extraordinary” below. You can see that anywhere the pen would travel in a downward direction, the stroke is thicker. Everywhere else, it’s thin. On curves, such as the top and bottom of the oval in the letter ‘a,’ there are smooth transitions: the stroke gradually gets thicker or thinner. On these transitions, the pen gradually changes from light to heavy pressure, or vice-versa. Another characteristic of calligraphy is slant and proportions. Using guide sheets helps with both of those! See how: While traditional calligraphy scripts have strict rules on the slant angle and how tall the ascender/descender line is versus the x-height, there’s a lot more flexibility in modern brush lettering. Whatever proportion and slant look best to you works for us, as long as you maintain consistency! We’ll talk more about how to practice consistency later in this article. Okay, now that we know more about what brush lettering looks like, let’s talk about how to hold the brush pen. 5. What’s the right way to hold a brush pen? Watch any brush lettering artist on Instagram, and you’ll start to see that there are lots of different ways to hold the pen. So the answer is: there isn’t just one “correct” way to do it. What’s important is that you have a grip that is comfortable and allows you to make contrasting thick and thin strokes. Start by holding the pen the same way you write with any regular pencil. Then, make three adjustments: - Relax your grip. Holding too tightly can cause pain in your hand. - Move back. Make sure you’re not holding too closely to the tip. Your fingers should be an inch or so away from the tip of the pen. - Angle your pen. Pay attention to the angle of the pen compared to the paper. Many people tend to hold it too upright, which makes it harder to get contrasting stroke weights, and can damage the pen. Shoot for about 45-degrees to the surface of the table (but you don’t need to get out a protractor!) This is what your grip might look like from a side view: It takes some time getting used to using a brush pen for lettering, but keeping those three tips in mind will help. 6. How to overcome the most common brush pen struggles Now, brush lettering can look really easy when you follow tons of talented artists who have been doing this for years. But, it can actually be quite challenging to get started. Based on our survey of hundreds of beginner brush letterers, here are the most common struggles: - Knowing which supplies to use - Pressure control (shaky upstrokes) - Transitioning from thick to thin strokes - Knowing what to practice Hopefully, our section about supplies earlier in this article (and the bonus at the end!) help you with Struggle #1. Now for the hard part: pressure control, thick-to-thin transitions, and consistency. The key to solving Struggles #2-5 is practice… …but you have to do the right kind of practice. Luckily, we made a resource to help. It’s our brush pen warm-up worksheet, and you can get it for free. But first, we’ll go over some warm-up drills as well as the 7 basic calligraphy strokes Once we explain you how to do these drills, you’ll be able to download our brush pen warm-up worksheet – for both big and small brush pens! It’s time to get your tools out and get to work. 7. Brush Pen Warm-Up Drills As you do these strokes, we’d like to remind you of these 3 things: - Hold your pen at a 45-degree angle to the paper (i.e., not too upright) - Make your downstrokes thick by applying more pressure. The upstrokes will be thin, requiring less pressure on the pen - Practice on smooth paper And we also have a BONUS tip for you: - Go slowly! Really focus on the pressure you’re applying Let’s get into the drills. We’ll start with downstrokes. Warm-Up #1: Downstrokes Place your pen at the top guideline and press the tip of the pen into the page. As you draw the stroke, apply an even amount of pressure to produce a thick line. Create these at a slight angle to the baseline rather than straight upright. Practice a full row of these and work on keeping them consistent. Depending on the pen, you might hear a squeaky sound when you make the downstrokes—that’s fine! As long as you’re keeping the pen angled at 45-degrees and using smooth paper, you won’t ruin the pen. Warm-Up #2: Upstrokes This drill is the complete opposite of the downstrokes! We’ll start at the bottom and move upwards, following a slight slant. Instead of applying pressure, you’ll need to use a lighter touch. Don’t worry if the thin strokes look or feel shaky—that’s totally normal and will improve with practice. After practicing thick and thin strokes separately, it’s time to combine them with curves. Warm-Up #3: Curved Strokes For the first drill, you’ll start from the baseline and go up, then curve around at the top. As you start going back down, add pressure to create a thick line, then let off the pressure once you hit the baseline again. Continue back up with a thin stroke. The second curved drill is the opposite. Starting with a thick downstroke, curving around to a thin upstroke, and then up and over to a thick downstroke. Lastly, try creating ovals. Start at the top and move counter-clockwise. The left part will be thick and the right, thin. Next? Practice, practice, practice! Getting your hand used to create strokes with varying amounts of pressure is so important. It’s best if you can get consistent strokes within these drills before you even move into letters. Once you have them down, it will make writing with a brush pen much easier. When you’re more comfortable using your pen after practicing the warm-up drills, we at Loveleigh Loops encourage you to try out the fundamental strokes of the lowercase alphabet. You’ll see that these strokes are simply a combination of the warm-up drills you just learned. The 7 fundamental strokes, sometimes called basic strokes, are: - entrance stroke - compound curve - ascending loop - descending loop It’s important to practice these shapes because the make up the lowercase letters of the alphabet. For example, you’ll find the oval in lowercase “a” and “o”, and the ascending loop in letters like “h” and “k”. 8. FREE downloadable worksheets This worksheet gives you drills to help combat the struggles of pressure control, thick-to-thin transitions, and consistency. You’ll practice your thick downstrokes, thin upstrokes, and curves/transitions. We included scans of our actual brush strokes so that you can compare yours to ours. You can do these drills with any size brush pen! Simply sign up to the newsletter below and you will get full access to the Lettering Crate – an exclusive member area with all the freebies available on Lettering Daily. Stay updated with our tutorials and get instant access to the Lettering Crate – A growing library of free lettering & calligraphy resources that includes – FREE downloadable calligraphy practice sheets, Procreate brushes, the 30-day lettering planner, printables, and more. In this article, we’ve answered these questions: - What is brush lettering? - What supplies do you need? - Why are brush pens great for lettering? - How do you use a brush for calligraphy? - What’s the right way to hold a brush pen? - How do you make the basic strokes? We’ve barely scratched the surface of what’s possible with brush lettering. Just take a look at the #brushlettering hashtag on Instagram to see how many amazing works are being created each day! Don’t forget to grab your free worksheet for Brush Pen Warm-Up Drills that will help you overcome the most common struggles beginners face with brush lettering. Simply sign up to the Lettering Daily newsletter and get full access to the Lettering Crate and all the available freebies. We’ve created a beginner-friendly, comprehensive online course called Brush Lettering Bootcamp that will take you from complete beginner to being able to create lettering with a brush pen. It includes over 6 hours of video lessons plus worksheets that walk you through every step—including details that you never even thought you needed to know! You’ll learn – - brush pen control - thick and thin transitions - how to analyze and critique your work to improve - the complete alphabet - letter connections - numbers and symbols - and much more We break everything down, and our students continuously tell us about the “lightbulb” moments they have throughout the lessons. Interested in more info about brush pens? You’re in luck! We wrote a whole section for you about brush pen characteristics and storage tips. 10. BONUS: Brush pen characteristics (ink type, color selection, size, flexibility, duality, etc.) While you can get started with just a single brush pen and some smooth paper, if you’re anything like us, you want to try out ALL the pens. And there are so many to choose from! It can be overwhelming, so we’ll break down all the characteristics for you. Once you understand these, you’ll be able to choose which one will work best for your project. Here are the brush pen characteristics: Nib type: Felt versus Bristle Felt-tip brush pens are a solid tip made of fibers that look like a sponge. These are our favorites for beginners because they’re easier to control. Bristle-tip brushes have individual strands that come together to form the brush. They’re usually more challenging to control, but you can get unique brushy textures with them. You can also use bristle-tip brushes on textured surfaces, whereas felt-tip pens should be used only on smooth paper. The majority of popular brush pens are felt-tip, and those are also the kind that we prefer. Flexibility: Soft to Firm One of the hardest parts about starting with brush pens is learning how to control them. Using a firm, stiff nib allows for more natural control on the thin strokes because the tip returns to its original shape after applying pressure. Firmer tips require that you press harder on the pen to create a thick stroke. Flexible nibs are softer and react more quickly to changes in pressure. This can make it harder to control the thin upstrokes, but also allows for beautiful, juicy thick strokes. Ink type: Dye or Pigment Now we’re getting into some chemistry! Dye-based means that the colorant is dissolved into the ink solution (usually water), which pigment inks have tiny, insoluble particles that don’t dissolve completely. What you actually need to know about this difference is that dye-based inks are generally easier to blend, but are more prone to fading. Pigment-based inks resist water and light, so they’re longer lasting. However, they’re typically harder to blend. This video demonstrates the difference. The top two brush pens are water-based and blend easily, even after drying. The third is a pigmented ink and doesn’t blend at all: Brush pens come in a variety of sizes, from extra-fine to extra-large. Note: we’re referring to the actual nib, not the size of the barrel of the brush pen. Smaller nibs are great for detail work and smaller scale lettering, such as envelopes, and are typically firmer. Larger tip pens are generally juicier because more ink can flow out, and they can range from firm to soft. Even though smaller pens can seem easier to learn with, we personally believe that it’s best to start with a larger nib so that you can see all of the strokes and connections and get used to pressure control. It’s easier to cover up your mistakes with a small nib, or not notice them at all, which makes it more challenging to transition to a larger size later. We’re lucky to live in a world where so many brush pen colors exist! While some brands only offer black, many provide at least a few color options. Some have over 50 (!), and you can also find sets, such as pastels or jewel-tones, that go well together. Some brush pens are double-sided, with a bullet tip on the other end, or even another brush tip in a lighter shade. You can also find metallic inks, which show up beautifully on dark paper. 11. Bonus – Brush pen storage tips In general, the best way to store your brush pens is laying down flat, NOT standing upright. This is so that the brush tip doesn’t dry out (if you stored them brush side up) or get over-saturated (if brush side down). To keep them laying flat, you can store your brush pens inside of drawers or on shelves. For a more organized solution, you can search for marker storage shelves or create your own DIY storage. Two notable exceptions to this rule are the Karin Brushmarker Pro pens, which must be stored upright, and Tombow Dual Brush Pens, which can be stored upright. You can store either of these options standing up with the cap at the top in the stand that comes with the full set or in cups. Thank you for joining us for another tutorial. We hope the contents of his tutorial were useful and that they will help you improve your brush lettering skills. Until the next time,

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- Climate of south-west England The climate of south-west England is classed as oceanic (Cfb) according to the Köppen climate classification. The oceanic climate is typified by cool winters with warmer summers and precipitation all year round, with more experienced in winter. Annual rainfall is about 1,000 millimetres (39 in) and up to 2,000 millimetres (79 in) on higher ground. Summer maxima averages range from 18 °C (64 °F) to 22 °C (72 °F) and winter minima averages range from 1 °C (34 °F) to 4 °C (39 °F) across the south-west. It is the second windiest area of the United Kingdom, the majority of winds coming from the south-west and north-east. Government organisations predict the area will experience a rise in temperature and become the hottest region in the United Kingdom. Inland areas of low altitude experience the least amount of precipitation. They have the highest summer maxima temperatures, but winter minima are colder than those of the coast. Snowfalls are more frequent in comparison to the coast, but less so in comparison to higher ground. They experience the lowest wind speeds and the total sunshine hours are between those of the coast and the moors. This typical climate of inland areas is more noticeable the further north-east into the region. In comparison to inland areas, the coast experiences high minimum temperatures, especially in winter, and slightly lower maximum temperatures during the summer. Rainfall is lowest at the coast and snowfall there is rarer than the rest of the region. Coastal areas are the windiest parts of the peninsula and they receive the most sunshine. The general coastal climate becomes more prevalent further south-west into the region. The south-west has areas of moorland inland such as Bodmin Moor, Dartmoor and Exmoor. Because of their high altitude they experience lower temperatures and more precipitation than the rest of the south west (approximately twice as much rainfall as lowland areas). Both of these factors also result in the highest levels of snowfall and the lowest levels of sunshine. Exposed areas of the moors are windier than the lowlands and can be almost as windy as the coast. Information in this article relates to the Met Office definition of south-west England, which covers Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, North Somerset, Bath and North East Somerset, South Gloucestershire, the City of Bristol and the Isles of Scilly. This is a smaller area than the UK Government's South West England region, which also covers Gloucestershire, Wiltshire and Dorset. The region is also sometimes loosely described as the West Country. The south-west experiences a seasonal temperature variation, although it is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom. This is because the sea is in closer proximity to inland areas of the south-west than inland areas of most of the United Kingdom and the sea has less seasonal temperature variance. The sea is coldest between February and March; as a result Cornwall and Devon are coldest in February with daily minima ranging from 1.5 °C (34.7 °F) in inland Devon to 5 °C (41 °F) on the Isles of Scilly. The sea has less influence towards the north-east of the region, causing January to be the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures from 1 °C (34 °F) or 2 °C (36 °F). In the months of July and August (the hottest part of the year) daily maxima range from about 19 °C (66 °F) on the coast of Cornwall to 21 °C (70 °F) across inland areas of the north-east (Somerset and North Somerset). The sea surrounding the south-west peninsula has the highest annual mean temperature of any sea in the United Kingdom, with a temperature close to 11 °C (52 °F) — 12 °C (54 °F). Coastal areas of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly experience annual mean temperatures similar to that of the sea as the prevailing wind is from the sea. Towards the north-east of the region, the annual mean temperature decreases and is closer to 10 °C/15 °F The sea's influence on annual temperature range is highest in west Cornwall, where the range is approximately 9 °C/14 °F. In the north-east of the region, the range is approximately 12 °C/22 °F. Inland areas are affected by their altitude: the mean temperature decreases as altitude increases. Princetown on Dartmoor, with an altitude of 414 metres (1,358 ft), has a mean temperature of 8 °C (46 °F). The sea's influence in the south-west usually prevents cold temperatures, however temperatures can plummet during periods of cold easterly air flow: all of which have been recorded in January. In 1987 the minimum temperature recorded at St Mawgan, Cornwall was −9 °C (16 °F) and −6.4 °C (20.5 °F) was noted on the Isles of Scilly. Inland areas have experienced even colder conditions with −15 °C (5 °F) at Exeter International Airport, Devon in 1958 and at Bastreet, Cornwall in 1979. Further to the north-east of the region, temperatures reached −16.1 °C (3.0 °F) in Yeovilton, Somerset in 1982. Extremely high temperatures (heat waves) are rare in the south-west. Their occurrence is caused by south-easterly air flow that blows hot air from mainland Europe, combined with strong summer sunshine. The hottest recorded temperature in the south west is 35.4 °C (95.7 °F), on 3 August 1990, at Saunton Sands, Devon. Average annual sunshine totals rise above 1,600 hours along the coast — higher totals are recorded on the region's southern coast at the English Channel than on its northern coast along the Bristol Channel. 1,400 — 1,600 hours of annual sunshine are to be expected in inland areas of the south west. In June 1925, the highest monthly sunshine totals were recorded: 381.7 hours at Pendennis Point, Cornwall and 334.8 hours at Long Ashton, Somerset. During the winter months, which are the dullest, less than 20 hours of monthly sunshine have occasionally been recorded. In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton. In general, June is the sunniest month, because the days are at their longest, and December is the dullest. The Azores high pressure system affects the south-west of England as it extends north-eastwards towards the British Isles. The Azores is more influential in summer. The high pressure reduces cloud cover through the process of subsidence. In spring and summer, the sea is cool compared to the air temperature, causing less convective cloud cover. The convective cloud forms more frequently inland, especially on higher ground such as Dartmoor, Exmoor and Bodmin Moor, thus reducing the amount of sunshine. Coastal areas of the south-west have more hours of sunshine. Most the rainfall in the south-west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection. Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions, which is when they are most active. In summer, a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms. The Isles of Scilly have annual rainfall totals of about 850–900 mm (33–35 in). Coastal areas of Cornwall and Devon typically receive 900–1,000 mm (35–39 in) of rainfall annually. The altitude increases the amount of rainfall. Highland areas are cooler, causing moist air to cool below the dew point as it rises over high ground forming clouds and then rain. Princetown is 23 kilometres (14 mi) from Plymouth and 403 metres (1,322 ft) higher, and has double the rainfall. Areas that fall in the rain shadows (lees) of higher ground have lower levels of rainfall: 800 mm (31 in) near Exeter (east of Dartmoor) and 700 mm (28 in) in parts of central Somerset (east of Exmoor). The Mendip Hills, to the north-east of the region, receive over 1,100 mm (43 in) per year and the Bath-Bristol area receives around 800–900 mm (31–35 in). The sea reaches its highest temperature in late summer/autumn and its lowest in late winter/spring. As a result, the highest rainfall can be expected in autumn and lowest in spring. The months with the most rainfall are in autumn and winter. Monthly rainfall can be variable. On the coast, most months have recorded less than 20 millimetres (0.79 in) and, some months, less than 10 millimetres (0.39 in) at some point. The wettest station of the region, Princetown, has recorded 7 millimetres (0.28 in) of rain during May. The number of days with at least 1 millimetre (0.039 in) of rainfall correlates to the pattern of quantity of rainfall. In late spring/summer, 9–10 days per month recorded rain in coastal areas, 7–9 days in the north-east and 12–13 days at high altitude (Princetown). In winter these values increase to 15–16 on the coast, 12–13 in the north-east and over 18 days in high altitude. Very heavy rainfall-—spanning 5–15 hours—-is rare in the south-west. Such incidences include the Lynmouth disaster of 15 August 1952, caused by 228 millimetres (9.0 in) of rainfall falling locally on Exmoor over 12 hours. Also, on 8 June 1957, 203 millimetres (8.0 in) fell at Camelford, Cornwall and in June 1917, 243 millimetres (9.6 in) fell in 13 hours in Bruton, Somerset. The north-Cornish village of Boscastle was flooded on 16 August 2004; a peak hourly rainfall of 80 millimetres (3.1 in) was recorded. Approximately 100 people had to be rescued by helicopter and 116 cars were swept out to sea. Snowfall normally occurs between November and April and short snowfalls can occur between October and May on higher ground. The snow usually only settles between the months of December and March. Snow rarely falls when temperatures are greater than 4 °C (39 °F) and for snow to settle temperatures must normally be lower than 4 °C (39 °F). In the south-west the number of days of snowfall increases with altitude: per approximately every 100 m (330 ft) increase in altitude, the number of days of snow falling increases by five days. From 1979 to 2000, on average there were less than 10 days per winter in which snow fell in the islands of the south-west and the coastal areas of Devon and Cornwall, and slightly more than 10 days on average near to the Severn Estuary. Inland areas received between 8–15 days of snow falling; more days of snow fall were noted particularly to the north-east. Some upland areas received, on average, over 25 days per year of snow falling. Similarly to the ratio of days of snow falling to altitude, the number of days in which snow settles on the ground increases by five days per every 100 m (330 ft) increase in altitude. In the south-west, it is rare that snow settles on the ground. From 1979 to 2000 on average, lowland areas did not record any lying snow in one out of every three years. During this period, snow settled, on average, less than three days per year across the Isles of Scilly and on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall. Inland areas had an average of 5–10 days of snow lying per year and, as with the days of snow falling; this was higher towards the north-east of the region. More than 20 days of snow lying can be expected on the high grounds of Dartmoor and Exmoor. The south-west, although the mildest region of the British Isles, has been affected by some of the most severe blizzards. Blizzards are a rare occurrence in the United Kingdom, but can occur when especially cold easterly winds from the continent meet an Atlantic depression, causing a prolonged snowstorm and high winds. This occurred in February 1978, when 50 cm (20 in) of snow accumulated in inland Devon and 90 cm (35 in) on Dartmoor and Exmoor, causing by −2 °C (28 °F) winds at 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph). In January 1982, snow drifts were 1 m (3 ft 3 in) deep around the Bristol area. Convective showers on 12 January 1987 left parts of Cornwall with deep snow: 35 cm (14 in) at Falmouth, 39 cm (15 in) Penzance and 23 cm (9.1 in) on the Isles of Scilly. The south-west is the second most exposed area of the United Kingdom; second to western Scotland. The strong winds are caused by deep depressions across or close to the British Isles. Winds are stronger in the winter-half year, as the depressions' strength and frequency increase. The lightest mean wind speeds are in summer. The speed of peak gusts and mean wind speed follow a similar pattern throughout the year. Mean wind speeds are generally lower to the north-east of the region and in inland areas. Yeovilton, lowland Somerset, has a mean wind speed that is two thirds that of St. Mawgan in coastal Cornwall. An increase in altitude in inland areas generally increases the mean wind speed; similar wind speeds are recorded on the highest parts of Exmoor and Dartmoor as on the coast. The majority, and the strongest, of the winds are from the south-west and north-east as Atlantic depressions pass from west to east over the United Kingdom. When an Atlantic depression reaches the United Kingdom, winds usually blow from the south or south-west, and they change to west or north-west when the depression leaves. If a depression passes along the English Channel, strong winds can occur from the east or north-east. Due to anticyclogenesis over Scandinavia, the majority of winds in Spring are from the north-east. Coastal areas of the south-west usually experience calm or very light winds that do not have a classifiable wind direction less than 6% of the time; this figure is 15% in the north-east and inland areas. Islands and exposed headlands have the highest number of days per year of gale-force winds (averaged out over ten consecutive minutes). A gale-force wind is defined as being at least 34 knots (63 km/h; 39 mph), which is 8 on the modern Beaufort scale. Gales are recorded approximately 24 days per year in the Isles of Scilly and coastal Cornwall. Further north-east and further inland, the number of days decreases. Plymouth, coastal Devon, receives 16 days; Yeovilton, Somerset, receives seven; and Long Ashton, north-west Somerset, receives four. Wind speeds can vary on local topography: wooded or urban areas sheltered by hills receive less days of gales and lower wind speeds. On 15 December 1979, there were gusts of 91 knots (169 km/h; 105 mph) at Lizard Point, Cornwall 99 knots (183 km/h; 114 mph) at St Mary's, Isles of Scilly and 103 knots (191 km/h; 119 mph) at Gwennap Head, Cornwall. Widespread winds from the Burns' Day storm on 25 January 1990 overturned vehicles and damaged buildings. It caused the highest wind speed during the 1971–2001 period to be recorded in two stations: 84 knots (156 km/h; 97 mph) at Plymouth and 85 knots (157 km/h; 98 mph) at St Mawgan. 79 knots (146 km/h; 91 mph) was recorded on top of a building in Bristol as well as 74 knots (137 km/h; 85 mph) at Exeter International Airport and 68 knots (126 km/h; 78 mph) at Yeovilton. At Plymouth, the maximum hourly mean speed was 60 knots (110 km/h; 69 mph) and at Yeovilton, 45 knots (83 km/h; 52 mph). The Bristol Channel floods on 30 January 1607 apparently caused "many thousand" deaths and may have destroyed several small harbours. The cause of it is disputed to be either a European windstorm or a tsunami. According to a study by the Met Office, within 40 years the average temperature is likely to increase by 2 °C (4 °F) in the south-west and the average warmerst summer day will increase by 3 °C (6 °F) to be 31 °C (88 °F). It predicts that the region will have one of the highest annual temperatures in the United Kingdom and there will be an estimated 53 millimetres (2.1 in) incease in winter precipitation. The rise in temperature could lead to outdoor citrus cultivation being possible. Sea level rises could cause spring tides to rise over many of the region's harbour walls and an increase in sea level by about 40 centimetres (16 in) at Newlyn. Following the announcement, the government of the United Kingdom called on the local authorities and other organisation to prepare for the consequences. All major government investments will have to consider the risks as a result of future climate change. A report from the Environment Agency said that, over the next 25 years, investment would need to double for the building and upkeep of flood defences in order to maintain the current levels of flood protection and counter the effects of climate change. Flooding from rivers and the sea currently puts 65,369 properties at risk in Devon and Cornwall, 29,577 of which are at "significant risk". Current flood defence schemes protect some of these properties from flooding. Richard Cresswell, the regional director for the Environment Agency in the south west, said: "The latest UK climate change data shows that the risk of flooding and coastal erosion will continue to increase in future due to rising sea levels and more frequent and heavy storms." Rising sea levels are likely to cause more flooding on the Somerset Levels. Since 1990 the drainage board has been charged with looking at the rhynes, cleaning them out and keeping them clear, with the Environment Agency overseeing the work. With rising sea levels the work required to maintain the current sea defences is likely to become more expensive and it has been proposed by Ian Liddell-Grainger (Bridgwater-MP), that two inland seas are created. Bude Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D9894769369104551255215857171055191371201381181198159105126106105 Average max. and min. temperatures in °C Precipitation totals in mm Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D3.84838348382.750402.25441259462.363512.267552.867553.264513.959474.153434.25040 Average max. and min. temperatures in °F Precipitation totals in inches Nettlecombe Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D124828882811036612463166591894321116721118518910914710711412993 Average max. and min. temperatures in °C Precipitation totals in mm Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D4.946353.446353.250372.654382.560432.365481.769522.669513.464484.358444.251395.14837 Average max. and min. temperatures in °F Precipitation totals in inches Princetown Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D219611686116272109103100136116169112181113318111561592151262348425172 Average max. and min. temperatures in °C Precipitation totals in mm Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D8.642346.642336.445354.349373.955434.660474.464515.264526.159488.553449.247399.94436 Average max. and min. temperatures in °F Precipitation totals in inches St. Mawgan Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D120948794811056212659158651711561913731913901711108149121116121105 Average max. and min. temperatures in °C Precipitation totals in mm Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D4.747393.447383.250402.453422.358472.662512.266562.966563.563534.358484.852444.84941 Average max. and min. temperatures in °F Precipitation totals in inches Teignmouth Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D1029483946811555126521595118113621145720136718118315984128113105 Average max. and min. temperatures in °C Precipitation totals in mm Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D448393.348382.751402.2544226047265521.469562.269562.665533.359483.353464.45041 Average max. and min. temperatures in °F Precipitation totals in inches Yeovilton Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D7281568157113471344917757191049221257221265191068157661148392 Average max. and min. temperatures in °C Precipitation totals in mm Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D2.847352.247342.251371.955391.962442.367491.971532.271532.565492.759442.652383.34836 Average max. and min. temperatures in °F Precipitation totals in inches - ^ "About south-west England". The Met Office. Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070613173516/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/location/southwestengland/index.html. Retrieved 2009-07-31. - ^ a b c d e "South-west England: Temperature". The Met Office. Archived from the original on February 24, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070224004020/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/location/southwestengland/temperature.html. Retrieved 2009-04-16. - ^ a b "South-west England: Sunshine". The Met Office. Archived from the original on May 24, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070524093515/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/location/southwestengland/sunshine.html. Retrieved 2009-04-16. - ^ a b c d e f "South-west England: Rainfall". The Met Office. Archived from the original on May 20, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070520093000/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/location/southwestengland/rainfall.html. Retrieved 2009-04-16. - ^ Sene, Kevin (2008). Flood Warning, Forecasting and Emergency Response. Springer. pp. 236. ISBN 3540778527. http://books.google.com/?id=O-3izv8kh7wC&printsec=frontcover. Retrieved 2009-07-30. - ^ "UK prepares for freezing weekend". BBC News Online. 2009-02-06. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7874115.stm. Retrieved 2009-06-30. - ^ a b c d "South-west England: Snowfall". The Met Office. Archived from the original on April 2, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070402085747/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/location/southwestengland/snowfall.html. Retrieved 2009-04-16. - ^ a b c d e "South-west England: Wind". The Met Office. Archived from the original on May 15, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070515082757/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/location/southwestengland/wind.html. Retrieved 2009-04-17. - ^ Bryant, Edward; Simon Haslett (2002). "Was the AD 1607 Coastal Flooding Event in the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel (UK) Due to a Tsumani?". Archaeology in the Severn Estuary: 166. ISSN 1354-7089.. http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1100&context=scipapers. Retrieved 2009-07-31. - ^ "Climate change map". The Met Office. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climatechange/guide/ukcp/map/. Retrieved 2009-11-17. - ^ a b "South west faces temperature jump". BBC News Online. 2009-06-19. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cornwall/8108383.stm. Retrieved 2009-06-25. - ^ "Somerset Levels". House of Commons Debates - Hansard. http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200102/cmhansrd/vo020515/halltext/20515h04.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-10. - ^ "Bude 1971–2000 averages". The Met Office. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/sites/bude.html. Retrieved 2009-07-20. - ^ "Nettlecombe 1971–2000 averages". The Met Office. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/sites/nettlecombe.html. Retrieved 2009-03-13. - ^ "Princetown 1971–2000 averages". The Met Office. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/sites/princetown.html. Retrieved 2008-04-10. - ^ "St. Mawgan 1971–2000 averages". The Met Office. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/sites/st.mawgan.html. Retrieved 2009-07-20. - ^ "Teignmouth 1971–2000 averages". The Met Office. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/sites/teignmouth.html. Retrieved 2008-03-08. - ^ "Yeovilton 1971–2000 averages". The Met Office. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/sites/yeovilton.html. Retrieved 2009-07-20. Climate of Europe Sovereign - Bosnia and Herzegovina - Czech Republic - San Marino - United Kingdom - Northern Ireland - Vatican City States with limited - Northern Cyprus - South Ossetia and other territories - European Union - Sovereign Military Order of Malta England topics HistoryTimeline · Prehistoric · Roman Britain · Lloegyr · Anglo-Saxon England (Heptarchy) · Kingdom of England · Norman conquest · Angevin Empire · Wars of the Roses · Tudor period · Stuart period · English Renaissance · English Reformation · Elizabethan era · Jacobean era · Civil War · Union with Scotland · Georgian era · Regency · Victorian era · Edwardian period · The Blitz · Maritime history of England Politics Geography Demographics Culture Symbols Sport Category · Portal · WikiProject Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. Look at other dictionaries: South West England — infobox England region | name = South West England| short name = South West hq = Bristol / Plymouth imagename = status = Region area km2= 23,829 area mi2= 9,200 area rank= 1st density = PD km2 to sq mi|207|abbr=yes|precision=0 nuts= UKK euro=… … Wikipedia Climate of the United Kingdom — Hardiness zones in the British Isles. The United Kingdom straddles the geographic mid latitudes between 50 60 N from the equator. It is also positioned on the western seaboard of Eurasia, the world s largest land mass. These boundary conditions… … Wikipedia Climate change in Australia — Climate change has become a major issue in Australia due to drastic climate events since the turn of the 21st century that have focused government and public attention. Rainfall in Australia has increased slightly over the past century,… … Wikipedia SOUTH AFRICA — SOUTH AFRICA, republic comprising nine provinces – Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, North West, Gauteng, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Free State, and KwaZulu Natal. Prior to 1994, when multiracial democracy was introduced, there were four… … Encyclopedia of Judaism England — For other uses, see England (disambiguation). England … Wikipedia England — /ing gleuhnd/ or, often, / leuhnd/, n. the largest division of the United Kingdom, constituting, with Scotland and Wales, the island of Great Britain. 45,870,062; 50,327 sq. mi. (130,347 sq. km) Cap.: London. * * * I Southern part of the island… … Universalium West Virginia — This article is about the U.S. state of West Virginia. For other uses, see West Virginia (disambiguation). State of West Virginia … Wikipedia Climate of the British Isles — Hardiness zones in the British Isles The British Isles are an archipelago off the north west of Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain and Ireland along with smaller surrounding ones. Its position allows dry continental air from… … Wikipedia South Dakota — This article is about the U.S. state of South Dakota. For other uses, see South Dakota (disambiguation). State of South Dakota … Wikipedia South Africa — This article is about the modern country. For other uses, see South Africa (disambiguation). Republic of South Africa … Wikipedia

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DUFROST DE LAJEMMERAIS, MARIE-MARGUERITE (Youville), founder of the Congregation of the Sisters of Charity of the Hôpital Général of Montreal (Grey Nuns); b. 15 Oct. 1701 at Varennes (Que.); d. 23 Dec. 1771 in Montreal. Marie-Marguerite Dufrost de Lajemmerais belonged to one of the great families of New France. Her mother, Marie-Renée Gaultier de Varennes, was the daughter of René Gaultier* de Varennes, governor of Trois-Rivières, and Marie Boucher, the daughter of Pierre Boucher*. Her father, François-Christophe Dufrost de La Gemerais, who descended from an old noble family in France, had come to Canada in 1687. Marguerite, the eldest child, had three brothers: Charles and Joseph, who became priests, and Christophe*, who accompanied his uncle, Pierre Gaultier* de Varennes et de La Vérendrye, on his expeditions in western Canada. Her sisters, Marie-Clémence and Marie-Louise, married respectively Pierre Gamelin* Maugras and Ignace Gamelin, two prominent Montreal merchants. Marguerite was not yet seven when her father died, leaving his family financially insecure. With the aid of relatives she was nevertheless admitted in August 1712 to the Ursulines’ boarding-school at Quebec, where she spent two years. Returning to Varennes, she shared the heavy family responsibilities with her mother until 1720, when Mme Dufrost married Timothy Sullivan*, a doctor who although a commoner was well off. The marriage, a mésalliance at that period, stood in the way of a projected marriage between Marguerite and a young nobleman. Towards the end of 1721 the family moved to Montreal, where Marguerite became acquainted with François-Madeleine d’Youville, the son of Pierre You* de La Découverte. On 12 Aug. 1722 they were married in the church of Notre-Dame. Their marriage contract, which had been signed the day before, is interesting because its signatures show that nearly all those eminent in the colony were present, among them Governor Philippe de Rigaud* de Vaudreuil, Claude de Ramezay*, governor of Montreal, and Charles Le Moyne* de Longueuil, first Baron de Longueuil and the governor of Trois-Rivières. The contract guaranteed Marguerite a jointure of 6,000 livres and an additional legacy with first claim on the estate for 1,000 livres as well as rings and jewels. It was a great deal for a period when people in average circumstances usually had a jointure of 300 to 500 livres and an additional legacy of 200 to 300 livres. The young couple went to live on the Place du Marché, in the home of Mme You de La Découverte, who perhaps was miserly, as some have claimed, but who nonetheless lived in quite a comfortable house, as the inventory made after d’Youville’s death in 1730 reveals. Little is known of the couple’s eight years together, but there seem to have been two distinct periods. At the beginning, from 1722 to 1726, two boys and two girls were born in close succession; all died in infancy except François, who would later be parish priest of Saint-Ours. These early years were marked by repeated complaints from Indians and merchants against d’Youville’s trading practices at Île aux Tourtres [see Pierre You de La Découverte], and by Mme You de La Découverte’s almost constant presence in the house. Apparently, however, the couple sometimes resided at the farmhouse in Sainte-Annedu-Bout-de-l’Île (now Sainte-Anne de Bellevue) which belonged to the You de La Découverte family, since one of their infant daughters was buried not far from there, at Saint-Joachim-de-la-Pointe-Claire. The second period in their married life, from 1727 to 1730, was strongly marked by Marguerite’s concentration upon the practice of religion. The year 1727 seems particularly important; her son writes that she was then seen “to renounce vain adornments and to embrace the way of piety”; in a letter written to Abbé de L’Isle-Dieu in 1766 she herself traced her devotion and her “confidence in the Eternal Father” back to this time. Moreover, it was in 1727 that she began to join different religious sisterhoods. During this period d’Youville’s mother died, leaving him the means to live comfortably, and a fifth child, Charles-Marie-Madeleine, was born in July 1729. When d’Youville himself died on 4 July 1730, Marguerite was 28. She had to take care of two infants and was expecting a sixth child, who was born on 26 Feb. 1731 and died less than five months later. She inherited an estate burdened with debts – since d’Youville had wasted no time in squandering his inheritance – and had no better course open to her than to renounce it. By a court lease she was, however, awarded the house she was living in, and from its premises she carried on a trading business for several years. A new stage in her life was beginning which would lead Mme d’Youville, again in two phases, to assume responsibility for the Hôpital Général of Montreal. She devoted the first period, from 1730 to 1737, to prayer, good works, and the education of her two sons; François entered the Séminaire de Québec in 1737 and Charles followed him in 1742. Under the direction of Sulpician Jean-Gabriel-Marie Le Pape* Du Lescöat, who had been her adviser since 1727, she worked actively within sisterhoods and applied herself to easing the lives of the poor. Her lively awareness of the surrounding poverty prompted her to increasingly concrete acts, in which she had the encouragement of Sulpician Louis Normant* Du Faradon, her spiritual director since Le Pape Du Lesctöat’s death in 1733. Thus, on 21 Nov. 1737, she took Françoise Auzon, a blind woman in her sixties, into her home. On 31 December Marie-Louise Thaumur de La Source, Catherine Cusson, and Marie-Catherine Demers Dessermont pledged with Mme d’Youville to devote themselves to the service of the poor. Although theirs was still only a lay association, they apparently took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and this moment is considered the date of the founding of the order. In October 1738 they moved into a house large enough to lodge them all and to allow them to receive other unfortunates, whom they looked after with the proceeds from various endeavours. Marguerite d’Youville’s work was started, but the next ten years had harsh labour and painful suffering in store for her. She had to face her family’s lack of understanding; indeed in November 1738 her two brothers-in-law, along with others, signed a petition against the Sulpicians’ alleged intention to put Mme d’Youville and her companions in charge of the Hôpital Général in place of the Brothers Hospitallers of the Cross and of St Joseph. She had to put up with the hostility of the populace, which looked on the little community with disfavour. Some people called them “les grises,” meaning tipsy women; they were accused of getting drunk and continuing the illicit sale of liquor to the Indians which Mme d’Youville’s father-in-law and her husband had carried on. The slander spread quickly, and a Recollet even went so far as to refuse them communion. From 1738 to 1744 Mme d’Youville, who suffered from a bad knee, had to stay in her room. When she was better again and everything seemed to be more in order, a raging fire destroyed the house on 31 Jan. 1745. She experienced many difficulties in finding lodgings for her inmates and the community, which by now had five members, until 1747, when she assumed charge of the Hôpital Général. Two days after the fire Mme d’Youville and her companions signed a deed drawn up by Normant Du Faradon, called “Engagements primitifs,” in which they promised formally to live and die together in submission and obedience to the one person who would be entrusted with the administration of the house, to divest themselves of all belongings except landed property and put them into a common fund, and to devote themselves unreservedly to the welfare of the poor. This deed formed the basis of the community founded by Mme d’Youville, and a copy was included in the earliest collection of its rules, published in 1781 by Étienne Montgolfier. The ten years of difficulty had not, however, been unprofitable: with Mine d’Youville’s strength of character, practical turn of mind, and tireless devotion to duty, the community had been consolidated and had managed to continue its chosen work. Consequently the Sulpicians persuaded Governor Charles de Beauharnois*, Bishop Pontbriand [Dubreil*], and Intendant Hocquart, who were all trustees of the Hôpital Général, to charge her with its management. An ordinance promulgated on 27 Aug. 1747 appointed her director of the hospital “temporarily and at His Majesty’s pleasure and until he has given other instructions for it.” Mme d’Youville was taking in hand a bankrupt institution [see Jean Jeantot*; Louis Turc* de Castelveyre, named Brother Chrétien]. Founded in 1692 by François Charon* de La Barre, the Hôpital Général was burdened with a debt of nearly 40,000 livres, and its building was in a lamentable state. The last period of Mme d’Youville’s life was devoted to getting the hospital running again, administering it with limited financial means, and establishing on a permanent basis the community she had formed. After completing an inventory of the hospital’s possessions, which gives some idea of its dilapidated condition, Mme d’Youville had it cleaned up and had the most urgent repairs done. On 7 Oct. 1747 she moved into it with six associates, two of whom had not yet been admitted into the community [see Agathe Véronneau*], and eight inmates. She found two old Brothers Hospitallers and four sick old men in the hospital. Soon large rooms were ready for the sick and poor of both sexes, a change in the policy of the Hôpital Général which until then had been reserved exclusively for men. At the request of Sulpician Antoine Déat*, Mme d’Youville had 12 rooms made ready to receive those then called “fallen women.” Things were going well and Mme d’Youville had every reason to think that she would succeed in re-establishing the Hôpital Général. But the court opposed the creation of new religious communities in the colony; the king considered them a source of expense since when they received official recognition they became entitled to an income to provide for their continuing existence. Intendant Bigot, Bishop Pontbriand, and the new governor, La Jonquière [Taffanel*], were afraid that, without this assured income, the community would disintegrate when the founder died and the Hôpital Général would fail for a second time. Therefore in October 1750 Bigot issued an ordinance terminating the provisional contract of 1747 and uniting the Hôpital Général of Montreal with the one in Quebec. The hospital nuns of Quebec were authorized to sell the institution’s buildings and dependencies and the furniture they did not want to keep, “in return for assuming the responsibility for feeding and keeping the infirm, elderly, disabled, and orphans of the Government of Montreal,” who would be taken to Quebec. Because of the lateness of the season, however, Mme d’Youville could remain in the hospital and continue her work until the following July. This ordinance dismayed Montrealers, who had come to appreciate the work done by Mme d’Youville and her sisters. Normant Du Faradon sent the minister of Marine a petition signed by 80 citizens, among them the governor of Montreal, Charles Le Moyne* de Longueuil, second Baron de Longueuil, which recalled that at the founding of the Hôpital Général in 1692, the “letters patent contained the clause and express reserve that the aforesaid establishment should serve in perpetuity without the possibility of being changed either as to place or into any other pious work.” Marguerite d’Youville and her sisters also drew up a petition in which they described the improvements made to the Hôpital Général since they had taken over and indicated the irreparable harm that would be done the poor of Montreal in depriving them of a place “where they are assured of finding certain help in their old age.” Finally they offered to repay Brother Chrétien’s debts if they were themselves confirmed in “the rights, favours, and privileges” granted to the Brothers Hospitallers at the time the hospital was founded. Mme d’Youville went in person to Quebec to carry this petition to Bishop Pontbriand and Bigot, who both received her coldly. They had no confidence in the community’s permanence, and like many of their contemporaries they saw its founder as an instrument of the Sulpicians, whom they suspected of wanting to gain control of the Hôpital Général. Consequently they refused to support her petition. Only Governor La Jonquière was sympathetic towards her and promised her his help. Athough Mme d’Youville found little support in Quebec, Jean Couturier, the superior of the Sulpicians in Paris, took up her defence at the court and stressed her offer to repay the hospital’s debts on condition that the king recognize her community by letters patent and put her definitely in charge of the Hôpital Général. He also brought up a clause in the contract between the Sulpicians and François Charon which stipulated that if the hospital ceased to exist, and if the Brothers did not buy the land, the land would revert to the seminary, along with all the buildings on it. As the Brothers had never bought it, Bigot could not dispose of a property that belonged to the Sulpicians. On 14 Dec. 1751 the intendant was obliged by royal order to issue an ordinance revoking the union of the Hôpital Général of Montreal with that in Quebec and leaving Mme d’Youville in charge of the institution. On 12 May 1752 the king in council ordered the trustees of the hospital to sign a contract with Mme d’Youville determining how it would be administered. This contract, which was made public by an ordinance of 28 Sept. 1752, was prompted by a memoir that Mme d’Youville had delivered to the trustees on 19 June in which she set out the methods she intended to adopt to discharge the hospital’s debts – methods that reveal an administrative ability the government and merchants of the time might have envied. As a prudent woman who had almost lost everything, she also set out her conditions: she and her sisters would be dispensed from teaching and would close the school that the Brothers Hospitallers conducted in the hospital; they would have all the rights and privileges granted the Brothers; if the king one day decided to take the administration of the institution away from them, the 18,000 livres they were sacrificing to pay off the debts would have to be repaid them. The letters patent, dated 3 June 1753, in which the king recognized the community as a legal entity and placed Mme d’Youville and her companions officially in charge of the administration of the Hôpital Général, reached Quebec in the autumn and were registered in the Conseil Supérieur on 1 October. In June 1755 Bishop Pontbriand made his pastoral visit to the community and officially approved the rules drawn up by Normant Du Faradon at the beginning of their life in common. On 25 August, 11 of those who had already made their profession received the habit from the hands of the Sulpician. They took the name Sisters of Charity of the Hôpital Général, or Grey Nuns (Sœurs Grises), in memory of the sobriquet given them by the people of Montreal. In France in the mean time, thanks to Abbé de L’Isle-Dieu’s successful handling, the creditors of the Hôpital Général were paid off and the institution’s debts finally settled in 1756. The Hôpital Général, which took in poor men and women, fallen women, and abandoned children, was in fact a hospice; but in 1755 a smallpox epidemic transformed it into a real hospital. The following year Bigot called on Mme d’Youville to attend to the sick soldiers and prisoners, at government expense. The intendant was stingy with payments and cut them down, and the hospital had to assume the major share of the costs. Marguerite d’Youville proved remarkably ingenious at lodging and feeding all these people. She knew how to turn everything to profit: needlework, the making of sails and tents, production of consecrated wafers and candles, curing of tobacco, burning and sale of lime, renting of plots of land, and sale of produce from the sisters’ farms. She also received ladies of quality who paid board and lodging. Able to make herself both feared and loved, she succeeded in turning everyone’s skills to profit. Even among those hospitalized were found persons with strength enough to work as occasional tailors, shoemakers, and bakers. She hired British prisoners who had been treated at the hospital, either for labour on her farms or as hospital attendants to help the nuns who had little knowledge of English. The community continued its tasks despite epidemics, poor harvests, the war, and then the new régime. For the founder the trials multiplied. In 1757 illness almost carried her off and she drew up her first will, leaving everything she owned to the hospital. Later she had the grief of separation from the friends and members of her family who returned to France after the conquest. There was the devaluation of the currency, at a time when France owed the hospital 120,799 livres. The year 1765 brought the heaviest trial, for on 18 May, in the space of a few hours, fire destroyed the Hôpital Général, which then was sheltering 18 sisters, 17 ladies paying board and lodging, 63 poor persons, and 16 illegitimate children. She wrote to Abbé de L’Isle-Dieu: “My dear Father, pray that God will give me the strength to bear all these crosses and to make saintly use of them. So much at one time: to lose one’s king, one’s country, one’s possessions.” She had no choice but to rebuild, and the last years of her life were as active as the early ones. With the help of the Sulpician seminary – Étienne Montgolfier advanced her 15,000 livres – she began the rebuilding, and seven months after the fire the poor were able to return to their lodgings. She sold a piece of property at Chambly which was producing little income, and from one of her boarders, Marie-Anne Robutel de La None, bought the seigneury of Châteauguay, which was still largely uncultivated but whose possibilities she foresaw. She had a large water-mill and a bakehouse built there, had several acres of land cleared and sown, and an orchard planted, supervising everything herself despite the fatigue of the trips by cart and canoe between Montreal and Châteauguay. Marguerite d’Youville saw to everything, with the result that on the eve of her death she left a house that was firmly established, both spiritually and materially. In a second will she bequeathed half of her possessions to her two sons and the remainder to the Hôpital Général on condition that if the occasion arose her sons could retire to live there for nothing. She died on 23 Dec. 1771 after a paralytic stroke, remembered by all as an exceptional woman. To Sister Marguerite-Thérèse Lemoine Despins fell the task of continuing her work. If Mme d’Youville possessed remarkable administrative talent, her unselfishness was equally evident. And the indomitable courage which enabled her to stand up to her many trials, to defend herself against the unfair accusations of those in power in Canada, and to put up with the insults and calumnies of the populace, should not obscure the sensitivity of this woman, who was moved by the misfortunes as well as by the moments of happiness of her relatives and friends and whom every form of human affliction touched deeply. Her correspondence reveals the intensity of her spiritual life, and tradition attributes miracles and certain prophetic utterances to her. [A great deal has been written on Marguerite d’Youville and her work. Three bibliographies cover the period before her beatification in 1959 and they list 808 titles: Catherine Barry, “La vénérable Mère d’Youville et les Sœurs de la Charité de Montréal (sœurs grises)” (thèse de bibliothéconomie, université de Montréal, 1938); Sœur Sainte-Fernande [Albina Côté], “Bibliographie, 1950–1958, de la bienheureuse Marguerite d’Youville” (thèse de bibliothéconomie, université Laval, Québec, 1963); Sœur Saint-Hyacinthe [Gertrude Pelletier], “Bienheureuse Marguerite d’Youville; bibliographie canadienne, 1938–1949” (thèse de bibliothéconomie, université Laval, 1963). Much has been written since 1959. In the majority of the studies, however, the years before she took charge of the Hôpital Général are treated only briefly, since it was not until 1747 that she began a sustained correspondence. At that time she was 46 and had been a widow for 18 years; two-thirds of her life, then, remains obscure. Nevertheless, recent studies based on notarial acts illuminate these years to some degree. Only the most useful primary and secondary sources are listed here. c.l.] AN, Col., C11A, 90–96; F3, 13, 14 (copies at PAC). ANQ-M, Chambre des milices, 1–5; Greffe de J.-C. Raimbault, 24 avril 1731; Greffe de Pierre Raimbault, 11 août 1722. ASGM, Dossier: Maison mère, Historique, Doc., 146–253; Mère d’Youville, Corr.; Famille; Antoine Sattin, “Vie de madame Youville, fondatrice et première supérieure des Sœurs de la Charité de l’Hôpital Général de Montréal, communément nommées sœurs grises, dédiée à cette même communauté, 1828”; C.-M.-M. d’Youville, “Mémoires pour servir à la vie de Mde Youville et tirés pour la plupart des dépositions des sœurs Despins, Lasource, Rinville et de Mde Gamelin, et d’une autre sœur”; “La vie de madame Youville, fondatrice des Sœurs de la Charité à Montréal.” PAC, MG 8, E6, 1–5; MG 17, A7-2-1, 3, pp.877–82, 971–75; A7-2-3, 8, pp.88–91; A15, 1, pp.15–124. Bégon, “Correspondance” (Bonnault), ANQ Rapport, 1934–35. Édits ord. (1854–56), II, 404. La Rue, “Lettres et mémoires,” ANQ Rapport, 1935–36, 1936–37, 1937–38. [M.-R. Côté], Une disciple de la croix, la vénérable Marguerite d’Youville, Marie-Marguerite Dufrost de La Jemmerais, veuve d’Youville, 1701–1771, fondatrice à Montréal en 1737 du premier institut canadien, les Sœurs de la Charité (sœurs grises) ([Québec], 1932). [É.-M. Faillon], Vie de Mme d’Youville, fondatrice des Sœurs de la Charité de Villemarie dans l’île de Montréal, en Canada (Villemarie [Montréal], 1852). A. Fauteux et Drouin, L’Hôpital General de Montreal, I. Albertine Ferland-Angers, Mère d’Youville, venerable Marie-Marguerite Du Frost de Lajemrnerais, veuve d’Youville, 1701–1771; fondatrice des Sœurs de la Charité de l’Hôpital-general de Montreal, dites sœurs grises (Montreal, 1945); Pierre You et son fils François d’Youville ([Montreal, 1941]). A.-H. Gosselin, L’Église du Canada après la Conquête, I; L’Église du Canada jusqu’à la Conquête, II, III. Estelle Mitchell, Le vrai visage de Marguerite d’Youville (1701–1771) (Montreal, 1973). M. Trudel, L’Église canadienne. Albertine Ferland-Angers, “Varennes, berceau d’une sainte,” RHAF, XIII (1959–60), 3–17. É.-Z. Massicotte, “La famille Dufrost de la Gemmeraye,” BRH, XXII (1916), 71–76.

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Albert Einstein was famous for doing something he called gedankenexperiments (German for “thought experiments”). Some of his most incredible discoveries came out of instances when he just let his mind wander and imagine how things worked. This sort of “free range” thinking was crucial when imagining concepts (such as chasing a beam of light) which might be too difficult (or even impossible) to prove experimentally. I fear that this kind of untethered mental meandering is becoming unachievable, undervalued, and increasingly undesirable with both the advent of modern technology and the frenzied pace of daily life. I think that we humans are not only capable of gedankenexperiments, but we are well-equipped to solve most global problems using nothing more than our brains and something to write with. Not every problem can be solved. Can we protect our power grids from a coronal mass ejection (CME)? I believe we can. Is it possible to protect our species from a gamma ray burster? I don’t think that’s possible. But there are other hurdles, or obstacles, which impede our clear path to solutions and answers to some really big questions. We humans, both brilliant and simple-minded, can be really thrown off by just the naming of things. And the descriptions of things. This can also be called the “framing” of things. For example, when black holes were first NAMED black holes, along with that moniker (which is misleading on a foundational level) came a decades-long avalanche of how we imagine and describe what happens “around” a black hole. Such descriptions, which are countlessly used, refer to a black hole as “feeding,” “burping,” “messy eaters,” and “swallowing” all kinds of matter. Scientists and science writers will liberally explain that black holes are messy eaters, who, when they’ve eaten too much, will burp it out” as in the jets which emanate from both “ends” of what is considered a “hole.” Step back and think about this for a moment…. This is a “hole:” It has a) an opening, and b) a bottom. Now consider a black hole, which has one, but not the other (it has an apparent opening, or “mouth,” but no apparent bottom), and which shoots out enormous jets of matter that look like this: Additionally, there is something called an accretion disk around a black hole which glows, and has things “orbiting” around it, with stuff (planets, gas, etc.) occasionally “falling in.” The accretion disk looks like this: At this point, the description and naming of the “thing” is so convoluted and confusing that no one, not even scientists, can have a sensible gedankenexperiment of their own to understand what the heck is going on here. They have, thanks to decades of bad framing about what black holes “are,” deeply embedded in their own concepts, that they are just sucking stuff in, ravenously, and then burping it out. I don’t know popular science just keeps reusing this bad visual to diminish the scariness and mystery of black holes for the general public, or what, but if I have to hear ONE MORE TIME what silly “messy eaters” black holes are, I’m going to scream. Couple that to the notion that the mantra is that the only way a black hole can be “formed” is by the collapse of a certain size enormous star – and I’d say that our gedankenexperiments are collectively trapped in galactic-size Jell-O in terms of how we even think about black holes, and particularly supermassive black holes. A gigantic monkey wrench got thrown into this idealized understanding of black holes (which definitely need a different name, entirely) when scientists slowly began to notice that supermassive black holes are at the center of EVERY galaxy, large and small. This should come a long way to settling the “chicken vs. egg” question, which had been assumed to be that the galaxy came first, and THEN the supermassive black hole, when, in fact, it is the opposite. With time, and better observations, we have now identified supermassive black holes that are way, WAY too old and massive to have been formed by the collapse of huge stars, which would not have had time since our Universe began to even form these supermassive black holes. This problem of timing nudges a lot of (potentially productive) gedankenexperiments off-track right from the start. I think we’d be better served without the guardrails of this red-herring of a timing paradox being there at all. Only now, and not even completely, are people and scientists dipping their proverbial toes into saying, even gingerly, that there are supermassive black holes at the CENTER of every galaxy. I tried to coax an astrophysicist into just SAYING IT out loud in 2014, and he looked at me like I was a lunatic. He mumbled, looked at his feet, and then announced that THAT was outside his research (he is a well published scientist who writes about galaxies and black holes, so….). Here’s what I strongly think…black holes CAME FIRST. They create the galaxies, and they spew out dark matter. They ARE the “big bang,” and they happen all over the place, not just in one special place. As they spew out the stuff we see all around us, we get more and more dark matter, which accelerates the expansion, i.e., growing, of our Universe. Cosmic inflation is wrong, and absolutely cannot be correct, there is no such thing as the tortured notion that there is some sort of “direct collapse” from gas to black holes (I think of this is a fudge factor for scientists who are afraid to go the next step, or cannot go the next step, like how Einstein’s cosmological constant got in his way) and (here is where scientists cannot make the intellectual “leap” which I need them to make so I can connect some missing dots which I can’t do on my own) the things we call supermassive black holes are the creators of our universe. I suspect that they connect, via wormholes, to another “place,” or realm, or dimension. And, as we see time and time again, Einstein already knew this, without really knowing that he knew it. His own math and published materials (look at his work with Nathan Rosen) took into account the notion of “white holes” and wormholes, and it is ALL RIGHT THERE almost laid out for us, here in the future, to work off of. When I say “all right there,” I’d refer, for example, to his writing on Einstein-Rosen bridges, or to the work of Valery Frolov and Igor Novikov, or, more recently, to research by Nikodem Poplawski, who wrote a very good paper (actually, I love all of his stuff) called, “Radial Motion into an Einstein-Rosen bridge” (it can be accessed here). Back to that thought experiment Let’s perform a gedankenexperiment of our own by re-examining a question which has plagued humanity since we first began looking up into the night sky. Thanks to the groundwork laid for us by Albert Einstein decades ago, we may even now have answers to previously unanswerable questions. What I’m going to ask you to imagine will not require math, or a background knowledge of astrophysics or cosmology. I will tell you, right up front, that there are some things in astronomy and astrophysics which are known with a large degree of confidence, some things which are merely suspected, and some things which are theorized and shown to be true in mathematical equations (but which may not yet be observed, or which are not yet observable). So I’m betting that I can give you enough information to conduct your own gedankenexperiment in which you imagine and see how our Universe began. I can actually do it in one sentence, but where’s the fun in that? The Big Bang Scientists know with a high degree of certainty what was happening when our Universe was born, even when it was less than one minute old (actually less than 1/1000th of a second old); however, they don’t know where it call came from, or what prompted the Big Bang, which seemingly sprang from something they call a “singularity” which is an infinitesimally small point of immense density and mass. Our Universe came out of seemingly nowhere, sort of popped out, and then kept expanding from “there.” Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity, now 100 years old, discussed the effects of gravity, and how it distorted space and time (now called space-time). Einstein’s calculations also predicted the existence of black holes (and even wormholes). In fact, their theoretical existence “came out” of his equations well before anyone knew what they were. Nigel Calder writes in his incredible book, “Einstein’s Universe:” “Special Relativity permits forward travel in time – the Methuselah Effect – but rules out the reversal of time by faster-than-light travel. That’s in ordinary space, but General Relativity on the other hand allows for an extraordinary condition of space called a wormhole. An object might enter at one end, proceed by a route outside the known universe, and come out at the far end of the wormhole in a quite different place and/or time.” For many years, black holes weren’t even considered real. Physicists believed they were merely theoretical constructs. In fact, black holes weren’t proven to exist (by physical observation) until astronomers observed one at the heart of galaxy M87 (located in the Virgo cluster) in April 1978. And it was only very recently discovered (within the last few years) that black holes are actually at the center of literally every galaxy (including our Milky Way), which begs the question: which came first, the black hole or the galaxy? We now know that galaxies are tied to (anchored to), and rotate around, their own supermassive black holes. Once matter is sucked into a black hole (or supermassive black hole), it crosses something called the event horizon, and it’s believed that the matter then proceeds towards a singularity, or infinitely compressed single “point.” No one can see what’s going on at a singularity because it’s protected by (and beyond) the event horizon of a black hole, which is sort of like a trap door, or “barrier.” Physicists consider what happens at a singularity “cloaked.” This cloaking “protects” the observer (and by “observer,” they actually mean any one or any thing outside the black hole), from seeing what transpires at the point of the singularity where the laws of physics break down. In laymen’s terms, all kinds of crazy shit happens there. If a singularity weren’t beyond our “view,” it would be considered a “naked singularity.” Keep in mind that this notion of a sort of “firewall,” also applies to the singularity which immediately preceded our Big Bang (in other words, what happened right BEFORE the Big Bang). These singularities are considered “unseeable,” by most physicists, even though the Big Bang which created our Universe (technically) means that we are causally connected to that singularity because it created our own Universe. This concept of not being able to see a singularity is also referred to as the cosmic censorship conjecture, summed up nicely by some physicists below (note the part that I boldfaced and underlined – it’s important): Given high enough densities, Einstein’s theory of general relativity predicts that matter can suffer a cataclysmic collapse to a point-like region where both the density of matter and the curvature of spacetime diverge (tend towards infinite values). This is referred to as a singularity, and also describes the formation of a black hole. In the case of a black hole, the singularity is hidden from view by an event horizon, but there is nothing in general relativity that says that this has to be the case. In other words, general relativity does not preclude the existence of naked singularities. This is very disturbing on both theoretical and observational grounds, as physical conditions become increasingly extreme, and ultimately the laws of physics break down entirely, as one approaches a singularity. To avoid this situation, in the late 1960s Roger Penrose proposed that there be some physical principle, as yet not understood, that excludes naked singularities as solutions to the equations of general relativity. In other words, every singularity must possess an event horizon that hides the singularity from view. Now flip back to the Big Bang, which came out of a random and unidentifiable point in space and time, roughly 13.7 billion years ago. Our Universe, all space, time, and matter, everything, literally sprang out of some infinitely dense point, again, called a singularity. We’re not talking about physicists just using the same language and terminology to describe what happens both inside a black hole and right before our Big Bang which gave birth to our Universe. We’re talking about the same thing. Here’s something to gedanken about for a moment: Supermassive black holes & the galaxies that love them We now know that black holes are everywhere throughout our Universe. Tons and tons of stuff (planets, stars, gas, dust, etc.) gets literally sucked into these things, where it is dragged down to an invisible point of unimaginable density (a singularity). But where does all that stuff go? We haven’t a clue. Or do we? Keep in mind that black holes don’t just suck everything in – they also shoot enormous amounts of matter out in jets, forming the “bulges” just outside their opening which can be found at the centers of galaxies. When the black holes are shooting stuff way out, we know it aids and abets galaxy growth. You may have heard of quasars, blazars, and Seyferts. How about gamma ray bursters and X-rays? Yep. They’re supermassive black hole “burps.” In my opinion, one of the absolutely craziest things about black holes and their galaxies is how closely tied they are to one another. Not only do galaxies rotate around the black hole at their center, but the size of the galaxy is TIED TO, and constrained by, its black hole. I don’t know how to explain how freaking bizarre this detail is, except to compare it to a universal “speed limit,” or size limit, of sorts, which, for over 13 billion years, has maintained a 1,000-to-1 ratio, starting from the very beginning of our Universe until today. In other words, there is some process (for lack of a better word), or connection, between black holes, galaxy formation, and the Universe. One balances, or controls, the other. To drive home this point, and in the words of astrophysicist Timothy Heckman (I’ll excerpt part of one of his papers below, but this paper is only 3 1/2 pages long, and can be read in full here): “One of the most unexpected and important discoveries of the past decade has been that the lives of galaxies and their supermassive black holes are inextricably intertwined. The galaxy is more than one billion times larger than the black hole and contains more than one thousand times as much mass. Many astronomers now believe that we cannot understand how galaxies formed and evolved without understanding their black holes in detail. …astronomers were able to assemble a sample of supermassive black holes with accurate mass determinations. To their surprise, the astronomers then found that the mass of each supermassive black hole was roughly a fixed fraction (about one part in one thousand) of the mass of its bulge….The most massive galaxies and black holes grew rapidly in the history of the universe, and their masses then remained nearly constant…Put another way, the sites of the most vigorous star formation and the most active black hole growth have moved from the most massive galaxies to progressively smaller and smaller systems as the universe evolved. Given the marked similarity in the histories of galaxy and black hole growth, the natural conclusion is that the formation and evolution of these two kinds of objects are tightly linked. If we average over a suitably large sample of such black holes, we find that the ratio between the rate of star formation in the inner regions of the galaxy and the rate of black hole growth is about 1,000. One thousand-to-one is the same as the ratio of the mass of stars to that in the black hole for the most massive galaxies…Thus, the process that determined the 1,000-to-1 ratio in the early universe is still in action today. What exactly is that process? The co-evolution of galaxies and supermassive black holes clearly requires more than a common source of fuel. It also requires some physical communication between the black hole and galaxy that limits the growth of each component – in other words, some type of feedback.” Dark matter, haloes, and (accelerating) cosmic expansion There are some seriously freaky things about our Universe. Things that don’t make sense and which seem entirely opposite to how everything should “work.” It turns out that every single thing in our Universe which most of us would consider solid and important “stuff” only makes up about 4% of what our Universe is made up of. So that means that planets, stars, galaxies, you, me, your dog, dust, gas…the whole enchilada = 4% of what’s out there. Scientists call the stuff that repels, or pushes everything outwards (causing our Universe to not only expand, but to speed up its expansion every day since the Big Bang) dark energy, which actually makes up 74% of our Universe. They don’t know what it is, they can’t see it, but they know it’s there. Dark energy works on a very immense scale, a la affecting the entire Universe. There’s also something scientists call dark matter, which makes up 21% of our Universe and which attracts, or pulls together, galaxies. Scientists can’t see dark matter, either, but, again, they know it’s there. Without it, our galaxy (the Milky Way), and all the other galaxies, couldn’t hold themselves “together.” They’d either never have formed, or they’d never have been able to stick together. There just isn’t enough “stuff” to keep pushing the outer limits of galaxies inward, and keep them together, gravitationally speaking. Here’s a good graphic about dark matter, dark energy, and normal matter, and to read more, here’s a good link about dark energy and dark matter: Here’s what I think is going on here, in laymen’s terms So here’s what I think, and have thought for years: our Big Bang is the other side of a black hole, which is called a white hole. I also think that black holes are the source of dark matter, which gets spewed (or “burped”) out in enormous jets that look like this: I think the gas jets that come out of black holes create what scientists call dark matter haloes, which are actually visible gigantic haloes around clusters of galaxies, holding them together, sort of like a big huge balloon or bubble gum bubble with stuff inside. It may actually be much more viscous and even gossamer like, like a soap bubble. Scientists can’t see the dark matter, but they can see the “halo” surrounding galaxies, which sort of “hems them in,” and keeps them together. Kind of like a corral for wild horses. Here’s an image of a dark matter halo between two galaxy clusters (called Abell 399 and Abell 401) as seen by the Planck space telescope (to read more about dark matter haloes, click this link): What I’ve written up until now makes sense, intuitively, right? And Einstein’s equations not only “allow,” black holes to have white holes and wormholes, but actually lay out their existence in his equations. I’ve seen where the equations reveal the existence of such things, and you can too. Even if you don’t think you understand the math (which I do not), I ask you to just read the words and allow yourself to absorb the message by backing out the symbols, naming rights (like “Hawking Radiation”) and extensive citations. If you want to give it a try, I suggest going to the bottom of this page and clicking on the paper titled, “Radial motion into an Einstein-Rosen bridge,” for starters. It’s like Shakespeare. At first, you try to understand every single word and you get bogged down and it seems impossibly difficult, but if you just let yourself sort of relax and fall into it, you do get the full impact, and it will blow you away. Beyond white holes to the Holographic Principle Once you let the black hole/white hole/Big Bang thing sink in, it gets a LOT weirder. Unlike a lot of papers and articles I might link to which are very technical and may be off-putting, there was a very read-able article with a different “take” on the black hole → white hole → Big Bang theory that appeared on the cover of the August 2014 issue of Scientific American magazine titled, “The Black Hole at the Beginning of Time.” Unfortunately, I can’t provide a link to it (because they want people to pay for it with a subscription, which some of you may not have), however, that Scientific American article is summarized and freely available here and here. The actual paper which the Scientific American article is about can actually be read in its entirety (and free) here, and is called, “Out of a White Hole: A Holographic Origin for the Big Bang” by Pourhasen, Afshordi, and Mann. Those scientists actually take the idea of our Universe vis-a-vis black holes to a much stranger “place,” which is that our three-dimensional Universe is a sub-universe embedded in a larger space of four or more dimensions, the result of a collapsing four (or more) dimensional star. This is called the Holographic Principle and it means that we are (get ready for it…) living in a hologram inside a black hole. If you read their paper, or the Scientific American article, you’ll see how this makes sense and isn’t as crazy as it sounds. Here is a graphic which helps explain it: Pourhasan, et al say: “While most of the singularities of General Relativity are expected to be safely hidden behind an event horizon by the cosmic censorship conjecture, we happen to live in the causal future of the classical big bang singularity… …However, we show that the singularity always happens inside a white hole horizon, and only happens later than Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN)…this yields an alternative holographic origin for the big bang, in which our universe emerges from the collapse of a 5D (dimension) “star” into a black hole, reminiscent of an astrophysical core-collapse supernova. In this scenario, there is no big bang singularity in our causal past, and the only singularity is shielded by a black hole horizon.” The importance of gedankenexperiments I’m writing about this now because I recently read an article about black holes in a different issue of Scientific American, which itself linked to an article in Seeker.com (which I’ve marked up in the iFrame below). In my opinion, both fell short of where they could have “gone.” Keeping in mind all the information you’ve just read about black holes, the Big Bang and the mysteries in our Universe, click on the iFrame below (to read the article directly, click here): As I was reading the Seeker.com article, I was literally at the edge of my seat waiting for them to connect their own dots, but then…nothing. It’s like they’re orbiting what is, to me, a logical conclusion, and then they just veered off the road into Back to the Future-ville. To be fair to Seeker.com, the actual paper it refers to, for some reason, states, and then re-states that the wormholes they’re talking about aren’t suggested for actual time travel, or as a viable method of zipping around the Universe using a (entirely possible) wormhole. I have no idea why the authors of the paper, which can be read here, felt the need to spell this out because no one is actually going to try and get swallowed up by a black hole just so they can get across the Universe, but whatever. As I see it, we have a lot of dangling questions and paradigms from many different scientific disciplines, which, at first, don’t seem related, or connected. However, I beg to differ. There are scientists working on such questions as A) what is dark matter, B) what is dark energy, D) what came before the Big Bang, and D) why is our Universe not only continuing to expand, but that expansion is speeding up? While I don’t claim that black holes are the answer to every astrophysical question, I do think they are the answer to many questions. But if someone is trying to decide how the galaxy created the black hole residing at its own center, maybe they’ve got it backwards. And if our Universe is not only expanding, but the expansion is speeding up because of the 74% of dark energy which keeps getting pumped in from somewhere while, in another corner of science, we know that the most intense forms of energy have always been, and are currently being, shot out like fire hydrants on crack from black hole jets…um, well, duh. Two things in closing The first is that you may get to the end of this post and think, “What damn gedankenexperiment? Schatzie told me what to imagine.” Wrong. I bet that you imagined what I was trying to explain as you read this post. Do you know what a Schwarzschild radius is, or what the value of Ω (omega) is? How about λ (lambda) which is also known as the cosmological constant? Or what the Chandrasekhar Limit means? Most people don’t. You don’t need to know all the foundational equations and theories to know what I’m talking about. You can imagine the concepts and maybe even take it further if you give yourself the opportunity to relax and just lean into it regardless of how young or old you are. I daresay Einstein would be proud. Secondly, some of you may think, “I don’t have time for this crazy stuff!” I understand. Completely. Here’s the thing: so much of what I see in the world leaves me filled with despair and left with the feeling that we are doomed, as a species. When I read about the mind blowing discoveries that we silly humans are making each and every day, it gives me hope and makes me so proud to be a part of this species. I’ll end with another quote from Nigel Calder’s book about Albert Einstein: “So do not be deterred from trying to understand what Einstein said, by any thought that he may become outdated. On the contrary, if you have not felt the ground move under your feet while contemplating his ideas, you have missed the frisson of the century. The ideas are not entombed in textbooks that students mug up for their examinations. In so far as present-day scientists understand the universe we live in, Einstein’s theories are the bedrock. He supplied no finished work of art to be admired but not touched by his successors. He created an imaginative framework for them, and specific theories to serve, directly, or indirectly, in almost every serious attempt to consolidate and extend his understanding. It is Einstein’s universe.” Further reading on black holes and white holes: The Revival of White Holes as Small Bangs (2011); “Ask the Van” question and 2 good answers about black holes/white holes (2009); Radial motion into an Einstein-Rosen bridge (2010); Out of the White Hole: A Holographic Origin for the Big Bang (2013); NatGeo article: “Every black hole contains another universe?” (2010); UPDATE to further reading about black holes: July 7, 2016 Scientific American article about black holes and galaxy formation; Further reading about galaxies and their black holes: The Coevolution of Galaxies and Supermassive Black Holes: A Local Perspective (2011); Seyferts, quasars, blazars, and radio galaxies; NASA’s NuSTAR mission website; Further reading (or listening via audiobook) to blow your mind: Brian Greene’s excellent books The Elegant Universe, The Fabric of the Cosmos, and (especially) The Hidden Reality: Parallel Universes and the Deep Laws of the Cosmos. Greene’s audiobooks are excellent, by the way, and can be purchased on iTunes. Max Tegmark’s Our Mathematical Universe, which is also excellent in audiobook format. In Einstein’s own words (and without math): “The Evolution of Physics: From Early Concepts to Relativity and Quanta,” 1938. This book was done with the help of Einstein’s friend, Leopold Infeld and instead of gedankenexperiment, Einstein refers to what he calls “idealized experiments.” The back story to this book is good. Einstein did at with Infeld to help him out, financially (which it did).

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“If I had to summarize ACT on a T-shirt, it would say: Embrace your demons and follow your heart.” Russ Harris (2007). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is a mindfulness-based behaviour therapy that is used to treat a variety of psychological disorders, and is effective for drug and alcohol abuse. It makes some assumptions about human nature that make it different from other commonly used approaches: - Suffering is normal. It is possible to live with pain, sadness and anxiety – and continue to live a rich, meaningful life. This is different to other philosophies which insist on eradicating problems and pain in order to achieve happiness. ACT shows that the idea that you need to get rid of your psychological pain to be normal or content with life, often leads to more pain, as it is often a non-winnable struggle. - Control is the problem, not the solution. Have you ever tried to force yourself to go to sleep because you had something to do the next day? Or tried to not think about an ex-partner? Often people turn to drugs and alcohol when it feels like life is out of control or when they are trying to avoid negative thoughts or situations. Drugs and alcohol do actually work to control how you feel … sometimes … in the short term … but there is usually a painful consequence. What are you avoiding? Paying bills? Looking for a new job? Traumatic memories? Feeling anxious? Life? Avoidance of certain activities, thoughts or emotions, can lead to many of life’s problems. When drugs and alcohol are involved, the cost can be very high, often involving a reduction in quality of life and an early death. Of course many people use substances like alcohol in moderation, in a way that enhances their lives. A couple of standard drinks after work on a Friday is a common way to unwind after a hard week, or it helps people socialize with others doing the same. However, you only have to watch the news to see the devastating effect of alcohol and other drugs in our Australian community. Even sadder for me than the people who make the news, is the army of people who die before their time in body or spirit because of the long term effects of substance abuse. Six Pieces to the ACT Puzzle There are six basic themes you will learn about through ACT: - Values – What are your values and how can you live your life by them? - Action – Create concrete and practical goals to help you be the person you want to be. - Cognitive fusion – What thoughts are messing with you and how can you give less power to them? - Acceptance – Rather than avoiding or changing things that can’t be changed, how can you learn to live with the negative things in your life? - Observation – Learn how to take a step back and reflect on what is going on in your head. - The present – Learn how to be more connected to the present moment rather than obsessing about the past or the future. These themes are expanded on below. I have used a common metaphor from ACT to hopefully explain everything in an easy to remember package. The Bus Metaphor Your mind is a bit like being the driver of a bus full of passengers. Your destination is wherever your life is headed. On the bus are various passengers that represent aspects of yourself. Some are relatively good passengers who sit quietly unless they are needed, while some are disruptive and you wish they would just get off the bus and bother somebody else. Some of the passengers are linked to a particular emotion, such as sadness, anger, fear, shame. Other passengers could be linked to physical sensations like pain or craving for drugs or alcohol. The Fear passenger might say something like, “If you keep driving down this road then I will begin to panic and then I will make you stop the bus”. Anger will say something like, “If you don’t stop driving, then I am going to grab the wheel and crash the bus into a tree”. Despair will say, “What’s the point? You are going to fail anyway!”. Now imagine how your alcohol, heroin or cannabis passenger controls the bus. Sometimes subtle, sometimes like a brick to the face, if you have been dependent on a drug then they are on the bus along for the ride. “Your beliefs become your thoughts, Your thoughts become your words, Your words become your actions, Your actions become your habits, Your habits become your values, Your values become your destiny.” Values are ideas like courage, love, freedom, tolerance, individuality and responsibility. They are not goals that you can achieve, but ways that you can live your life. Values can change in different situations. For example, your values that you want to uphold while you are with your family (caring, creative) may be different than those you think are most important while at work (responsibility etc). By exploring and connecting with a few core values, it can give you a guide by which you can live the rest of your life. This is especially important in today’s modern world where we can be easily overloaded with information and different philosophies or worldviews. If you are engaged in a life where drugs and alcohol are central, it is easy to lose sight of your values. I often hear people say things like, “I cannot believe that I did that”, when referring to things they did while intoxicated or trying to get the money to buy drugs. It also gets confusing when generally positive values, like respect or loyalty for family or friends, leads to a certain way of life that leads to drug abuse. Some people use drugs because they want to feel free, relaxed, or to stand out from the crowd. The problem is that it is hard to be truly free when you addicted to a substance; or to be an individual when you are doing something that is a problem for a large proportion of Australians. Using the bus metaphor, your values would be “how” you drive. Are you a driver who gives way to other drivers? Are you a calm driver? How do you treat your passengers? It also affects your destination. Where do you want to go? Why? “Vision is not enough, it must be combined with venture. It is not enough to stare up the steps, we must step up the stairs.” The most practical element of ACT focuses on concrete steps that you can take to improve your life. You can break things down into short, medium and long term goals. It is good to have a dream for the future, such as “I want to visit the mountain gorillas in Africa one day”, or “I would like to be a good parent”. It is even more important to take small steps every day in order to create the life that you want. Drugs and alcohol often complicate things when action is concerned. Take for example someone who drinks 20 plus standard drinks of alcohol every day. They would need to take steps in order to detox themselves because stopping suddenly can be very dangerous. Most alcohol abusers in my experience do not have a complete understanding of the physical effects of long term abuse on their bodies. This type of education can help people decide to quit or reduce their drinking, as well as give them strategies to handle any lasting effects. Medium and long term goals need to include finding ways to social, and have fun without alcohol. With the bus metaphor, action would be what is your destination; and, how do you handle detours; do you need a road map; or do you listen to the passengers? 3. Cognitive Fusion “Don’t believe everything you think.” The science behind ACT talks a lot about the power of language. Humans have an in-built ability to store knowledge in our heads that is often extremely useful for keeping ourselves alive; however this same ability can also be twisted and lead to serious psychological problems. Take for example a child who is repeatedly told by their mother that they are stupid. The child grows up with a little voice in the back of their head that repeats this phrase so often and for so long that they no longer remember where the voice came from. Every little setback in their lives only goes to prove this belief in their stupidity, until they stop trying at all. Let’s return to the bus analogy from the beginning of this article – there will always be a passenger on that person’s bus that is telling the driver that there is no point driving to the university because they are too stupid. A common thought for people who feel they need to use drugs or alcohol is: “I won’t enjoy myself at this party unless I get drunk”. Another one is: “I won’t be able to handle these feelings unless I use something to calm myself down.” ACT uses some exercises to help “defuse” these thoughts so they don’t have power over your behavior. The first step is to recognise which beliefs, habits or rules are holding you back in life (who is on your bus). When you become aware of these you learn to stop struggling with them, and get down to the business of living by your values and taking action. So for the bus metaphor, fusion would be explained as how much attention do you give to your passengers while driving the bus? When you are very fused to the alcoholic passenger, there is not much room between them saying they need a drink and the bus pulling over at a bottle shop. When you learn to defuse, the driver of the bus can calmly explain to the alcoholic that despite their cravings, the bus has a destination and getting drunk is not going to get in the way. “The only way out is through.” Acceptance means being willing to experience painful emotions, without trying to avoid them. For example, imagine a common story, someone who began drinking alcohol to avoid thinking about a particular traumatic event. The pattern gets worse for 10 or 20 years as they drink more and more to get the same result. This leaves them with huge amounts of shame and remorse about the time they lost, and relationships destroyed as a result of the drinking. The alternative would be to seek help soon after the traumatic event, which can be confronting – but better than destroying your body and soul with substances. In terms of the bus analogy when you reach a state of acceptance, all the passengers on the bus are relatively predictable. The addiction monster is tamed, and while it doesn’t stop craving right away, at least you have the space to put strategies in place. Your anxiety doesn’t feel like an outcast, and can talk to the other passengers as well as the driver. It may even have some good advice to give everyone. Basically they all work together to help the bus get to its destination. Here is a simple acceptance exercise: (Use at your own risk. If in doubt seek professional advice.) Observe – scan the body for any feelings of tension, pain etc. Try not to listen to your head telling you what the feelings mean, and just observe the actual physical sensation. What, colour, temperature etc is the feeling. Breathe – imagine breathing into and around any uncomfortable feelings. It is normal for the feeling to shift, becoming bigger or smaller; just hang in there. Remember this is not a relaxation exercise, even if some people do end up feeling more relaxed afterwards. Allow – come back to the present moment, without pushing the awareness away. Don’t struggle with any thoughts or feelings that come up, but also become aware of the world around you. 5. Self-as-context (the Observer) “When you change the way you look at things, the things you look at change.” With ACT you learn to connect with the part of yourself that is sometimes called the observer. It is the part of you that is not full of labels, judgments, descriptions. It is the observer that is aware that you have a lot going on in your head without getting caught up in it. You learn to say things to yourself like: “I am having the thought that I am a loser”; or, “my heroin demon in being really demanding today”. These are defusion exercises, which also strengthen your concept of the observer, by looking at yourself from a different perspective. It can be a bit confusing at first, but eventually you are able to listen to the negative thoughts or feelings that your brain throws at you without acting on them, or being so affected. With the bus, the observer would be the driver, once they have learned to defuse from the passengers. They know where they are going, they are aware of what the other passengers are up to, but they can stay calm. It may also be the bus itself, with the driver being part of your mind. 6. Contact the Present Moment “Right now a moment of time is passing by!… We must become that moment.” This is the one that most people need to practice, a lot. Sure it is important to think of the past, in order to learn from your mistakes or just remember the good times. It is also important to think of the future and build plans, or enjoy the anticipation of a future holiday. However, people who are struggling in their lives tend to spend too little time in the present moment. A depressive individual will spend days stuck in shameful or painful memories; an anxious person will spend days worrying about the future. Drug and alcohol abusers often use their substance of choice to block these thoughts, with potentially dangerous results. ACT encourages people to practice just being in the present moment. This practice is not limited to sitting down and focusing on you breathing, but to do it while gardening, washing dishes, working on the car etc. The more practice the better, but even five minutes a day being mindful while you eat or have a shower is better than nothing. For the final part of the bus analogy, the driver would be driving extremely mindfully. They would acknowledge that some of the passengers would occasionally say unhelpful things, without getting pulled out of the present moment. They would realize that the past and future have important roles to play in the life of the bus, but would not spend any longer than necessary dwelling or worrying about either. The Evidence for ACT and Addiction While ACT is relatively new compared to traditional Cognitive Behavior Therapy or 12 Step programs like Alcoholics Anonymous, ACT has shown great promise as an approach to helping those who have a problem with drugs and alcohol. For example, studies done with people on methadone-maintenance programs showed that including ACT in therapeutic interventions led to a larger reduction in both opiate and other drug use (4). ACT has also been shown to be more effective than nicotine replacement therapy to quit smoking long term (2). There is also evidence for ACT and recovery from alcohol addiction. For example, one study was conducted at an involuntary inpatient clinic for patients with alcohol dependence who also had depression (7). Participants were randomly assigned to either the Treatment as Usual (TAU) therapy, or ACT therapy. Both groups received roughly the same amount of both group and individual therapy. The patients in the ACT group were released significantly more quickly from the unit over the TAU group, because they met the criteria for discharge. A case study was done with a dual diagnosis client who had issues with both Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) as well as a Substance Use Disorder (polydrug user) (1). By using ACT the client showed a reduction in both the distress she felt around her traumatic memories, as well as a vast reduction in her drug and alcohol use. She started studying, and basically turned her life around and started to live by her values. Larger studies need to be done with dual diagnosis clients, in order to get more evidence, but early results are very promising. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Substance Abuse Acceptance and Commitment Therapy has shown a lot of promise as a method to help people overcome their substance abuse problems; and does it in a way that can also improve every aspect of life by overcoming experiential avoidance. Different people need to focus on different aspects of the model, depending on their individual life circumstances. ACT works relatively quickly, but the strategies learned can last the rest of your life. If you would like to know more, I highly recommend “The Happiness Trap”, a book by Russ Harris, which is a great introduction to the subject matter. I have been helping people deal with their substance abuse issues using ACT for over ten years, in government health settings, in private practice and in not-for-profit organizations. If you would like to learn more, make an appointment today. Author: Jim Adsett, BA Psych (Hons). Jim Adsett has worked in the drug and alcohol field for more than 11 years. Regardless of the substance, Jim has worked with clients at every point in their journey towards recovery, from admitting that they have a problem to maintaining a new healthy lifestyle. Jim tailors his treatment approach depending on the severity of use and the goals that the client has for themselves, then works collaboratively with his clients to help them practically and sensibly move towards these goals. His treatment approach is non-directive and positive and he uses Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) as a basic framework, as well as drawing on Cognitive Behaviour Therapy and Transactional Analysis. To make an appointment try Online Booking. Alternatively, you can call M1 Psychology Brisbane on (07) 3067 9129 - Batten, S. V, & Hayes, S. C. (2005). Acceptance and commitment therapy in the treatment of comorbid substance abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder: A case study. Clinical Case Studies, 4, 246-262. - Gifford, E. (2002). Acceptance and commitment therapy versus nicotine replacement therapy as methods of smoking cessation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nevada, Reno. - Harris, R. (2007). The Happiness Trap. Exisle Publishing. Australia. - Hayes, S. C, Wilson, K. G., GIfford, E. V, Bissett, R., Piasecki, M., Batten, S. V, et al. (2004). A preliminary trial of twelvestep facilitation and acceptance and commitment therapy with polysubstance-abusing methadone-maintained opiate addicts. Behavior Therapy, 35, 667-688 - Heffner, M., Eifert, G. H., Parker, B. T., Hernandez, D. H., & Sperry, J. A. (2003). Valued directions: Acceptance and commitment therapy in the treatment of alcohol dependence. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 10, 378-383. - Lappalainen R, Lehtonen T, Skarp E, Taubert E, Ojanen M, Hayes SC: The impact of CBT and ACT models using psychology trainee therapists: a preliminary controlled effectiveness trial. Behav Modif 2007; 31: 488–511. - Petersen, Connie L, & Zettle, Robert D. (2009). Treating inpatients with comorbid depression and alcohol use disorder: A comparison of acceptance and commitment therapy versus treatment as usual. The Psychological Record 59.4 (Fall 2009): 521-536. - Vowles K. E, McNeil D. W, Gross R. T, McDaniel M. L, Mouse A, Bates M, Gallimore P, McCall C:.Effects of pain acceptance and pain control strategies on physical impairment in individuals with chronic low back pain. Behav Ther 2007; 38: 412–425. - Wilson, K. G., & Byrd, M. R. (2004). ACT for substance abuse and dependence. In S. C. Hayes & K. D. Strosahl (Eds.), A practical guide to acceptance and commitment therapy (pp. 153-184). New York: Springer.

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Transjordan and Israel: Examining the Foundations of a Special Relationship With the Great Arab Revolt in 1915, the Hashemite family was catapulted to the forefront of Middle Eastern politics and became the literal symbols of Arab unity. Even after their failure to create a single Arab state, and the defeat of Prince Faisal at the hand of the French at Damascus the Hashemites remained the most legitimate political leaders of Arabism to the Arab public. It is with this legacy that Prince Abdullah was handed the state of Transjordan by the British in 1921. How then, could Abdullah the son of Sherif Hussien, the man that began the Arab revolt, have established a cordial relationship with the Zionist Movement? Even before its creation the idea of Israel had been a symbol of colonialism and the nearest threat that the “Arab Nation” faced. However, even with this dangerously heavy stigma, Abdullah secretly maintained direct relations with the Yishuv and later Israel on almost all levels. The desire for cooperation between Abdullah and the Zionist movement was not caused by any natural amity for each other. The roots of cooperation between the two parties were real political, economic and military objectives that could have not been secured without the combined effort and support of Israel and Transjordan. The objectives that Abdullah hoped to achieve through his relationship with the Zionist movement were the creation of an ally to secure the position of his state in the region as well as the creation of an opportunity to expand the size of his territory. However, the main driving purpose behind Abdullah’s relationship with the Zionist Movement, and later Israel, was the prospect of a viable and secure state from the territory given to him by the British. The Israeli and Transjordanian states were never destined allies and that in fact both states had ambitions that involved the absorption of the other state as well as a mutual fear of each other. Abdullah for example had ambitions for total control over the entire territory of Palestine including areas under Zionist control and attempted to advocate the advantages of such a state to both Britain and the Zionist movement1. The Zionist movement itself also had territorial ambitions as it viewed the protectorate of Transjordan as an integral part of Biblical Israel and desired to create settlements on both sides of the Jordan River2. Aside from plans that involved each other’s territories both states were also fearful of the expansion of the other party’s territories. There were certain elements within Israel that did not desire the annexations of the West Bank by Transjordan. One example of fear being generated by the possible expansion of Transjordan is Moshe Sharett’s telegram to Bechor Shirtrit when he said, “Without being able to totally remove from the agenda the possibility of the annexation of the Arab part of Western Palestine to Transjordan, we must prefer the establishment of an independent Arab state within Palestine.”, such sentiments were also echoed to some extent by David Ben-Gurion3. We can see from this that the relationship that developed between Transjordan and Israel was not completely friendly and amiable as both parties were fearful of each other. The cooperation between Israel and Transjordan can even be perceived to be one that is fostered by both parties in order to remove any pretext of conflict that may arise between them. There are uniquely Transjordanian circumstances that existed from the very beginning of its establishment in 1921 that drew Abdullah closer to the Zionist movement. The concept of Transjordan as an invented state is something that is highly recognized. The struggle against the lack of legitimacy for Transjordan is also a widely recognized problem that Abdullah faced. Winston Churchill perhaps provided the most damning quote against Transjordanian legitimacy when he said that he created it with a stroke of his pen on a Sunday afternoon4, which framed the perception of the new state in the region as artificial. The new protectorate of Transjordan also did not have much of a historical legacy to draw on as it lacked large urban centers. Amman the capital of this new state was merely a Circassian village of no more than 2000 people when the protectorate of Transjordan was created5. As a result of this lack of historical or political legacy Transjordan’s legitimacy and sovereignty were constantly being called into question by almost all states around it. To Syria the new protectorate was a part of Southern Syria and thus an illegitimate state. To Ibn Saud the new protectorate of Transjordan was an extension of the Arabian Peninsula and he on occasion did manifest very clear intentions on annexing parts of the protectorate’s territory. Ibn Saud for example threatened to invade Aqaba in 1920’s as well as demand from the British to give him a direct border with Syria that would separate the two Hashemite Kingdoms of Transjordan and Iraq6. Thus one of Abdullah’s objectives in the build up to the 1948 war was to secure legitimate recognition for Transjordan in order to ensure its survival in the region. With hostility from Saudi Arabia and Syria and the ambition of Faisal in Iraq, Abdullah only had one more entity on his border that he could hope to persuade into recognizing his state and that was the Zionist movement. Abdullah’s need for recognition met perfectly with the Zionist leadership’s need for future recognition of the state of Israel, it was a perfect meeting of interests. The Yishuv leadership hoped that their relationship with Abdullah would allow them to gain the recognition of an Arab state, which would increase the security of their position in the region7. Abdullah as well saw that cooperation and recognition from the Zionist movement would help him secure his state in the region against many of the surrounding Arab states8. This need for legitimacy for both the leaderships of the Yishuv and Transjordan allowed for a marriage of convenience to come about. Both states could only turn to each other for recognition due to the hostility of the surrounding states and hoped that their combined efforts would secure a permanent position for both their states in the region. An important factor in Zionist-Transjordanian relations was the economic state of protectorate of Transjordan following its creation. The territory of Transjordan was an economically unique entity in the region due to the fact that did not possess any significant resources such as oil. Furthermore, the cultivatable land that it did possess was only a narrow strip that clung to the Jordan River and even then the output of these farms fell short of the descriptions of the Jordan valley as “undulating fields of wheat and barley”9. These circumstances in Transjordan thus resulted in the area not being able to generate any large urban centers to match those in surrounding countries. This also meant that Transjordan was incapable of generating any substantial income independently. In addition, the hostility of the surrounding states such as Saudi Arabia and Syria meant that Transjordan could not hope for any economic assistance from the surrounding Arab states. Thus, the only remaining option for Abdullah to strengthen the Transjordanian economy in order to increase the capabilities of his state and the standard of living for his subjects was economic cooperation with the Zionist movement. Abdullah’s personal experience may have also caused him to view economic cooperation as a positive on a personal level which is derived from his experience in Istanbul where he met many Jewish merchants, physicians and scholars and hoped that their Jewish counterparts in the Palestine Mandate would help him improve the economic conditions of his new state10. Such an endeavor was not difficult to begin by Abdullah as he could easily play on the desire of certain elements in the Zionist movement for land and investment on the eastern bank of the Jordan River as well as the desire of the Zionist leaders for economic cooperation with an Arab state that could lead to political cooperation. A few significant examples of such cooperation between the Yishuv and Transjordan are the construction of a power plant by Zionist entrepreneur Pinhas Rutenberg as well as the joint Jewish-Transjordanian venture to extract potash from the Dead Sea11. Abdullah was also not shy in conveying assuring messages to draw in Jewish capital when he said in 1933, “The Jews in all the world will find in me a new Lord Balfour; and even more than this, Balfour gave the Jews land which was not his to give, I pledge my own land.”12. However, Abdullah was aware of the political impact that such economic cooperation could cause and made every effort to keep such cooperation out of the public realm of knowledge. Abdullah’s determination to continue conducting business with the Zionist movement even after British resistance and public rioting shows the desperate circumstance that the Transjordanian economy was enduring at the time. Abdullah also came to an agreement with the Zionist movement that he would provide them with information regarding the dealings between the Arab states and they would provide him with monetary gifts13. Cooperation with the Zionist movement was seen by Abdullah as the only path toward economic development in order to create a stronger state and he would not let political rhetoric or ideology hinder him his efforts in doing so. Aside from the political and economic support that Abdullah was securing for Transjordan through his cooperation with the Zionist movement he also maintained this relationship for more aggressive polices. These aggressive policies that Abdullah wanted to pursue were plans to expand his holdings and territory beyond the protectorate of Transjordan. These ambitions for a large state in the Middle East that Abdullah wanted to create even predated his placement as the regent over the protectorate of Transjordan. The arrival of Abdullah on the territory of Transjordan was even motivated by his ambitions of taking control of Syria from France and combining it with the throne of Iraq promised to him by the British14. The British essentially gave Transjordan to Abdullah as a consolation prize in order to deter him from sparking a conflict with France; he was however not satisfied and maintained his ambitions of taking control of Syria. Abdullah’s ambition of territorial expansion was also motivated by the loss of the Hijaz to Ibn Saud15. Abdullah’s ambition for taking Syria also caused him to come at odds with the British, a circumstance that rarely occurred during the entire length of their relationship. This strain came when Britain forced Abdullah in 1924 to expel all suspected Arab nationalists from Transjordan in order to weaken Abdullah’s capability at striking France in order to protect their own interests16. Yet, Abdullah still continued to pursue his plan for a Greater Syria into the late 1940’s even after Syrian independence. Abdullah twice presented to the Arab League a resolution that justified and dictated a plan in which to facilitate the abortion of the newly independent Syrian state by Transjordan, the move quickly drew condemnation from across the region as Transjordan’s three main rivals, Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia joined together to condemn the actions of Abdullah17. However, even before such incidents of resistance on the part of Syria to Abdullah the Hashemite Emir was already taking steps to strengthen his position in order to overcome such obstacles. Abdullah’s need to increase the capabilities of his new state in order capture Syria in turn focused his attention to the Arabs and Arab lands of Mandate Palestine. This concern that Abdullah had regarding Arab Palestine and Palestinians at the time is another point of convergence of Transjordanian and Zionist interests. For each party the Palestinians represented different things, for Abdullah the Palestinians and their land represented a possible initial power and population base that could be used to fuel future expansion while for the Zionist movement the Palestinians represented their direct competitors to the land and resources present in Mandate Palestine. Through these perspectives a common perception arose in minds of Transjordanian and Yishuv leadership that an organized and established Palestinian state represented a threat to them18. Abdullah’s concern for Palestine was always secondary to plans of capturing Syria. It wasn’t until 1947 that it came to hold a more significant importance in the concerns of the Transjordanian King. Even prior to it occupying a role of prominence the political movements and figures in Palestine that demand total independence gained the mutual animosity from Abdullah and the leadership of the Yishuv. Furthermore, Palestine and Transjordan were already drawn together through economic interests. With both areas being part of the Palestine mandate, free movement across the Jordan River caused Transjordanians to serve as seasonal labor in Palestine and Palestinians to serve as bureaucrats in Transjordan, both regions also shared a common currency, the Palestine pound19. As a result the economic well being of Transjordan became tied to Arab Palestine. Consequently, the potential loss of Arab Palestine through conquest or independence forecast an almost total collapse of the Transjordanian economy as its workers would be deprived of jobs and its government would be deprived of educated employees. So the increased concern of Abdullah and his opposition of Arab nationalists through the late 1940’s as tensions between the Jewish and Arab communities in the region increased is quite understandable as it threatened the economic welfare of his state. So it was with the hope of gaining control over Arab Palestine that Abdullah worked to undermine cooperation between elements of the Palestinian polity by supporting British action in cracking down on and removing elements such as Mohammed Amin Al-Husayni from the area20. The Zionist movement also supported such action against the yet uncreated Palestinian state and found Abdullah due to interest that he had in the region the perfect partner in ensuring that a Palestinian state would not be created. The outbreak of violence caused by the Arab rebellion that lasted from 1936 to 1939 and the failure of various attempts at partition such as the Peel Commission as well as “White Paper” caused a shift in the policy of the Zionist movement away from compromise with local Arabs in the Palestine towards cooperation with Arab leaders outside of Palestine as the only possible path towards generating positive results for the Zionist endeavor21. Abdullah became the prime figure of possible cooperation regarding the situation in Palestine for the Zionist movement due to the already existing economic and diplomatic relationship between the two. Furthermore, the leadership of the Yishuv saw the benefit from the occupation of Arab lands in Mandate Palestine by Abdullah’s Legion as it would give them a friendly and reliable neighbor while simultaneously disrupting the focus of Palestinian nationalists by giving them a new force to contend with in the form of Transjordan. Confirmation of this stance can be seen from a meeting between King Abdullah and Golda Meir a few days prior to the declaration of the Israeli state when Meir stated that Israel would prefer that the Arab lands of Palestine be occupied by Abdullah as opposed to them emerging as a sovereign state22. So it was on this semblance of an agreement that Israel and Transjordan marched toward the 1948 Arab-Israel war with each hoping to achieve their respective objectives through mutual assistance and cooperation. The 1948 Arab-Israel war saw the culmination of almost three decades of cooperation between the Yishuv’s leadership and the Kingdom of Transjordan. Economic cooperation, the convergence of political objectives and mutual fear of a Palestinian state had all worked towards creating one of the most consistent and stable relationships in the Middle East. The war however was not just an arena where old agreements between the Zionist movement and Abdullah but a time period where Transjordan attempted to achieve it objectives to the fullest extent possible. One such incident was the Abdullah’s reaction to the incident of Deir Yassin where the Arab League accepted a message from him stating that he would only move to protect Palestinians if the other Arab states accepted that his forces would occupy Palestine23. Through this initiative Abdullah was able to gain Arab support for his endeavor to occupy Arab Palestine and achieve the agreement that was already reached with Israel prior to the conflict. Abdullah also had all armed Palestinian groups within the territory of the Arab Legion disbanded or brought under his control. Abdullah’s objective of expansion was not limited to actions that complemented Israeli interests, as there was a point of friction between the two parties. That point of conflict or more appropriately the point where an agreement could not be reached was Jerusalem and the surrounding area which both parties did not discuss as to not hamper cooperation on other aspects of their relationship. However, when the war did take place Abdullah’s interest of both expanding his state and legitimizing it in the Arab world drove him toward Jerusalem. It was this unique circumstance where taking Jerusalem would not go against agreements reached with Israel prior to the war as well as the immense prestige that it would offer the Transjordanian state, which caused it to become the only point in the 1948 war where the Arab Legion directly and deliberately engaged Israeli forces24. Nevertheless, the mutual needs of Israel and Transjordan for each other overshadowed the conflict taking place in Jerusalem between their forces. Israel still needed Transjordan as it represented the only Arab state in the region that was willing to provide it with a neutral relationship if not support. Transjordan also needed Israel as Abdullah perceived that possible expansion such as the Greater Syria plan would be easier to achieve with a friendly Israeli state due to the increased hostility from Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and certain elements in Iraq and Lebanon. His attempt at ensuring this friendly relationship lasted can be seen from the conduct of the Arab Legion during the war where it did not attempt to attack or occupy any land allotted to the Jews according to the United Nations partition plan as was agreed upon by Abdullah and the Yishuv prior to the war25. The Arab Legion also did not attempt to cut Israel in half by moving toward the Mediterranean Sea, and when soldiers were questioned regarding their lack of action the response that they “had no orders” became a hallmark of Transjordan’s stance during the 1948 war. Transjordan also used the war and it relationship with Israel as an opportunity to eliminate the military capabilities of the other Arab states. This stance is perhaps best put by Glubb Pasha when he wrote to a British officer stating that “if the Jews are going to have a private war with the Egyptians and the Gaza government, we do not want to get involved. The gyppies and the Gaza government are almost as hostile to us as the Jews!”26, while his statements regarding hostility between his own forces and the Jews is essentially hyperbolic, the actions of Transjordan during the war clearly displays that Transjordan was hostile not only to Egypt but a number of the other Arab states as well. Following the first ceasefire the Legion sat calmly by as Israel picked off each of the Arab states one by one27 causing it to be the only Arab state to end the war without suffering major losses as well as the only state to make substantial territorial gains. Following the end of the conflict King Abdullah went on to annex the territory he had occupied during the 1948 war and in turn transformed Transjordan into Jordan. King Abdullah would go on to be assassinated by a Palestinian nationalist in 1951 on his way to Friday prayer due to his collaboration with the Zionist movement as well as his own actions at quashing the Palestinian state. It is at this moment of his death that we can see the achievement of perhaps one of more important goals that Abdullah and the Jordanian government were trying to achieve. That goal being the creation of a lasting and legitimate Jordanian state from what was an illegitimate protectorate at it creation in 1921. This fear that Transjordan would fall apart if Abdullah died prematurely was something that consistently haunted the Zionist movement and elements within Transjordan as they were collaborating prior to the 1948 war28. At the end of the conflict however, Abdullah through his collaboration with the Zionist movement not only established the permanence of the Jordanian state but also won it an ally in the form of Israel that would continue to support its existence long after Abdullah had died. By taking in the entire scope of the interactions between the Zionist movement and Abdullah we can see that their relationship was not merely motivated by the desire for territorial expansion. Both states due to their beginnings as British mandates had become economically intertwined. The aggression of states around them also drove their economic cooperation, as they each became the only viable option toward creating sustainable economic development to one another. The Yishuv leadership and Abdullah also had a number of political goals regarding the legitimacy of their own states that coincided. Both states were seen as artificial creation in the region and by supporting each other they would ensure their own survival. Palestinian nationalism also became a mutual threat to both Transjordan and Israel causing them to collaborate. Aside from the political and economic aspects of convergence between the Zionist movement and Transjordan there was a military aspect that also drew them together. Both forces recognized each other as being potent fighting bodies and thus fostered good relations in order to avoid direct combat with one another as well as the securing of an ally that would be capable of providing aid when the circumstance called for it. It is this convergence of economic, political and military interests as well as the hostility of the surrounding states that drew Abdullah and the Yishuv together and not mere greed as is touted by Arab nationalists. It is this convergence that drove Abdullah the son of the man who began the Arab revolt, to cooperation with the Zionist movement in order to secure the future of his territory in the region as a sovereign and legitimate state. Abu Nowar, Maan. The Jordanian~Israeli War 1948-1951: A History of The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Reading: Ithaca Press, 2002. Bar-Joseph, Uri. The best of enemies: Israel and Transjordan in the war of 1948. London; Totowa, N.J.: Frank Cass, 1987. Gelber, Yoav. Israeli-Jordanian dialogue, 1948-1953: cooperation, conspiracy, or collusion?. Brighton; Portland: Sussex Academic Press, 2004. Gil-Har, Yitzhak. "Delimitation Boundaries: Trans-Jordan and Saudi Arabia." Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 28(1992): pp. 374-384. Karsh, Efraim and P.R. Kumaraswamy, editors. Israel the Hashemites and the Palestinians. London, Portland: Frank Cass, 2003. Katz, Kimberly. Jordanian Jerusalem: Holy Places and the National Spaces. Gainesville, Tallahassee, Tampa, Orlando, Miami, Jacksonville, Boca Raton Pensacola, Ft. Myers: University Press of Florida, 2005. Korany, Bahgat and Ali Dessouki, editors. The Foreign Policies of Arab States: The Challenge of Globalization. Cairo, New York: American University in Cairo Press, 2008. Meir, Golda. "Israel in Search of Lasting Peace." Foreign Affairs Vol. 51(1973): p. 447-461. Morris, Benny. Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001. 2nd ed. New York: Vintage Books, 2001. Nevo, Joseph and Ilan Pappe, editors. Jordan In The Middle East: The Making of a Pivotal State 1948-1988. Ilford, Essex, England; Portland, Or.: Frank Cass, 1994. Rogan, Eugene, and Avi Shlaim, editors. The War for Palestine. 2nd ed. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Shlaim, Avi. Collusion Across the Jordan: King Abdullah, the Zionist Movement, and the Partition of Palestine. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. Shlaim, Avi. The politics of partition: King Abdullah, the Zionists, and Palestine, 1921-1951. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Shwadran, Benjamin. Jordan A State of Tension. New York: Council for Middle Eastern Affairs Press, 1959. Simon, Reeva. "The Hashemite 'Conspiracy': Hashemite Unity Attempts, 1921-1958." International Journal of Middle East Studies Vol. 5(1974): pp. 314-327. Susser, Asher. Jordan: Case Study of a Pivotal State. Washington DC: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2000. Wilson, Mary. King Abdullah, Britain and the making of Jordan. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987. الصباغ, عبد اللطيف. بريطانيا و مشكلاث الحدود بين السعودية و شرق الاردن. القاهرة: مكتبة مدبولي, 1999. محافظة, محمد. امارة شرق الاردن: نشأتها و تطورها في ربع قرن 1921-1946. عمان: دار الفرقان, 1990. 1.) Efraim Krash, “Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle” in Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle. Efraim Karsh and P.R. Kumaraswany. (London, Portalnd: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 3. 2.) Donna Robinson Divine, ‘The Imperial Ties that Bind: Transjordan and the Yishuv” in Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle. Efraim Karsh and P.R. Kumaraswany. (London, Portalnd: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 18. 3.) Efraim Krash, “Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle” in Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle. Efraim Karsh and P.R. Kumaraswany. (London, Portalnd: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 7. 4.) Ali Dessouki and Karen Abul Kheir, “Foreign Policy as a Strategic National Asset: The Case of Jordan” in The Foreign Policies of Arab States: The Challenge of Globalization. Bahgat Korany and Ali Dessouki. (Cairo, New York: The American University in Cairo Press, 2008), p.253. 5.) Asher Susser, Jordan: Case Study of a Pivotal State (Washington DC: The Washington Institute of Near East Policy, 2000), p. 5. 6.) Abd Al-Latif Al-Sabagh, Britain and the Border Issues between Saudi Arabia and Transjordan (Cairo: Maktabat Madbouli, 1999), p.49. 7.) Donna Robinson Divine, ‘The Imperial Ties that Bind: Transjordan and the Yishuv” in Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle. Efraim Karsh and P.R. Kumaraswany. (London, Portalnd: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 25-26. 8.) William Haddad and Mary Hardy, “Jordan’s Alliance with Israel and its Effect on Jordanian-Arab relations” in Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle Efraim Karsh and P.R. Kumaraswany. (London, Portalnd: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 34. 9.) Mary Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain and the making of Jordan (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 57. 10.) Avi Shlaim, The Politics of Partition: King Abdullah, The Zionists, And Palestine 1921-1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 40. 11.) Donna Robinson Divine, ‘The Imperial Ties that Bind: Transjordan and the Yishuv” in Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle. Efraim Karsh and P.R. Kumaraswany. (London, Portalnd: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 19-20. 12.) William Haddad and Mary Hardy, “Jordan’s Alliance with Israel and its Effect on Jordanian-Arab relations” in Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle Efraim Karsh and P.R. Kumaraswany. (London, Portalnd: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 35. 13.) William Haddad and Mary Hardy, “Jordan’s Alliance with Israel and its Effect on Jordanian-Arab relations” in Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle Efraim Karsh and P.R. Kumaraswany. (London, Portalnd: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 35. 14.) Benjamin Shwadran, Jordan A State of Tension (New York: Council For Middle Eastern Affairs Press, 1959), p. 131-132. 15.) Reeva Simon, “The Hashemite “Conspiracy”: Hashemite Unity Attempts, 1921-1958”, International Journal of Middle East Studies (June 1974): p. 316. 16.) Donna Robinson Divine, ‘The Imperial Ties that Bind: Transjordan and the Yishuv” in Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle. Efraim Karsh and P.R. Kumaraswany. (London, Portalnd: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 20. 17.) Benjamin Shwadran, Jordan A State of Tension (New York: Council For Middle Eastern Affairs Press, 1959), p. 238-239. 18.) William Haddad and Mary Hardy, “Jordan’s Alliance with Israel and its Effect on Jordanian-Arab relations” in Israel, the Hashemites and the Palestinians: The Fateful Triangle. Efraim Karsh and P.R. Kumaraswany. (London, Portalnd: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 33. 19.) Mary Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain and the making of Jordan (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 103. 20.) Kimberly Katz, Jordanian Jerusalem: Holy Places and National Spaces (Gainesville, Tallahassee, Tampa, Orlando, Miami, Jacksonville, Boca Raton Pensacola, Ft. Myers: University Press of Florida, 2005), p. 31. 21.) Avi Shlaim, The Politics of Partition: King Abdullah, The Zionists, And Palestine 1921-1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 53. 22.) Eugene Rogan, “Jordan and 1948: The persistence of an official history” in The War for Palestine. Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p.109. 23.) Mary Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain and the making of Jordan (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 168-169. 24.) Yoav Gelber, Israeli-Jordanian Dialogue, 1948-1953: Cooperation, Conspiracy, or Collusion? (Brighton, Portland: Sussex Academic Press, 2004), p.14. 25.) Uri Bar-Joseph, The Best of Enemies: Israel and Transjordan in the War of 1948 (London; Totowa, N.J.: Frank Kass, 1987), p. 23. 26.) Avi Shlaim, “Israel and the Arab coalition in 1948” in The War for Palestine. Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p.99. 27.) Avi Shlaim, “Israel and the Arab coalition in 1948” in The War for Palestine. Eugene Rogan and Avi Shlaim. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p.99.

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Although sustained and focused efforts to reach key populations have led to major reductions in HIV infections between 2010 and 2017, Myanmar continues to display a high incidence of new HIV infections. People who inject drugs are the group most affected by HIV in Myanmar. This is largely due to drugs which are farmed, manufactured and distributed in the northern regions of the country. The country's low financial investment in public health appears to be a major barrier to the success of HIV testing, prevention and treatment programmes. Explore this page to find out more about populations most affected by HIV in Mynamar, testing and counselling, prevention programmes, antiretroviral treatment availability, civil society's role, HIV and TB coinfection, barriers to the response, funding and the future of HIV in Myanmar. UNAIDS estimates there were 240,000 people living with HIV in Myanmar (Burma) in 2018. In the same year, an estimated 7,800 people died from AIDS-related illnesses.1 However, increased antiretroviral treatment coverage has seen the number of people dying of AIDS-related illnesses start to decline in recent years. After Thailand, Myanmar has the second-highest prevalence2 in Southeast Asia at 0.8%. Myanmar is one of 35 countries which together account for 90% of new infections globally. In 2018, Myanmar reported 11,000 new infections (approximately 30 infections per day).3 Although this number of new infections remains steady compared to the two years before, observations show that the annual rate of infections is no longer declining at the same rate it did between 2000 and 2010.4 New infections are mostly found in urban areas or areas where drug use is endemic. For example in the country’s largest city, Yangon (formerly known as Rangoon), there appears to be a higher rate of partner change, a higher rate of buying sex and injecting drugs, lower knowledge on HIV transmission and prevention, lower contact by outreach workers and a lower rate of condom use, all resulting in higher HIV prevalence.5 People who inject drugs (PWID) In 2017, HIV prevalence among people who inject drugs (sometimes referred to as PWID) was by far the highest out of all of the key affected populations at 34.9%.6 In the previous year, people who inject drugs also presented the highest HIV incidence, accounting for 20–65% of adults, aged 15 to 49, testing positive for new infections.7 Analysis suggests that infection occurs at an early age among those who inject drugs, with 16.8% of those under the age of 25 already testing positive. These findings have bolstered the argument that the risk associated with injecting drug use and HIV vulnerability should make the case for developing more youth-targeted programmes.8 Although the burden of HIV prevalence has been limited to urban towns and cities, injectable opium use is endemic with rates of high HIV prevalence evident in the more rural northern and north-eastern areas of the country where the drug is produced. For example, in Waingmaw in Kachin State, HIV prevalence among people who inject drugs was particularly high at 47% during 2014.9 Distribution of drugs from this region also has contributed to new HIV infections developing in more remote areas of the country, providing additional challenges to expanding the coverage of harm reduction and HIV services.10 Less than 50% of people who inject drugs report regular testing for HIV and less than a quarter of those asked in 2016 reported consistent condom use.11 However, 90.8% of people who inject drugs report using sterile injection equipment for their last injection.12 Men who have sex with men (MSM) HIV prevalence (6.4%13) among gay men and other men who have sex with men (sometimes referred to as MSM) has continued to remain a concern in Myanmar, with rates particularly high in many cities and urban areas such as Yangon (26.6%).14 This the highest recorded rate of prevalence for this group in the Southeast Asia region, even higher than Bangkok, Thailand (24.4%). Myanmar’s National Strategy Plan recognises that these rates are alarming and present an immediate call to scale up targeted services in high burden geographical locations.15 There appears to be an increased risk of HIV infection within the most sexually active age group (25-49 year olds) where the prevalence of HIV is significantly higher than average. Prevalence peaks at 25% for the 35-39 age group.16 Stigma and discrimination continues to contribute to the low levels of access to HIV services, with just 50%-75% of men who have sex with men reporting having an HIV test in 2015. Consequently, in 2017, just over half (52.4%) of those living with HIV knew their status.17 18 Most recent statistics record 77% of gay men and other men who have sex with men reporting condom use with their last male partner. However, male-to-male sexual dynamics are complex in Myanmar, and risk behaviours can vary between self-categorised groups of men who have sex with men.19 Although Myanmar has a relatively visible LGBT community, existing laws which criminalise same-sex behaviour in Myanmar keep many people hidden from the reach of healthcare service providers. Moreover, a lack of legal gender identity recognition in the country often means that transgender people are wrongly categorised as men who have sex with men and are commonly not offered the appropriate link to targeted HIV services.20 These observations have informed the country's National Strategic Plan to develop a more appropriate future framework for effective responses to intertwined gender identities, sexual orientations and behaviours. By 2020 the new strategy aims to reach more ‘non-disclosed’ men who have sex with men by expanding services through innovative social media, test-and-treat campaigns and proactive community-led outreach linked to services which are friendly towards men who have sex with men and transgender persons.21 Transwomen and gay men in Myanmar experience stigma and discrimination which means they are unlikely to access HIV services – HIV self-testing can help fill the testing gap. It has the potential to increase testing and early diagnosis among transwomen and men who have sex with men – of which less than 50% have a history of HIV testing. A 2017 study, by the Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health and the International HIV/AIDS Alliance in Myanmar, conducted focus groups and in-depth interviews with these two key populations to find out their attitudes to HIV self-testing. Confidentiality and privacy were seen as significant benefits by both key populations. People taking part in the study saw self-testing as a way to avoid uncertainty and worry about who will be there when seeking facility-based HIV testing as it can be done at home. The fact that self-testing is conducted through a saliva-based test and is therefore pain-free was also seen as an advantage. Although participants were generally optimistic about self-testing, concerns were raised, particularly around the lack of counselling associated with self-testing. They feared this might lead to poor mental health outcomes among those who test positive, which could prevent them from disclosing their status and linking to care. The fact that self-testing is conducted orally also raised concerns. Participants highlighted how this may lead people to incorrectly believe that saliva can transmit HIV, which could further stigmatise people living with HIV. The use of community education, peer networks, social media and mass media to inform people about self-testing was suggested by participants as a way to combat this. Concerns around the introduction of compulsory self-testing by employers or others in positions of power, which could result in further stigma, were also raised.22 Sex workers who knew their status stood at 44.6% and HIV prevalence among female sex workers was over 5.4% in Myanmar in 2017.23 In Myanmar’s major cities, HIV prevalence was much higher - 24.6% and 13.7% in Yangon and Mandalay respectively - representing some of the highest HIV prevalence locations in the Southeast Asia and Pacific region.24 Myanmar is home to over 100 different ethnic groups and shares its borders with two of the most populated countries in the world, India and China, in addition to Bangladesh, Laos and Thailand. The last census (2014) estimated that over 11 million residents have migrated internally or externally. Some critics are concerned that increasingly open borders make Myanmar more vulnerable to HIV incidence with the increase of migrants coming from bordering high-prevalence countries.25 As HIV testing is not a condition for entry, work or residence in Myanmar, there is not much comprehensive information available on HIV prevalence or risk behaviours associated with the migrant population. Nevertheless, in 2014, the IOM data project did find that 18% of people identifying as migrants in Mon and Kayin states were HIV positive - although it is difficult to assess if the point of infection happened within country.26 However, it is broadly assumed that migrants might face residency and social restrictions that limit their access to HIV programming services, as well as other general forms of healthcare.27 Since 2014, HIV awareness campaigns that target large migrant populations have been created to address these issues.28 The National Strategic Plan proposes developing specific packages for people near transit points in addition to cross-border referral mechanisms and agreements to strengthen access to health services in destination countries.29 Since August 2017, almost a million Rohingya people have migrated to neighbouring Bangladesh. They were fleeing from mass atrocities in Myanmar, their homeland. Most are now living in the Cox’s Bazar district of Bangladesh where they are particularly vulnerable to HIV and other STIs due to multiple and overlapping forms of discrimination.30 There is little information available about the health status and behaviour of the displaced Rohingya people, although 83 cases of HIV-infected people have been recorded, and more undiagnosed cases are likely.31 Unfortunately, there has been no new behavioural data on HIV testing among the general population in Myanmar since 2007 when it was recorded at 11.3%.32 As such, there is an urgent need for strengthening the involvement of community networks in the planning and monitoring of testing services.33 In 2014, among key affected populations, the estimated testing coverage was also still far from optimal with only 34% of female sex workers, 27% of people who inject drugs, and 20% of men who have sex with men accessing testing services.34 Myanmar’s most recent National Strategic Plan, launched in 2016, aims to promote early HIV testing and counselling in line with WHO recommendations, and to close the testing gap by prioritising townships with a high epidemic burden and centralising the provision of HIV counselling and testing to become a local public health sector concern.35 Research consistently shows that harm reduction programmes - such as needle and syringe exchange programmes and opioid substitution therapy – are the most effective ways of reducing the spread of HIV among people who inject drugs.36 However, because the scale of drug use in Myanmar is particularly extensive, existing harm reduction services fail to meet the escalating demand by people who inject drugs.37 For example, in response to a 2014 study which estimated that the reported re-use of needles varied from 16% in Mandalay to 63% in other areas, there were 18 million sterile needles and syringes distributed free of charge during the next year.38 Despite these efforts, the coverage of additional needles was not enough. Based on typical injecting practices involving 2-3 daily injections, around 60-90 million additional needles would be needed. So there continues to be a major gap for the 93,000 people who inject drugs39 in Myanmar.40 The government has recognised this need to scale up their commitment to strengthening harm reduction services, and has since allocated an additional US$1 million (as part of the US$11 million domestic funding commitment towards HIV services) for methadone as a form of opioid substitution.41 However, critics suggest that this sum will not be enough to curtail the growing dependency on drug use within the country.42 Preventing mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) HIV counselling and testing services for all pregnant women have been integrated into antenatal services across the country, which presents a much more successful model of implementation compared to other countries within the Southeast Asia region.43 As a result, more than 900,000 pregnant women received pre-test counselling and more than 700,000 took an HIV test and received post-test counselling during 2015. In 2015, 3,923 HIV-positive pregnant women received ART to reduce the risk of mother-to-child transmission, but only 39% of these were put on lifelong treatment (Option B+) as recommended by the WHO, with the rest only put on treatment while pregnant and breastfeeding.44 In 2017, overall ART coverage among pregnant women living with HIV to prevent mother-to-child transmission was estimated to be 78%, with 4,383 women receiving antiretroviral therapy and a further 5,600 women in need.45 Routine monitoring continues to be an area of weakness - as it is across most testing, prevention and treatment services in Myanmar. Early infant diagnosis stands at just 28% with less than 1,000 new HIV infections averted due to PMTCT care.46 Myanmar’s National Strategic Plan suggests that there is a critical need for better collaboration between health services to integrate early infant diagnosis into post-birth care in order to establish a fully comprehensive PMTCT cascade.47 According to UNAIDS, 146,826 (or 66%) of all people living with HIV in Myanmar have access to antiretroviral treatment (ART).48 It is worth noting that this figure has more than doubled (from 24%) in 2012 (NSP), and has brought the country up to speed with the treatment rate of people living with HIV in the rest of the Southeast Asia region (41%). As a result, the country has witnessed the number of AIDS-related deaths fall by an estimated 49% to 6,700 in 2017 as ART coverage has expanded in the last six years.49 Nevertheless, despite improvements in treatment access, Myanmar is still a high burden country with limited availability of viral load testing and HIV drug resistance testing for monitoring patients who are on first-line as well as second-line ART.50 Second-line ART has been available in Myanmar since 2008, however there has been no published data about the outcomes of patients on second-line treatment until recently. A 2017 study followed a cohort of 824 adults and adolescents over seven years in which time 11% of patients died and the overall incidence rate of unfavourable outcomes of those who moved on to second-line treatment was 7.9%. Those who fared worse on second-line treatment included patients with a history of injecting drug use, those lost to follow-up and those with a higher baseline viral load. Comparatively, patients with higher baseline CD4 counts, those who had taken first-line ART at a private clinic or received ART at decentralised cites all seemed to have a lower risk of unfavourable outcomes. Though these results indicate relatively good long-term outcomes of patients on second-line ART treatment there was a strong emphasis made on making viral load monitoring routine, and third-line ART drugs available for cases of virological failure.51 Historically, the majority of healthcare facilities in Myanmar have been privately funded or supported by NGOs. It is also estimated that at least 25% of people in Myanmar live below the poverty line and that those living with HIV may struggle to source the funds for necessary ARV treatment. As such, there have been strong arguments for a transition from private and NGO-run services to public sector delivery with the hope of making treatment more readily available to vulnerable groups across the country.52 The legacy of military rule and restrictions on the financing and operations of civil society in Myanmar hinder efforts to provide support to people living with HIV and populations at risk of HIV but progress is being made. The Myanmar Positive Group-MPG, a national network of people living with HIV, promotes networking between individuals and self-help groups, works to reduce stigma and discrimination, and advocates for peoples’ rights to access treatment and quality services. In 2015, there were 177 networked self-help groups of people living with HIV; there was no update as of September 2018. Myanmar is one of 14 countries that carry a high burden of TB/HIV coinfection (of 30 countries globally) as well as multi-drug resistant TB and TB infection. The number of TB-related deaths among people with HIV was 4,900 in 2016 up 2,000 from 2015. 53 In 2016 the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNAIDS carried out an in-depth review of the status of tuberculosis and HIV coinfection in Myanmar. Co-infection of TB and HIV remains a serious public health issue and was responsible for around 4,100 deaths in Myanmar in 2014 (of the estimated 32,000 deaths for all TB forms). The key recommendations of the 2016 review shared with the Ministry of Health focused on the importance of strengthening collaboration between HIV and TB National Programmes, through improved information sharing, joint procurement and adequate deployment of human resources. Furthermore, increasing and decentralising the number of health facilities which provide joint screenings and treatment of patients for HIV and TB at all levels of the health system (through scaling up of services and employing mobile teams particularly in high burden areas) are central to ensuring that these diseases and coinfections are detected early, properly treated and further reduced.54 Total health expenditure in Myanmar (2-2.4% of its GDP) is among the lowest in the Southeast Asia and Western Pacific regions, which goes some way to explaining the country’s HIV incidence.55 An analysis of countries from different regions, and with varying epidemic patterns, found that Myanmar was among the countries where funding of effective and focused primary HIV prevention was insufficient.56 In 2015, the country committed US$ 11 million in domestic funding towards HIV programmes while relying on an additional US$ 71.8 million from international donors.57 Further findings from the National AIDS Spending Assessment (NASA) indicate that while more than 20 donors provide additional financial support for healthcare in Myanmar, only a few are committed to funding HIV-specific programmes. Of these, the Global Fund provides around half of the existing funding towards such programmes (investing a total of US$ 266 million between 2009 and 2017).58 There are plans to move HIV treatment services to government have not yet addressed critical supply chain and human resource needs in order to make such transitions viable. This means that key affected populations, such as people who inject drugs, are being left behind in terms of service reach. As well as these limitations, service delivery and supply chains are set up to operate separately within the healthcare system which means that human resources such as community health workers and service delivery at health facilities remain distinct from one another. The above are compounded by lack of assurance and oversight by the Principal Recipients, Country Coordinating Mechanism and Local Fund Agent.59 Legal barriers for sex workers Sex work in Myanmar is illegal. Fear of prosecution, harassment and blackmail all reduce access to services such as HIV testing which, in 2016, was only accessed by 50% of sex workers in the country.60 Until 2011, even carrying a condom could be used as circumstantial evidence if a sex worker was detained by the police.61 More recent records from 2017 still indicate that just 81% of sex workers reported condom use with last client.62 One day, the police detained me and I had to pay a MMK 50,000 fine for my release next day. If I did not pay, I could be detained, sued and jailed. - Sex worker, Myanmar63 Legal penalties for commercial sex work are just one of many social and structural barriers – alongside cultural stigma, discrimination and violence – preventing sex workers accessing necessary HIV prevention and treatment services.64 Stigma and discrimination There is currently no welfare or job support for people living with HIV in Myanmar, and many face family or community rejection as a result of their status. Stigma within communities largely appears to stem from a lack of public health education and misconceptions on how the infection is spread. We've seen cases where if someone looking after a patient with HIV dies while the patient is unwell, other people don't want to take care of the person with HIV anymore. - Soe Yadanar, Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF)65 This stigma also persists within healthcare systems themselves, with reports of institutional neglect by nurses and doctors also being cited by patients living with HIV. For example, in one 2015 report assessing hospital conditions of people living with HIV in Myanmar and Cambodia, it was found that some patients were relegated to segregated waiting areas and bed spaces after their status was discovered.66 The same report also discovered much more serious allegations by women living with HIV who were forced by healthcare providers into making sterilisation a condition for accessing pregnancy-related services. In one instance in the city of Yangon, they also found that one woman was sterilised without her knowledge or consent.67 Myanmar is a UNAIDS fast-track country with a severe epidemic. Historically, the private sector -through international and local NGOs - has played a major role in service delivery. The current national strategic plan (NSP III 2016-2020) is focused on the development of sustainable partnerships which calls for the public and private sector, and communities to jointly design, deliver, monitor and evaluate services. Resource need is estimated at US$460 million, a 16% decrease from the total funding need of the previous plan. The decrease is due to, ‘streamlined costs that will enable efficient strategic scale-up of priority needs and strengthening of cross-cutting components’. The single largest external financing source of the HIV response in Myanmar has been the Global Fund, amounting to 50% of total funding (external and domestic sources) in 2015. Other more limited external sources include the 3MDG Fund (a multi-donor trust fund that pools the contributions of seven bilateral donors), PEPFAR, Asian Development Bank (ADB), and international and local NGOs. The decreasing trend in external funding for HIV in Myanmar continues. In 2015, the Government of Australia withdrew support to the health sector and in 2017, the 3MDG Fund wound up, leaving a large gap in resources for HIV prevention, particularly for one of the most key affected populations: people who inject drugs. In 2018, increased financial commitments and management responsibility from the Government to a more integrated HIV response and a rapid expansion of services have also raised concerns about how to optimise resources and bridge gaps in service quality. Successful implementation requires an increase in national resources that is beyond the capacity of the Government and donor commitments.68 There are plans for Myanmar to develop a model for pre-exposure prophalaxis (PrEP) as a prevention method for populations at substantial risk of HIV infection. However, some critics suggest that treatment access for those living with HIV should be prioritised first before implementing new methods in prevention.69 [Myanmar is] a country where only 60% of people living with HIV can access treatment; WHO describe universal access to treatment as minimum 80% coverage. It’s a heavily resource-constrained setting and there isn’t the capacity to deliver PrEP appropriately. - Associate Professor Mark Stoové from the Burnet Institute70 An initial assessment testing the acceptability of PrEP in Myanmar during 2016 found that although 39% of men would be willing to use it, the cost of the drug was a barrier.71 The report also suggested that, because sex between men is still illegal in Myanmar, it is unlikely that PrEP would be accessed through government systems and would instead have to be administered in safer social environments by NGOs or community-led services.72 Like many other low- and middle-income countries, there is a long way to go if Myanmar is come close to the UNAIDS targets for ending the epidemic by 2030. However, there is some optimism that targets for reducing transmission and increasing treatment can be achieved with increased national and international funding and support.73 - 1. UNAIDS 'AIDSinfo' (accessed August 2019) - 2. ibid - 3. UNAIDS 'AIDSinfo' (accessed August 2019) - 4. UNAIDS (2017) ‘Data Book’ - 5. UNAIDS (2016) 'Prevention Gap Report' - 6. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 7. UNAIDS (2016) 'Prevention Gap Report' - 8. The Ministry of Health: The Republic of the Union of Myanmar (2015) 'Global AIDS Progress Report: Myanmar' - 9. UNAIDS (2016) 'Prevention Gap Report' - 10. UNAIDS (2017) ‘Data Book’ - 11. UNAIDS (2017) ‘Data Book’ - 12. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 13. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 14. UNAIDS (2017) ‘Data Book’ - 15. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 16. UNAIDS (2016) 'Prevention Gap Report' - 17. UNAIDS (2017) ‘Data Book’ - 18. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 19. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 20. UNAIDS (2016) 'Prevention Gap Report' - 21. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 22. Wirtz, A. L., Clouse, E. , Veronese, V. , Thu, K. H., Naing, S. , Baral, S. D. and Beyrer, C. (2017), New HIV testing technologies in the context of a concentrated epidemic and evolving HIV prevention: qualitative research on HIV self‐testing among men who have sex with men and transgender women in Yangon, Myanmar. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 20: 21796. doi:10.7448/IAS.20.01.21796 - 23. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 24. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 25. BBC (2014, 02 December) 'World AIDS Day: Tackling HIV in Myanmar' - 26. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 27. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 28. BBC (2014, 02 December) 'World AIDS Day: Tackling HIV in Myanmar' - 29. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 30. International HIV/AIDS Alliance ’2018 Gender- transformative HIV programming’ (accessed October 2018) - 31. The Lancet Correspondence ‘Sexually transmitted infections among Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh’ (accessed October 2018) - 32. The Ministry of Health: The Republic of the Union of Myanmar (2015) 'Global AIDS Progress Report: Myanmar' - 33. The Ministry of Health: The Republic of the Union of Myanmar (2015) 'Global AIDS Progress Report: Myanmar' - 34. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 35. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 36. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 37. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 38. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 39. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 40. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 41. Oo HN, Hone S, Fujita M, et al. (2016) 'Evolution of the health sector response to HIV in Myanmar: progress, challenges and the way forward' Journal of Virus Eradication - 42. Mizzima (2017, 17 May) 'UNAIDS lauds launch of new Myanmar HIV strategic plan, calls for more investment' - 43. Myanmar Ministry of Health (2014) ‘Myanmar Country Progress Report’ [pdf] - 44. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 45. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 46. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 47. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 48. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 49. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 50. Nang Thu Thu Kyaw et al. (2017) 'Long-term outcomes of second-line antiretroviral treatment in an adult and adolescent cohort in Myanmar' - 51. Nang Thu Thu Kyaw et al. (2017) 'Long-term outcomes of second-line antiretroviral treatment in an adult and adolescent cohort in Myanmar' - 52. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 53. World Health Organisation (2018) Global Tuberculosis Report - 54. World Health Organisation, Myanmar (accessed September 2018) - 55. World Health Organisation 'Newsletter: April - June 2016' - 56. UNAIDS (2016) 'Prevention Gap Report' - 57. UNAIDS (2017) ‘Data Book’ - 58. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 59. The Global Fund Updates ‘Myanmar Audit Report’ (accessed October 2018) - 60. UNAIDS (2016) 'Prevention Gap Report' - 61. IRIN (2014, 14 January) 'Push to decriminalise sex work, but stigma still remains' - 62. aidsinfo.unaids.org (accessed September 2018) - 63. UNFPA (2016, 19 January) 'The story of a HIV positive sex worker' - 64. IRIN (2014, 14 January) 'Push to decriminalise sex work, but stigma still remains' - 65. Reuters (2015, 01 December) 'Myanmar's HIV patients shunned despite progress' - 66. Thomas Reuters Foundation (2016, 15 March) 'People with HIV in Asia ejected from hospitals, women sterilised study' - 67. Thomas Reuters Foundation (2016, 15 March) 'People with HIV in Asia ejected from hospitals, women sterilised study' - 68. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 69. The Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The Ministry of Health and Sports (2016) 'National Strategic Plan on HIV and AIDS: Myanmar 2016-2020' - 70. Burnet Institute (2016, 04 January) 'Is Myanmar ready for PrEP?' - 71. Burnet Institute (2016, 04 January) 'Is Myanmar ready for PrEP?' - 72. Burnet Institute (2016, 04 January) 'Is Myanmar ready for PrEP?' - 73. Harries, Anthony D. et al. 'Ending the HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Low- and Middle-Income Countries by 2030: Is It Possible?' F1000Research 5 (2016): 2328. PMC. Web. 19 Sept. 2017.

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30 Basho items revealing his "compassonate intuition" can be resources we use to discover and nourish compassion within ourselves. Autumn wind / saying not a word / child in tears. We begin with a study of compassion in three renku stanzas. The first poet offers a tray to Basho; the tray is empty, but has lots of space for Basho to fill in. The tray provides boundaries -- femininity, Buddhism, eloquence -- in which Basho creates compassion: The old Buddhist nun recalls, with some enthusiasm, a moment in her long life when she commanded a temple servant to go out and rescue that baby crying. Buddhism tells us to let go of attachments and accept the passage of life and death – but this nun chose instead to actively save a life. She feels the glory of her deed, and so do we. Kikaku compounds that compassion by extending it to another species. The nun and the temple disappear. A deer – probably female -- found the abandoned child in the mountains, and was “filled with pity” for this baby of another species. Realizing her inability to do anything for the baby, she walked, carrying compassion with her, to a village where she chose a human being with a warm heart, and pulled on her sleeve, to get her to come up to where the child was. The poet transfers the pity in Basho’s stanza to an entirely different species and reality, so compassion transcends the barriers between us and another life form. Japanese monkeys, the only ones in the world whose native habitat is so far north, live in packs of about ten in mountain forests. In autumn they eat all the fruits, berries, seeds, leaves, insects, and crabs they can find, so they grow fat with the thick fur needed to survive winter in a Japanese mountain forest. Basho is traveling through the mountains from Ise to his hometown Iga in 1689 When it starts to rain, Basho hurriedly puts on his mino, a cape woven of straw and waterproofed with persimmon juice. He then sees a monkey shivering beside the road and simply presents his immediate child-like compassionate thought -- compassion expressed in that word “too”. Compassion is the virtue of empathy for the suffering of others. It is regarded as a fundamental part of human love, and a cornerstone of greater social interconnection and humanism — foundational to the highest principles in philosophy, society, and personhood. (Wikipedia) This is most profound – whereas Basho is utterly simple. Adults do not think so simply – unless they are adults who think like children. Adult thoughts are more complicated and knowledgeable. Basho always thinks the simple way. This is what he teaches us – to go back to the beginnings of thought, the thoughts in childhood that begin the development of Compassion. Late September, 1684, Basho traveling with his follower Chiri: Basho says “I toss some food as we pass by” which sounds pretty callous — as if he were throwing scraps to a dog — but these words are an idiom – like “raining cats and dogs” – that does not really mean what it says. Japanese Language instructor Shoko says Basho’s real meaning (honne) here is something like: “I’m sorry I cannot give the child any good food.” What this child needs is simple: a woman with a home. Two men traveling with no baby care skills will not suffice. Basho scholar Imoto Noochi conveys, with great precision, the feeling in Basho’s Japanese heart: “In his powerlessness he was overcome with self-recrimination.” Self-recrimination: beating himself up because he has no effective way to help the infant. To the ancient poets who sang of the pathos in monkey’s cries: Basho has given us a sketch of the dilemma that confronts us each time we encounter the poor or homeless; do I walk by and forget? Do I toss a few coins or a word of greeting to the person? Do I wish the government or a charity would do something? Or do I actually help the person? And how can I truly help? A layer of white frost coats the ground as a bitter wind whips by. This child may not be ‘real’ but instead be part of a metaphor, a poetic expression for the feeling in the actual frost and wind. In Basho’s time, however, and our time as well, children do sleep without adequate shelter or blankets; this child huddling for warmth can be as real to us as our hearts allow. First, here is a single renku stanza by itself Because this single stanza gives no hint of circumstances, we can imagine the child in any circumstances shedding silent tears. Basho quietly, subtly, compassionately focuses on another human being, a child who can be any child. Below, this stanza appears with its previous stanza, and with its following stanza, so we see how Basho followed and how he set the stage, so we more deeply explore the nature of compassion. A man has cut a fine stalk of bamboo to make a hunting bow, and wipes off the morning dew. The child weeps because father is going to kill an innocent animal -- but can speak no word of this to his imposing patriarch who would not respond kindly to such criticism from a small child. I find here a message that we should protect animals in the wild, be saddened by their being killed, and oppose their killing. In Japan and other Asian cultures, white is associated with death, and the deceased is wrapped in a white shroud and placed in a coffin in a sitting position. The coffin was carried on a litter to the burial place, accompanied by a procession of mourning relatives and priests intoning sutras. The coffin containing the white-shrouded corpse moves through the long rows of mourners. The child in silent tears watches the coffin and corpse continue away from him, as the father’s spirit also departs from the child’s heart. So we can explore Basho’s stanza 1) by itself, similar to a haiku, saying nothing about the child or the sadness, leaving it up to us to imagine; 2) with the previous stanza, feeling the relation between animal-loving small child and hunting father, and 3) with the following stanza, the child watching his deceased father’s coffin move away. The Buddhist temple, Hase-dera founded in the year 686, has long been a place of pilgrimage for women. Many noble women and ladies-in-waiting at the imperial court in Kyoto came here to pray to the famous Eleven-Faced Kannon, a 30-foot tall statue in relief of the Goddess of Mercy, carved from a single log of camphor, the largest wooden image in Japan. Anthropologist Michael Ashkenazi says of Kannon, “for most people she carries the possibility of restoring and continuing life.” Women commonly pray to the Goddess of Mercy for love, to bear a child, for a child to succeed in school or life, or for relief from hardship . Finally, in April, enough warmth has accumulated so even night is warm and tranquil; a time for the heart to find solace and renew hope. Taking off our shoes at the entrance, we step quietly onto the finely polished hardwood floor. Before us rises Kannon-sama, five or six times our height, the compassion in her face and figure radiating to every part of the hall. Over there, in a corner, someone barely seen in the faint lantern light sits in communion with the Goddess. Who is she? Why has she come here alone at night? What is she praying for? Kon says “in the one now hidden before my eyes, the images (of all the women who came here in the past) pile up one on top of another to attract my heart.” This woman and her prayers to Kannon-sama convey a tender mystery known in temples and churches throughout the world -- this world where men make decisions but men are inconstant, and all women can do about it is pray to a goddess for compassion. Through this haiku women suffering from patriarchy today can connect to their sisters suffering three centuries ago. In 1686 Basho’s follower Kyorai took his 9-year-younger sister Chine on a pilgrimage to the Ise Shrine. In his Ise Journal Kyorai records his compassionate observation of her: Kyorai actually pays attention to his sister’s mind and heart; a unique moment in world literature. Basho seems to have watched with attention his youngest sister Oyoshi growing up six or seven years behind him; and she may be the model in his imagination for his many verses on “little sister.” Basho’s mentions her name four times in his letters, and no other sister even once. Basho reading Kyorai’s description of Chine may have felt a similar compassion for Oyoshi. In summer of 1688, Basho learned that Chine had died at age 28. Unable to be with Kyorai’s family in their grief, he sends a haiku of condolences, an image of compassion to comfort them. Clothing gets musty in the warm moist summer, so one sunny day everything is hung outside to “air in the heat.” One of Chine’s kosode, a simple kimono for household wear, kept as a memento, hangs outside with the rest of the family’s clothing. The traces of Chine’s being linger in the fabric she wore, to gently disperse in the warm breeze. This haiku is for Chine’s family members to recall in the years to come; the people who lived with her and now must live without her. When they read or think of Basho’s gift, the vision of Chine in the haiku will bring on memories of Chine alive. The temple provides braziers for mourners to warm their hands during the service. The tears fall on the embers -- glowing coals covered by ashes -- to extinguish that bit of fire, boiling for an instant before turning to steam. A stupa is a wooden tablet set up by a tomb with phrases from a sutra written for the repose of the dead's soul. This, unlike her baby, will remain. Mourners remained all night long in a mourning hut. I believe this “shadow figure” is the spirit of the dead child returned for a moment to warm and console mother with the gift of fire. Later in life, whenever she builds a fire, she will feel her child’s presence. The weight of grief at losing their child has withered and bent the parents, like bamboos bowed down under snow. This monk has modern progressive ideas about children who have difficulty learning; he says they should be praised and supported, rather than criticized and taken down. Basho follows with pity for the learning disabled child: often under an orange tree, as in the garden of an abandoned house, fallen fruit lies in the dew and frost for months, sweet pulp oozing out cracks in the peel, looking altogether wretched – so the child’s brain rots from lack of stimulation. A wooden bath tub never filled with water dries out and cracks. If a section of the brain is hardly ever used, it also leaks. So in childhood use it every day with praise, so leaks do not occur. The falcon, bred for hunting, is an exceedingly masculine image, yet in old age feels the loss of life force. Basho leaps to the humanity of a widow in an old house she can no longer maintain. The torn screen makes me think of Miss Havisham in Great Expectations with her torn sock. Here is a house (or shack) where the residents feel threatened; they startle at ordinary autumn sounds in a rice-growing village: the clatter of noisemakers hung over fields of ripening grain to scare away hungry birds. They allow the trees and shrubs surrounding the house to grow wild, so from the road only one window can be seen. Is that window an eye watching the road, armed and ready, to defend his freedom? All that in two short lines. Basho continues, clarifying that the householder is a thief, yet focusing on the woman married -- probably without license or ceremony --- to this creep. We imagine his lack of concern for how she feels – however Basho’s concern is for her. Chosetsu’s stanza is profound social realism, but a masculine, anti-social reality. Basho looks rather with compassion at the female side of the gender coin. The word imo can mean “wife” or “lover” or “younger sister,” but because Basho is the one author in world literature who often writes about children and teenagers, I will take her to be a younger sister wretched at some upset in her search for love. Basho’s question really has no meaning, but the compassion in it may somehow console the lovesick sister – Basho suggests, in a verse suitable for a modern parenting magazine, the turmoil in the heart of a teenage girl. He creates that emotional turmoil, then also creates a compassionate and understanding mother to calm down her daughter. The daughter broods over thoughts of love, upset to hysteria. we imagine her shaking all over. Her mother – or someone like a mother –manages to say the right words in the right tone to soothe and settle her down. Basho portrays the mother caring, with sensitivity and wisdom, for her daughter, acting not for herself, but rather to calm down another person. Sam Hamill, a scholar who knows only Basho haiku and not his renku, claims that Basho was “at times, cold-hearted, inhuman” – however the poems Hamill does not know contain much itawaru, caring for others.” Almost the very last words in Basho’s journal, A Narrow Path in the Heartlands, expresses his ideal for humanity: The poems in this article contain little joyfulness, however they abound with caring: Blackwood is a type of firewood that burns slowly giving off dark heavy smoke that accumulates over the walls and ceiling and inhabitants. What sort of person lives in such a place? Basho focuses on the daughter within this shack in a mountain hollow where the sun never shines; he reaches into her heart. There are no available bachelors in her world, no one to marry a girl so grimy with soot, her bones soft and bent with rickets from chronic vitamin D deficiency. All she can do is long for a love she will never know. Still sick and weak from a difficult delivery, she provides sustenance for a new life. As she sits nursing the baby in her arms, “tears of dew” are her tears falling on the baby, the thin watery fluid coming from her malnourished breasts,the summer sweat between two feverish bodies, the utter misery of their existence – while the father is… The net is a small one where she and the baby sleep. Sitting inside to eat and nurse the baby, her world is reduced to the smallest dimensions, as small as her hopes for herself and her baby, as miniscule as his concern for their welfare. Charles Dickens tells the sordid lives of poor and deprived women such as Nancy in Oliver Twist, but 160 years before Dickens, Basho used fewer words to create profound images of the misery of women in patriarchal relationships. The diaphanous net hangs loosely from four ceiling points over her with head tall in the center. Can this represent an emaciated breast with its nipple? The “meal tray” then is the milk-producing glands inside the breast. Is this Basho’s link to the previous verse? Is this image too physical, too feminine and fleshy to come from the mind of the poet-saint Basho? Not at all. So frequently and vividly he portrays the female body, although such verses are not the Basho poems they teach in schools. The man promised her love and devotion, but when she delivered a boy, he took the child to be his heir, and abandoned her. With no other place to go, she entered a Buddhist temple which takes in such women. She had to cut her hair and live in a cell. Milk still forms in her breasts which she squeezes out to throw away, while she recalls dreams the baby this milk is produced for, such is the bitterness in her heart. Her husband transferred to a distant place, thoughts of him remain, she speaks her sadness to the infant nursing at her breast. Basho transforms her into a woman holding the pear-shaped instrument on her lap close to her chest, the way she holds a similar shaped baby. He combines the melancholy notes of the lute with her distraught sobbing, from evening through night into day. This person boiled rice but only in a dream so it cannot be eaten for dinner. Likewsie, one who cares not for others is not really living but merely waiting to die. Thus compassion makes life real. Noh plays contains many madwomen such asthe 9th century poetess Ono no Komachi who spent her youth in romance and luxury at Court to lose all, including her sanity, and die as a beggar in rags. The alliteration of ‘h’ sounds contains the feeling of huddling, lying curled up on one side, holding in the warmth around the chest and abdomen. Getting between the heavy quilts, shivering till my old blood warms the space so I can go to sleep. All alone where she used to lie nearby. The nights are long and bitter, and the sun brings no warmth till late morning. With these few words, Basho captures the experience of Rika, or anyone who has lost a spouse in winter. Someone has kept silent about mother since she died, but now blurts out thoughts. Such a person is likely to say “I did not do enough for her when she was alive” – which leads to Yaba’s stanza of caring for an older woman, touching her tumor with sensitivity to soothe away the pain. In the spring of 1691, Uko cut her hair to shoulder-length to become a nun, although she continued her family life with her husband and infant daughter. Her becoming a nun had little to do with Buddhism; I believe what she really wanted was no more children. She was only pretending to be a nun to keep her husband off her In a letter to Uko in 1693, Basho tells her what he said about her to other people Although you are pretending to be a nun, in reality, become ever more compassionate. Basho writes to his follower Chigetsu, a samurai widow in her sixties: Basho speaks of the yome, Chigetsu’s daughter-in-law who came to this household decades ago. Without Abigail Adams to remind him, Basho “remembers the ladies.” Western books on Japan emphasize the mother-in-law’s cruel oppression of the yome who lived in misery until she could pass the misery onto a younger yome -- as if nowhere in Japan did in-laws get along with each other. People cannot be generalized in this way. Certainly in Basho’s time some old mothers welcomed the future into their household. In A Narrow Path in the Heartlands, Basho tells the story – which may be semi-fictional – of hearing through the wall of the inn two courtesans on a spiritual pilgrimage to the Ise Shrine: The play woman’s lament gives voice to all the women throughout the ages who have been ‘reduced to misery’ by the sex trade. As David Barnhill notes, “this entire passage has given rise to voluminous and varied commentary,” however in much of this commentary little attention is given to the play-women’s lament. Male scholars avert their eyes from the misery of prostitution, preferring to imagine that women are happy to provide sex the way men like it, without commitment. Ueda describes Basho’s haiku about the women as a “light-hearted, even humorous poem about two pretty courtesans who happen to lodge at the same inn.” Ueda says nothing about their misery, while Basho says nothing about them being “pretty.” Unlike the philosophers, the speaker in Basho’s prose claims no understanding of karma—since no human can actually know what is destiny, and what is the result of personal choice, or the actions of others — but she wonders—as every woman trapped in sexual slavery must wonder — how could her life have turned out this way? She grew up in a farm village. What tragedy in the world brought her beloved parents to such poverty that they traded their daughter for a money loan? The women see Basho and Sora’s black robes and assume they are actual Buddhist monks. They specifically ask Basho and Sora to “tie the bond” (kichien sase) that brings them into Buddhism. Although they are on a pilgrimage to the holiest shrine in Shinto, they still seek salvation through a vow to the Buddha. Basho’s response seems heartless. He ignores their request, ignores their need for reassurance, and brushes them off with a cliché. In some Buddhist thought, one should not get involved; trying to help only pulls the knot of karma tighter. This heartless response, however, may be a literary device Basho created when he wrote A Narrow Path in the Heartlands four years after the journey. Since Sora, in his factual diary of the journey, mentions no play-women at this location, it is likely that Basho made up this story, to leave his readers with a feeling. If he told us that he and Sora helped the two women, we would feel more confident about their future. In a January, 1692 letter to his older brother Hanzaemon, Basho speaks of their nephew Toin suffering from tuberculosis who he has taken into his three-room hut to care for until the inevitable end. Toin apparently was a fugitive from the law in Iga; he left his home when he was 15 and has not returned in 17 years, and sending a letter would have brought the authorities’ attention to the mother. Basho makes the compassionate decision to not inform his sister who had not seen or heard from her son in all this time, to let her go on with her present life. Three months later, in a letter to Kyoriku, at the end of April, 1693, we see that Toin has been sick all this time: Thank you, Basho, for your compassion. Toin, his common-law wife Jutei, and daughters Masa and Ofu, and son Jirobei, lived in difficult circumstances. Toin died from tuberculosis in 1693, and Jutei the next year; Basho wrote in a letter: Five months later Basho himself lay dying in Osaka, and dictated his Will, with a message to his neighbor Ihei who led the neighborhood efforts to help this family in distress: And so Basho died, with compassion for the two young girls, now orphans, aged 13 and 11, his grandnieces.

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NCAT Agriculture Specialist Photo courtesy: Flame Weeders, Glenville, WV Flame weeding, a thermal weed control, uses propane gas burners to produce a carefully controlled and directed flame that briefly passes over weeds, searing the leaves and causing the weed to wilt and die. Flame weeding, as a non-chemical weed management technique, is frequently used by organic farmers. This publication discusses different strategies for pre-emergent flame weeding and post-emergent flame weeding, as well as infra-red weed control, and steam and hot water weed control. Further references, including sources of information and equipment, are also provided. Flame weeding — a type of thermal weed control — was commonly used in row crops like cotton and sorghum from the late 1930s until the mid-1960s, when selective herbicides became widely available. In the 1980s and '90s, flame weeding made a rapid comeback as a non-chemical weed control technique, especially among organic farmers. Flame weeding, also called flame cultivation, relies on propane gas burners to produce a carefully controlled and directed flame that briefly passes over the weeds. The intense heat sears the leaf, causing the cell sap to expand and disrupt cell walls. Foliage that retains a thumb print when pressure is applied between your thumb and finger has been adequately flamed. The flamed weeds soon wilt and die, usually in one to three days. Weeds are most susceptible to flaming when they are seedlings, 1 or 2 inches tall. Broadleaf weeds are more susceptible to lethal flaming than grasses. Grasses develop a protective sheath by the time they are approximately 1 inch tall and may require a second flaming. Repeated flaming can likewise be used to suppress perennial weeds such as field bindweed. Flame weeders come in a range of human- and tractor-powered models. Market-farming equipment options include handheld single-torch flamers, as well as push-wheeled multiple-torch flamers mounted under a flame hood. Tractor-powered kits are available in 2, 4, 6, and 8-row models, with or without a flame hood; other options include a complete toolbar setup with accompanying cultivator attachments for between-row mechanical cultivation. Farmer feedback on flame weeding has been positive. Joe Fitzgerald, a farmer near Dubuque, Iowa, reported that "a blind person can see the difference in weed control" between flamed and unflamed organic corn, even though both plots had also been rotary-hoed and cultivated. (1) |Controlling weeds before the crop emerges is known as pre-emergent weed control. In vegetable crops, there are two distinct ways to use pre-emergent flaming: the stale seedbed technique and the peak emergence technique.| The stale seedbed technique is a form of early-season weed control in direct-seeded crops. Seedbed preparation and soil stirring — for example, hilling the soil into beds — always results in a flush of weeds. With this technique, instead of sowing vegetable seeds into freshly prepared soil, planting is delayed. The aim is to knock down the early-germinating weeds, and perhaps a second flush of weeds, without further soil tillage (which would bring new weed seeds to the surface).The vegetable crop is then seeded into a weed-free bed. Most often, shallow tillage or herbicides are used to knock down the flush of weeds, but flaming is an alternative technique. Growers will sometimes pre-irrigate to induce more weed growth before flaming. Flame off the first flush of weeds for a clean seedbed. This technique can also be used to prepare a stale seedbed prior to setting out transplants. Essentially, you are helping your vegetable crops get off to a good start by eliminating early-season weed competition. Once the vegetable canopy forms, shade reduces weed germination; weed seedlings that do sprout can be controlled by mechanical cultivation. The critical weed-free period is the minimum length of time a crop must remain nearly weed-free to prevent reductions in yield or quality. For most vegetables, this is usually the first quarter or third of their growing period — something like four to six weeks after seedling emergence, and slightly less for transplants. Weeds emerging after this period have less impact on vegetable yields than early-season weeds. Critical Weed-Free Periods for Selected Weeds in Vegetable Crops |Crop||Location of Study||Critical Weed-Free Period*||Major Weeds Present| |NJ, MA||Emergence to Full Bloom, 2 to 4 WAE|| |Ontario||3 to 4 WAP|| crabgrass, green foxtail |Israel||4 to 6 WAE 0 to 3 WAE |CT||4 to 6 WAT|| quackgrass, lambsquarters, ragweed |Phillipines||2 to 4 WAT|| Tomato (bare ground) |Ontario||28 to 35 DAT|| lambsquarters, ragweed, pigweed, crabgrass, foxtail, purslane |NC||2 to 4 WAT|| *WAE: weeks after emergence; WAP: weeks after planting; DAT: days after transplanting; and WAT: weeks after transplanting. Source: Sustainable Practices for Vegetable Production in the South Dr. Mary Peet, North Carolina State University www.cals.ncsu.edu/sustainable/peet/IPM/weeds/c07weeds.html In the peak-emergence flaming technique, vegetable seeds are promptly sown after seedbed preparation. Just before vegetable seedlings emerge, the bed is flamed to kill seedling weeds (which tend to sprout faster). The aim is to eliminate the first flush of weeds and catch the seedling weeds when they are young and susceptible, while avoiding damage to the vegetable crop. (2, 3) Steel in the Field, SAN Publications. This second method is especially well suited to slow-germinating, direct-seeded crops like carrots and parsnips. At optimum soil temperatures, carrots germinate approximately seven to eight days after planting. In this case, weeds would be flamed off after five or six days. However, carrots are commonly planted in cool soils and germination may take as long as 14 to 21 days. Consequently, it's best to dig into the row to check on the progress of seedlings and time the flaming accordingly. Some growers place a pane of glass or plastic strip over a small section of the bed to speed up carrot seed germination. The field is flamed when the carrots under the glass emerge. The rationale is that the carrots in bare soil will typically emerge a few days later. In European trials, flaming alone reduced weed populations in carrot beds by 80 percent. (3) As carrots are particularly difficult to weed, this technique is a real boost to organic farmers. Steve Meyer, a market gardener in West Virginia who flames carrots, onions, and beets, said, "The difference in weed control between flamed and unflamed beds is like night and day." (4) Following flaming, and for the duration of the growing season, a mechanical weed-control system can be used for carrots, employing specialized cultivators (finger weeders, inter-row brush hoes, steerage hoes) or standard cultivators and wheel hoes. Refer to Steel in the Field: A Farmer's Guide to Weed Management Tools, a practical handbook from the Sustainable Agriculture Network, for descriptions and illustrations of mechanical cultivation tools. (5) The following table shows the approximate number of days to carrot seedling emergence at various soil temperatures, when seeds are planted ½ inch deep. |Days to Emergence for Carrots at Different Soil Temperatures| Soil temp. (°F) Days to emergence Source: Lorenz, Oscar A. and Donald N. Maynard. 1980. Knott's Handbook for Vegetable Growers. 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience, John Wiley & Sons, New York. p. 56 To increase the effectiveness of flame weeding on vegetable beds for carrots and other direct-seeded crops, Thermal Weed Control Systems, Inc. of Neillsville, Wisconsin, offers a flame hood similar to those used in Europe. Ron Jones of Thermal Weed Control Systems calls it a "hover burner." The tractor-drawn models he manufactures have 5 to 7 burners, and cost in the neighborhood of $2,250. Jones explained that lettuce growers are also using the hover burner between sequential crop plantings to control insect and disease problems. Flame Weeders, a small company in West Virginia, manufactures push-flamers for market farmers that are wheel-mounted with flaming hoods; these range in price from $300 to $400. report provided the following summary of pre-emergence flaming "Pre-emergence technique used by organic farmers was tested and adapted to Australian conditions. This technique was used one day before seeding and one day before emergence on carrots and onions. The first manual weeding (hand hoeing) was completely eliminated. A labor cost for hand weeding a plot 1m x 100 m was reduced from $160 to $2.50 LPG [Liquid Propane Gas] cost. "Only one flame treatment was used for sweet potatoes and lettuce one day before the seedlings were transplanted into the ground. One row of sweet potatoes was 95% weed free for four months (from transplanting to harvesting). The lettuces were without weeds for one month between planting seedlings to harvest. "We recommend one heat treatment for the crops with good ability to suppress weeds such as beans, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, potatoes, cucumbers, melons, sweet corn and transplanting crops. Two passes are recommended for the crops with poor ability to suppress weeds such as radishes, carrots, greens, onions, tomatoes, lettuce, broccoli and cabbage. "Cleanup of a seed bank is possible with multiple passes (up to five). In spring and early summer the second treatment will often have to take place from a week to at most 10 days after the first. The third treatment follows after 10 to 12 days, the fourth 2 to 3 weeks later and the fifth 4 to 6 weeks thereafter. The best results are achieved by sticking to the schedule and when the weeds are between 1 and 2 cm in height." Flame weeding can be applied after the vegetable crop has emerged by directing the flame away from the crop plants, by shielding the crop, or by flaming at a time when crop stems are resistant to heat. This method is also known as "selective flaming." Directing flames into the crop row is a scary thought, but some plants can withstand the heat, especially after they've put on sufficient vegetative growth. The result is a non-chemical means of in-row weed control; for organic farmers, this is a significant tool. For example, see the pictures on flame weeding for corn at Reducing Herbicide Usage on the Farm, a joint project of Agricultural Utilization Research Institute (AURI) and Sustainable Farming Association of Minnesota (SFA). Reports from the literature include the following examples: Cross flaming is one of several methods that can be used to flame weeds in emerged crops. Burners are placed at an angle on either side of the row, in a staggered pattern so that the combined flames cover the entire drill row area. Setting burners directly opposite each other should be avoided, since this can create turbulence and cause flames to boil up and damage crop leaves. During treatment, flames blow through the base of the crop, selectively killing weeds within the row without damaging the relatively heat-tolerant crop stems. Flames do not come in direct contact with crop foliage. The specific flaming angle, flaming pattern, and flame length vary with the manufacturer's recommendations, but range from 30° to 40°, at 8 to 12 inches above the base of the plants, with flame lengths of approximately 12 to 15 inches. It is easiest to adjust the flame at night, when the flame path can be seen most clearly. Some experimentation will be necessary to determine the appropriate ground speed for each crop and situation. Weed density, the age of the weeds, and weather conditions affect flaming results. Ground speeds can range from 3 to 5 miles per hour. Photo courtesy: Dr. Wayne A. LePori, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M Parallel flaming is a technique used to control weeds close to the rows for crops that are small or cannot tolerate cross-flaming. In this method, burners are set parallel to the direction of the crop row. A crop shield is sometimes employed to protect the crop. Cross-flaming and parallel-flaming rigs are often combined with mechanical cultivators to control weeds between the rows. Mechanical implements may include tines, sweeps, or rolling cultivators. A third method of post-emergent flaming is middle flaming. Two burners are installed under a lightweight hood that covers the row middles. The hood directs the flames to the weeds in the row middles while protecting the adjacent crop foliage. Water-shielded flaming is a technique that was developed for use on cotton farms in the Mississippi Delta. Water nozzles are placed on the flame rig to direct fans of water onto the crop plant for extra protection. Infrared weeders—first developed in Europe—are heated by a propane torch, but the flame is directed toward a ceramic element or steel plate that radiates at temperatures of 1800 to 2000 °F. The danger associated with an open flame is thereby minimized. The mechanism of weed control is the same as in flame weeding; cell contents—plasma and proteins—are disrupted and the plant wilts down and dies. Infrared heaters are available in handheld, push-wheeled, and tractor-mounted models. In addition to weeding, the tractor-mounted infrared thermal units are used to control Colorado potato beetle and potato vine desiccation. Some of the tractor models feature the injection of forced air to increase the effect. In North America, a line of Swiss-made infrared weeders are available through two companies: Forevergreen and Rittenhouse (see Further Resources below). These range from handheld to push-wheeled models suited to gardening, landscaping, nurseries, municipalities, and market farming. The handheld and push-wheeled infrared weeders appropriate for market farming are available in the $900 to $1,200 range. While infrared weeders appear to be a promising new thermal weed control tool, the equipment expense remains prohibitive for many smaller-scale market farmers. By comparison, a push-wheeled flame weeder is $300–$400. Steam weed control and hot-water weed control have attracted attention in trade magazines, especially the fruit and vine grower magazines. High-temperature water provides a form of thermal weed control, yet eliminates the danger of flame application in arid regions where open fires are a hazard. The January–March 2002 issue of Weed Technology featured a research article on steam application for cropland weeds. (7) A custom-built, prototype steam generator-applicator machine with combined tillage implements was used in field trials. Weed control was comparable to glyphosate herbicide in some trials, and less spectacular in others. Factors affecting its use were: age of weeds, slow application speed, amount of steam applied, and cost of propane fuel. The authors concluded that improvements to steam equipment may make conservation tillage an option for organic farmers, by enabling no-till weed control without herbicides. Altogether, the limiting factor to hot-water weed control is affordable small-scale equipment. There are three brands in North America: Waipuna, Aqua Heat, and Aquacide (See Further Resources below). However, they range in price from $9,000 to $35,000 and are primarily geared to municipal and institutional use for vegetation control around parks, lakes, and athletic fields, as well as non-cropland weed control around sidewalks, streets, and parking lots. Practically speaking, innovative small-scale vegetable farmers are faced with scrapping together their own steam devices. Another option, perhaps, is collective ownership of equipment on a district-wide basis. Nevertheless, the technology exists and therefore it is mentioned here, along with equipment suppliers and Web resources, for those growers who wish to investigate it further. Desvaux, R. and P. Ott. 1988. Introduction of thermic weed control in southeastern France. p. 479–482. In: Patricia Allen and Debra Van Dusen (eds.) Global Perspectives on Agroecology and Sustainable Agricultural Systems. Proceedings of the Sixth International Scientific Conference of IFOAM, UC-Santa Cruz, CA, Aug. 18–20, 1986. Bowman, Greg (ed.) 1997. Steel in the Field: A Farmer's Guide to Weed Management Tools. Sustainable Agriculture Network, Handbook Series No. 2. Sustainable Agriculture Publications, University of Vermont. 128 p. Flame Engineering, Inc. P.O. Box 577 LaCrosse, KS 67548 —Manufacturer of the famous Red Dragon® handheld propane weed flaming torches as well as tractor mounted row crop, alfalfa, blueberry, potato vine, vegetable bed, vineyard and orchard flamers as well as a poultry house sanitizer and walk behind flamers. See their online catalog and Agricultural Flaming Guide at: http://flameengineering.com/collections/agricultural-flamers. Thermal Weed Control Systems, Inc. Contact: Ron Jones N1940 State Hwy 95 Neillsville, WI 54456 —Manufacturer of row crop flamers (flame kits and complete units) that combine flamers for in-row weed control and rolling cultivators for between-row cultivation. Row-crop flaming kits are available for 4, 6, and 8 rows. A flame hood setup is also available. LP Weed Burner Contact: Dennis Lutteke 56360 200th Street Wells, MN 56097 —Manufacturer of row crop flamers (flame kits and complete units) adaptable to cultivators or toolbars. P.O. Box 2209 Grass Valley, CA 95945 —Organic farm equipment and supply dealer, carries: handheld flamers, backpack frames for propane tanks, row crop flame kit suitable for mounting on a toolbar and flaming 4 rows. Contact: Steve Meyer 1711 Mud Lick Rd. Glenville, WV 26351 —Farm-based equipment manufacturer specializing in flame weeders for market farmers. The flamers are mounted on wheels, combined with a flaming hood; the propane tank is carried on a backpack frame. Models range in size from four torches at 24 inches in width to five torches at 30 inches in width, ranging in price from $300 to $400. 19974 12 Avenue Canada V2Z 1W3 —North American distributor of the Swiss-made Eco-Weeder, an infrared thermal weeder heated by a propane flame passing over a ceramic casing. Models include handheld and push-wheeled weeders for use around the home and in gardens, parks, market gardens, small farms, and orchards. Models: Punto Lady | Junior 3 Agri I / II | Agri Ronco | Agri IV 2 & 3 | Agri IV. Rittenhouse & Sons RR#3, 1402 Fourth Ave St. Catharines, ON Canada L2R 6P9 800-461-1041 Professional Sales —See the section Alternatives for Weed & Pest Control. Rittenhouse sells the Infra-Weeder series in a price range of $210 for the hand held Infra-Weeder Eliminator (8.5 cm x 17cm plate), to $880 for the handheld Infra-Weeder 100 (6" x 11" plate), to $1,200 for the push-wheeled Infra-Weeder 300 (8" x 12" plate). Contact: Jeff Wingren 1050 W. Lilycache Bowlingbrook, IL 60440 —Waipuna, from New Zealand, specializes in a hot foam system; the foam is derived from coconut sugar and corn sugar and is approved for organic production. A single-burner generator covers a width of 8 to 10 inches in the $22,000 price range. A double-burner generator covers a width of 24 to 32 inches in the $35,000 price range. Currently these are geared to municipalities, park departments, airports, and institutional settings. An agricultural unit is under development, with an aim toward orchards, vineyards, and similar agricultural applications. Aqua Heat Technology, Inc. Contact: Harry Rajamannan 5155 E. River Road, Suite 405 Minneapolis, MN 55421 —Aqua Heat is the company in Minnesota that developed hot-water weed-control equipment for orchards, vineyards, and park departments. P.O. Box 540, Route 116 Conway, MA 01341 —Supplier of the Aquacide hot water weed control equipment system, in the price range of $9,000, geared to nursery production, landscapes, and park departments. Vegetable Farmers and Their Weed-Control Machines is a 75-minute educational video on mechanical cultivation and flame weeding equipment produced in 1996 by Vern Grubinger (University of Vermont) and Mary Jane Else (University of Massachusetts), with funding from USDA-SARE. Cost is $12.00 from: Thermal Weed Control: Flame Weeding Cultivation in Cotton Mississippi State University Extension Service, IS 1500 —Flame weeding has a long history of use in the Mississippi Delta states. This fact sheet from Mississippi State University provides a brief introduction and summary on flame cultivation for cotton. Engineering, Inc. OnLine Agricultural Flaming Guide —The Agricultural Flaming Guide provides a history of flame cultivation, with a summary of methods and flaming techniques for corn, soybeans, grain sorghum, cotton, potatoes, tomatoes, cole crops, alfalfa, and grape vineyards. Practices to Control Weeds: Flame Weeding Sustainable Practices for Vegetable Production in the South Dr. Mary Peet, NCSU —Dr. Mary Peet published one of the very first books on sustainable vegetable production. This section touches on flame weeding, with a couple of farmer profiles. Hot Tips For Flame Weeding From: Steel in the Field, SAN Publications —A section on flaming from Steel in the Field, a publication from SAN (Sustainable Agriculture NetworKB]. Steel in the Field is a practical handbook on non-chemical weed control, with very helpful diagrams and descriptions of 37 specialized cultivators used in mechanical weed control; highly recommended for the organic farmer's bookshelf. Reducing Herbicide Usage on the Farm project, Agricultural Utilization Research Institute (AURI) and Sustainable Farming Association of Minnesota (SFA) —A report on flame weeding techniques and field trials on vegetable farms in Minnesota. Weeding for Weed Control and Renovation with Strawberries Greenbook 2000 [PDF/476KB], Energy and Sustainable Agriculture Program, Minnesota Department of Agriculture Flame Weeding for Weed Control and Renovation with Strawberries Greenbook 2001 [PDF/372KB], Energy and Sustainable Agriculture Program, Minnesota Department of Agriculture —These two research reports summarize field trials on flame weeding for strawberries in Minnesota, with relevant details on weed control techniques and tips for flame weeding. of Non-Chemical Weed Control Techniques S. Parish, Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, Vol. 7 —A reprint of a classic article in the journal Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, from one of the European researchers. of Three Weed Control Methods: Chemical, Flame and Hot Water University of Queensland (Australia) —Hot water was as effective as glyphosate herbicide. Flaming was less effective, but acceptable weed kill was obtained on juvenile weeds. Balls of Fire! Ecological Farmers Association of Ontario —A brief report on field trials regarding flame weeding in potato production. in the Garden By Sheila Daar —An online reprint of The IPM Practitioner article by Sheila Daar, located on the Gameco gas equipment company site in Australia. Weeds in Organic Crops Through the Use of Flame Weeders, [PDF/313KB] Ronnie W. Heiniger. Organic Farming Research Foundation. No. 6. Summer. p. 17–19. —A research report from the Organic Farming Research Foundation. The project took place in North Carolina and investigated the use of flame equipment in organic popcorn, soybeans, and cotton. The complete 11-page report is available from OFRF and includes tables with economic cost, gas usage figures based on pressure and tractor speed, and weed biomass and yield figures for popcorn. Weeding Research at Texas A&M Dr. Wayne A. LePori, Department of Agricultural Engineering,Texas A&M University —Dr. Wayne LePori's flame weeding research program at Texas A&M, in collaboration with Mississippi State University and University of Florida, is aimed at developing new burner designs and equipment modifications for improved flame weeding in cotton, sugar cane, vegetables, and other crops. This site features quarterly research reports and slide presentations, available as downloads, with color photos of equipment, field trials, and research results. Flame Weeding Research at Nova Scotia Agricultural College Nabil —Dr. Nabil Rifai's research provides results and photos of flame weeding and steam weeding. Thermal Weed Control: Infra-Red, Steam, Hot Water, International Companies & Technology Weeds Using Propane Generated Flame or Steam Treatments in Crop Dr. Thaddeus Gourd, Adams County, Colorado State University Cooperative Extension —Colorado State University will compare flame and steam weed control methods and equipment, including the Atarus Stinger. The Use of Steam as an Alternative Herbicide Sandra Robinson, Virginia Tech —Reviews the use of the Aqua Heat hot-water weed control system, with a summary of the advantages and disadvantages. Weed Control in Carrboro, NC [PDF/807KB] —The Waipuna hot-water weed control system is being used by the Town of Carrboro, North Carolina, as part of its Least Toxic Integrated Pest Management (IPM) policy and pesticide reduction program that seeks least-toxic alternatives. A "Cool" New Weed Control Method Journal of Pesticide Reform. Vol. 15, No. 1. —Reprint of a brief article introducing the hot-water weed control method, featuring the Waipuna system from New Zealand. Effect of Steam Application on Cropland Weeds Kolbert, Robert L. and Lori J. Wiles. 2002. Weed Technology. Vol. 16, No. 1. pp. 43–49. —Journal article in Weed Technology, summarizing research on a custom-built, prototype steam generator-applicator machine with combined tillage implements for use in row crop weed control and no-till agriculture. EPA Methyl Bromide Alternatives —A case study on field trials with the Aqua Heat system in Florida, aiming to control nematodes and soil-borne pathogens. Custom applicator costs are estimated at $1,000 to $1,500 per acre for hot water, which is comparable to $1,200 to $1,500 per acre for methyl bromide. Dick Karsky, National Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations, 1997 [PDF/2.94MB] —A paper on steam for soil fumigation in field-grown nursery production. This item is included for the notes, photos, and comments on steam technology and equipment in general. The Nature Conservancy newsletter —A newsletter about the Swiss-made infrared eco-weeder from Forevergreen, also known in Europe as the Puzzy Boy. Ground Control Alternative: Flamers and Steamers Model Pesticide Reduction Plan, Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence —A report on IPM weed control from the Air Force. It reviews the use of flamers and steamers for weed control, with cost estimates and pros and cons. Thermal Treatment in Agriculture Primagaz Ltd. (Hungary) (Products now manufactured by Euro-Unior.) Atarus Thermal Weed Control (Australia) —The Atarus Stinger features a technology known as water-quenched combustion—a generator that converts combusting fuel and water into a high-velocity, high-temperature, moist air flow. It is geared to orchards, vineyards, and row crops. The Atarus Ranger is a handheld flame torch for use on farms, parks, and other landscapes. ISHS Acta Horticulturae 372: Symposium on Engineering as a Tool to Reduce Pesticide Consumption and Operator Hazards in Horticulture —Symposium abstracts, including a number of papers on thermal weed control. Puzzy Boy Unkrautvernichter —Web page for a German company selling the Puzzy Boy line of infra-red weeders. The pictures are a fast way to grasp what the different models look like. UV Weed Control Kaj Jensen and Electro Light ApS —Weed Control by ultraviolet (UV) light using high-powered electronic ballasts. Flame Weeding for Vegetable Crops By Steve Diver NCAT Agriculture Specialist Richard Earles, Editor Cole Loeffler, HTML Production This page was last updated on: March 9, 2016

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Generative Adversarial Networks, or GANs, are an architecture for training generative models, such as deep convolutional neural networks for generating images. Although GAN models are capable of generating new random plausible examples for a given dataset, there is no way to control the types of images that are generated other than trying to figure out the complex relationship between the latent space input to the generator and the generated images. The conditional generative adversarial network, or cGAN for short, is a type of GAN that involves the conditional generation of images by a generator model. Image generation can be conditional on a class label, if available, allowing the targeted generated of images of a given type. In this tutorial, you will discover how to develop a conditional generative adversarial network for the targeted generation of items of clothing. After completing this tutorial, you will know:Let’s get started. How to Develop a Conditional Generative Adversarial Network From ScratchPhoto by Big Cypress National Preserve, some rights reservedThis tutorial is divided into five parts; they are:A generative adversarial network, or GAN for short, is an architecture for training deep learning-based generative models. The architecture is comprised of a generator and a discriminator model. The generator model is responsible for generating new plausible examples that ideally are indistinguishable from real examples in the dataset. The discriminator model is responsible for classifying a given image as either real (drawn from the dataset) or fake (generated). The models are trained together in a zero-sum or adversarial manner, such that improvements in the discriminator come at the cost of a reduced capability of the generator, and vice versa. GANs are effective at image synthesis, that is, generating new examples of images for a target dataset. Some datasets have additional information, such as a class label, and it is desirable to make use of this information. For example, the MNIST handwritten digit dataset has class labels of the corresponding integers, the CIFAR-10 small object photograph dataset has class labels for the corresponding objects in the photographs, and the Fashion-MNIST clothing dataset has class labels for the corresponding items of clothing. There are two motivations for making use of the class label information in a GAN model. Additional information that is correlated with the input images, such as class labels, can be used to improve the GAN. This improvement may come in the form of more stable training, faster training, and/or generated images that have better quality. Class labels can also be used for the deliberate or targeted generation of images of a given type. A limitation of a GAN model is that it may generate a random image from the domain. There is a relationship between points in the latent space to the generated images, but this relationship is complex and hard to map. Alternately, a GAN can be trained in such a way that both the generator and the discriminator models are conditioned on the class label. This means that when the trained generator model is used as a standalone model to generate images in the domain, images of a given type, or class label, can be generated. Generative adversarial nets can be extended to a conditional model if both the generator and discriminator are conditioned on some extra information y. […] We can perform the conditioning by feeding y into the both the discriminator and generator as additional input layer. — Conditional Generative Adversarial Nets, 2014. For example, in the case of MNIST, specific handwritten digits can be generated, such as the number 9; in the case of CIFAR-10, specific object photographs can be generated such as ‘frogs‘; and in the case of the Fashion MNIST dataset, specific items of clothing can be generated, such as ‘dress. ’This type of model is called a Conditional Generative Adversarial Network, CGAN or cGAN for short. The cGAN was first described by Mehdi Mirza and Simon Osindero in their 2014 paper titled “Conditional Generative Adversarial Nets. ” In the paper, the authors motivate the approach based on the desire to direct the image generation process of the generator model. … by conditioning the model on additional information it is possible to direct the data generation process. Such conditioning could be based on class labels— Conditional Generative Adversarial Nets, 2014. Their approach is demonstrated in the MNIST handwritten digit dataset where the class labels are one hot encoded and concatenated with the input to both the generator and discriminator models. The image below provides a summary of the model architecture. Example of a Conditional Generator and a Conditional Discriminator in a Conditional Generative Adversarial Network. Taken from Conditional Generative Adversarial Nets, 2014. There have been many advancements in the design and training of GAN models, most notably the deep convolutional GAN, or DCGAN for short, that outlines the model configuration and training procedures that reliably result in the stable training of GAN models for a wide variety of problems. The conditional training of the DCGAN-based models may be referred to as CDCGAN or cDCGAN for short. There are many ways to encode and incorporate the class labels into the discriminator and generator models. A best practice involves using an embedding layer followed by a fully connected layer with a linear activation that scales the embedding to the size of the image before concatenating it in the model as an additional channel or feature map. A version of this recommendation was described in the 2015 paper titled “Deep Generative Image Models using a Laplacian Pyramid of Adversarial Networks. ”… we also explore a class conditional version of the model, where a vector c encodes the label. This is integrated into Gk & Dk by passing it through a linear layer whose output is reshaped into a single plane feature map which is then concatenated with the 1st layer maps. — Deep Generative Image Models using a Laplacian Pyramid of Adversarial Networks, 2015. This recommendation was later added to the ‘GAN Hacks‘ list of heuristic recommendations when designing and training GAN models, summarized as:16: Discrete variables in Conditional GANs – Use an Embedding layer – Add as additional channels to images – Keep embedding dimensionality low and upsample to match image channel size— GAN HacksAlthough GANs can be conditioned on the class label, so-called class-conditional GANs, they can also be conditioned on other inputs, such as an image, in the case where a GAN is used for image-to-image translation tasks. In this tutorial, we will develop a GAN, specifically a DCGAN, then update it to use class labels in a cGAN, specifically a cDCGAN model architecture. The Fashion-MNIST dataset is proposed as a more challenging replacement dataset for the MNIST dataset. It is a dataset comprised of 60,000 small square 28×28 pixel grayscale images of items of 10 types of clothing, such as shoes, t-shirts, dresses, and more. Keras provides access to the Fashion-MNIST dataset via the fashion_mnist. It returns two tuples, one with the input and output elements for the standard training dataset, and another with the input and output elements for the standard test dataset. The example below loads the dataset and summarizes the shape of the loaded dataset. Note: the first time you load the dataset, Keras will automatically download a compressed version of the images and save them under your home directory in ~/. The download is fast as the dataset is only about 25 megabytes in its compressed form. Running the example loads the dataset and prints the shape of the input and output components of the train and test splits of images. We can see that there are 60K examples in the training set and 10K in the test set and that each image is a square of 28 by 28 pixels. The images are grayscale with a black background (0 pixel value) and the items of clothing are in white ( pixel values near 255). This means if the images were plotted, they would be mostly black with a white item of clothing in the middle. We can plot some of the images from the training dataset using the matplotlib library with the imshow() function and specify the color map via the ‘cmap‘ argument as ‘gray‘ to show the pixel values correctly. Alternately, the images are easier to review when we reverse the colors and plot the background as white and the clothing in black. They are easier to view as most of the image is now white with the area of interest in black. This can be achieved using a reverse grayscale color map, as follows:The example below plots the first 100 images from the training dataset in a 10 by 10 square. Running the example creates a figure with a plot of 100 images from the MNIST training dataset, arranged in a 10×10 square. Plot of the First 100 Items of Clothing From the Fashion MNIST Dataset. We will use the images in the training dataset as the basis for training a Generative Adversarial Network. Specifically, the generator model will learn how to generate new plausible items of clothing using a discriminator that will try to distinguish between real images from the Fashion MNIST training dataset and new images output by the generator model. This is a relatively simple problem that does not require a sophisticated generator or discriminator model, although it does require the generation of a grayscale output image. In this section, we will develop an unconditional GAN for the Fashion-MNIST dataset. The first step is to define the models. The discriminator model takes as input one 28×28 grayscale image and outputs a binary prediction as to whether the image is real (class=1) or fake (class=0). It is implemented as a modest convolutional neural network using best practices for GAN design such as using the LeakyReLU activation function with a slope of 0. 2, using a 2×2 stride to downsample, and the adam version of stochastic gradient descent with a learning rate of 0. 0002 and a momentum of 0. 5The define_discriminator() function below implements this, defining and compiling the discriminator model and returning it. The input shape of the image is parameterized as a default function argument in case you want to re-use the function for your own image data later. The generator model takes as input a point in the latent space and outputs a single 28×28 grayscale image. This is achieved by using a fully connected layer to interpret the point in the latent space and provide sufficient activations that can be reshaped into many copies (in this case 128) of a low-resolution version of the output image (e. This is then upsampled twice, doubling the size and quadrupling the area of the activations each time using transpose convolutional layers. The model uses best practices such as the LeakyReLU activation, a kernel size that is a factor of the stride size, and a hyperbolic tangent (tanh) activation function in the output layer. The define_generator() function below defines the generator model, but intentionally does not compile it as it is not trained directly, then returns the model. The size of the latent space is parameterized as a function argument. Next, a GAN model can be defined that combines both the generator model and the discriminator model into one larger model. This larger model will be used to train the model weights in the generator, using the output and error calculated by the discriminator model. The discriminator model is trained separately, and as such, the model weights are marked as not trainable in this larger GAN model to ensure that only the weights of the generator model are updated. This change to the trainability of the discriminator weights only has an effect when training the combined GAN model, not when training the discriminator standalone. This larger GAN model takes as input a point in the latent space, uses the generator model to generate an image which is fed as input to the discriminator model, then is output or classified as real or fake. The define_gan() function below implements this, taking the already-defined generator and discriminator models as input. Now that we have defined the GAN model, we need to train it. But, before we can train the model, we require input data. The first step is to load and prepare the Fashion MNIST dataset. We only require the images in the training dataset. The images are black and white, therefore we must add an additional channel dimension to transform them to be three dimensional, as expected by the convolutional layers of our models. Finally, the pixel values must be scaled to the range [-1,1] to match the output of the generator model. The load_real_samples() function below implements this, returning the loaded and scaled Fashion MNIST training dataset ready for modeling. We will require one batch (or a half) batch of real images from the dataset each update to the GAN model. A simple way to achieve this is to select a random sample of images from the dataset each time. The generate_real_samples() function below implements this, taking the prepared dataset as an argument, selecting and returning a random sample of Fashion MNIST images and their corresponding class label for the discriminator, specifically class=1, indicating that they are real images. Next, we need inputs for the generator model. These are random points from the latent space, specifically Gaussian distributed random variables. The generate_latent_points() function implements this, taking the size of the latent space as an argument and the number of points required and returning them as a batch of input samples for the generator model. Next, we need to use the points in the latent space as input to the generator in order to generate new images. The generate_fake_samples() function below implements this, taking the generator model and size of the latent space as arguments, then generating points in the latent space and using them as input to the generator model. The function returns the generated images and their corresponding class label for the discriminator model, specifically class=0 to indicate they are fake or generated. We are now ready to fit the GAN models. The model is fit for 100 training epochs, which is arbitrary, as the model begins generating plausible items of clothing after perhaps 20 epochs. A batch size of 128 samples is used, and each training epoch involves 60,000/128, or about 468 batches of real and fake samples and updates to the model. First, the discriminator model is updated for a half batch of real samples, then a half batch of fake samples, together forming one batch of weight updates. The generator is then updated via the composite gan model. Importantly, the class label is set to 1 or real for the fake samples. This has the effect of updating the generator toward getting better at generating real samples on the next batch. The train() function below implements this, taking the defined models, dataset, and size of the latent dimension as arguments and parameterizing the number of epochs and batch size with default arguments. The generator model is saved at the end of training. We can then define the size of the latent space, define all three models, and train them on the loaded fashion MNIST dataset. Tying all of this together, the complete example is listed below. Running the example may take a long time on modest hardware. I recommend running the example on GPU hardware. If you need help, you can get started quickly by using an AWS EC2 instance to train the model. See the tutorial:The loss for the discriminator on real and fake samples, as well as the loss for the generator, is reported after each batch. Your specific results will vary given the stochastic nature of the learning algorithm. In this case, the discriminator and generator loss both sit around values of about 0. 6 to 0. 7 over the course of training. At the end of training, the generator model will be saved to file with the filename ‘generator. This model can be loaded and used to generate new random but plausible samples from the fashion MNIST dataset. The example below loads the saved model and generates 100 random items of clothing. Running the example creates a plot of 100 randomly generated items of clothing arranged into a 10×10 grid. Note: your specific plot will vary given the stochastic nature of the model and learning algorithm. In this case, we can see an assortment of clothing items such as shoes, sweaters, and pants. Most items look quite plausible and could have come from the fashion MNIST dataset. They are not perfect, however, as there are some sweaters with a single sleeve and shoes that look like a mess. Example of 100 Generated items of Clothing using an Unconditional GAN. In this section, we will develop a conditional GAN for the Fashion-MNIST dataset by updating the unconditional GAN developed in the previous section. The best way to design models in Keras to have multiple inputs is by using the Functional API, as opposed to the Sequential API used in the previous section. We will use the functional API to re-implement the discriminator, generator, and the composite model. Starting with the discriminator model, a new second input is defined that takes an integer for the class label of the image. This has the effect of making the input image conditional on the provided class label. The class label is then passed through an Embedding layer with the size of 50. This means that each of the 10 classes for the Fashion MNIST dataset (0 through 9) will map to a different 50-element vector representation that will be learned by the discriminator model. The output of the embedding is then passed to a fully connected layer with a linear activation. Importantly, the fully connected layer has enough activations that can be reshaped into one channel of a 28×28 image. The activations are reshaped into single 28×28 activation map and concatenated with the input image. This has the effect of looking like a two-channel input image to the next convolutional layer. The define_discriminator() below implements this update to the discriminator model. The parameterized shape of the input image is also used after the embedding layer to define the number of activations for the fully connected layer to reshape its output. The number of classes in the problem is also parameterized in the function and set. In order to make the architecture clear, below is a plot of the discriminator model. The plot shows the two inputs: first the class label that passes through the embedding (left) and the image (right), and their concatenation into a two-channel 28×28 image or feature map (middle). The rest of the model is the same as the discriminator designed in the previous section. Plot of the Discriminator Model in the Conditional Generative Adversarial NetworkNext, the generator model must be updated to take the class label. This has the effect of making the point in the latent space conditional on the provided class label. As in the discriminator, the class label is passed through an embedding layer to map it to a unique 50-element vector and is then passed through a fully connected layer with a linear activation before being resized. In this case, the activations of the fully connected layer are resized into a single 7×7 feature map. This is to match the 7×7 feature map activations of the unconditional generator model. The new 7×7 feature map is added as one more channel to the existing 128, resulting in 129 feature maps that are then upsampled as in the prior model. The define_generator() function below implements this, again parameterizing the number of classes as we did with the discriminator model. To help understand the new model architecture, the image below provides a plot of the new conditional generator model. In this case, you can see the 100-element point in latent space as input and subsequent resizing (left) and the new class label input and embedding layer (right), then the concatenation of the two sets of feature maps (center). The remainder of the model is the same as the unconditional case. Plot of the Generator Model in the Conditional Generative Adversarial NetworkFinally, the composite GAN model requires updating. The new GAN model will take a point in latent space as input and a class label and generate a prediction of whether input was real or fake, as before. Using the functional API to design the model, it is important that we explicitly connect the image generated output from the generator as well as the class label input, both as input to the discriminator model. This allows the same class label input to flow down into the generator and down into the discriminator. The define_gan() function below implements the conditional version of the GAN. The plot below summarizes the composite GAN model. Importantly, it shows the generator model in full with the point in latent space and class label as input, and the connection of the output of the generator and the same class label as input to the discriminator model (last box at the bottom of the plot) and the output of a single class label classification of real or fake. Plot of the Composite Generator and Discriminator Model in the Conditional Generative Adversarial NetworkThe hard part of the conversion from unconditional to conditional GAN is done, namely the definition and configuration of the model architecture. Next, all that remains is to update the training process to also use class labels. First, the load_real_samples() and generate_real_samples() functions for loading the dataset and selecting a batch of samples respectively must be updated to make use of the real class labels from the training dataset. Importantly, the generate_real_samples() function now returns images, clothing labels, and the class label for the discriminator (class=1). Next, the generate_latent_points() function must be updated to also generate an array of randomly selected integer class labels to go along with the randomly selected points in the latent space. Then the generate_fake_samples() function must be updated to use these randomly generated class labels as input to the generator model when generating new fake images. Finally, the train() function must be updated to retrieve and use the class labels in the calls to updating the discriminator and generator models. Tying all of this together, the complete example of a conditional deep convolutional generative adversarial network for the Fashion MNIST dataset is listed below. Running the example may take some time, and GPU hardware is recommended, but not required. At the end of the run, the model is saved to the file with name ‘cgan_generator. In this section, we will use the trained generator model to conditionally generate new photos of items of clothing. We can update our code example for generating new images with the model to now generate images conditional on the class label. We can generate 10 examples for each class label in columns. The complete example is listed below. Running the example loads the saved conditional GAN model and uses it to generate 100 items of clothing. The clothing is organized in columns. From left to right, they are “t-shirt“, ‘trouser‘, ‘pullover‘, ‘dress‘, ‘coat‘, ‘sandal‘, ‘shirt‘, ‘sneaker‘, ‘bag‘, and ‘ankle boot‘. We can see not only are the randomly generated items of clothing plausible, but they also match their expected category. Example of 100 Generated items of Clothing using a Conditional GAN. This section lists some ideas for extending the tutorial that you may wish to explore. If you explore any of these extensions, I’d love to know. Post your findings in the comments below. This section provides more resources on the topic if you are looking to go deeper. In this tutorial, you discovered how to develop a conditional generative adversarial network for the targeted generation of items of clothing. Specifically, you learned:Do you have any questions?.Ask your questions in the comments below and I will do my best to answer.

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Crop agriculture is dominated by multiple environmental and biological factors. Everyone participating with corn seed attempts to define and control these interactions. Breeding procedures can mostly assure that a hybrid is genetically uniform, production methods are intended to maintain this purity and testing methods can evaluate for level of genetic purity. Seed viability is affected by environments during seed production in the field and after harvest. Each individual seed within a seed lot has a distinct experience with this process, ultimately affecting the ability to germinate with viable shoot and root tissue. Individual seed may have some damage to membranes within cells that require metabolic repair before being able to elongate the root (radicle) part and shoot part of the seed embryo after imbibition. This may be affected by genetics, often of the female seed plant and perhaps of the mitochondria in the female parent. Germination tests to identify seed viability, usually defined as a seeds ability to produce a shoot and root when placed in a controlled environment can be done with reasonable repeatability. Results are determined after a specific time with specific definition of a root and shoot. Defining and characterizing differences among the seed’s vigor, or the time it takes for that individual seed to produce a root and shoot is more difficult. The seed analyst may see differences in vigor among germinating seed but communicating these differences becomes a major problem. How to characterize a seed lot that has a high percentage of seed that meet the definition of viability but does not germinate uniformly in test conditions? Generally, those seed lots with delayed germination in warm conditions have lower germination percentages when tested under cold conditions (50°F) but there are exceptions to that as well. The ultimate goal is to reduce the possibility that seed viability and vigor affect hybrid performance in the grower’s fields where environments present their own variables. It is understood that late emerging seedlings, regardless of cause, have difficulty in competing with adjacent corn plants. They often remain less vigorous because competitors reduce light on leaves and outcompete the late-emerging plant’s roots for minerals and water. Often late emerging plants produce ear shoots later than most adjacent plants resulting in poorly pollinated ears. Genetics of hybrids probably differ in ability for late emerging plants to remain nearly fully pollinated and thus the detriments of lack of uniformity is not exactly the same for all hybrids. Everyone in corn agriculture wants maximum performance from the seed. We attempt to remove known variables by measuring viability and vigor and by preparing planting conditions. There remain uncontrollable environments and difficulties in defining and communicating seed vigor. Late emerging corn plants detract from maximum yield potential of a hybrid, but how late is the emergence and how much is the yield reduction? Like most of life’s experiences, we wish for clear definition but often the variables make that difficult. Politicians can sum up ambiguity in a simple phrase. The rest of mere humans must only attempt to evaluate and communicate what we think is happening within a corn seed lot sample. As soon as the seed is placed in the soil, the season begins. Multiple variables that will affect the final grain productivity of this corn crop begins with those interacting with the biology of the seed. Each seed of a single cross hybrid may bring the same genetics but could have a slightly different biological condition, depending on its individual history. Biology of seed germination, described below, is from Corn Journal, 4/25/2017, Very soon after the corn seed is planted, imbibition begins. The H2O activates the membrane-bound mitochondria to respire, providing energy for protein production. The enzymatic proteins include those that digest the starch stored in the endosperm into more sugar molecules to be transported through the scutellum to other cells in the embryo, resulting in more energy available to produce structures for cell elongation. Heat energy provides a regulatory function affecting the speed of this germination process. Imbibition occurs at any temperature but metabolic activity in corn is generally thought to be very low if seed environment is below 50°F. Speed of germination increases as the temperature increases. Membrane integrity within the seed also affects the net speed of this process. Those individual seed with more damage are slower to sufficiently activate the system and thus slower to activate the metabolism needed for cell elongation in root (radicle) and the shoot sections of the embryo. Cool environments, delaying membrane repair, may result in death of the imbibed seed before the shoot can emerge from the soil. Some of these seed, even after warmed manage only to extend the root through the outer wall for the kernel, the shoot never emerging. Other weakened seed may finally get enough momentum to push through the soil surface but days after the healthier seed have emerged, resulting in a season-long competitive disadvantage. Heat energy during germination affects the severity of the effect of membrane damaged seed. Microbes in the soil are generally warded off by products of seed metabolism in healthy seed. Those individual seeds that are slow to generate sufficient energy for growth are also more easily attacked by microbes, further slowing the germination process. Seed treatments are useful in giving the damaged seed more time to successfully germinate. Healthy seeds can successfully produce normal seedlings despite surrounding common soil microbes but those weaker individuals need the extra protection. Part of the genetic history of the seed parent includes selection for reduced vulnerability to damage during germination as expressed in yield trials and experience of the corn breeder. Seed production environments further affect the biological condition of each seed begins the season. Timing of emergence of the seedling in relation to its adjacent plants affects final growth and grain production as each plant competes for light and minerals during the remainder of the season. Uniform emergence within a field is an important component of grain production for the season. Modern corn hybrid fields are most productive if the field has a consistent ‘stand’ of plants, evenly spaced and equally developed. Lots of factors are involved is a successful establishment of this uniform growth. Field conditions, germination environment conditions, seed uniform vitality and genetics are the main interacting contributors to uniformity of seedling emergence. Some of these are controllable by the corn grower and the seed producer, some are measurable prior to planting, but temperatures and rain variables are always part of the unknowns at the start of a corn season. Determining the vitality of seed at the time of planting is not always as accurate as it might seem to everyone. Each individual seed has had its own experience from initial pollination in the seed production field, stresses during seed maturation, exposure to potential pathogens, roughness during shelling, moisture addition during seed treatment, shipment to farm and finally placement in field. Multiple attempts to evaluate the percentage of individuals within a seed lot that are likely to not emerge in the field is made by germination tests. Attempts are made to standardize the tests among labs, but referee samples in which multiple labs germinate sister samples drawn from the same commercial seed bag show slightly differing results with warm tests and greater differences among cold tests. These lab to lab differences become greater as the average quality of a seed lot is lower, with some labs having percent germination meeting most company standards and others determined as failing. Added to the difficulties of determining acceptable seed quality of a seed lot, each individual seed is at a different stage of losing its cellular integrity - they are all aging but potentially at varying rates. Seed producers have the very difficult task of determining what is the rate of deterioration within a seed lot. When do they stop testing and start shipping? Multiple tests can be done to determine germination quality of a seed lot but there still can remain those that fail to germinate adequately in the field for optimum hybrid performance. Sometimes this becomes a major reasons that the grower decides the hybrid yield capacity is poor, blaming the genetics of yield instead of the seed quality. It is complicated!! Seed germination factors are only the beginning of those that eventually effect the performance of the crop. All corn seed is aging, as the physiology involved in digestion of starch in the endosperm allows glucose to be moved to the mitochondria in the embryo cells where it is processed into the ATP needed for production of proteins and specialize structures as the seed grows shoot and root tissue. Each seed within the seed lot is aging at a different rate, resulting in uneven emergence and inter plant competition during the remainder of season. Soil consistency, water amounts and timing, temperature, crop debris and micro-organisms all interact with the young plant development. Hybrid genetic differences affect the reactions to these variables as well. Vulnerability to aging is mostly inherited through the female parent but genetics of the hybrid influences the reaction to these environmental factors. Potential pathogens of the corn seedling are also affected by these environmental factors. Cool, wet soils favor Pythium species while slowing the corn metabolism. Anthracnose fungus (Colletotrichum graminicola) and the pathogen Cochliobolus carbonumcausing northern leaf spot are examples of 2 minor pathogens of young emerging corn leaves favored by warm, wet weather. Most virus diseases of corn only become damaging if infected early. This usually is dependent upon an insect vectoring the virus from other grasses. Environmental factors such as presence of adjacent hosts, temperatures and wind are big factors in the virus infection. Northern temperate zone corn season is beginning now. Interactions of plant and other organism’s biology and physical environments will affect the harvest performance. We will search for a single factor to explain that performance, but it will most likely be complex. It is human to prefer that a manufactured product meet certain expectations in structure and performance. Our expectations may be greater than described by the manufacturer or seller advocated. The product may perform exactly as we expected. Many manufactured products perform within our expectations within a defined and consistent environment within our home, for example. Sure, we did not expect the kid to throw a baseball into the TV screen, but we don’t blame the TV manufacturer for a broken screen. Crop agriculture always includes variables, many of which interact, to affect the final productivity of the crop. Many of the variables are biological. Bacteria, fungi, nematodes and insects in soil may be beneficial or detrimental to the young corn seedling. Soil consistency, temperature swings and moisture extremes further contribute to the environmental variables affecting corn seed and seedlings. Each corn seed has its own biological history beginning in the seed production field that ultimately affects its ability to withstand the stresses involved in imbibition by repairing broken membranes within its cells. Environmental stresses during the development of that seed ultimately influence the life and vigor of each seed. Although the genetics of each seed within a single cross hybrid may be identical, seed production factors include environmental factors outside of the control of the manufacturer that can shorten the life and vigor of some of the seed. Corn seed lots are sampled systematically, attempting to correctly characterize the germination and purity qualities of the seed lot. It is necessary to assume the sample is representative of the lot, but it is reasonable to assume that small variances will not always be detected in the samples. We want to think that a germination percentage based upon samples accurately depict all the seed in the lot, at least within the germination test conditions at the time of the test. Unknown variables affecting the sample, affecting the seed after testing, environments after planting ultimately result in the actual emergence of each seedling in the corn field. We celebrate the appearance of a uniformly emergence of the seedlings in the field and have difficulty analyzing the cause when that does not happen. At least we have strong suspicions when we find a baseball inside the TV with a broken screen. Dynamics of this disease serves as a reminder of the complexity of host resistance, environment and pathogen biology are common with agricultural crops. Although the disease had been identified before 1970 it was not regarded as damaging to the corn. Host and environments in USA changed in the 1970’s. Conservation tillage allowed more corn leaf and stalk debris left on the soil surface and wide use of the inbred B73 as a female parent changed in favor of the fungus (Colletotrichum graminicola). It had difficulty surviving when buried in soil but has special sporulation advantages over other organisms with survival of winter stresses when on surface of soil. This allowed for early infection of seedling leaves. Infected leaf debris continues to produce spores during the season. Although most corn genotypes are somewhat resistant to older leaf infection, presence of this fungus and its spores allowed for eventual infection of the stalk rind cells. A few hybrids are susceptible enough to be actively killed by infection in the root and stalk but this fungus is mostly an aggressive invader of senescing cells in the mature plant. The B73 connection was linked to its contribution of high yields in hybrids. Some of that high yield component was tendency to produce large deposits of carbohydrates in the grain, sometimes at the sacrifice of adequate reserves for maintenance of living cells in the stalk and root tissues. Colletotrichum graminicolais favored in the environment of senescing cells, often speeding to the death of these tissues. Reducing the infected corn debris by deep tillage or crop rotation can greatly reduce the disease but reducing the environmental stress is also important. Breeders affected this reduction by selecting hybrids with less grain fill per plant and, perhaps, more net photosynthesis per plant. This effectively lengthened the time of vigorous cells in corn stalks with ability to hold off this fungus until harvest. Anthracnose remains present in USA corn fields but damage is less now than 30 years ago. Like much in agriculture, corn disease development is the result of a complexity of factors. It is human nature to want simple explanations but each of the factors, like those mentioned in this brief blog have sub-factors. Fortunately, human and government problems are not complex so politician’s simple answers surely will solve all of them (L.O.L.). Cold weather of temperate zone winters can be harsh on fungi in the previous crop debris left on the soil surface after harvest. Low temperatures kill most spores (conidia) capable of spreading and infecting new crop corn plants. Although spring moisture can encourage production of new spores from infections in the old leaves, inconsistent temperatures and relative humidity plus sun exposure of the young seedlings can cause result in many potential fungal pathogens to fail infection of the young plants. Colletetotrichum graminicola (cause of anthracnose) produces spores on surface of infected leaves in mucilaginous matrix that offers protection of the spores on the infected debris from temperature fluctuations and dehydration. This allows survival of spores for quick distribution to seedling leaves. Spores germinate and hyphae quickly form appressoria, allowing penetration in the first few seedling leaves. Corn varieties vary in resistance to further spread of the fungus to the growing point or roots. Killing of seedlings can occur in a few varieties but not in most. Most studies have shown that there is not a strong correlation among susceptibility to the anthracnose seedling disease, anthracnose on mature leaves and anthracnose stalk rot. This fungus’ ability to overwinter in minimally tilled, continuous corn fields with anthracnose in the previous season are most vulnerable to this seedling disease. An interesting study of this phenomenon can be found at: Moving corn from its tropical origin to temperate zones required adaptations for many characters. One character needed to advantage of the full summer season, including in some areas of the USA, was to plant as early as possible to avoid pollination problems caused by extreme heat during flowering and to avoid killing frost stopping grain filling. It is common to observe that every field does not emerge and seedlings equally fast, but the many environmental factors complicate drawing conclusions as to cause. Was it seed quality or was it due to soil content difference? One study (https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/cs/articles/55/2/851) attempted to compare hybrids under controlled temperature and environments for leaf and root weights under differing temperature environments. Results supported the hypothesis that hybrids did differ in tolerance to cold temperatures after planting. Methods and results in this presentation cited are a good read. There are genetic differences for tolerance to cooler, early seasons, but the significance must be always be put in perspective of final hybrid performance. This character is only one of many influencing the performance of best hybrid for a season. It among the many genetic-environmental reasons that rarely is the same hybrid the best in all fields or in all years. Genetics, seed production and environments interact each year as we have taken this species of tropical origin to temperate (and tropical) fields around the earth. Interactions between seed physiological ‘vigor’, infection by fungi such as Fusarium species, environmental pressures including potential damaging organisms and seed treatments are complex. A low percentage of seed within a seed bag are either dead of having sufficient cellular damage that all embryo cells do not function, perhaps with elongation of seminal root cells but no growth in the mesocotyl cells. Cell membranes damaged during seed maturation or with imbibition can self-repair, but this may result in delay of mesocotyl growth, delaying emergence compared to other seedlings and allowing more time for potential invasion by soil inhabiting fungi. Leakage of nutrients from the seed may also attract the fungi towards the germinating seed. Fusarium species in the seed are not the only potential pathogens but also others are in nearly all soils. Fusarium verticilloidesis one that tends to invade corn tissue after germination, perhaps growing between cells as the seedling extends beyond the soil surface. A few, such as F. graminearumoften occupy the shoot base (crown), but it is not always clear if they significantly damage the plant. There is some evidence that presence of fungi in the emerging seedling correlates with reduced photosynthetic rate in leaves of the young plant. Corn germinates and emerges more uniformly and quicker at 25°C (77°F) but temperate zone growers want to take advantage of the longer growing season by planting when soil temperature are only above 10-15°C. If the temperature remains low after planting, imbibitional damage to membranes is slow to repair and overall physiologic processes are slowed. Although Fusarium species are not favored by the low temperatures, the damaged tissue exudes nutrients to attract the fungi towards the tissue. Low temperatures also slow the production of resistance factors, allowing increased invasion of the tissue. This applies to the nodal roots that emerge after the seedling emerges as well. Soil components also affect the duration of exposure of mesocotyl if it has trouble pushing through the soil surface. Seed treatments are intended to prevent or inhibit damage from seed-borne fungi and those potential pathogens infecting initial germinating seed. Polymers either added to the chemical fungicide treatments or even if used independent of the treatments can be helpful by slowing down the imbibitional process, potentially reducing the cell membrane damage. Most commercial seed treatments include a mix chemicals aimed at inhibiting fungi within the seed and a few components become somewhat systemic in the young seedlings. Application of seed treatments does require some care to make sure the seed does not absorb too much water and thus overcome the dormancy initiated by drying the seed. An interesting summary of Fusarium control by seed treatments can be found in a thesis at https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/15394 Among the human accomplishments of developing corn from a tropical grass (Teosinte) to extreme temperate zone environments has been the ability to get successful growth under less than perfect environments. This occurred with efforts of breeders selecting genetics, seed producers developing methods and growers working environments. Visit us at the ASTA in Chicago, Dec 9-12 (booth G207) About Corn Journal The purpose of this blog is to share perspectives of the biology of corn, its seed and diseases in a mix of technical and not so technical terms with all who are interested in this major crop. With more technical references to any of the topics easily available on the web with a search of key words, the blog will rarely cite references but will attempt to be accurate. Comments are welcome but will be screened before publishing. Comments and questions directed to the author by emails are encouraged.

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Imagine knowing nothing you know now, living in the early sixth century BC (okay, you wouldn’t name it “BC”, I mean, how could you know?): Does the term “philosophy” even exist? Certainly, there didn’t exist separated sciences as we understand them today. So imagine you’re a fellow citizen of an Ionian city in Asia Minor, Miletus. Many people around you are believing in Gods: “The thunderstorm yesterday in the evening? I’m sure Zeus was in anger” or the rainbow as a messenger from Olympus. You love being in nature, you’re curious, you’re admiring the variety. Wherever you are, you see the same patterns nature seems to follow. But something suspects you. Are Gods really creating all of this? You think not. There must be something else. And you begin searching for it. You’re even writing down your thoughts and considerations. Later, people will find your work and call it the beginning of natural philosophy. People all over the world will study it and learn about you. But some won’t understand. They will laugh at you, thinking how ridiculous it is, believing that there is one principle. They will say, it is irrelevant, it’s not what philosophy is here for. ‘If I want to know how the world operates, I would have studied physics,’ some fellow students of philosophy told me. But you don’t know anything about this. You don’t know that from the original philosophy more and more “sciences” will split off, physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology. First, everything was just out of a keen interest in the world around us. As people found out more about it, they began to separate different knowledge. So, I don’t understand when students are lamenting about how unrelated today’s philosophy is to ancient natural philosophy. Okay, the early natural philosophers focused on finding “a theory of everything”, they wanted to explain nature and the entire universe, and had various ideas for how everything’s working. While today, this is more the concern of physics and biology, the fundamental idea beneath remains the same: To ask questions and try to answer them logically. That’s what philosophy is still today, even though the subject might have changed to more human-focused topics, for example, ethics. If you know the origin of philosophy and how it emerged, then can you understand what followed from that, with what basis more known philosophers started, like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, or the Stoics, etc. Long story short: Learning how philosophy began and the further process is crucial for understanding why it is today as it is. So, here’s a quick overview of the very first Western philosophers and their search for a “theory of everything”. It was thought that all natural phenomena could be pared down to a unifying explanation. These philosophers are called the Presocratics, engaged with nature and proof that Gods don’t exist. They believed that the earth is an organism, it is accessible to human reason, and it brings about our concept of order. But who are these Presocratics and why are they named like that? It wasn’t one philosophical school, it doesn’t consist just of philosophers who were before Socrates in time. But it is a common denotation for the philosophers who were prior in their thinking than Socrates, namely, interested in nature and physics. Socrates was more interested in ethics, and generally, humans. We only have fragments (quotes) and testimonies (reports). Often it can be difficult to distinguish those. That means we don’t know for sure if the report coincides with the exact wording or just the ideas of the philosophers. First, let’s look at the city of Miletus in Asia Minor during the first half of the sixth century BC. This is also roughly the time of the Buddha in India and Confucius in China (second half of the sixth century BC). The most important Milesian philosophers are Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes. Heraclitus was a native of a near city, Ephesus, and Parmenides was from Elea, a city in southern Italy. His ideas were influential, so we’ll look at the reactions of Empedocles and Anaximander. They all focused on finding the principle (Greek word Arché, Latin principium) with extraordinary optimism. They were curious about the world and how everything works, believing there is a “theory of everything”. Principle means two things: beginning (foundation, cause) and principle in our understanding. But for the question, what is this principle exactly? They all had different ideas. Also, they asked: Has everything arisen from one substance/principle, or does everything consist now of this substance/principle? Different philosophers had different ideas for the ultimate material. We’ll leave aside Thales of Miletus, who gave primacy to water as the main constituent of things. Anaximander proceeds more generally with his idea of a “limitless thing.” Anaximander of Miletus Anaximander had a special term for the principle of the world: The Aperion. It literally means “limitless, unrestricted”. But we don’t know for sure if it was meant as a substantive or as an adjective. It wasn’t that important for him to name one concrete substance, but rather a primary property. Every change in the world follows this specific regularity, this limitless thing. So, it is a process, and the universe is changing continually. He points at a regularity: It is an eternal change according to special laws, and this change is necessary. So, the only thing that remains unchanged is the regularity of the change process. To put it crudely, one could project this idea also on its personal life. Do you feel sometimes anxious and overwhelmed about the change in your life? I’m sure there was some wiseacre who told you: It is totally normal, well, it is the essence about life: The constant change! Probably you weren’t impressed, but now you can even answer, ‘Wow, people knew that already 2600 years ago.’ You’re not really telling me something new. Anaximenes of Miletus He was another Milesian philosopher and the student of Anaximander. Unlike his teacher, Anaximenes had a pretty concrete idea of the principle of the cosmos, for him, it was just air. The idea is that the world conforms to our human constitution—air is essential for us and we need to breathe. He uses an analogy between humans and the world. The Ancient philosophers often believed in was between macrocosm and microcosm: The body needs air to live, so Anaximenes concludes the entire world, the cosmos, does the same. He thought that everything, all matter, and all substances emerge through thinning or thickening of air. For example, thickened air results in water, if it is further thickened it becomes earth, and then rock, etc. Important is for what he uses air, namely as the answer to both questions, “from what did the world emerge?” and “of what does the world consist now?” Obviously, this theory doesn’t coincide with our understanding of physics. But it is still pretty interesting what people were thinking of. Who knows, maybe in another two thousand years people will laugh at us and our current understanding of the world and the universe. Heraclitus of Ephesus From Heraclitus, we have a lot more sources. He is known as an important philosopher and the one who speaks in riddles. Also convinced that the world is one entity, he calls the one principle Logos, an entity of opposites. But these opposites are related to one another. And again, the entity maintains and determines everything. According to Heraclitus, nothing happens randomly in the world, but consistency and cyclic repetition determine everything. The important thing here is: The entity, or Logos, depends on the continuous change. And this change consists of the perpetual alternation of these opposites. The force of nature regulates change in a reasonable manner. And because as humans we have reason, we can predict this change. This one is very important because people at that time merely believed in Gods that cause unpredictable natural phenomena. Everything that happens, happens according to Logos. But most people don’t understand Logos, according to Heraclitus. The majority of humans don’t understand this entity, the continuity of the world. They don’t ask, why is it like this? Why is the world structured like this? As if they were sleeping, Heraclitus assumes. They just take it for granted. Everything that is in the world is changing (but it’s a regulated change), and nevertheless, things keep their identity. He goes even so far that because of the constant change, identity can be obtained. Heraclitus concludes: Logos is a reasonable, natural structure, and responsible for every regularity. If we don’t understand Logos, we don’t understand the world which is structured logically. Later, Heraclitus and his idea of the cosmos as a “living organism equipped with reason” served also as a model for the Stoics. The Presocratics were also present in other places, for example in the city of Elea, in the south of Italy. Parmenides of Elea You need to know that the most common literary genre was poetry. Therefore, it wasn’t unusual that also philosophers wrote their teachings in poems. There wasn’t one specific form to write philosophy (as it is today, to write philosophical essays, for example). Parmenides writes a kind of didactic poem, where at first a goddess speaks. It works like a revelation. What this goddess declares, ‘there is something that is, a being’. And something that is not, is a not-being. So far, so good. But the main proposition of Parmenides is that: “A being is always a being and doesn’t change at all. When something is changing, it isn’t a being. Then it is a not-being.” The changing thing has always a new identity, it is not. Material entities such as a person have always different properties, therefore they don’t qualify as a being. What do different properties mean? Well, now I’m tired, and tomorrow, I won’t be tired, etc. I’m always different. Because of their changing, not-beings don’t have a stable identity. You may ask now, what being means and why according to Parmenides all people and animals and everyone who changes is not a being. It is confusing because we usually associate “being” with existing. But Parmenides does not. He says that not-being doesn’t mean not existing, it means changeable. So what is a being? The things which have always the same properties, they are unchangeable and have never emerged. Examples are humanity, justice, etc. They are beings, they have a steady identity. For humans it’s intricate: The body is changing, but what about the mind? Usually, one would assume that the mind is the core of identity. But isn’t the mind changing as well? This was the first attempt of an ontological classification: Parmenides differentiates between two classes of entities. But he not only differentiates between two classes, but he uses epistemology as well: The class being is discernible, the class not-being is not discernible. Only unchangeable entities can be perceived. I’m sure that most would disagree at least now: I mean, does he say that e.g., my dog who’s barking right now isn’t a being because he is changing and therefore I can’t perceive him? But I can perceive an abstract term like “justice”?! Maybe it’s not meant as perceivable through sense perception, maybe it’s meant to comprehend it with our mind. If I tell people the word “justice”, I’m sure they have an image, an idea of it in their mind that’s fairly universal. But if I’m telling different people about my dog, I’m sure they don’t have the right image of it in their mind (everyone would imagine a different dog)! But that’s just my consideration (perhaps now, you’ll see your dog with fresh eyes). Parmenides connects ontology (metaphysics) and epistemology. According to the philosopher, the world is a whole, harmonic being, and it brings order (although there are changes in the world, they are only ostensibly). And our mind, our reasoning can capture the being. For Parmenides, change is not the important thing here, rather, what change explains: The unchangeable, the one principle. The origin of the world In one part of the poem, he describes how the world has emerged. Wait, what? Didn’t he propose the fact that the world is a being and therefore it doesn’t change and couldn’t have emerged? Parmenides says the world is a being and if it has emerged at some time, it would have emerged out of not-being, and that’s by definition impossible. But still, he asks where the world comes from. He speaks through the goddess from his poem: We can have opinions, but they’re just describing a possibility. We have to be careful. For Parmenides, it isn’t illogical to speak about the world’s phenomena, but he clearly states: It remains insufficient because it is just possibly like that. Later, also Plato declares that his entire cosmogony is just a possible theory. Cosmogony is the study of the origin of the universe, the cosmos. The cosmogony of Parmenides Parmenides reduced everything to two principles, light (also called fire) and night, whose mixture and change determine everything. He even assumes that the earth is a sphere. But if we can’t get any knowledge about the origin of the world, why does Parmenides try to describe it nevertheless? Because he wants to criticize the traditional cosmogony because it doesn’t regard his theory of being and not-being. Or maybe it’s just meant as a parody, that would explain why he tells a detailed cosmogony when he has already proved that it’s impossible. We see the philosophers were pretty competitive, which comes from the general rivalry and competition at that time in other areas of life such as politics and athletics. Heraclitus vs. Parmenides A big difference between Heraclitus and Parmenides is that Heraclitus wrote down all his beliefs and reflections about nature and logos like this. He just formulated statements. Although he speaks about logic, he doesn’t seem to apply this logic to his words. Parmenides, on the other hand, uses for the first time in the history of philosophy an argumentation, recognizing that these explanations require evidence and argumentation to support the conclusion and also to criticize other viewpoints. But both — Heraclitus and Parmenides — view the world as reasonably, harmonically structured. They believe that the world is steady, continuous and unchangeable. Both refuse to believe that the world emerged at some time. The world isn’t its phenomena, but one entity. To go back to the microcosm: Just as a person, who doesn’t want their person to be reduced to one false action, could state: I’m not what I seem to be, I am not my action. I am one whole identity. Finally, we will have a look at two reactions to Parmenides’ cosmogony: - Anaxagoras (no, he’s someone different than Anaximander and Anaximenes that we discussed before) He took part in the Pythagorean in Sicily, in the south of Italy. He wrote two didactic poems, where he presents his theory about the world. He believed that the origin of the world is impossible. In the poems Katharmoi (purifications) and Peri physeos (on nature) he presents his theory: The world is constantly changing, and change is the mixture of four elements: water, earth, fire, air. Empedocles was the first who spoke about these four elements as the fundamental elements of the world. These elements could correspond to Parmenides’ beings. And who is responsible for this constant change, the mixture, and the division of the elements? Empedocles says there are two cosmic forces: Love and dispute. So in this sense, everything in the world consists of beings. Everything that exists has previously existed but in a different mixture. Also, the world proceeds in four stages—in every one of them—one element is present. Love is the force when things emerge and the dispute is equivalent to death. But, we have two testimonies about Empedocles, one is from Simplicius and the other from Aristotle. And in one report, love is the force that unites and gives birth (and dispute means death) and in the other report, the dispute is uniting (and love separating). Thus we don’t know exactly what was Empedocles’ theory. But in the end, it is unimportant which force does what. I think of it as both: Because whenever something ends (=dies) something new emerges from it. Important is, that Empedocles propagates a material cause and an efficient cause. The material causes are the four elements and the efficient causes are love and dispute. The second reaction of Parmenides comes from Anaxagoras. He agrees with most Parmenides has said, although he also thinks (just as Empedocles) that we can speak about the origin of the world, and not just in probability. He believes that in the beginning, everything was a mixture of everything, consisting of many elements. (Surprisingly close to what we know today, right?) And what changes over time is just the mixing ratio, not the fundamental materials. And those materials are endlessly small and many. So not just four elements as Parmenides said, but a lot more. The example Anaxagoras presents is about the origin of a human (there we have this analogy between human and world again). He says that every component of a person can be led back to the original semen. Still, the person is something entirely different from the semen (again, surprisingly similar to our knowledge today). And just as this example shows, it is the same with the world: In the beginning, there was an original mixture, material, and from it emerged all the different aspects we see today. But what was the cause for the division of this original material, so that different entities have emerged? Of course, Anaxagoras has an answer for that: It is the spirit, the intellect. So that’s the efficient cause that carries out the activity. This intellect can be described with three properties: - It is outside the mixture, thus something pure and uniform, to be able to divide the mixture. - Also, the intellect puts everything in order, hence it is the cause for the order. - This action is reasonable, therefore the intellect and reason can be put on a level. Anaxagoras thinks as the first that the cause isn’t just reasonable, but reason itself. Later, also Plato adopts his belief. (Aristotle has another opinion, namely that nature is reasonable.) But that’s another story.

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Dopamine receptor D2 Dopamine receptor D2, also known as D2R, is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the DRD2 gene. After work from Paul Greengard's lab had suggested that dopamine receptors were the site of action of antipsychotic drugs, several groups (including those of Solomon Snyder and Philip Seeman) used a radiolabeled antipsychotic drug to identify what is now known as the dopamine D2 receptor. The dopamine D2 receptor is the main receptor for most antipsychotic drugs. The structure of DRD2 in complex with the atypical antipsychotic risperidone has been determined. - 1 Function - 2 Isoforms - 3 Active (D2HighR) and inactive (D2LowR) forms - 4 Oligomerization of D2R - 5 Genetics - 6 Ligands - 7 Protein–protein interactions - 8 See also - 9 Notes - 10 References - 11 External links In mice, regulation of D2R surface expression by the neuronal calcium sensor-1 (NCS-1) in the dentate gyrus is involved in exploration, synaptic plasticity and memory formation. A recent study has shown a potential role for D2R in retrieval of fear memories in the prelimbic cortex. The long form (D2Lh) has the "canonical" sequence and functions as a classic post-synaptic receptor. The short form (D2Sh) is pre-synaptic and functions as an autoreceptor that regulates the levels of dopamine in the synaptic cleft. Agonism of D2sh receptors inhibits dopamine release; antagonism increases dopaminergic release. A third D2(Longer) form differs from the canonical sequence where 270V is replaced by VVQ. Active (D2HighR) and inactive (D2LowR) forms The monomeric inactive conformer of D2R in binding with Risperidone was reported in 2018 (PDB ID: 6CM4). However, the active form which is generally bound to an agonist, is not available yet and in most of the studies the Homology modeling of the structure is implemented. The difference between the active and inactive of G protein-coupled receptor is mainly observed as conformational changes at the cytoplasmic half of the structure, particularly at the transmembrane domains (TM) 5 and 6. The conformational transitions occurred at the cytoplasmic ends are due to the coupling of G protein to the cytoplasmic loop between the TM 5 and 6. It was observed that either D2R agonist or antagonist ligands revealed better binding affinities inside the ligand-binding domain of the active D2R in comparison with the inactive state. It demonstrated that ligand-binding domain of D2R is affected by the conformational changes occurring at the cytoplasmic domains of the TM 5 and 6. In consequence, the D2R activation reflects a positive cooperation on the ligand-binding domain. In drug discovery studies in order to calculate the binding affinities of the D2R ligands inside the binding domain, it's important to work on which form of D2R. It's known that the full active and inactive states are recommended to be used for the agonist and antagonist studies, respectively. Any disordering in equilibration of D2R states, which causes problems in signal transferring between the nervous systems, may lead to diverse serious disorders, such as Schizophrenia, autism and Parkinson's disease. In order to control these disorders, equilibration between the D2R states is controlled by implementing of agonist and antagonist D2R ligands. In most cases, it was observed that the problems regarding the D2R states may have genetic roots and are controlled by drug therapies. So far, there is no any certain treatment for these mental disorders. Oligomerization of D2R It was observed that D2R exists in dimeric forms or higher order oligomers. There are some experimental and molecular modeling evidences that demonstrated the D2R monomers cross link from their TM 4 and TM 5 to form dimeric conformers. Oligomerization of D2R has a main role in their biological activities and any disordering in it may lead to mental diseases. It's known that the D2R ligands (either the agonist or antagonist) binding to the ligand-binding domain of D2R are independent of oligomerization and can not have any effect on its process, so the drugs used for the treatment of mental diseases can't cause any main problem in oligomerization of D2R. Since the process of oligomerization of D2R in human bodies and their links to the mental diseases were not explicitly studied, there is no any treatment reported for the disorders originates from oligomerization's problems. The oligomerization of GPCRs is a controversial topic that there are many unknown problems on this area yet. There's not any crystallographic data available describing the crosslinking of monomers. There are some evidences suggesting that GPCRs monomers crosslinking domains are different and dependent to the biological environments and other factors. - C132T, G423A, T765C, C939T, C957T, and G1101A - -141C insertion/deletion The polymorphisms have been investigated with respect to association with schizophrenia. Some researchers have previously associated the polymorphism Taq 1A (rs1800497) to the DRD2 gene. However, the polymorphism resides in exon 8 of the ANKK1 gene. DRD2 TaqIA polymorphism has been reported to be associated with an increased risk for developing motor fluctuations but not hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Most of the older antipsychotic drugs such as chlorpromazine and haloperidol are antagonists for the dopamine D2 receptor, but are, in general, very unselective, at best selective only for the "D2-like family" receptors and so binding to D2, D3 and D4, and often also to many other receptors such as those for serotonin and histamine, resulting in a range of side-effects and making them poor agents for scientific research. In similar manner, older dopamine agonists used for Parkinson's disease such as bromocriptine and cabergoline are poorly selective for one dopamine receptor over another, and, although most of these agents do act as D2 agonists, they affect other subtypes as well. Several selective D2 ligands are, however, now available, and this number is likely to increase as further research progresses. - Bromocriptine – full agonist - Cabergoline (Dostinex) - N,N-Propyldihydrexidine – analogue of the D1/D5 agonist dihydrexidine; Selective for postsynaptic D2 receptor over the presynaptic D2 autoreceptor. - Piribedil – also D3 receptor agonist and α2–adrenergic antagonist - Pramipexole – also D3, D4 receptor agonist - Quinelorane – affinity for D2 > D3 - Quinpirole – also D3 receptor agonist - Ropinirole – full agonist - Sumanirole – full agonist; highly selective - Talipexole – selective for D2 over other dopamine receptors, but also acts as α2–adrenoceptor agonist and 5-HT3 antagonist. - Armodafinil – although primarily thought to be a weak DAT inhibitor, armodafinil is also a D2 partial agonist. - GSK-789,472 – Also D3 antagonist, with good selectivity over other receptors - Ketamine (also NMDA antagonist) - 2-Phenethylamine – (also a TAAR1 agonist and GABAb antagonist with effects at AMPA receptors) - LSD – in vitro, LSD was found to be a partial agonist and potentiates dopamine-mediated prolactin secretion in lactotrophs. LSD is also a 5-HT2A agonist. - OSU-6162 – also 5-HT2A partial agonist, acts as "dopamine stabilizer" - Roxindole (only at the D2 autoreceptors) - Salvinorin A – also κ-opioid agonist. - Atypical antipsychotics (except aripiprazole, brexpiprazole, and any other D2 receptor partial agonists) - Domperidone – D2 and D3 antagonist; does not cross the blood-brain barrier - Metoclopramide - Antiemetic - crosses Blood-brain Barrier - causes drug induced Parkinsonism. - Hydroxyzine (Vistaril, Atarax) - L-741,626 – highly selective D2 antagonist - C11 Raclopride radiolabled – commonly employed in positron emission tomography studies - Typical antipsychotics - SV 293 - Buspirone D2 presynaptic autoreceptors (low dose) and postsynaptic D2 receptors (at higher doses) antagonist - D2sh selective (presynaptic autoreceptors) - 1-(6-(((R,S)-7-Hydroxychroman-2-yl)methylamino]hexyl)-3-((S)-1-methylpyrrolidin-2-yl)pyridinium bromide (compound 2, D2R agonist and nAChR antagonist) Functionally selective ligands - Madras BK (2013). "History of the discovery of the antipsychotic dopamine D2 receptor: a basis for the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 22 (1): 62–78. doi:10.1080/0964704X.2012.678199. PMID 23323533. - Wang S, Che T, Levit A, Shoichet BK, Wacker D, Roth BL (March 2018). "Structure of the D2 dopamine receptor bound to the atypical antipsychotic drug risperidone". Nature. 555 (7695): 269–273. doi:10.1038/nature25758. PMC 5843546. PMID 29466326. - "NIMH » Molecular Secrets Revealed: Antipsychotic Docked in its Receptor". www.nimh.nih.gov. Retrieved 2018-11-26. - Usiello A, Baik JH, Rougé-Pont F, Picetti R, Dierich A, LeMeur M, Piazza PV, Borrelli E (November 2000). "Distinct functions of the two isoforms of dopamine D2 receptors". Nature. 408 (6809): 199–203. doi:10.1038/35041572. PMID 11089973. - Saab BJ, Georgiou J, Nath A, Lee FJ, Wang M, Michalon A, Liu F, Mansuy IM, Roder JC (September 2009). "NCS-1 in the dentate gyrus promotes exploration, synaptic plasticity, and rapid acquisition of spatial memory". Neuron. 63 (5): 643–56. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.08.014. PMID 19755107. - Madsen HB, Guerin AA, Kim JH (November 2017). "Investigating the role of dopamine receptor- and parvalbumin-expressing cells in extinction of conditioned fear". Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 145: 7–17. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2017.08.009. PMID 28842281. - Wiemerslage L, Schultz BJ, Ganguly A, Lee D (August 2013). "Selective degeneration of dopaminergic neurons by MPP(+) and its rescue by D2 autoreceptors in Drosophila primary culture". Journal of Neurochemistry. 126 (4): 529–40. doi:10.1111/jnc.12228. PMC 3737274. PMID 23452092. - "Entrez Gene: DRD2 dopamine receptor D2". - Beaulieu JM, Gainetdinov RR (March 2011). "The physiology, signaling, and pharmacology of dopamine receptors". Pharmacological Reviews. 63 (1): 182–217. doi:10.1124/pr.110.002642. PMID 21303898. - Salmas RE, Yurtsever M, Stein M, Durdagi S (May 2015). "Modeling and protein engineering studies of active and inactive states of human dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) and investigation of drug/receptor interactions". Molecular Diversity. 19 (2): 321–32. doi:10.1007/s11030-015-9569-3. PMID 25652238. - Seeman P, Chau-Wong M, Tedesco J, Wong K (November 1975). "Brain receptors for antipsychotic drugs and dopamine: direct binding assays". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 72 (11): 4376–80. doi:10.1073/pnas.72.11.4376. PMID 1060115. - Armstrong D, Strange PG (June 2001). "Dopamine D2 receptor dimer formation: evidence from ligand binding". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 276 (25): 22621–9. doi:10.1074/jbc.M006936200. PMID 11278324. - Guo W, Shi L, Javitch JA (February 2003). "The fourth transmembrane segment forms the interface of the dopamine D2 receptor homodimer". 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PMID 9097961. - Glatt SJ, Faraone SV, Tsuang MT (July 2004). "DRD2 -141C insertion/deletion polymorphism is not associated with schizophrenia: results of a meta-analysis". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics. 128B (1): 21–3. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.30007. PMID 15211624. - Lucht M, Rosskopf D (July 2008). "Comment on "Genetically determined differences in learning from errors"". Science. 321 (5886): 200, author reply 200. doi:10.1126/science.1155372. PMID 18621654. - Wang J, Liu ZL, Chen B (June 2001). "Association study of dopamine D2, D3 receptor gene polymorphisms with motor fluctuations in PD". Neurology. 56 (12): 1757–9. doi:10.1212/WNL.56.12.1757. PMID 11425949. - Wang J, Zhao C, Chen B, Liu ZL (January 2004). "Polymorphisms of dopamine receptor and transporter genes and hallucinations in Parkinson's disease". Neuroscience Letters. 355 (3): 193–6. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2003.11.006. PMID 14732464. - "Clinical Pharmacology for Abilify". 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This original observation of TAAR1 and DA D2R interaction has subsequently been confirmed and expanded upon with observations that both receptors can heterodimerize with each other under certain conditions ... Additional DA D2R/TAAR1 interactions with functional consequences are revealed by the results of experiments demonstrating that in addition to the cAMP/PKA pathway (Panas et al., 2012) stimulation of TAAR1-mediated signaling is linked to activation of the Ca++/PKC/NFAT pathway (Panas et al.,2012) and the DA D2R-coupled, G protein-independent AKT/GSK3 signaling pathway (Espinoza et al., 2015; Harmeier et al., 2015), such that concurrent TAAR1 and DA DR2R activation could result in diminished signaling in one pathway (e.g. cAMP/PKA) but retention of signaling through another (e.g., Ca++/PKC/NFA) - Harmeier A, Obermueller S, Meyer CA, Revel FG, Buchy D, Chaboz S, Dernick G, Wettstein JG, Iglesias A, Rolink A, Bettler B, Hoener MC (November 2015). "Trace amine-associated receptor 1 activation silences GSK3β signaling of TAAR1 and D2R heteromers". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 25 (11): 2049–61. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.08.011. PMID 26372541. Interaction of TAAR1 with D2R altered the subcellular localization of TAAR1 and increased D2R agonist binding affinity. - Maggio R, Millan MJ (February 2010). "Dopamine D2-D3 receptor heteromers: pharmacological properties and therapeutic significance". Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 10 (1): 100–7. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2009.10.001. PMID 19896900. - Hasbi A, O'Dowd BF, George SR (February 2010). "Heteromerization of dopamine D2 receptors with dopamine D1 or D5 receptors generates intracellular calcium signaling by different mechanisms". Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 10 (1): 93–9. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2009.09.011. PMC 2818238. PMID 19897420. - Albizu L, Holloway T, González-Maeso J, Sealfon SC (September 2011). "Functional crosstalk and heteromerization of serotonin 5-HT2A and dopamine D2 receptors". Neuropharmacology. 61 (4): 770–7. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.05.023. PMC 3556730. PMID 21645528. - Receptors,+Dopamine+D2 at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) - Pappas, Stephanie. "Study: Genes Influence Who Your Friends Are". Imaginova Corp. LiveScience. Retrieved 20 January 2011.

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While cultural diversity undoubtedly contributes to the quality of life in Australia, there are also problems caused by lack of intercultural awareness. Migrants bring their own 'cultural lenses' to Australia that may affect their view of the new cultural environment. For many migrant women, pregnancy and childbirth comprise one of the most important life events. Although childbirth is a universal biological event and similar for everyone, birth experience is not. Birth experience occurs in a cultural context and is shaped by the views and practices of that culture1-4. Culture refers to the way of living, distinctive knowledge, habits, ideas, norms and values, and language shared by a group of people5, and differs from one society to another. Reproductive health has a strong connection with culture. Notions of human reproduction, care of the expectant mother and the unborn child, methods of giving birth and post-natal care all vary considerably according to cultural beliefs and traditional practices, although the common aim is to maintain the wellbeing and safety of mother and child. Cultural beliefs and practices surrounding childbirth have attracted much research interest6-11. Liamputtong et al provided detailed descriptions of traditional childbirth beliefs and practices relating to dietary and behavioural precautions and preparation for an easy birth among women in Thailand11. Kaewsarn et al conducted a survey of the traditional postpartum practices of 500 Thai women in Thailand7. They found the most popular practices after childbirth are sexual abstinence, restricted activity, taking hot drinks, hot baths, food restriction and practices to maintain body heat such as 'lying by fire'7. These studies focused on the role culture plays in pregnancy, birth and after birth in a particular country. Their findings provide insights for health professionals and assist them to better understand women from differing cultures. Cross-cultural studies in human reproduction provide another aspect of childbirth research, and the work of Jordan is a significant contribution to this field1. Jordan focused on childbirth systems in Yucatan, Holland, Sweden and the USA as an anthropologist, and investigated a range of biosocial childbirth practices across different systems. Chu conducted one of the most comprehensive studies on cross-cultural childbirth in China (Taiwan) and Australia, emphasising that reproductive beliefs and behaviour are shaped by cultural, social and individual factors12. Her work has the potential to improve the services provided for Chinese clients in Australia by raising health providers' awareness of traditional Chinese models of illness. A more recent cross-cultural study took a different approach. By exploring 'childbirth as a system operating within a specific cultural context', researchers studied the childbirth experiences of some minority ethnic groups living in Western countries13. It was found that the women's traditional birth beliefs and practices are very different from those found in the migrants' new land. Such cultural differences contribute to misunderstandings between healthcare providers in the host country and migrant patients, and this can affect the quality and efficacy of the care provided. It has also been determined that a lack of understanding of cultural diversities14, racism and racial stereotyping15 and lack of knowledge of health beliefs16 affected health professionals' ability to meet the needs of ethnic minorities. Research in this area has been aimed at helping the health system and healthcare providers bridge the gap between themselves and migrant women by promoting an understanding of migrant women's cultural beliefs and practices. According to the 2006 Australian Census of Population and Housing, Asian women in rural Tasmania account for only 0.3% of the Tasmanian population17. It is therefore unlikely that healthcare providers are familiar with specific Asian cultural practices. This article focused on Asian migrant women's traditional childbirth practices and barriers to accessing maternal care in rural Tasmania in order to provide insights to Tasmanian policy-makers and healthcare professionals, and so improve the quality of available care. Yin and yang In Chinese and many Asian cultures, following childbirth women are considered to be in a weakened and vulnerable condition and in need of special care for at least a month in order to regain their health4,18 and be protected from illness. This postnatal care month consists of a set of cultural practices that provide support and special care to the new mother. The cultural perceptions and postnatal healthcare measures are derived from beliefs about the 'yin-yang' or hot-cold principle19. This principle holds that everything in the universe contains two aspects: yin and yang, which are in opposition but also in unison20. If yin and yang are in balance, one will be in good health; however, if energy is moved in either direction, one becomes ill. In this tradition, during labour and delivery, a woman is considered to be in a 'cold state'. In order to restore the balance she should keep warm by not having a bath or washing her hair. Special dietary restrictions assist recovery of the heat and energy. Women should have as much rest as possible and observe certain physical restrictions. The new mother should not leave the house for a period of time after childbirth. A qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews was employed to investigate the childbirth experiences of Asian migrants living in rural Tasmania. The study used grounded theory methodology for its data analysis, as described by Strauss and Corbin21. Two research questions were formulated: - How do migrants' views on maternity care vary after having moved to Australia? - What are the barriers to them accessing health care? Sampling and data collection The selection criteria for interviews were that the participants were: - living in rural Tasmania - of Asian background (ie born in Asia and still sharing Asian cultural beliefs and practices - experienced in birth-giving in Australia, or in her original country and Australia. Participants were recruited through referral by ethnic community members in Tasmania. Eleven Asian women who met the criteria were invited to participate in the interviews and 10 accepted the invitation. Two participants spoke limited English and their interviews were by teleconference with interpreters from outside their own rural communities in order to assure confidentiality. The remainder could communicate in English, although some women made the point that at the time they experienced childbirth in Australia they did not speak English well or at all. The interviews took approximately 40 min to complete and consisted of 20 questions concerning the background of participants, their maternal care experiences in Australia, cultural beliefs and practices and how they adapted these in a new environment, and barriers to accessing health care. Some participant characteristics are presented (Table 1). Table 1: Selected participant characteristics The data were analysed using grounded theory. The grounded theory system requires the researcher to constantly analyse and compare newly gathered information before going back to new participants21. All transcribed material was analysed sentence by sentence and coded for the participant's meanings. Initial open coding of the data used differing codes, which were then organised into categories. The data were then repeatedly re-analysed to reassess the content and confirm the findings. Three main categories and 6 subcategories were identified. During the analysis NVivo v8.0 (QSR International; Melbourne, VIC, Australia) software was used to organize transcripts and codes. Quotes were referenced according to the nationality of the informant and given a number if there was more than one participant of that nationality. In this study the word 'confinement' refers to the period of 30 days after birth. An ethics application was submitted to and approved by the Tasmanian Social Sciences Human Research Ethics Network prior to the interviews. The three main categories that emerged were labeled (i) 'migrants with traditional practices in the new land'; (ii) 'support and postnatal experiences'; and (iii) 'barriers to accessing maternal care'. The first category was explained by its 6 subcategories: 'keeping warm after birth', 'diet in confinement', 'good rest and physical precautions', 'social restrictions', 'no husband present at birth' and 'adaptation to the new culture'. Migrants with traditional practices in the new land The Vietnamese, Chinese and Korean women in the study shared similar maternity care cultural practices. In their tradition, the confinement is seen as the most important period for a new mother. Keeping warm after birth: Traditionally, a woman is not allowed to shower or wash her hair for at least a week after delivery, and in some cases for a month, in order to keep warm. My first child was born in Vietnam so I did go through all the traditional practices. I did not have a shower and [or] washed my hair for a week after childbirth. I washed myself with a warm cloth and steamed the body with a lot of herbs. (Vietnamese participant 3) I had to follow a set of dietary and behavioural rules during confinement period. I had to keep warm and avoid exposure to wind and could not have showers and wash my hair. (Chinese participant 2) Diet in confinement: It is believed that because the mother has lost heat, blood and vital energy during labour, dietary measures help recover the heat and energy. One should eat nutritious meals like chicken soup, chicken with ginger and sesame oil and eat many meals a day to help one recover and produce a lot of milk. (Chinese participant 1) Vietnamese women should not be served cold food and cold drink when they have a baby. Hot food and warm or hot drink are always good for women after childbirth because they feel so cold after losing blood from birth. (Vietnamese participant 1) Good rest and physical precautions: During the confinement period, the new mother should have good rest. She should not stand for long or lift heavy objects to avoid vaginal prolapse. One is exempted from housework within a month [after childbirth] so one can rest in bed. One should not walk around much because that will cause the stomach to sag. The new mother also should not keep standing for a long time and lift heavy things to avoid vaginal prolapse because her body is very 'new' after giving birth to the baby. (Vietnamese participant 2) Extended reading is not suggested because it is believed this will cause poor eyesight in the mother. My mother knew that I was studying at the time I had the baby so she tried to tell me that I should not read books or work on the computer for at least a few months after childbirth. She warned me that if I did not follow it, I would have bad eyesight in my old age and this would come early too. (Vietnamese participant 1) Social restrictions: A woman is advised not to go out for 30 days after giving birth. The ability of the woman to 'pollute' after childbirth is one of the reasons she should not leave the house. According to village tradition, after giving birth a woman is not 'allowed' [if living with the in-laws] to stay in the main part of the house as she is still 'not clean'. (Vietnamese participant 4) Another reason for not leaving the house during confinement is that the woman is highly vulnerable to a variety of illnesses due to the loss of vital energies and her cold state. My mother-in-law advised me not to go out for a month [after birth] because I was very weak and easy to catch cold if I let wind enter my body after birth. (Chinese participant 2) No husband present at birth: In Vietnamese and Chinese cultures, women would not have their husbands present at childbirth. Vietnamese husbands do not take a great part in caring for their wives during pregnancy, birth giving and postnatal care. They think these are jobs of women. In this case, they may easily take for granted the suffering that women have during birth giving. (Vietnamese participant 4) In Vietnam, a husband is not allowed to be with his wife during labour and delivery so he does not know how painful his wife has to go through when she is in labour. Actually in Vietnam a woman is with only doctors and nurses in the labour ward. She might feel very lonely because no one can be there to support her when she needs it most. (Vietnamese participant 2) Adaptation to the new culture: As relatively recent migrants, seven out of the 10 participating women did not strictly abide by their own cultures practices and adopted practices other than their own. I found that having a shower and washing my hair after birth was OK for me because I had a warm shower and dried my hair by hairdryer. However, I followed the practices after birth such as having a good rest to recover, eating nutritious meals and hot drink. I found it good for myself when I followed it. (Vietnamese participant 2) The majority of women strictly observed and followed the physical precautions advised by their mothers and mothers-in-law, such as not lifting heavy objects, because they also believed that they were still weak after birth and that lifting could cause uterine prolapse. However, most women found it impossible not to go out for the whole month because they had to shop and do other things. One woman explained her reason for not following the restriction on leaving home: I saw no reason for doing that[not going out] as the environment here is very fresh and clean. (Vietnamese participant 2) Most women in the study said that they had their husband/partner present at the birth of their child despite this not being the practice in their original country. My husband stayed with me during my labour and I felt to be supported and especially when my English was not good enough to communicate with midwives and doctors. I felt that now my husband has a great sympathy for women when they are in labour because he witnessed what his wife went through. (Vietnamese participant 1) Three out of 10 women in the study followed the Australian way of childbirth completely, although they knew about traditional practices: Although I am aware of the differences, I followed the Australian ways of giving birth and doing baby things. (Japanese participant 1) If I was in my country, I would follow that because I would not want to offend my Mum. Now I am here in Australia, I do not want to follow my traditional ways. I want to do what Australians do. (Korean participant) Support and postnatal experiences Four women who had a great deal of support from their extended family, husbands, friends and community nurses recovered very well in the month following the birth: I felt very good and recovered well in the first few months following birth because I had support from my parents-in-law. (Chinese participant 1) In families where the husband was the only source of help but could only give a little support due to their work or study commitments, six women in this study described their postnatal experience as a contrast to that of the women who received plenty of support: I was exhausted, teary. I cannot describe it clearly but I felt miserable and isolated. Though I still looked after my baby but I was not happy and did not enjoy it. (Vietnamese participant 1) Two other women who experienced childbirth in both their original countries and Australia lacked support from extended family in the new country and that made them feel tired and isolated. One woman said: I felt lonely, isolated because I did not have many friends and my family is not here. I had only two friends to come to see me when I came back from hospital. It was very different with what I experienced in Vietnam. I did not get any support from anyone. I did all house work and looked after my two children by myself. (Vietnamese participant 3) Although the sample is small, it appears that support plays an important role in the wellbeing and maternal health of Asian women. Barriers to accessing maternal care Lack of English language skills is the reason the new mothers had difficulty in accessing services and information. I did not go to antenatal classes because my English was not good. When I came to see the midwives, they could not understand me and I could not understand them. (Chinese participant 2) All participants reported that they received many booklets and brochures from hospitals and healthcare providers; however, most of these were written in English: I went to hospital to find out the information about health care. They gave me few booklets to read. I did not understand well because my English was not good. I could not read the booklets because they were all in English. (Chinese participant 2) Language is not the only barrier that prevents migrants from accessing services and the information that should be available to them. Most Asian cultures teach people to be unassertive and inhibited from childhood. Thus, Asian women were often too reluctant or embarrassed to express their needs or enquire about services. As one woman commented: Because we are Asian we are very reluctant to ask someone for more information. (Filipino participant) One woman expressed regret when she later found that the hospital had information in Vietnamese and she had not asked about it. When my husband came to hospital..., he brought home a lot of brochures and booklets in English that I could not read... Later we discovered that the hospital had all the booklets in Vietnamese but because we did not ask, they did not offer us. What a pity! If I had them in Vietnamese I would be able to read them and get a lot of information from it. (Vietnamese participant 3) Lack of assertiveness also prevents women from expressing their preferences. They did whatever the health professionals asked them to do, even when this went against their accustomed practices. One woman wanted to follow her mother's advice by not having a shower immediately after childbirth and she was reluctant to follow the nurse's instruction: After my baby was delivered, the nurse asked me to have a shower immediately. I knew I was not supposed to do it but I was reluctant not to do it because I did not want to be against what they told me. (Vietnamese participant 2) Lack of English skills and reticence in speaking out affected the communication between healthcare providers and migrants and limited their access to resources. Consequently, these migrant women had fewer opportunities to receive the services they were entitled to. They were also less able to access health information and services available to the general population. Many traditional Asian maternity care practices seem unnecessary in modern times and in a developed environment such as Australia. However, these practices have functional purposes, given their historical and social contexts. Further, many Western-trained professionals believe some Chinese cultural practices actually protect and maintain the health of women to some extent18. The practice of not washing hair or bathing seems unhygienic today but it was meaningful in certain social contexts, recalling the yin-yang principle discussed earlier. In addition, in the past the water supply may have been contaminated, increasing the risk of vaginal infection if used for washing postpartum18. However this is obviously not the case in modern Australia and many of the women studied recognised this. Most of the interviewed women followed the practice of having hot food and drink, although they may not have known about traditional hot and cold therapy. Many of the traditional foods prescribed for the new mother enhance the production of red blood cells, according to Western dietary analysis22. In addition, once poor families in the countryside lived without refrigeration, so it was safer to prescribe that foods be cooked before consumption to destroy pathogens and so prevent diarrhoea in breastfed infants. In terms of hot drinks, herbal teas can be useful to control menstrual and postpartum bleeding and discomfort, and the traditional teas given to a woman after childbirth may actually have medicinal value18. The traditional practice of not leaving a house for the first 30 days after childbirth, and the belief that the new mother is 'polluted' and in a socially dangerous state sound unreasonable today in Australia. However, the historical and social context of the practices offer another meaning. These practices are believed to have offered protection against infection for both mother (eg mastitis) and newborn23. And even today, the majority of Chinese and Vietnamese people live in rural areas where housing and sanitary conditions may present a risk. In these circumstances, the practice of isolating the newborn, the mother and those who come in contact with them may reduce the incidence of infections. However, in contemporary Australia such precautions do not seem practical or feasible and the majority women in this study found they were not necessary in their new environment. In contrast to disregarding the practice of not leaving house, the interviewed women in the study still strongly believed in having a profound rest in order to regain their strength. However, new mothers can only observe and follow this practice with the support of family and society. Traditionally, Asian women commonly lived with extended family, such as parents-in-law and siblings, and this enabled their rest after childbirth. However, when they left their kin and moved to Australia support from extended family was often absent. In some cases, even the partner or husband was unable to assist due to his work or study commitments. In Australia, it has been estimated that up to 10% of mothers experience postnatal depression (PND)24,25. Stern and Kruckman noted that PND is rare in non-Western countries26 and this could be related to the traditional practices and family support that allow the mother to rest, relieve her from housework and protect from injury and infection, all of which minimize the stresses of confinement. At the very least, traditional practices suggest it is important for postnatal women to have appropriate support for a healthy transition through this stressful period. In the present study, the results of the interviews also indicate a potential relationship between PND and lack of support. The women studied experienced symptoms similar to those of PND, such as loneliness, isolation and exhaustion24,25 due to a lack of support from their families and the community. When migrant women cannot obtain the support of distant family they must rely on the support of the community in their new country. However, being unfamiliar with the healthcare system, the women were unaware of the many services available to assist them. Lack of English is seen as one barriers to migrants accessing health care and other services27-29. Language barriers also prevent knowledge of services in Australia that do not exist in their original country. Hospital-run antenatal education programs provide a range of information related to pregnancy and childbirth; however, these classes are usually offered in English and without an interpreter. For this reason, the Asian women avoided the classes, and therefore were uninformed about available services and their rights as consumers. The women in the study received bundles of booklets and pamphlets about maternal care and services but most were in English which they could not read or had difficulty in understanding. Lack of a common language also presented many difficulties for the migrant women in communicating with healthcare providers. The lack of interpreting services compounded this. In addition, cultural differences caused further difficulties and misunderstandings when dealing with the healthcare system. Most of the interviewed women believed in the benefits and health value of their traditional postnatal practices and had observed them to varying degrees. Although they did not complain about different practices in Australian maternity hospitals, some expressed fear for their long-term health when they were, for instance, served cold food and drink or told to take a shower and walk about soon after the birth. Due to their socialized reticence, many were too shy to express their concerns and preferences, or to enquire about support services. One participant from Vietnam suffered a long suturing procedure because the inexperienced doctor had not sutured previously. She reported that she cried quietly throughout the procedure without asking or complaining and described it as the most painful experience in her life. Apart from having an inexperienced doctor, her culture may have contributed to the trauma she experienced. Enduring pain in silence and maintaining self-control without complaint has been reported as a traditional value of the Vietnamese30,31 and this may have prevented the participant from questioning the healthcare provider even though she knew something was wrong. Among Vietnamese, negative feelings are not usually expressed towards those considered superior, such as parents, physicians or teachers30. This cultural value may mean the experience of Vietnamese women in childbirth is misunderstood by healthcare professionals, even to the extent of believing that Vietnamese women do not suffer much pain and offering less pain relief. There were some limitations to our study. Although the researchers tried to select participants from diverse cultural backgrounds, only some Asian countries were represented. Because of this the study may not have encompassed all the traditional practices and issues of Asian women in maternity care. The small number of participants limits the generalizability of the findings. Although this research provides significant insights into the views and attitudes of Asian migrants in rural Tasmania towards maternity care, a larger study is indicated. Conclusion and recommendations The study findings suggest that language barriers are a key issue for women attempting to access the health care they need. It is vital that all migrant women are offered an interpreter, because few of these women are familiar enough with the Australian healthcare system to know about the existence of such services. Interpreters should be easy to access and require less waiting time than at present. Providing printed healthcare information in a range of languages may be another solution to the language difficulties experienced by migrants. Pamphlets or booklets about maternity care should be available in different languages, such as Chinese and Vietnamese. Healthcare professionals and hospital staff should be informed about these resources in order to provide them to migrant women in need. Cultural barriers may be reduced by staff training in which staff develop a general understanding of and empathy for the issues migrant women deal with. Specific staff training to improve knowledge of cross-cultural beliefs and practices relating to childbirth will reduce misunderstanding and mismanagement in providing hospital care for many Asian migrant women. Family and society's support play an important role in the childbirth experience of rural migrant women. In the absence of close family, migrant women may be assisted by: (i) increasing their awareness of healthcare services; (ii) employing bilingual health workers; and (iii) encouraging their participation in social groups. Pregnancy and childbirth can be the most significant events in a woman's life. It is potentially a period of achievement, happiness and fulfilment, but also a time of dependence and vulnerability. This study provides some insights about the issues and problems facing Asian migrant women in their childbirth experiences in rural Tasmania. It is hoped that the findings will contribute to the enhancement of healthcare services for vulnerable migrant women in rural Australia. 1. Jordan B. Birth in four cultures: a crosscultural investigation of childbirth in Yucatan, Holland, Sweden and the United States. Quebec: Eden Press, 1978. 2. Cheung NF. The cultural and social meanings of childbearing for Chinese and Scottish women in Scotland. Midwifery 2002; 18(4): 279-295. 3. Priya JV. Birth traditions & modern pregnancy care. Shaftesbury: Element, 1992. 4. Rice PL. Nyo dua hli - 30 days confinement: traditions and changed childbearing beliefs and practices among Hmong women in Australia. Midwifery 2000; 16(1): 22-34. 5. Bates E, Linder-Pelz S. Health care issues. Sydney, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 1987. 6. Egwuatu VE. Childbearing among the Igbos of Nigeria. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 1986; 24(2): 103-109. 7. Kaewsarn P, Moyle W, Creedy D. Traditional postpartum practices among Thai women. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2003; 41(4): 358-366. 8. Kit LK, Janet G, Jegasothy R. Incidence of postnatal depression in Malaysian women. Journal of Obstetric and Gynaecology Research 1997; 23(1): 85-89. 9. Maimbolwa MC, Yamba B, Diwan V, Ransjo-Arvidson AB. Cultural childbirth practices and beliefs in Zambia. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2003; 43(3): 263-274. 10. Liamputtong P. Yu Duan practices as embodying tradition, modernity and social change in Chiang Mai, Northern Thailand. Women and Health 2004; 40(1): 79-99. 11. Liamputtong P, Parisunyakul S, Baosoung C, Sansiriphun N. Traditional beliefs about pregnancy and child birth among women from Chiang Mai, Northern Thailand. Midwifery 2005; 21: 139-153. 12. Chu C. Reproductive beliefs and practices of Chinese and Australian women. Taipei: Population Studies Centre, National Taiwan University, 1993. 13. Shi H. Maternity care needs of, and service provision for Chinese migrant women in Brisbane. Brisbane, QLD: Griffith University, 1999. 14. Leininger MM. Transcultural nursing: concepts, theories and practices. New York: Wiley, 1978. 15. Bowler IM. Stereotypes of women of Asian descent in midwifery: some evidence. Midwifery1993; 9(1): 7-16. 16. Chevannes M. Issues in educating health professionals to meet the diverse needs of patients and other service users from ethnic minority groups. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2002; 39(3): 290-298. 17. Australian Bureau of Statistics. The 2006 Census of Population and Housing. (Online) 2006. Available: http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/d3310114.nsf/Home/census (Accessed 23 February 2009). 18. Pillsbury BLK. 'Doing the month': confinement and convalescence of Chinese women after birth. Social Science and Medicine 1978; 12: 11-22. 19. Chu C. Postnatal experience and health needs of Chinese migrant women in Brisbane, Australia. Ethnic Health 2005; 10(1): 33-56. 20. Spector RE. Cultural Diversity in Health and Illness, 6th edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2004. 21. Strauss A, Corbin J. Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990. 22. Tham G. Childbearing Practices of Chinese women. In: PL Rice (Ed). Asian mothers, Western birth. Melbourne, VIC: Ausmed, 1999. 23. Dunn FL. Medical care in the Chinese communities of peninsular Malaysia. In: PK Kleinman, ER Alexander, JL Gale (Eds). Culture and healing in Asian societies. Rochester, VT: Schenkman, 1978; 143-172. 24. Fettling L. Postnatal depression: a practical guide for Australian families. Melbourne, VIC: IP Communications, 2002. 25. Anthony L. Service model: The Postnatal Depression Volunteer Visiting Service. Wangaratta, VIC: Ovens and King Community Health Service Inc, 1998. 26. Stern G, Kruckman L. Multi-disciplinary perspectives on post-partum depression: an anthropological critique. Social Science and Medicine 1983; 17(15): 1027-1041. 27. Documet PI, Sharma RK. Latinos' health care access: financial and cultural barriers. Journal of Immigrant Health 2004; 6(1): 5-13. 28. Durieux-Paillard S, Louthan L. Cultural diversity and stereotyping: implication for the medical practice. Review Medicine Suisse 2005; 1(34): 2208-2210, 12-13. 29. Garrett CR, Treichel CJ, Ohmans P. Barriers to health care for immigrants and nonimmigrants: a comparative study. Minnesota Medicine 1998; 81(4): 52-55. 30. Nguyen D. Culture shock - a review of Vietnamese culture and its concepts of health and disease. Cross-cultural Medicine, West Journal of Medicine 1985; 142: 409-412. 31. Tran H. Antenatal and postnatal maternity care for Vietnamese women. In: PL Rice (Ed). Asian mothers, Western birth. Melbourne, VIC: Ausmed, 1999.

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|Based on Ward et al. 2016.| Myrmelachista is an exclusively Neotropical ant genus. The ants from this genus nest and forage in live or dead trees, but data on its life cycle are relatively scarce. The taxonomy of this genus is considerably complex. (Nakano et al., 2015.) Species in this genus can be difficult to identify. Workers within species are often quite variable and there are not good characters to clearly delimit many species from others by morphological traits. Nakano et al (2015) found that a multivariate analysis of worker morphological characters could not reliably distinguish species found in the Atlantic forests of Brazil. Queens are often deemed more reliable for separating species, so much so that many species are described from a queen holotype. Nakano et al (2015) - Characterized by a visible antennal club with one or two segments, a character that is absent in the remaining Neotropical Formicinae (Fernández, 2003). Myrmelachista species have antennae with nine or ten segments; most species have nine-segmented antennae and are found mainly in Central America (only two have been described in South America), whereas ten-segmented species are mainly found in South America (only three species have been described in Central America and Mexico) (Longino, 2006). Keys to Species in this Genus - Key to Myrmelachista workers of Costa Rica - Key to Myrmelachista queens of Costa Rica - Key to Myrmelachista males of Costa Rica Distribution and Richness based on AntMaps Longino (2006) - Among these stem-nesting ants is the formicine genus Myrmelachista. This group of ants is confined to the Neotropics and is exclusively arboreal. They are inconspicuous and have been little studied, but there are hints from the literature that they are far richer and with more complex plant associations than previously suspected. Early literature contained scattered reports of South American Myrmelachista inhabiting ant-plants (reviewed in Bequaert 1922, Wheeler 1942). Myrmelachista nigella and Myrmelachista schumanni were reported in internodes of Duroia hirsuta (Rubiaceae) (Ule 1907–1908, Schumann 1889). More recent reports have described “devil’s gardens” in South America, in which large polygynous colonies of Myrmelachista occupy monospecific patches of understory Duroia and Tococa (Melastomataceae) (Morawetz et al. 1992, Svoma & Morawetz 1992, Renner & Ricklefs 1998, Frederickson et al. 2005). These patches stand out in the typically dense and diverse understory vegetation as peculiar zones of a single plant species with bare earth beneath them and a ring of bare soil around the perimeter. These patches are created and maintained by the ants, which attack and kill foreign vegetation by spraying it with formic acid, which acts as an herbicide (Morawetz et al. 1992, Renner & Ricklefs 1998, Frederickson et al. 2005). The first indication of something interesting in Central American Myrmelachista was Stout’s (1979) observation of a tight association between an unidentified Myrmelachista and an understory tree species in the genus Ocotea (Lauraceae). She examined 50 plants of Ocotea “pedalifolia” (probably a mix of O. atirrensis and O. dendrodaphne [Hammel 1986]) at the La Selva Biological Station, and found the stems of 49 of them inhabited by Myrmelachista. Since then little has been written about the association, although floristic works on the Lauraceae recognize that various species are routinely occupied by ants (Hammel 1986, Burger & van der Werff 1990). Ibarra-Manríquez and Dirzo (1990) reported the same phenomenon at the Los Tuxtlas Biological Station in Veracruz, Mexico. My studies of Myrmelachista in Costa Rica reveal that these observations are just the beginning and that there is a largely overlooked community of Central American Myrmelachista and their associated plants. Throughout Costa Rica the understory of mature wet forests have high densities of plants that are associated with multiple species of Myrmelachista. Cloud forests likewise have high densities of Myrmelachista living in live stems, but they are more abundant in the canopy than in the understory. Many of these species nest entirely inside of live stems and rarely venture out onto the surface, and the plants they inhabit show no external signs of specialization for ant occupation. There are no preformed domatia, no food bodies, and no extrafloral nectaries. The result is a lineage of ants that in spite of being species-rich and very abundant is almost never collected. Many of the species reported here (Longino 2006) had never been collected prior to my work in Costa Rica, much less receiving any formal taxonomic treatment. Nakano et al (2015) - Workers have been observed in association with 20 families and 53 species of angiosperms (see review by Nakano et al., 2013) and in leaf litter (Suguituru et al., 2011, 2013). Nests are located in the trunks of live trees (Longino, 2006). Colonies with immature and reproductive ants also occupy twigs dispersed on the leaf litter (Nakano et al., 2012, 2013). The genus Myrmelachista is characterized by forming mutualistic associations with some myrmecophytes (Renner & Ricklefs, 1998; Edwards et al., 2009), where workers use formic acid to protect the host plant (Frederickson, 2005), as well as with Coccidae and Pseudococcidae (Kusnezov, 1951; Stout, 1979; Ketterl et al., 2003; Longino, 2006). Although some studies on this genus have been published recently (Longino, 2006; Nakano et al., 2012, 2013), information on the biology of Myrmelachista species is still scarce. Ants from this genus feed on extrafloral nectaries (Frederickson, 2005; McNett et al., 2010), but workers may take plant, fungal and animal fragments (eggs, feces and larvae) into the nests (Torres, 1984). - Myrmelachista kraatzii - Myrmelachista rogeri - Myrmelachista rogeri manni - Myrmelachista rogeri rubriceps - Myrmelachista ambigua - Myrmelachista ramulorum - Myrmelachista ramulorum fortior - Myrmelachista gagates All of the species from the Caribbean have 9 antennal segments. The above are all the species and subspecies known from Caribbean islands. My knowledge of the Caribbean fauna is limited, but I have examined 20 collections of ramulorum from Puerto Rico, St. Croix, USA (Florida, possibly introduced and then extirpated, see Deyrup 2003), Santo Domingo, St. Thomas, and the Dominican Republic; three collections of rogeri from Cuba; syntypes of rogeri manni from Cuba, and syntypes of rogeri rubriceps from Cuba. All appear to be similar to plebecula. All are bicolored or various shades of red brown. Unlike plebecula, all have long erect setae projecting from the sides of the head (workers and queens). Eight queens of ramulorum are very small with very narrow, rectangular heads. The largest of these have the narrowest heads, with HW around 0.70mm and CI around 74, a combination not found in any Costa Rican species except for the one small longiceps-like queen described under longiceps. Unlike ramulorum, the longiceps-like queen lacks erect setae on the sides of the head. The smallest ramulorum queens and the queens of rogeri are in the same size range as plebecula queens, but with relatively narrow heads. All measured queens of plebecula have CI 85 or greater. The highest CI among the ramulorum and rogeri queens is 82. Myrmelachista kraatzii, ambigua, rogeri, and ramulorum are all older names than plebecula, and if plebecula proves to be an allopatric variant of a widespread polytypic Caribbean species it will no doubt be a synonym of one of these older names. It is not clear that rogeri and ramulorum are distinct. When two Cuban rogeri queens I have measured are compared to eight ramulorum queens from other islands, they are at the small end of a continuum of measurements. Myrmelachista ambigua was described from a single worker from St. Vincent. Given the relative uniformity of workers, the published description and even examination of the type will be of little use. Queen and male-associated collections of Myrmelachista from St. Vincent will be needed to compare with material from other parts of the Caribbean. Wheeler (1908) considered the worker of ramulorum close to ambigua. Myrmelachista gagates, from Haiti, was described as being close to rogeri but solid black. It will be important to examine multiple collections of Myrmelachista from Cuba, to ascertain whether there are multiple sympatric species there. It is unknown whether kraatzii and the forms of rogeri are distinct or represent one variable species. Myrmelachista kraatzii from Cuba and M. nigella from Venezuela are the two oldest names in the genus, kraatzii being a 9-segmented form and nigella a 10-segmented form. Thus kraatzii would have priority among all the 9-segmented forms. One collection from El Yunque, Puerto Rico, is indistinguishable from M. longiceps. It is a collection of workers and alate queens, collected by Juan Torres. I am reluctant to identify it as longiceps until more Puerto Rican material is obtained, but there is a large size gap between the queen of this El Yunque collection and the various queens of ramulorum from elsewhere in Puerto Rico. From these observations it is clear that more collections are needed from the Caribbean to better understand species boundaries in this group. The following are all species from this region that have 9 antennal segments. - Myrmelachista skwarrae - Myrmelachista skwarrae picea - Myrmelachista skwarrae laeta - Myrmelachista amicta The above are a set of species described together by Wheeler from material collected by Elisabeth Skwarra in southern Mexico. They are all very similar to plebecula and joycei. I cannot distinguish workers of amicta, skwarrae (and its two subspecies picea and laeta), and plebecula. The males of skwarrae and plebecula are distinct. The male of skwarrae differs from plebecula in having a basiparamere lobe and distinct (though minute) setose pygostyles. Myrmelachista skwarrae males are more like joycei. They differ from joycei in the relatively thinner and more delicate basiparamere lobe and relatively larger ocelli. If the Mexican forms prove to be geographic variants of plebecula, the latter has priority. On the other hand, M. joycei could prove to be a geographic variant of one of the previously named Mexican forms. There are two species in South America with 9 antennal segments. From the descriptions of both species and my examination of workers of guyanensis, these two species are similar to and could be synonymous with plebecula. But further collections of South American Myrmelachista will be necessary to further understand their status. It is tempting to speculate that the 10-segmented forms, widespread and diverse in South America, have spawned one main radiation of 9-segmented forms in Central America and the Caribbean. In this scenario only plebecula, the “weediest” of 9-segmented forms, has spread into South America, and there is no diverse community of 9-segmented forms there. But the late discovery of a trove of 9-segmented Myrmelachista species in Costa Rica shows that this group may remain hidden from the general collector, even in the face of prolonged collecting effort. Thus we remain ignorant of extent of such forms in the South American hylea. • Antennal segment count 9; 10 • Antennal club 3-4 • Palp formula 6,4 • Spur formula 0, 0 • Eyes present • Scrobes absent • Sting absent The following information is derived from Barry Bolton's New General Catalogue, a catalogue of the world's ants. - MYRMELACHISTA [Formicinae: Plagiolepidini] - Myrmelachista Roger, 1863a: 162. Type-species: Myrmelachista kraatzii, by monotypy. - Myrmelachista senior synonym of Decamera Roger (junior homonym), Hincksidris, Neaphomus: Snelling, R.R. & Hunt, 1976: 110. - HINCKSIDRIS [junior synonym of Myrmelachista] - Hincksidris Donisthorpe, 1944b: 59 [as subgenus of Myrmelachista]. Replacement name for Decamera Roger, 1863a: 166. [Junior homonym of Decamera Mulsant, 1842: 503 (Coleoptera).] - Hincksidris junior synonym of Myrmelachista: Snelling, R.R. & Hunt, 1976: 110. - NEAPHOMUS [junior synonym of Myrmelachista] - Neaphomus Menozzi, 1935c: 324 [as subgenus of Aphomomyrmex]. Type-species: Aphomomyrmex (Neaphomus) goetschi, by monotypy. - Neaphomus raised to genus: Kempf, 1972a: 152; Dlussky & Fedoseeva, 1988: 77. - Neaphomus junior synonym of Myrmelachista: Snelling, R.R. & Hunt, 1976: 110; Bolton, 1994: 50. - Agosti, D. 1991. Revision of the oriental ant genus Cladomyrma, with an outline of the higher classification of the Formicinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Syst. Entomol. 16: 293-310 (page 296, Myrmelachista in Formicinae, Pseudolasius genus group) - Ashmead, W. H. 1905c. A skeleton of a new arrangement of the families, subfamilies, tribes and genera of the ants, or the superfamily Formicoidea. Can. Entomol. 37: 381-384 (page 384, Myrmelachista in Formicinae, Plagiolepidini) - Bolton, B. 2003. Synopsis and Classification of Formicidae. Mem. Am. Entomol. Inst. 71: 370pp (page 103, Myrmelachista in Formicinae, Plagiolepini) - Dalla Torre, K. W. von. 1893. Catalogus Hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus. Vol. 7. Formicidae (Heterogyna). Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 289 pp. (page 174, Myrmelachista in Camponotinae) - Emery, C. 1895l. Die Gattung Dorylus Fab. und die systematische Eintheilung der Formiciden. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. Geogr. Biol. Tiere 8: 685-778 (page 771, Myrmelachista in Camponotinae, Plagiolepidini) - Emery, C. 1925d. Hymenoptera. Fam. Formicidae. Subfam. Formicinae. Genera Insectorum 183: 1-302 (page 32, Myrmelachista in Formicinae, Myrmelachistini) - Forel, A. 1878c. Études myrmécologiques en 1878 (première partie) avec l'anatomie du gésier des fourmis. Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat. 15: 337-392 (page 367, Myrmelachista in Camponotinae [Camponotidae]) - Forel, A. 1886a. Einige Ameisen aus Itajahy (Brasilien). Mitt. Schweiz. Entomol. Ges. 7: 210-217 (page 214, Myrmelachista in Camponotinae, Plagiolepidini) - Forel, A. 1893b. Sur la classification de la famille des Formicides, avec remarques synonymiques. Ann. Soc. Entomol. Belg. 37: 161-167 (page 165, Myrmelachista in Camponotinae, Plagiolepidini) - Forel, A. 1895b. A fauna das formigas do Brazil. Bol. Mus. Para. Hist. Nat. Ethnogr. 1: 89-139 (page 106, Myrmelachista in Camponotinae, Plagiolepidini) - Forel, A. 1899h. Formicidae. [part]. Biol. Cent.-Am. Hym. 3: 105-136 (page 124, Myrmelachista in Camponotinae, Plagiolepidini) - Forel, A. 1912j. Formicides néotropiques. Part VI. 5me sous-famille Camponotinae Forel. Mém. Soc. Entomol. Belg. 20: 59-92 (page 89, Myrmelachista in Camponotinae, Myrmelachistini) - Forel, A. 1917. Cadre synoptique actuel de la faune universelle des fourmis. Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat. 51: 229-253 (page 249, Myrmelachista in Camponotinae, Myrmelachistini) - Longino, J.T. 2006. A taxonomic review of the genus Myrmelachista in Costa Rica. Zootaxa. 1141:1-54. PDF - Mayr, G. 1865. Formicidae. In: Reise der Österreichischen Fregatte "Novara" um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859. Zoologischer Theil. Bd. II. Abt. 1. Wien: K. Gerold's Sohn, 119 pp. (page 10, Myrmelachista in Formicinae [Formicidae]) - Nakano, M.A., Miranda, V.F.O, Feitosa, R.M. & Morini, M.S.C. 2014. The geneic Characterizaion of Myrmelachista Roger Assemblages (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Formicinae) in the Atlanic Forest of Southeastern Brazil. Sociobiology 61, 21-27. - Nakano, M.A., Oliveira de Miranda, V.F., Rodrigues de Souza, D.R., Feitosa, R.M. & Morini,M.S.C. 2013. Occurrence and natural history of Myrmelachista Roger (Formicidae: Formicinae) in the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 86, 169-179. - Nakano, M.A., Silva, R.R., Miranda, V.F.O., Feitosa, R.M. & Morini, M.S.C. 2015. Morphological differentiation between species of Myrmelachista Roger (Formicidae: Formicinae) in Atlantic Forest areas of the Alto Tietê (São Paulo). Sociobiology 62(2): 321-327. - Roger, J. 1863a. Die neu aufgeführten Gattungen und Arten meines Formiciden-Verzeichnisses nebst Ergänzung einiger früher gegebenen Beschreibungen. Berl. Entomol. Z. 7: 131-214 (page 162, Myrmelachista as genus) - Snelling, R. R.; Hunt, J. H. 1975. The ants of Chile (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Rev. Chil. Entomol. 9: 63-129 (page 110, Myrmelachista senior synonym of Decamyrma Roger (junior homonym), Hincksidris and Neaphomus) - Wheeler, W. M. 1910b. Ants: their structure, development and behavior. New York: Columbia University Press, xxv + 663 pp. (page 143, Myrmelachista in Camponotinae, Plagiolepidini) - Wheeler, W. M. 1922i. Ants of the American Museum Congo expedition. A contribution to the myrmecology of Africa. VII. Keys to the genera and subgenera of ants. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 45: 631-710 (page 696, Myrmelachista in Formicinae, Myrmelachistini) - Wheeler, W. M. 1934g. Neotropical ants collected by Dr. Elisabeth Skwarra and others. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 77: 157-240 (page 188, Key to species (out of date))

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It should no longer be used. acronymelement indicated an abbreviation or a word formed by the initial letter or letters (or major parts) of a compound term, like NATO, radar or Interpol. - The address element (<address>) encloses contact information of the owner or the author of the document or the article. - applet – obsolete - The applet element (<applet>) embeds a Java applet into a web page. - Represents either a hyperlink with some text and a corresponding area on an image map, or a dead area on an image map. - The article element (<article>) defines a self-contained composition within a page. - The aside element (<aside>) indicates content that is only tangentially related to the rest of the content. - The audio element (<audio>) is used for playing audio files and may display a minimal media player user interface. - The b element represents a span of text to be stylistically offset from the normal prose without conveying any extra importance. - The base element is used to specify a document’s base URL and base target that is used for resolving URI references (relative URLs) within the document. <basefont>) allows specifying a default font-sizefor text on the entire page. The basefontelement was deprecated in HTML4 and should no longer be used. - The bdo element (<bdo>) allows you to specify the direction in which text is to be rendered on the page. (“BDO” stands for Bi-Directional Override.) - The bgsound element ( <bgsound>) instructs the browser to load and play a sound file while the user is on that page. Don’t use it. Use the audio element instead. - The big element (<big>) indicates that the enclosed text should be display in a larger font size than surrounding text. This element is considered obsolete in HTML5. Use CSS instead. - The blockquote element indicates an extended quotation. - The body element (<body>) represents the main content of the document. - The line break element, br, forces the current line of text to end and the text that follows it will being on a new line. - The button element represents a clickable button. - The canvas element (<canvas>) provides scripts with a resolution-dependent bitmap canvas, which can be used for rendering graphs, game graphics, or other visual images on the fly, by using the associated canvas API. - The caption (<caption>) element represents the title of the table that is its parent. <center>element center-aligns text in an HTML page. The element is deprecated in HTML 4.01 and obsolete in HTML5. Use CSS instead. - The cite element represents a reference to a creative work. - The code element specifies a fragment of computer code. - The col element (<col>) specifies properties for each column within a <colgroup> element in a <table>. - The colgroup element (<colgroup>) specifies a group of one or more columns in a table for formatting. This element is useful for applying properties to entire columns, instead of repeating the properties for each cell, for each row. - Represents a user-defined HTML tag (nonstandard) - The datalist element (<datalist>) represents a set of <option> elements that represent predefined options for other controls. It may be associated with an <input> element by adding a list attribute to the input element. - dd – description list data - The dd element represents the description, definition, or value, part of a term-description group in a definition list (dl). A dt (topic) is usually followed by one or more dd (definition) elements. Several consecutive dt are attributed to the dd element that immediately follows the group. - The del element indicates text that has been deleted from the document. - The dfn element indicates the defining instance of a term. - The dir element <dir>is used to list directory titles. The dir element is deprecated in HTML 4.01, and obsolete in HTML5. Use CSS and the ul element instead. - The div element (<div>) is a generic block-level container that has no semantic value other than the one that you give it via classattributes. It can be used for a variety of purposes including the styling of common elements, or for grouping elements with common attributes. - dl – description list - The dl element is used to define a description list. The element encloses one or more description terms, enclosed in dt elements, and description definitions (definitions of the terms), enclosed within dd elements. - dt – description list topic - The dt element indicates a definition term within a definition list (dl). A dt (topic) is usually followed by one or more dd (definition) elements. Several consecutive dt are attributed to the dd element that immediately follows the group. - The em element indicates text that has emphasis. - The HTML <embed> Element represents an integration point for an external content- typically, non-HTML content such as an application or some other type of interactive content which involves use of a third-party plugin as a handler (rather than being natively supported by the UA). - The fieldset element is used to group related fields within a form. - The figcaption (<figcaption>) defines a caption or legend for a figure element. This element is new in HTML5. - The figure element (<figure>) represents self-contained content (such as an image), optionally with a caption, that can be referenced as a single unit from the main content of the document. - The font element is an obsolete tag that was used to specify the typeface, size, and color of the text it contained. - The footer element (<footer>) represents content of the end of the nearest ancestor sectioning content or sectioning root element. - The form element (<form>) defines an HTML form for user input, subsequently to be submitted to a website or service. - The frame element (<frame>) defines one particular window (frame) within a <frameSet>. The <frame> element is obsolete in HTML5. - The frameset element (<frameset>) defines a collection of frames. The <frameset> element holds one or more <frame> elements. Each <frame> element can hold a separate document. The <frameset> tag is obsolete in HTML5. - The head element (<head>) represents a collection of metadata for the document. - The header element (<header>) represents the header of a section: a group of introductory or navigational aids. - (Obsolete) The hgroup element (<hgroup>) is typically used to group a set of one or more h1-h6 elements — to group, for example, a section title and an accompanying subtitle. The hgroup element (<hgroup>) element is obsolete in HTML5. - The h1 through h6 elements define levels of headings within a document. - The hr element represents a paragraph-level thematic break in text. - The html element (<html>) represents the root of an HTML document. The <html> tag is the container for all other HTML elements; except for the <!DOCTYPE> tag. - html comment data-type - A syntactical production: The comment syntax indicates text within a document that is not displayed on the rendered page in the browser. A comment starts with <!--and ends with - The i element indicates that the contained text is in an alternate voice, mood, or language from the surrounding text. - The iframe element (<iframe>) introduces a new nested browsing context. - The input element (<input/>) is a multipurpose element for representing form widgets. The type of widget depends on the - input type ‘button’ - The button type of the input element represents a button with no default behavior. Compare with the button element which offers default behaviours with via attributes. - The checkbox type of the <input> element represents a state or option that can be toggled. - The color type of the <input> element provides a widget for selecting a color value. - The date type of the <input> element represents a widget for specifying a date value (year, month, day), with no time zone or time information. - The datetime-local type of the <input> element represents a widget for setting a date-time value (year, month, day, hours, minutes, seconds, milliseconds) with no time zone information. - input type ‘email’ - The email type of the <input> element represents a field for entering an e-mail address. - The file type of the <input> element represents widget for specifying a file. - The hidden type of the <input> element represents a value that is hidden from the user, but which is sent with the form data; the value can be set programatically. - The image type of the <input> element represents an image. The user can either use the image as a button to submit the form, or select a coordinate of the image to be submitted with the form data. - The month of the <input> element represents a widget for entering a month value. - The number type of the <input> element represents a widget for entering a number. - The password type of the <input> element represents a one-line plain-text edit control for entering a password, which renders input text in such a way as to hide the characters (e.g., a series of asterisks). - The radio type of the <input> element represents a radio button control. - An input field for setting a number value that falls in a given range. - An input form button that resets the form to default values. - An input text field that is used for search queries. - An input form button that submits the form data to the server. - An input field intended for entering a telephone number; does not enforce any syntax. - The input element with a type attribute whose value is “text” represents a one-line plain text edit control for the input element’s value. - An input field for entering a specific time value. - An input field for entering a single, absolute URL value. - An input field for entering a value that represents a specific week. - The ins element represents a range of text that has been inserted (added) into a document. - (Obsolete) A special-purpose single-line text input field - The 'kbd element denotes user input. Typically this is keyboard input (hence “kbd”), but it may also be used to represent other user input, e.g. voice commands or gestures. - Specifies a label for another element on the page. - The legend element represents a title or explanatory caption for the contents of its parent fieldset element. - li – list item - The li element represents one list item. - Enables the current document to establish links to external documents. - (Obsolete) Renders text of the element (usually in monospace font) without interpreting contain HTML markup; obsoleted by pre and code elements. - Represents the main content of the body of a document or application. - Contains coordinate data for client-side image maps. - Represents a run of text that is contextually-important for some reason, such as text that has been marked or highlighted. - Nonstandard. Defines a scrolling area (usually horizontal) of text. - Presents audio or video data to the user. The media element provides the audio and video objects which are used to play sound and video content. - The menu element represents information as a list of items or commands. - The <meta> element embeds various kinds of metadata that cannot be expressed using the title, base, link, style, and script elements. - The HTML <meter>element represents a value within a specified range. This value can be any real number. - The HTML Navigation Element (<nav>) represents a section of navigation links: a page that links to other pages, or to parts within the page - An identifier, automatically generated by the early NeXT web editor. - Indicates that the enclosed text should not be broken across lines; use the CSS property white-space instead. - Recognized as a deprecated element. Intended to provide content for browsers that cannot, or are configured not to, display frames. - The HTML NoScript Element (<noscript>) defines a section of html to be inserted if a script type on the page is unsupported or if scripting is currently turned off in the browser. - The <object> element represents can represent an external resource, which, depending on the type of the resource, will either be treated as an image, as a nested browsing context, or as an external resource to be processed by a plugin. - ol – ordered list - The ol element is used to define an ordered list. The element encloses one or more list items, enclosed in li elements. - Allows authors to group choices logically in a select element. - Denotes one choice in a select element. - The p (for paragraph) element (<p>) represents a paragraph. - This element defines parameters for plugins invoked by object elements. - Control which image resource a user agent presents to a user, based on media query and/or support for a particular image format. - The plaintext element (<plaintext>) is a deprecated tag that was used to indicate that the contents should be interpretted as raw text, without parsing any HTML entities or child tags. - The pre tag defines preformatted text. Text in a pre element is displayed in a fixed-width font and preserves both spaces and line breaks. - The HTML <progress>element represents the completion progress of a task. - q – quote - The q element represents some phrasing content quoted from another source. - The rt element marks the ruby text component of a ruby annotation. - The ruby element allows one or more spans of phrasing content to be marked with ruby annotations. Ruby annotations are short runs of text presented alongside base text, primarily used in East Asian typography as a guide for pronunciation or to include other annotations. - s – strikethrough - The s element represents contents that are no longer accurate and must be marked accordingly in order to allow keeping it in the document. - The samp element represents output from a program or computing system. - Defines sections in a document, such as chapters, headers, footers, or any other sections of the document. It is new to HTML5. selectelement is used to create a drop-down list. Used with optiontags inside the selectelement to define the available options in the list. - Presentational-only element to define text that will appear small. Used for fine print. - Allows developer to specify multiple alternative media resources for media elements, such as <audio>. It does not represent anything on its own, and is used with srcattribute to specify the URL. - Groups inline elements in a document. The span element is both style and semantics neutral; it does not assign any style attributes or semantic meaning on its own. - Deprecated presentational element defining strikethrough text. It is deprecated in HTML4 and not supported in HTML5. Consider the del or s elements instead. - The strong element indicates text that is of great importance, seriousness, or urgency. - Defines style information for an HTML document. Inside the styleelement you specify how HTML elements should render in a browser. Each HTML document can contain multiple - Defines subscript text. Subscript text appears half a character below the baseline. - Defines superscript text. Superscript text appears half a character above the baseline. <table>element is a wrapper for an HTML table. It defines the start and end of a table, and can contain other table elements, such as tbodytag is used to group the body content in an HTML table. - Defines a standard Cell in an HTML table. textareatag defines a multi-line text input control. A text area can hold an unlimited number of characters, and the text renders in a fixed-width font (usually Courier). tfoottag is used to group footer content in an HTML table. thtag defines a header cell in an HTML table. - The thead element (<thead>) identifies header rows at the top of a table, usually containing column labels. It may contain one or more rows of <th> or <td> cells. timetag defines either a time (24 hour clock), or a date in the Gregorian calendar, optionally with a time and a time-zone offset. It does not render differently in any of the major browsers. This element can be used as a way to encode dates and times in a machine-readable way so that, for example, user agents can offer to add birthday reminders or scheduled events to the user’s calendar. - Defines the titleof the current document. trelement represents a row of cells in a table. tracktag specifies text tracks for media elements (audio and video). This element is used to specify subtitles, caption files or other files containing text, that should be visible when the media is playing. Trackis new to HTML5 and is not yet supported in any major browser. - The teletype element ( <tt>) creates monospaced text. It’s use is deprecated in favour of semantic elements like <code>and CSS styles. However, the tt element is still widely supported in browsers. - Underlines text inline. Deprecated in HTML4, redefined in HTML5. In HTML5 it is used to express “an unarticulated, though explicitly rendered, non-textual annotation,” such as a proper name in Chinese or a spelling error. - ul – unordered list - The ul element is used to define an unordered list. The element encloses one or more list items, enclosed in li elements. - Defines a variable. videotag represents an embedded video - The Word Break Opportunity ( wbr) element represents a position within text where the browser may optionally break a line, though its line-breaking rules would not otherwise create a break at that location. - Defines a simple XML data that can be embedded directly in an HTML page. - (Obsolete) Renders text between the start and end tags without interpreting the HTML in between and using a monospaced font. Non-conforming in HTML5. Use This is the list of HTML and related Elements from the past to the present. The root element - sub, sup Previous HTML Elements - applet (deprecated in HTML 4.01, non conformant in HTML5) - basefont (deprecated in HTML 4.01, non conformant in HTML5) - c (never deployed, was a proposal before span) - center (deprecated in HTML 4.01, non conformant in HTML5) - font (deprecated in HTML 4.01, non conformant in HTML5) - isindex (deprecated in HTML 4.01, non conformant in HTML5) - strike (deprecated in HTML 4.01, non conformant in HTML5) - u (deprecated in HTML 4.01, non conformant in HTML5)

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Monday, December 16, 2013 Though the holidays seem to be the season in which kindness abounds, kindness should be a part of the very nature of our everyday lives. Before retiring from teaching, one of the projects that I assigned my students each year was my Random Acts of Kindness lesson plan. I required the students, for a period of two weeks, to practice at least 6 random acts of kindness. Three of those acts were to be acts of kindness demonstrated to a stranger (with all precautions for safety and parental guidance being taken into consideration). I also asked the students to introduce an element of “paying it forward” in hopes that the recipient of their act of kindness would respond by doing an act of kindness for someone else. At the end of the two- week project, the students were to report to the class what their acts of kindness were and what, if anything, the responses were. Of course some students took it more seriously than others, and the project was a success with them. With others, I decided, it was going to be a work in progress. I persisted in doing the project each year, though, as I saw it as a way of helping children to look outside of themselves and their own little worlds to see that kindness and compassion should always be an important priority. I wanted them to realize that even one little kindness can make a difference in someone’s day and, yes, possibly even in their lives. In learning of a new study about small acts of kindness, I feel that my student project over the years may not have been an exercise in futility. New research conducted jointly by the University of B. C. and the University of California found that children who perform their small acts of kindness tend to bolster their own sense of happiness and well being. The researchers also surmised that such acts of kindness may even help to counteract bullying behavior. Approximately 400 Vancouver elementary schoolchildren were asked to report on their happiness after four weeks of participating in one of two scenarios. One group of the nine to 11-year-olds were asked by their teachers to perform acts of kindness, such as sharing their lunch or giving their mom a hug if she appeared stressed. The second group was asked to keep track of pleasant places they visited, such as a playground or their grandparents’ house. While both groups reported a boost in happiness, the children who were kind said they wanted to work with a higher number of classmates on school activities. The study found that being kind had some real benefits to the happiness of the students. It also had some real benefits to the school community and community at large. Professor Kimberly Schonert-Reichl stated that those findings mean it’s likely teachers can create a sense of connectedness in the classroom simply by asking students to think about how they can act kindly to others and that may help reduce bullying behavior. The take-away from this is that parents and teachers can help foster the personal happiness of children, as well as make a positive impact on dealing with the bullying problem in schools by stressing to their children and students the importance of demonstrating kindness and compassion to others, and that can, in turn, help to reduce bullying behavior. Picture credit: Bart Hickman Monday, September 2, 2013 The Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act was established in 1998 and is enforced by the Federal Trade Commission. It requires websites to obtain parental permission before collecting any personal information from children under the age of 13. This is supposed to better protect the privacy of children and better ensure their safety from online predators. However, is it effectively doing that? A new study conducted by the Polytechnic Institute of New York University suggests otherwise. The study claims that when online social networks restrict usage by children under the age of 13, some children are simply motivated to lie about their ages when registering for the sites. When children lie about their ages when registering for such sites, it not only puts their privacy at risk, but the privacy and protection of children who do not lie about their ages, as well. The research team mined data from Facebook using what they referred to as “modest online crawling, computational resources, and simple data-mining practices.” In doing so, they were able to build extensive profiles on most minors at three targeted high schools in the United States. The profiles included such personal information such as full names, locations of hometowns and high schools, grade-levels, and profile pictures. The research team suggests that such personal information could be sold to data brokers, and it could be used in phishing attacks. Worse yet, this could facilitate physical dangers to children from stalkers, predators, and potential kidnappers. More telling still is the fact that the research study included an analysis of privacy leakage both with and without the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act. They determined that attackers can actually gain more information about minors with the law in place. They suggest that social media sites could better protect the privacy and safety of children by disabling the reverse look-up of friends feature that allows anyone to find a child’s hidden information through a friend’s page. It is vital that parents and children be cognizant of the fact that that the actions of a virtual friend could compromise a child’s privacy and his safety. Until online social networks do so, parents should be diligent in monitoring their children’s Internet use by checking periodically to see what sites they are using. This can be more readily accomplished if children’s computers are in a central location in the home where parents can more readily oversee what their children are doing on the computer. Additional strategies to protect children from predators, both in the virtual world and the real world, can be found in my award-winning book, What Would You Do? A Kid’s Guide to Staying Safe in a World of Strangers. The book is available in hardback cover through, Amazon, Barnes & Noble, Books-A-Million, and through Follett, Baker & Taylor, and Ingram’s catalogues. Picture credit: Nevit Dilmen Thursday, August 15, 2013 Parents are justified in having concerns about the safety and privacy of their children who use social media and Smart-Phones. Some companies, websites and apps target teens and children under the age of 13 by collecting photos or geo-location data from them. It has always been the goal of the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) to protect children from such targeting. New rules and updates from COPPA make the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act more relevant in the social media and mobile phone age. The new rules place additional burdens on companies that target kids under 13. The rules were enacted despite objections from industry groups. It is mandatory now that websites and phone apps that collect photos or geo-location data from children must now obtain parental permission, putting that data in the same category as kids' email or home addresses. The COPPA updates also make firms more responsible for data collection by third parties. This was a loophole that had been exploited by marketers in the past. The changes that parents notice may be subtle at first. Some children’s apps might begin requesting parental permissions via emails or other methods. If that would be the case, it’s important that parents make sure kids don't circumvent those rules by using fake email address to grant themselves permission To quote, Martha Stewart’s famous line, “It’s a good thing.” At last, children’s online privacy, whether they are using a mobile phone, tablet, gaming device or computer, is protected. The new COPPA rules put parents in charge of what data can be collected from their children. Picture credit: Vicky S Saturday, July 20, 2013 I would like to introduce a guest blogger, Julie Katz. She is a Certified Nurtured Heart Parent Coach/Trainer who lives in Las Vegas and coaches parents and teachers, as well as conducting one-on-one sessions via phone or Skype. Her post offers my readers useful strategies and resources to help parents manage spirited, intense or undisciplined children. Do you have children in your life who: · appear angry or defiant? · exhibit temper tantrums? · do not respond to traditional discipline techniques? Do you, as a parent: · find yourself yelling all the time? · feel like you’re not having any fun with your kids? · feel stressed out or anxious? There is an approach that can help. The Nurtured Heart Approach™ (NHA) created by Howard Glasser, is more than just a behavior management strategy. It’s a method of parenting children with ADHD and others who are highly intense or difficult, by transforming the focus of their intensity and energy from one of ongoing opposition, negativity and failure, into one of success and achievement. It is about recognizing and reflecting successes in every moment with your child. Traditional parenting methods may work for the average child, but are not designed for the intense child and the harder we try with these conventional methods, the worse it gets. Once we take away the ipad, phone, TV and all other privileges, what are we left with? The truth of the matter is that the child is running the show and he isn’t afraid of us. That’s why I created www.gettingback2greatness.com. I help families with spirited children by having the parents acknowledge and celebrate the child’s positive behaviors and reflect them back to the child, while giving no attention to the negative behaviors. Particularly intense kids who get all of our delicious, luscious attention when they are misbehaving and breaking rules so they rise to that expectation- why would they give that up? We as parents, accidentally energize the choices we don’t want our children to make, by giving out $100 bills in the form of our attention, focus, and relationship. Energetically we hand out big bucks all the time. Children can feel relatively invisible when they are not breaking the rules and perceive the juicy connection when they do because the energy we give is often “upside down”. By realizing that we are the gift being sought by our children, we can now decide how to give them our attention, energy, and relationship. We can either focus on the negative behaviors- the whining, name calling, temper tantrums and all of the other undesirable behaviors, or we can flip it right side up and energize the children for all of the non-rule breaking behaviors that they do every day. Once the adult begins to celebrate the child’s positive behaviors, the parent creates a “juicier” time-in. As the child feels “nourished” by the parent, he will use his intensity in more successful ways. The bottom line of the NHA is that an intense or difficult child is actually an energy-challenged child who is drawn to the strongest possible texture of adult energy- he doesn't care how he gets it- he wants the $1 million check and doesn't see that there's a negative sign in front of it. Parents and teachers need to make a child feel valued. This is accomplished by recognizing the child’s positive choices and reflecting them back to the child in these moments so they get a first-hand experience of their success. This technique is a remarkable way of showing your child that you notice and care about many aspects of her life...It is not only a way of feeding her emotional reservoir, but of proving that she is not invisible. Indeed, many children feel they are invisible unless they are either going to the trouble of acting out or doing something exceptionally well. Once you begin to implement this approach and the child feels “seen” - the parent will see the behaviors in their home shift and the child will show up in their greatness. You can get more information by visiting www.gettingbacktogreatness.com. You can also call 702-461-0749. Email: [email protected] Wednesday, July 17, 2013 I can remember a frightening dream that I had when my children were small. It was really more of a nightmare. I dreamed that a tornado hit where we lived, and I was unable to find my children after frantically searching through the aftermath of the storm. Those kinds of dreams give one pause. I have always been fearful for the safety of my children and all of my family in the event severe storms or any natural disaster should strike. When children hear on the news about tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes, and other kinds of natural disasters, they naturally become frightened. Children who have experienced such natural disasters themselves can become traumatized by the event and the destructive aftermath. Such events threaten their sense of security and normalcy. Parents can better protect their children by knowing what to do and where to go if evacuation is necessary. Have a plan, and keep your children aware of what they need to do in the event of an emergency. Keep in touch with schools, teachers and emergency officials. Parents can reassure children and help them cope if they have heard news reports of severe storms or any other natural disasters that took homes and lives, or if the children themselves have been traumatized by being in the path of such a natural disasters. Parents can remind children that they have an emergency plan in place that will help to better protect them. During a storm, or in the aftermath of one, remain calm. Acknowledge and normalize their feelings and fears as being a normal reaction. Encourage them to talk about disaster-related events, and promote positive problem-solving and coping skills. Emphasize to the children their resiliency. That will help to bolster their confidence. It is also important to strengthen children’s friendships and family support network. Picture credit: Laura Griffith Sunday, July 14, 2013 Much of America is shocked and outraged at the not guilty verdict for George Zimmeran for killing young Trayvon Martin. What lessons can be learned from this verdict? What can parents, particularly parents of black children, teach them? It is true that black Americans are freer now, considering the years of subjugation and discrimination. However, the Zimmerman acquittal in the death of a black teenager walking home with a bag of Skittles and an iced tea shows that America has a long way to go in the battle against racism. Despite the end of Jim Crow, it would seem that it is still socially, politically and legally acceptable to presume the guilt of nonwhite bodies. It would seem that Trayvon Martin was the one on trial rather than George Zimmerman. W.E.B. Dubois, have you just rolled over in your grave? Tuesday, June 11, 2013 Many children harbor negative views of elderly people. Some children even fear seniors. This article will explain how to use children’s books to counteract those fears and negative stereotyping. The Problem and the Cause of Children’s Negative Views of Elderly People Research done by the American Association for Retired Persons, teamed with the National Academy for Teaching and Learning about Aging, found evidence that a majority of American children hold negative views of the elderly. This discovery should be no surprise. The elderly are revered in many other societies, but American society worships the young and beautiful. It is perplexing to think that the world’s greatest country doesn’t give the aged the deference that they have earned. Testimony to this allegation is the fact that the ailing Medicare program for our senior citizens during former President Bush’s administration was sacrificed in our federal budget to tax cuts, and viable solutions for the social security situation were not being addressed. If adults have such little veneration for the elderly, how can we expect our children to have positive views? Children truly learn what they live. However, the example adults set isn’t solely responsible for our children’s negative view of the elderly. According to the Center on Aging, Health and Humanities, children’s views concerning older people are greatly influenced by the books, stories and verse that they are exposed to at an early age. A good example is a verse from a traditional folk song - “There was an old woman who swallowed a fly. I dunno why she swallowed the fly. Perhaps she’ll die.” Armed with such verse, beloved as it is for its fun and nonsense, and with the portrayals of wickedness and wretchedness of older people in some Grimm or Anderson fairy tales, is it any wonder that the elderly are viewed as silly, inconsequential, and utterly disposable? Using Children’s Literature to Promote Positive Views on Aging It’s not as if the market for children’s literature portraying the elderly in a positive light hasn’t been tapped. There is much good literature on the market that does just that. The availability is evidenced in the extensive reading list compiled by a joint effort of the Association for Library Service to Children and ’s Center on Aging, Health and Humanities. The Resources section provides a link to this reading list. George Washington Since positive reading material is available, then possibly the degree to which we are actually exposing our children to it is the crux of the problem. If the reading of such literature is not encouraged by parents, librarians, and teachers, then its potentially positive impact can’t compete with the negative impact of the age-old fairy tales entrenched in our literary culture. After all, how familiar are our children with the positive portrayals found in books such as Grandfather’s Journey by Alan Say, or Valerie Flournoy’s The Patchwork Quilt? Can the extent of children’s exposure to such magnificent literature even compare with the number of times they’ve either read, heard or seen in film the story of Cinderella or Rumpelstiltskin? How do we begin to address discrepancies in the degree to which children are exposed to these two types of reading material? One obvious place to begin is in the home, the school library and the classroom. Parents, teachers and librarians need to provide appropriate literature and find creative ways to employ lessons and projects using books that portray aging in a positive light and that encourage inter-generational interaction. Annotated List of Recommended Books that Promote Positive Views of the Elderly Stephen Gammel. 1988. 30p.Knopf, (0-394-99330-6). Song and Dance Man. Grade level K-3: In this Caldecott winner, Grandpa, a retired former vaudeville performer, enthrals his adoring audience, his three grandchildren. Flournoy, Valerie. The Patchwork Quilt. Illus.l by Jerry Pinkney. 1985. 32p. Dial Books for Young Readers, (0-8037-0097-0). Grade level K-3: So that the old ways won’t be forgotten, Tanya and her grandmother together work on a patchwork quilt made from pieces of their old clothing. As Grandma explains, “A quilt can tell your whole life story.” Giff, Patricia Reilly. Pictures of Hollis Woods. 2002. 166p. Wendy Lamb Books, (0-385-32655-6). Grade level 5-8: Twelve-year old Hollis is taken into the foster home of Josie, an artist who inspires Josie to express herself in her own drawings. Josie is slipping into dementia, and Hollis struggles to save her relationship with this woman she has learned to love. Since students participating in a nursing home visitation project would most likely encounter dementia in some of the residents, this book would be appropriate preparatory reading. Hamanaka, Sheila. Grandparents Song. 2003. 32p. HarperCollins, (0-688-17853-7). Grade level K-3: Grade level K-3: This is a rhyming celebration of ancestry and our country’s diversity that tells the story of a girl who traces her ancestry back through her Native American grandparents. Hittleman, Carol G. And Daniel R. A Grand Celebration: Grandparents in Poetry. Illus. by Kay Life. 2002. 32p. Wordsong/Boyds Mills Press, (1-56397-901-2). Grade level K-3: This poetry anthology celebrates grandparents of all ages, cultures, and degrees of energy. This selection would be great for read-alouds during observances of National Grandparents’ Day. Hunter, Dette. 38 Ways to Entertain Your Grandparents. Illus. by Deirdre Betteridge. 2002. 47p. Annick Press, (1-55037-749-3). Grade level K-3: This is a lively picture book that details 38 activities that use common materials for grandparents and grandchildren to share. Lakin, Patricia. Grandparents Around the World. 1999. 32 p. Blackbirch Press, (1-56711- 146-7). Grade level 3-6: This selection examines the role that grandparents play in various countries, discussing their position as the elders in their cultures. Love, Ann and Drake, Jane. Kids and Grandparents: an Activity Book. Illus. by Heather Collins. 2000. 160p. Kids Can Press, (1-55074-784-3). Grade level 3-6: This is a collection of more than 90 activities, crafts and recipes for children and grandparents to do together. Mead, Alice. Junebug and the Reverend. 1998. 185p. Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, (0-374-33965-1).G Grade level 4-6: In this sequel to Junebug, Mead, his mother and little sister Tasha have left the projects for a new home where his mother begins work as the residential manager for an apartment building for the elderly. Mead (nicknamed Junebug) is given the daily responsibility for walking an elderly emphysema patient, old Reverend Ashford. Rotner, Shelley and Kelly, Sheila. Lots of Grandparents. Illus. by Shelley Rotner.2001.32p. Millbrook Press, (0-7613-2313-9). Grade level K-3: Beginning with the words for grandmother and grandfather in seven different languages, this book emphasizes the foundation of racial diversity and multiculturalism, as well as the varying types and abilities of grandparents. The variety of photographs can lead to enlightening classroom discussions. Siebolt, Jan. Doing Time Online. 2002. 88p. Whitman, (0-8075-5959-8). Grade level 3-6: When Mitch plays a trick on an elderly neighbor, he is sentenced to one month of community service chatting twice weekly online with a local nursing home resident. Their conversations are mutually beneficial as the resident helps Mitch apologize, and Mitch helps her accept her circumstances. This is relevant reading in preparation for a nursing home visitation project. Zindel, Paul. The Pigman. 1968. 182p. Harper Collins, (0-06-026828-X); Harper Trophy, paper, (0-06-075735-3). Grade level YA: Two teenagers from unhappy homes tell of their bizarre relationship with an old man who they first trick and then befriend. Picture credit: Nyobe Monday, May 27, 2013 School will be out soon for the summer. For parents who have jobs to go to, despite summer vacation for the kiddies, this can create a problem of making sure the children are safe and properly cared for while Mom and Dad are at work. Putting the children into a day care center for the summer is one option. If you, as working parents, choose that option, there are some tips you should know to help you choose a good day care facility. There are commercial day care centers and day care services that are provided from homes. Regardless of whether the day care center is a commercial one or a home facility, the quality of the center, the staff, and the services must be carefully inspected and investigated. Here are some things that parents, when choosing day care for their children, should do: · Ask about the child to staff ratio. The fewer children each staff member is responsible for, the safer your child will be. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends a ratio of one staff person for 3 to 5 small children and one staff member for 7 to 10 older children. Also check to be sure younger and older children are separated. · Ask about the facilities policies on discipline, visitation, pick-up and drop-off, and other important issues. Ask if the policies are in writing and, if so, ask for a copy. · Ask about the training and experience of the staff. Are all staff members certified in basic first aid? Are all staff members trained in child development? Are all staff members trained in identification of abused children? Are all staff members trained in preventing and treating illness and injury? · Ask about the rules regarding frequent hand-washing. This is important in order to reduce the spread of illness among the kids. All staff members must wash their hands each time they diaper a child and before fixing meals or snacks. Staff should monitor that children was their hands after bathroom breaks and before eating food. · Inspect for building and playground / play area safety. Are poison control phone numbers and ambulance phone numbers clearly posted? Does the playground have impact-absorbing surfaces, such as wood chips, under the swings and slides? Are young children able to get to high places? Are the children protected from strangers? Are fire drills held at least every month? Are there smoke alarms throughout the building? Does the center use space heaters? If so, are they being used properly? Are safety gates used in areas for small children? Are electric outlets covered? Are sharp corners of furniture covered? Are the toys kept clean? All washable toys should be cleaned daily with a disinfectant cleaner. · Better ensure the safety of your children by looking for red flags that would indicate a particular center may have some problems. Here are some red flags: The staff fails to answer your questions and address your concerns. There is no way for parents to be involved in the day care practices. Your child tells you about problems or is not happy with his or her day care experience. Unexplained accidents happen more than once. There is a high rate or frequency of staff turn-over. The center can't offer you a written copy of the day care policies. Other parents tell you about problems or concerns with the day care center. Picture credit: Afonso Lima Monday, May 20, 2013 I am honored to introduce to my readers a guest blogger for today’s post to Child Safety. Jayneen Sanders (aka Jay Dale) is an experienced primary school teacher, editor and publisher. She is also an accomplished children’s book author, writing over 100 titles for Engage Literacy (Capstone Classroom). Jay is a strong advocate for sexual abuse prevention education and is the author of the children’s picture book on this topic: Some Secrets Should Never Be Kept. I think you will find that her guest blog post below is very informative and offers valuable resources. Keeping Kids Safe from Inappropriate Touch We teach our children water safety and road safety — it is equally important to teach our children ‘body safety’ from a very young age. As both a teacher and a mother, I strongly recommend to all parents that ‘body safety’ become a normal part of your parenting conversation. The sexual abuse of children has no social boundaries, and providing children with body safety skills empowers them with knowledge of what is good and bad touch. The statistics of 1 in 3 girls and I in 6 boys will be sexually interfered with before their 18th birthday is truly frightening, and as many experts point out, this statistic only reflects reported cases. Also 93% of children will know their perpetrator. The community’s focus has so often been on ‘stranger danger’ — however, the reality is, the perpetrator will be most likely be someone in the child’s immediate family circle and a person they know and trust. There are a number of fantastic books available to teach children body safety skills. Children are visual learners so story is an excellent medium when broaching this subject with your child. Here are my top ten. Top Ten Books to Empower Kids About Their Bodies 1 ‘Some Secrets Should Never Be Kept’ written by Jayneen Sanders, illustrated by Craig Smith, published by Upload Publishing 2011 2 ‘My Body Belongs to Me’ written by Jill Starishevsky, illustrated by Sara Muller, published by Safety Star 2008 3 ‘Everyone’s Got a Bottom’ written by Tess Rowley, illustrated by Jodi Edwards, published by Family Planning Queensland 2007 4 ‘Matilda Learns a Valuable Lesson’ written by Holly-ann Martin, illustrated by Marilyn Fahie, published by Safe4Kids 2011 5 ‘Jasmine’s Butterflies’ written by Justine O’Malley, illustrated by Carey Lawrence, published by Protective Behaviours WA 6 ‘Amazing You’ written by Dr Gail Saltz, illustrated by Lynne Avril Cravath, published by Penguin 2005 7 ‘The Right Touch’ written by Sandy Kleven, illustrated by Jody Bergsma, published by Illumination Arts 1997 8 ‘It’s My Body’ written by Lory Freeman Girard, illustrated by Carol Deach, published by Parenting Press 1982 9 ‘I Said No!’ written by Zack and Kimberly King, illustrated by Sue Rama, published by Boulden Publishing 2008 10 ‘Your Body Belongs to You’ by Cornelia Spelman, illustrated by Teri Weidner, Albert Whitman & Company 1997 To further help parents, here is a summary of the very important body safety skills every parent should teach their child. Please note, these skills can be taught gradually and in daily conversations as your child grows. Body Safety Skills 1. As soon as your child begins to talk and is aware of their body parts, begin to name them correctly, e.g. toes, nose, eyes, etc. Children should also know the correct names for their genitals from a young age. Try not to use ‘pet names’. This way, if a child is touched inappropriately, they can clearly state to you or a trusted adult where they have been touched. 2. Teach your child that their penis, vagina, bottom, breasts and nipples are called their ‘private parts’ and that these are their body parts that go under their swimsuit. Note: a child’s mouth is also known as a ‘private zone’. 3. Teach your child that no-one has the right to touch or ask to see their private parts (and if someone does, they must tell you or a trusted adult (or older teenager) straight away. Reinforce that they must keep on telling until they are believed. (Statistics tell us that a child will need to tell three people before they are believed.) As your child becomes older (3+) help them to identify five people they could tell. These people are part of their ‘network’. 4. Teach you child that if some-one (i.e. the perpetrator) asks them to touch their own private parts or shows their private parts to the child that this is wrong also, and that they must tell a trusted adult (or older teenager) straightaway. Reinforce that they must keep on telling until they are believed. 5. At the same time as you are discussing in appropriate touch, talk about feelings. Discuss what it feels like to be happy, sad, angry, excited, etc. Encourage your child in daily activities to talk about their feelings, e.g. ‘I felt really sad when … pushed me over.’ This way your child will be more able to verbalise how they are feeling if someone does touch them inappropriately. 6. Talk with your child about feeling ‘safe’ and ‘unsafe’. Discuss times when your child might feel ‘unsafe’, e.g. being pushed down a steep slide; or ‘safe’, e.g. snuggled up on the couch reading a book with you. Children need to understand the different emotions that come with feeling ‘safe’ and ‘unsafe’. For example, when feeling ‘safe’, they may feel happy and have a warm feeling inside; when feeling ‘unsafe’ they may feel scared and have a sick feeling in their tummy. 7. Discuss with your child their ‘early warning signs’ when feeling unsafe, i.e. heart racing, feeling sick in the tummy, sweaty palms, feeling like crying. Let them come up with some ideas of their own. Tell your child that they must tell you if any of their ‘early warning signs’ happen in any situation. Reinforce that you will always believe them and that they can tell you anything. 8. As your child grows, try as much as possible to discourage the keeping of secrets. (Perpetrators rely heavily on children keeping secrets.) Talk about happy surprises such as not telling Granny about her surprise birthday party and ‘bad’ secrets such as someone touching your private parts. Make sure your child knows that if someone does ask them to keep an inappropriate secret that they must tell you or someone in their network straight away. 9. Discuss with your child when it is appropriate for someone to touch their private parts, e.g. a doctor if they are sick (but making sure they know you must be in the room). Discuss with your child that if someone does touch their private parts (without you there) they have the right to say: ‘No!’ or ‘Stop!’ and outstretch their arm and hand. Children (from a very young age) need to know their body is their body and no-one has the right to touch it in appropriately. Lastly, sexual abuse prevention education is not only a parent’s responsibly, it is also the community’s responsibility. Ask your child’s kinder or school if they are running such a program. If they are not, ask why not. And PLEASE lobby for it. Note: The above points are a summary of the body safety skills your child needs to learn. If you wish to learn more, go to such organizations as Just Tell, Childhelp and Stop It Now. Some general grooming techniques to be wary of • Be aware of any person who wishes to spend a great deal of time with your child, seeking out their company and offering to take care of them. • A person who pays special attention to your child, making them feel more special than any other child; providing them with special treats, presents, sweets, etc. • A person who is always willing to help out and ‘babysit’ when you are extremely busy and pushed for time. Note: Sexual offenders will always plan who they target, they will work hard at getting both the child and the family’s trust. They will create opportunities to be alone with children or groups of children and may well target vulnerable communities. They frequently change jobs and address to avoid detection. They will often spend a lot of time with children outside of their jobs. Sex offenders may well set up a scenario where a child has a reputation for lying so as to discredit them if they ever should disclose. Normal sexual behavior Children have a natural curiosity about their bodies and sex. This is normal. If you see any of the following behavior try not to react in a negative way. Sexual curiosity is how child learn about their gender. Age appropriate sexual behavior is as follows: • babies, toddler and young children exploring their genitals and enjoying being naked • question about why they have a penis and girls don’t (vice a versa), ie trying to work out the difference between what it is to be male and what it is to be female • showing others their genitals • playing doctors and nurses and/or mommies and daddies, kissing holding hands with children of a similar age • using slang words or ‘rude’ words they have picked up • looking at each other’s body parts (particularly children under 7, close in age and who know each other ) in mutual agreement, ie no-one is being forced to show each other’s their body parts • as they get older, curious about where they came from; may be giggly and embarrassed about body parts discussion Some general signs that a child (0 to 12 years) may be being sexually abuse Note: one or more of these indicators does not mean your child is being sexually abused, but if they do show these indicators, then there is good reason to investigate further. • overly interested in theirs or other’s genitals • continually wants to touch private parts of other children • instigating and/or forcing ‘sex play’ with another child (often younger, more than 3 years difference in age) • sex play not appropriate ie oral genital contact between a 7 year old and a 4 year old • sex play with another child happening more than once, despite careful monitoring and discussion about inappropriateness • persistent masturbation that does not cease when told to stop • sexualized play with dolls or toys • sexualized play involving forced penetration of objects vaginally or anally • chronic peeping, exposing and obscenities • touching or rubbing against the genitals of adults or children they do not know • persistent use of ‘dirty’ words • describing sexual acts and sexualized behavior beyond their years • strong body odor • sores around the mouth • bruising or bleeding in the genital area, bruising to breasts, buttocks, lower abdomen or thighs • withdrawn and anxious behavior • secretive or say they have a ‘special’ secret that they must not tell • child or child’s friend telling you about interference directly or indirectly • going to bed fully clothed • increase in nightmares and sleep disturbances • regressive behavior, for example, a return to bed-wetting or soiling • unexplained accumulation of money and gifts In older children (adolescents) • self-destructive behavior such as drug dependency, suicide attempts, self-mutilation • eating disorders • adolescent pregnancy • persistent running away from home • withdrawn, angry • pornography interest; verbally sexually aggressive obscenities

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History and gorgeous scenery in the eastern districts of South Korea are the highlights of the tour program. South Korea eastern cities boast a thousand years of rich history, including Seoul, Gyeongju and Andong city, where you can find many UNESCO World Heritage sites. In addition, you can experience a hiking course through the most famous mountain in Korea, Mt. Seorak. Explore the old and new culture coexisting together in Seoul and experience the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympic hosting city.... Vacation Style Family & GIT Activity Level Medium Korea is a region in East Asia; since 1945 it has been divided into two distinct sovereign states: North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and neighbours Japan to the east by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan (East Sea). Korea emerged as a singular political entity in 676 AD, after centuries of conflict among the Three Kingdoms of Korea, which were unified as Unified Silla to the south and Balhae to the north. Unified Silla divided into three separate states during the Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo, which had succeeded Goguryeo, defeated the two other states and united the Korean Peninsula. Around the same time, Balhae collapsed and its last crown prince fled south to Goryeo. Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ), whose name developed into the modern exonym "Korea", was a highly cultured state that created the world's first metal movable type in 1234.However, multiple invasions by the Mongol Empire during the 13th century greatly weakened the nation, which eventually agreed to become a vassal state after decades of fighting. Following military resistance under King Gongmin which ended Mongol political influence in Goryeo, severe political strife followed, and Goryeo eventually fell to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established Joseon in 1392. The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by relative peace. During this period, the Korean alphabet was created by Sejong the Great in the 15th century and there was increasing influence of Confucianism. During the later part of the dynasty, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname of the "Hermit Kingdom". By the late 19th century, the country became the object of imperial design by the Empire of Japan. After the First Sino-Japanese War, despite the Korean Empire's effort to modernize, it was annexed by Japan in 1910 and ruled by Imperial Japan until the end of World War II in August 1945. In 1945, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed on the surrender of Japanese forces in Korea in the aftermath of World War II, leaving Korea partitioned along the 38th parallel. The North was under Soviet occupation and the South under U.S. occupation. These circumstances soon became the basis for the division of Korea by the two superpowers, exacerbated by their incapability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. The Communist-inspired government in the North received backing from the Soviet Union in opposition to the pro-Western government in the South, leading to Korea's division into two political entities: North Korea (formally the Democratic People's Republic of Korea), and South Korea (formally the Republic of Korea). Tensions between the two resulted in the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. With involvement by foreign troops, the war ended in a stalemate in 1953, but without a formalized peace treaty. This status contributes to the high tensions that continue to divide the peninsula. To date, each country contends it is the sole legitimate government of all of Korea; they each refuse to recognize the other as legitimate. - 6 nights accommodation at hotel of choice, based on twin-sharing (2 persons per room) - Meals mentioned in the itinerary as specified (B=Breakfast, L=Lunch, D=Dinner) - Private transportation in a chauffeur-driven, air-conditioned vehicle - Bottled drinking water during transfers - Tours and activities as indicated in the itinerary - Professional and licensed English-speaking guide (additional charge applies for other language-speaking guide) - All entrance fees, donations and parking fees as per itinerary - Public Liability Insurance - 11% local government tax and 10% service charge - Visa fee/arrangements if applicable - Any domestic or international flights - Any alcoholic beverages - Personal expenses such as laundry, telephone call, room service, mini bar, etc - Personal health and travel insurance - Gratuities/ tipping for driver and/or guide and porterage - Any applicable High Season and Peak /Festive Season surcharge - Any additional excursion/optional tours/Activites that are not mentioned in the itinerary Arrive in Seoul ( - / - / - ) Upon arrival at Incheon International Airport, you will meet our representative with name board at airport exit. We will assist you to board a pre-reserved vehicle and then transferred to your hotel by a local driver on a private basis. After hotel check-in, the rest of the day is at leisure on your own. Full-Day Seoul Highlights ( B / L / - ) After breakfast, meet up with tour guide at hotel lobby. Visit Gwanghwamun Gate, the main gate founded by the first king of the Joseon Dynasty and enjoy Royal Guard Changing Ceremony. Next, explore Gyeongbokgung Palace (Changdeokgung Palace on Tuesday), arguably the most beautiful and the grandest of all five palaces and also visit National Folk Museum of Korea. Then pass by Blue house, also called Cheong Wa Dae, the presidential residence. Then you will visit Insadong-gil, which is connected to a multitude of alleys that lead deeper into the district, with modern galleries and tea shops and also visit Jogyesa Temple, the chief temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism, becoming so in 1936. Afterward, head to Myeongdong, one of the busiest places in Seoul and among Korea"s premier shopping destinations and have a lunch at a local restaurant. Then explore Namsangol Hanok Village (Bukchon Hanok Village on Monday) where there are five restored traditional Korean houses and a pavilion, a pond and a time capsule. Next, visit N Seoul Tower, offering panoramic views of Seoul and the surrounding areas. After the tour, transfer to hotel. Seoul - Jinju - Busan ( B / L / D ) After breakfast, meet tour guide at hotel lobby. The first stop is Jinjuseong Fortress, historically linked to the Japanese invasion in 1592. Afterward, transfer to Busan and visit Igidae Park, the coastal walking path, famous for its panoramic view of Marine city and Gwangan Bridge. Rest of the day is free for you to explore Haeundae Beach known for its modern feel. You may spend fantastic night time at cafes and pubs. Also you can enjoy watching busking along the shoreline as well as Haeundae Market. After dinner, check in hotel and rest of the day is at leisure. Busan - Ulsan - Gyeongju ( B / L / D ) After breakfast, head to Ulsan and pass through the world's largest single automobile plant. Visit Daewangam Park, littered with rocks carved into interesting shapes by the wind and ocean. Next, explore Bulguksa Temple, the representative relic designated as a World Cultural Asset by UNESCO in Gyeongju. Explore to Gyeongju National Museum and Daereungwon Tomb Complex. Before you head to Cheomseongdae Observatory, choose your preferred Hanbok, Korean National Costume and make a special memory wearing Hanbok with your companions. Lunch and dinner will be served en route at local restaurants. After hotel check in, rest of the day is at leisure. Gyeongju - Andong - Pyeongchang ( B / L / D ) After breakfast, transfer to from Gyeongju to Andong and visit Andong Hahoe village, home to descendants of the Ryu clan of Pungsan and well-known for its traditional houses. Then, transfer to Wonju and visit Hanji Theme Park where you can get a chance to experience the Hanji making process. Then, transfer to Pyeongchang. Lunch and dinner will be served en route at local restaurants. After hotel check in, rest of the day is at leisure. Pyeongchang - Gangreung - Seoul ( B / L / D ) After breakfast, this morning stop by Ski Jump Observatory for Olympic Winter Games Pyeongchang 2018 and then explore Jumunjin Seafood Market, including a variety of fresh seafood caught on the East Coast. For the next stop, transfer to Yangyang for a short hiking at Jujeongol of Mt. Seorak to enjoy the nature. After the tour, transfer to Seoul. Drop off service is available at T-Mark Hotel, T-Mark Grand Hotel, Lotte Hotel Seoul and Center Mark Hotel. Depart to next destination ( B / L / D ) After breakfast, spend some time till met and transferred to Incheon International Airport by a local driver on a private basis for your flight to next destination. 1. 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You further agree that in connection with your activities, you will not permit the use of our services or website by anyone that resides or is staying in a country for which such use is prohibited under our country regulations. *Passport, Visa and Immigration Requirements It is your responsibility to fullfil the passport, visa and other immigration requirements applicable to your itinerary. You should confirm these with the relevant embassies and/or consulates. We do not accept any responsibility in the case of you being unable to travel due to not complying with any such requirements. You are also required to carry a valid International Student I.D., and International Youth I.D. or an International Teacher I.D. card if you are traveling on a special student/youth/teacher ticket. It is your responsibility to verify this with our travel expert who is assisting you. *Insurance Travel insurance is a vital part of your arrangements. We strongly recommend that you have taken out adequate insurance for the duration of your journey. Travel insurance is a mandatory element of some travel arrangements. We may be able to arrange travel insurance to be provided to you, furnish you a quote, and answer any queries you may have regarding the insurance. 3. Additional Terms Warranties, Disclaimers and Limitation of Liability FOR THE AVOIDANCE OF DOUBT, REFERENCES HEREIN TO "US" "WE" AND "OUR" SHALL ALSO REFER TO OUR AFFILIATES. THE INFORMATION, SOFTWARE, PRODUCTS, AND SERVICES PROVIDED BY US OR OUR SUPPLIERS OR PUBLISHED ON OUR WEBSITE MAY INCLUDE INACCURACIES OR ERRORS, INCLUDING PRICING ERRORS. WE DO NOT GUARANTEE THE ACCURACY OF, AND DISCLAIM ALL LIABILITY FOR ANY ERRORS OR OTHER INACCURACIES RELATING TO SUCH INFORMATION THAT APPEARS ON OUR WEBSITE. WE EXPRESSLY RESERVE THE RIGHT TO CORRECT ANY PRICING ERRORS ON OUR WEBSITE AND/OR ON PENDING RESERVATIONS MADE UNDER AN INCORRECT PRICE. 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THE LIMITATIONS SPECIFIED IN THIS SECTION WILL SURVIVE AND APPLY EVEN IF ANY LIMITED REMEDY SPECIFIED IN THESE TERMS IS FOUND TO HAVE FAILED OF ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE.

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Scientific Name(s): Theobroma cacao L. subsp. cacao Common Name(s): Cacao, Cocoa Medically reviewed by Drugs.com. Last updated on Jan 15, 2018. Cocoa solid, cocoa butter, and chocolate are all rich sources of antioxidants.2 Epidemiological studies show an inverse association between the consumption of cocoa and the risk of cardiovascular disease.3, 4 The likely mechanisms are antioxidant activity; improvement in endothelial function, vascular function, and insulin sensitivity; as well as attenuation of platelet reactivity and reduction in blood pressure.5, 6 No specific dosing recommendations can be made. Further studies characterizing the polyphenol content of cocoa products and method of measurement are needed.1, 7 In one study, an inverse relationship was demonstrated between cocoa intake and blood pressure, as well as a 15-year cardiovascular and all-cause mortality; the median cocoa intake among users was 2.11 g/day.3 Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) when used in moderate amounts or in amounts used in foods. Avoid dosages greater than those found in food because safety and efficacy are unproven. Caffeine content should be restricted during pregnancy.8, 9 None well documented. Children consuming large amounts of chocolate and caffeinated beverages may exhibit tics or restlessness. Ingredients in chocolate may precipitate migraine headaches, and cocoa products may be allergenic. Cocoa is nontoxic when ingested in typical confectionery amounts. The cocoa tree grows to heights exceeding 8 m. The fruits are borne on the trunk and branches, with the seeds imbedded in a sticky pulp. The fruits are large and football shaped, with quarter-sized seeds referred to as cocoa beans. Cacao is often used to describe the raw material, while cocoa is used to describe the processed products. Although several varieties of cacao exist, the forastero variety from West Africa accounts for more than 90% of world production.10 The Olmecs, one of the first civilizations of the Americas (1500 BC to 400 BC) are credited with the first use of cocoa. Its consumption as a beverage was continued by the Mayas (250 AD to 900 AD). Cortez described the preparation and use of a beverage called chocalatl, made of the seeds of T. cacao. The Mayan word cacao entered scientific nomenclature in 1753, and the words theo ("god") and broma ("nectar" or "food") are Latinized Greek. Recipes using cacao were recorded in 15th century Mayan codices.11, 12 Cacahuatl (cacao) beans, resembling almonds, have been used as currency. In Aztec society, cocoa beans were used to pay annual taxes to the Emperor.11 The medicinal use of chocolate has a long history in North America dating to the 16th century.13 In the 1600s, it was argued that "chocolate" should be considered a medicine because it changed a patient's health. At that time, physicians also stated that all that was necessary for breakfast was chocolate, because it yielded good nourishment for the body.14 In the Rules for Regulating Salem Hospital published in 1773, chocolate was listed under "patient's diet."13 Documents have been discovered indicating that chocolate was used naturopathically and prescribed to patients by some physicians for a variety of diseases during the 18th and 19th century in America, including cholera, consumption (tuberculosis), scarlet fever, smallpox, typhus, and yellow fever.13 During the 20th century (especially after the 1930s), the consumption of chocolate shifted from medicinal to confectionery. In the last 2 decades there has been a resurgence in the interest of chocolate/cocoa as providing health benefits.5, 6, 7 The cocoa seeds (beans) are ground into a liquid mass called cocoa liquor, containing about 55% cocoa butter removed by hydraulic pressing. The remaining cocoa cake is dried and ground to a fine powder with a fat content of about 22%. Specially treated cocoa powder, called alkalinized cocoa has improved color, flavor, and dispersability compared with unalkalinized powder. Cocoa butter, also known as theobroma oil, may have a faint chocolate odor that can be removed following further purification. Cocoa contains more than 300 volatile compounds, the most important flavor components being aliphatic esters, polyphenols, aromatic carbonyls, and theobromine10 which also prevent rancidity of the fat.15 Cocoa is also a dietary source of resveratrol.90 The pharmacologically active ingredients of cocoa seeds include amines, alkaloids, fatty acids, polyphenols (including flavonoids), tyramine, magnesium, phenylethylamine, and N-acylethanolamines.16, 17 Cocoa contains the amines and alkaloids theobromine (0.5% to 2.7%), caffeine (approximately 0.25% in cocoa), theophylline, tyramine, phenylethylamine, and trigonelline.10, 18 A standard chocolate bar (40 to 50 g) contains theobromine (86 to 240 mg) and caffeine (9 to 31 mg).19 The characteristically bitter taste of cocoa is generated by the reaction of diketopiperazines with theobromine during roasting. Theobromine is produced commercially from cocoa husks.10 Cocoa butter contains triglyceride fatty acids consisting mainly of oleic (37%), stearic (34%), and palmitic (26%) acids.18 About 75% of the fats are present as monounsaturates.10 Cocoa butter has a high digestibility, similar to that of corn oil, with a digestible energy value of approximately 37 kilojoule/g in humans; therefore, it cannot be considered to be low calorie.20 However, one randomized trial demonstrated that supplementation of chocolate with calcium 0.9% (0.9 g/day) reduced the absorption of cocoa butter, thus reducing the digestible energy value.21 Cocoa is rich in polyphenols that have beneficial effects on cardiovascular disease.22 In cocoa, the polyphenols of particular interest are flavanols, a subclass of flavonoids, which are in turn a subclass of polyphenols. Cocoa is more than 10% flavanol by weight. Flavanols can be monomeric: in cocoa beans these are mainly (−)-epicatechin and (+)-catechin, dimeric (consisting of 2 units of epicatechin with differing linkages), or polymeric (combinations of monomers and chains of up to 10 units or more have been found). These polymers are known as procyanidins.1, 7, 16, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 N-acylethanolamines are compounds found in chocolate that are structurally similar to anandamine, which is similar to the cannabinoid responsible for euphoria from cannabis. These compounds may not exert their effect by binding with the tetrahydrocannabinol receptors, but by inhibiting breakdown of endogenously produced anandamine, thus prolonging a "natural high."12, 31, 32 Uses and Pharmacology Cocoa has been reported to be a source of natural antioxidants10 the free radical scavengers that preserve cell membranes, protect DNA, prevent the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol that leads to atherosclerosis, and prevent plaque formation in arterial walls.33 The antioxidant activity of cocoa has been attributed to the procyanidins and their monomeric precursors, epicatechin and catechin, which inhibit oxidation of LDL.34, 35, 36 Dark chocolate and cocoa inhibit LDL oxidation and increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol concentrations.37, 38 Although, the relatively high stearic acid content in cocoa products was once purported to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD), it is no longer considered to play a role in the reduction of CHD risk.39 Data suggest that flavonoid-rich food contributes to cancer prevention. An in vitro study showed that breast cancer cells are selectively susceptible to the cytotoxic effects of cocoa-derived pentameric procyanidin and suggest that inhibition of cellular proliferation by this compound is associated with the sire-specific dephosphorylation or down-regulation of several cell cycle regulatory proteins.59 Cardiovascular disease and its risk factors Research suggests that the flavonoid constituents, in particular flavanols, in cocoa may be beneficial in cardiovascular disease. Consumption of foods rich in flavanols are also associated with improved cardiovascular outcomes5, 40 suggesting that this specific group of flavonoids may have potent cardioprotective qualities.5 One study concluded that epicatechin content was likely to be the main factor in cocoa's association with beneficial health effects.41 Multiple epidemiological studies have found an inverse association between the consumption of flavonoid-containing foods and the risk of cardiovascular disease.3, 4, 39, 42 Two of these studies provide data specific to the effects of cocoa.3, 4 In a study of 470 elderly men, blood pressure was measured at baseline and then 5 years later, with causes of death ascertained during 15 years of follow-up.3 Diet was assessed at 5-year intervals, with cocoa intake estimated from the consumption of cocoa-containing foods; mean intake among users was approximately 2.11 g/day. The mean systolic blood pressure in the highest tertile of cocoa intake was 3.7 mm Hg lower, and the mean diastolic blood pressure was 2.1 mm Hg lower compared with the lowest tertile; 314 men died, 152 of cardiovascular diseases. When compared with that of the lowest tertile, the adjusted relative risk for men in the highest tertile was 0.5 for cardiovascular mortality and 0.53 for all-cause mortality. In another study4 34,489 cardiovascular disease-free postmenopausal women were followed for 16 years. After multivariate analysis, a borderline inverse relationship between chocolate intake and cardiovascular disease mortality was observed. Numerous intervention trials have shown that consumption of flavanol-containing cocoa products can improve endothelial function41, 43, 44, 45, 46 vascular function44, 47, 48 and insulin sensitivity47; as well as attenuate platelet reactivity46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52 and reduce blood pressure.5, 47 Habitual intake of any chocolate-containing food was studied for its effect on cardiovascular risk in a prospective manner using data from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer (EPIC)-Norfolk cohort (N = 20,951). The sum weight of chocolate-containing food items (ie, chocolate squares, chocolate snack bars, hot chocolate powder) was measured using a food frequency questionnaire; flavonoid and cocoa content were not measured. Higher intake (up to 100 g/day) was associated with decreased risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke, especially mortality. The multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for CHD was 0.88 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.77 to 1.01) for the top quintile (16 to 99 g/day) compared to nonconsumers, and for stroke and cardiovascular disease, it was 0.77 (95% CI, 0.62 to 0.97) and 0.86 (95% CI, 0.76 to 0.97), respectively. Additionally, the updated meta-analysis conducted by the same authors that included these data showed similar results.83 A meta-analysis looking specifically at chocolate consumption on heart failure risk identified 5 studies that met eligibility criteria; all were high quality. The studies included 4 cohorts and 1 post hoc analysis of a randomized controlled trial; a total of 106,109 participants were enrolled and follow-up ranged from 9 to 14 years. A nonlinear dose response was observed with low to moderate chocolate consumption, but not high dose, associated with a reduced risk of heart failure (HR, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.82 to 0.91). A low to moderate dose was defined as a median intake of less than 7, 50 g servings/week mostly in the form of chocolate bars.88 Evaluation of study results from 2 Swedish cohorts (N=72,495) plus a meta-analysis of these 2 studies combined with 3 additional cohorts identified through a systematic review of studies published up to September 2017 (N=107,959) sought an association between chocolate consumption and the risk of atrial fibrillation. No association was found in the dose-response meta-analysis, the stratified analysis by gender, or the categorical analysis between the highest vs the lowest category of chocolate consumed. Although the sample sizes were large, limitations included no discernment between milk or dark chocolate, confounders associated with observational study design, and assessment of chocolate consumption only at baseline.89 Consumption of chocolate bars resulted in reductions in systolic and diastolic blood pressure. In one study of normotensive subjects, systolic blood pressure decreased 8.2% within 4 weeks of consuming the chocolate bars, with a 5% reduction relative to baseline still apparent at 8 weeks. Similar reductions in diastolic blood pressure were noted at 4 weeks (8.2%) and remained at 6 weeks (3.4%); however, at 8 weeks, the diastolic blood pressure was no longer lower (2.2%). Because the study population was not hypertensive, the results are notable.5 A meta-analysis was performed of 5 randomized, controlled studies involving 173 subjects. After cocoa diets, the mean systolic blood pressure was 4.7 mm Hg and the diastolic 2.8 mm Hg lower than in the cocoa-free controls.52 However, because the flavanol content in chocolate is impacted not only by the variety and ripeness of cocao beans, but also the processing procedures of raw cocoa, it’s critical to compare dosages of flavanols rather than just the amounts of chocolate or concentration of cocoa administered. A 2012 Cochrane meta-analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials (N = 856) investigated the effects of chocolate or cocoa products on blood pressure. When mostly healthy, normotensive subjects received daily flavanol-rich (30 to 1,080 mg), low-flavanol (6.4 and 41 mg), or flavanol-free cocoa products for 2 to 18 weeks, a small but statistically significant reduction in blood pressure of a little more than −2 mm Hg was observed with flavanol-rich cocoa products. Subgroup analysis revealed that the reduction was significant only when compared to flavanol-free controls and not low-flavanol controls. Adverse effects more common in the flavanol-rich intervention groups included GI complaints and distaste of the product. Similar conclusions were noted in the 2017 updated meta-analysis that added 17 trials to the review for a total of 1,804 mainly healthy participants. Subgroup analysis reflected a slightly increased mean systolic reduction of −4 mm Hg in hypertensive patients compared to no significant reduction in normotensive participants. The quality of the data in the update was downgraded from high to moderate due to unexplained heterogeneity among the trials.85, 87 Endothelial and vascular function Populations that consume cocoa routinely excrete more nitric oxide (NO) metabolites than genetically similar groups with less consumption. This indicator of higher NO production is associated with a lower incidence of cardiovascular disease.41 Results of another study demonstrated that daily consumption of a high-flavanol cocoa drink led to a sustained reversal of endothelial dysfunction, reaching a plateau level of improved flow-mediated dilation after 5 days. Increases observed in circulating nitrite, but not in circulating nitrate, paralleled the observed flow-mediated dilation augmentation.44 In a study of smokers, the ingestion of a flavanol-rich cocoa drink increased the circulating pool of nitric oxide and endothelium-dependent vasodilation.45 Endothelial dysfunction and inflammation biomarkers were evaluated after 35 pre-hypertensive adults ingested pure epicatechin (100 mg/day) and quercetin-3-glucoside (160 mg/day) for 4 weeks in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover study. Of the 5 endothelial dysfunction biomarkers measured, soluble endothelial selectin was significantly reduced by epicatechin (P = 0.03) and quercetin (P = 0.03) supplementation. No other biomarkers were significantly affected by epicatechin.82 A study comparing the effects of dark and white chocolate on flow-mediated dilation found that dark chocolate improved flow-mediated dilation after 2 hours compared with baseline, with the effect lasting about 8 hours. White chocolate had no effect on flow-mediated dilation.46 Similar results were found between dark chocolate (more than 85% cocoa) compared to milk chocolate (less than 35% cocoa) in a single-blind, crossover, interventional trial in 20 patients with peripheral artery disease. Two hours after ingestion, 40 g of dark chocolate significantly improved maximal walking distance, maximum walking time, and serum nitrite/nitrate compared with baseline; no changes were observed following 40 g milk chocolate consumption. Data from the in vitro analysis suggested the mechanism is possibly related to nitrite/nitrate regulation that is implicated in flow-mediated dilation.84 Because endothelial dysfunction has been observed during hyperglycemia, the effects of flavanol-rich dark chocolate on flow-mediated dilation was investigated in 12 healthy volunteers. In a randomized, blind, crossover trial, a 100 g flavanol-rich dark chocolate bar that was consumed each morning for 3 days significantly protected endothelial function (P = 0.0007), prevented an increase in blood pressure (systolic blood pressure, P < 0.0001; diastolic blood pressure, P = 0.019), and prevented an increase in endothelian-1 subsequent to the glucose load test when compared to ingestion of a 100 g white chocolate bar that contained only trace amounts of polyphenols (P = 0.0023). No significant differences were observed in glucose and insulin responses.86 In a crossover study, 15 healthy subjects were randomly assigned to consume 100 g of dark chocolate or 90 g of white chocolate for 15 days after a 7-day, cocoa-free, run-in phase. They were then crossed over after another 7-day, cocoa-free, period. The homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance was lower after dark chocolate ingestion. The quantitative insulin sensitivity check index was also higher after dark chocolate ingestion.47 However, no significant differences were observed in glucose and insulin responses with administration of a 100 g flavanol-rich dark chocolate bar for 3 days versus a white chocolate bar with trace polyphenols in 12 healthy volunteers in a randomized, blind, crossover trial.86 In the previous study, 2 hours after ingestion of dark chocolate, the shear stress-dependent platelet function was also reduced. No effect was seen with white chocolate.46 In a study evaluating the effect of cocoa ingestion on modulated human platelet activation and primary hemostasis, cocoa consumption suppressed ADP- or epinephrine-stimulated platelet activation and platelet microparticle formation, and had an aspirin-like effect on primary hemostasis.49 Findings were similar in another study of 32 healthy subjects who consumed 234 mg of cocoa flavanols and procyanidins or placebo per day for 28 days. The active group had lower P-selectin expression and lower ADP-induced aggregation and collagen-induced aggregation than did the placebo group.51 Theobromine, the primary alkaloid in cocoa, is a weak CNS stimulant, with only one-tenth the cardiac effects of other methylxanthines (eg, caffeine, theophylline).53 Theobromine has activity similar to that seen with caffeine (ie, increases in energy, motivation to work, and alertness).19 Theobromine, when ingested in the form of a large chocolate bar, did not cause any acute hemodynamic or electrophysiologic cardiac changes in young, healthy adults.53 Theobromine pharmacokinetics were similar in healthy men when measured after 14 days of abstention from all methylxanthines and then after 1 week ingestion of dark chocolate (theobromine 6 mg/kg/day).54 However, the results of these studies cannot be extrapolated to patients with any condition(s) or disease(s), nor to the effects of chronic chocolate consumption. Use of chocolate as an inhaler has been studied. This edible inhaler, the Chocuhaler, produced a clinical effect when used to administer albuterol.55 Free radical damage has been implicated as a cause of cognitive decline and memory loss in aging. A study using functional magnetic imaging in healthy young people found that ingestion of flavanol-rich cocoa was associated with increased cerebral blood flow58 suggesting that cocoa may play a role in the treatment of cerebral impairment, including dementia and stroke. Food and pharmaceutical additives Cocoa products are used extensively in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Cocoa powder and cocoa butter are often mixed with chocolate liquor (ground cacao seeds), sugar, milk, and other flavors. Cocoa butter is also used as a suppository and ointment base, as an emollient, and as an ingredient in various topical cosmetic preparations.5, 62 Cocoa butter suppositories have been used since the early 1900s to relieve hemorrhoids, and the ointment has been applied to the breasts of nursing women.14 In rats, the magnesium contained in cocoa has been shown to prevent and correct chronic magnesium deficiency.60, 61 Low intakes of magnesium may be responsible for some cardiovascular alterations as well as renal, GI, neurological, and muscular disorders. The use of cocoa to treat or prevent magnesium deficiency in humans has not been explored. Ingredients in chocolate with potential psychoactive properties have been identified, including the biogenic stimulant amines caffeine, theobromine, tyramine, and phenylethylamine; however, their concentrations are likely to be too low to have an effect.32 The N-acylethanolamines found in chocolate and cocoa powder may act indirectly by inhibiting breakdown of endogenously produced anadamine, prolonging a "natural high."12, 31 A study in which a depressive mood was induced demonstrated a correlation with an increase in chocolate craving. It has been demonstrated that thoughts of chocolate are overpowering and prey on the mind. Questionnaires filled out by study subjects have shown that there is a weakness for chocolate in individuals who are under emotional stress, bored, upset, or feeling down.56 A study that followed changes in brain activity related to eating chocolate demonstrated that one area of the brain is involved when there is motivation or craving to eat chocolate, while another area is involved when the desire to eat chocolate is decreased or becomes unpleasant. A similar result also has been shown with cocaine craving. Studies are needed to test the importance of this activity related to eating disorders and obesity.57 No specific dosing recommendations can be made. The polyphenols in chocolate come from the cocoa liquor; therefore, the polyphenol content is highest in cocoa powder, followed by dark chocolate, then milk chocolate, with none in white chocolate.1 However, because polyphenols can be destroyed during processing, some products may actually have a low polyphenol content. In the Zutphen elderly, an inverse relationship was demonstrated between cocoa intake and blood pressure, as well as a 15-year cardiovascular and all-cause mortality; the median cocoa intake among users was 2.11 g/day.3 Further studies characterizing the polyphenol content of cocoa products and method of measurement are needed.1, 7 Most studies have used dark chocolate in order to avoid a possible milk interference; however, one study using milk chocolate found positive effects on blood pressure, plasma cholesterol, and markers of oxidative stress in young men who exercised.1 Because there have been very few dose-response studies, it is difficult to estimate the amount of chocolate necessary for an antioxidant effect.1 In a study of smokers, 40 g of dark chocolate improved flow-mediated dilation and platelet function (polyphenol content was not stated).36 In another study, a half-maximal, flow-mediated dilation 2 hours after consumption was achieved with 616 mg total flavanols.44 In a third study, just 25 g of semisweet chocolate bits containing 200 mg flavanols and procyanidins produced a reduction in platelet-related hemostasis in healthy people.63 Pregnancy / Lactation Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) when used in moderate amounts or in amounts used in foods. Avoid dosages greater than those found in food because safety and efficacy are unproven. Caffeine content should be restricted during pregnancy.8, 9 Due to cocoa's caffeine content, many interactions are theoretically possible if large doses are consumed.9 The caffeine in cocoa may have an additive effect with other caffeine-containing products. The following drugs may increase the effects of caffeine in cocoa because they decrease the metabolism or clearance of caffeine: cimetidine9 disulfiram64 estrogens65 fluconazole66 mexiletine67 oral contraceptives65 and quinolone antibiotics.68 Cocoa may increase the risk of toxicity or adverse reactions of clozapine because caffeine inhibits clozapine metabolism.69 The cardiac inotropic effects of beta agonists may be increased by the caffeine content of cocoa.64 Use of large amounts of cocoa with monoamine oxidase inhibitors may precipitate a hypertensive crisis because of cocoa's tyramine content.9 Concomitant use of phenylpropanolamine and cocoa may cause an additive increase in blood pressure because of the caffeine content.70 Theoretically, the caffeine in cocoa might inhibit dipyridamole-induced vasodilation.71 Abrupt withdrawal of caffeine-containing cocoa may increase serum lithium levels.72 Caffeine from the ingestion of large amounts of chocolate, along with 2 to 4 caffeinated beverages, was correlated with the appearance of tics in 2 children.73 Patients diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome who experience reflux esophageal symptoms should eliminate foods that decrease lower esophageal sphincter pressure, such as chocolate and cocoa-containing products, from their diets.74 Conflicting results were demonstrated when chocolate was tested as an initiator of migraine headaches. Phenolic flavonoids, which are present in red wine and chocolate, may have a role in precipitating migraines.77, 78, 79 In animals, cocoa butter has been shown to be comedogenic; however, this has not been proven in humans.10 Although cocoa is not considered to be toxic in typical confectionery doses, at least 1 report of animal toxicity has been published. A dog that consumed 1 kg of chocolate chips suffered hyperexcitability and convulsions, and subsequently collapsed and died, most likely because of acute circulatory failure secondary to theobromine/caffeine toxicity.80 The plant may contain small amounts of safrole, a carcinogen banned by the Food and Drug Administration.81 This information relates to an herbal, vitamin, mineral or other dietary supplement. This product has not been reviewed by the FDA to determine whether it is safe or effective and is not subject to the quality standards and safety information collection standards that are applicable to most prescription drugs. This information should not be used to decide whether or not to take this product. This information does not endorse this product as safe, effective, or approved for treating any patient or health condition. This is only a brief summary of general information about this product. It does NOT include all information about the possible uses, directions, warnings, precautions, interactions, adverse effects, or risks that may apply to this product. This information is not specific medical advice and does not replace information you receive from your health care provider. You should talk with your health care provider for complete information about the risks and benefits of using this product. This product may adversely interact with certain health and medical conditions, other prescription and over-the-counter drugs, foods, or other dietary supplements. This product may be unsafe when used before surgery or other medical procedures. It is important to fully inform your doctor about the herbal, vitamins, mineral or any other supplements you are taking before any kind of surgery or medical procedure. With the exception of certain products that are generally recognized as safe in normal quantities, including use of folic acid and prenatal vitamins during pregnancy, this product has not been sufficiently studied to determine whether it is safe to use during pregnancy or nursing or by persons younger than 2 years of age. Copyright © 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health Always consult your healthcare provider to ensure the information displayed on this page applies to your personal circumstances.

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2009 Annual Science Report Carnegie Institution of Washington Reporting | JUL 2008 – AUG 2009 Project 3: The Origin, Evolution, and Volatile Inventories of Terrestrial Planets The origin and Sustenance of life on Earth strongly depends on the fact that volatile elements H-C-O-N where retained in sufficient abundance to sustain an ocean-atmosphere. The research in this project involves studies of how terrestrial planets form, why differences exist among the terrestrial planets, how volatiles behave deep within the Earth, and how volatiles and life influence the large and small scale composition of the near surface Earth. Task 3.1 Planet Formation Co-investigator Chambers, in collaboration with Dr Jeff Cuzzi, NASA Ames Research Center, has worked on a new model for planetesimal formation, the earliest stage of planet formation. During this stage, micron-sized dust grains commonly observed in protoplanetary disks, evolve into 1-1000 km diameter planetesimals, which are the precursor to later stages of planet formation including habitable planets. Conventional models for planetesimal formation have encountered severe difficulties in turbulent protoplanetary disks, and yet disks are widely believed to be turbulent. In the new model for planetesimal formation, mm-sized particles are concentrated into stagnant regions between turbulent eddies. Occasionally, large gravitationally bound clumps of particles form, which can then shrink to form planetesimals directly. The recent work by Co-I Chambers shows that the new mechanism is viable under plausible disk conditions, converting much of the available dust into roughly 100-km diameter planetesimals on a timescale of a few million years. These results will be used to provide input for Chambers’ models for the later oligarchic and post-oligarchic stages of formation of habitable planets. Co-investigator Chambers has also developed a new analytic model for the evolution of a protoplanetary disk for use in planet-formation simulations. The new model provides the approximate temperature and surface density of material at any point in space and time for a protoplanetary disk subject to heating from viscous accretion of gas and radiation from the central star. Being analytic in nature, the new model involves very modest computational overhead, yet it represents a significant improvement over models currently used in most simulations of planet formation. In addition to the planetesimal formation model described above, the new disk evolution model will be incorporated into Co-I Chambers’ existing models for the formation of habitable planets. Task 3.2. The Inner Solar System: Constraints from Mercury and Mars CoI Solomon is the PI of the Messenger mission to Mercury. CoI Nittler is a coinvestigator on the Messenger Team. As part of this project Solomon and Nittler are integrating the information derived from the Messenger mission into a better understanding of processes of forming small, embryo-sized inner planets: where Mercury is about 5% of an Earth mass, and Mars at about 10%. That the bulk compositions, volatile abundances, magmatic histories, and magnetic field histories differ so strongly on these two bodies demonstrates the strongly stochastic nature of the planet-building process and probably some dependence on solar distance. Because all of these aspects of planetary evolution affect the spatial extent and temporal duration of zones of habitability at the planetary surface and within the shallow planetary subsurface, an improved understanding of the profound differences in the make-up and evolution of these two similar-size planets should illuminate the general nature of planetary habitability on smaller Earth-like planets, including those in other planetary systems. For both Mars and Mercury, recent spacecraft observations make such a comparison particularly timely. The ongoing Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Exploration Rover, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter missions continue to build the spectacular data sets from imaging and geochemical and geophysical remote sensing, and the Phoenix mission last year augmented our understanding of water and other volatiles at high Martian latitudes. The MESSENGER mission completed its three flybys of Mercury in 2008 and 2009, and an entire year of orbital observations is planned for 2011-2012. The broad goal of this task is a comparative evaluation of bulk composition, volatile inventory, magmatic history, and core dynamo history on Mars and Mercury, with a focus on aspects of those processes (water availability and circulation, organic material inventory, internal energy, magnetospheric shielding) most strongly relevant to habitability in space and time. The MESSENGER flybys of Mercury provided an abundance of new information pertinent to this task on the geological history, magnetic field, and volatile budget of the innermost planet. MESSENGER images provided evidence for widespread volcanism, and candidate sites for volcanic centers were identified. Newly imaged lobate scarps and other tectonic landforms confirmed that Mercury contracted globally in response to interior cooling. The ~1500-km-diameter Caloris basin, viewed in its entirety for the first time by MESSENGER, was the site of numerous volcanic centers and widespread contractional and extensional deformation. Smooth plains interior and exterior to the basin are demonstrably younger than the basin-forming event. Other large impact basins similarly provided major foci for volcanism and deformation. This focusing can be understood because basin formation amplified magma production at depth by the removal of overburden pressure and the emplacement of impact energy as heat, and also changed the lithospheric stress state by removing pre-existing stress within the basin interior and modifying stress within a damage zone that extended to several basin radii. The latter processes favored magma ascent and plains formation and affected the style and timing of basin deformation. Reflectance and color imaging observations by MESSENGER provided fresh support for earlier inferences that Mercury’s surface material consists dominantly of iron-poor, calcium-magnesium silicates with an admixture of spectrally neutral opaque minerals. MESSENGER revealed the presence of surface-derived Mg and Ca in Mercury’s anti-sunward tail and documented strongly differing distributions of neutral Mg, Ca, and Na in the nightside exosphere, the result of different combinations of time-variable source, transfer, and loss processes. The nearly global observations of Mercury surface units distinguishable by color and composition enforce the importance of the largely volcanic smooth plains, which occupy ~40% of the surface area, and of low-reflectance material, occupying ~15% of the surface area and primarily in deposits excavated by impact, consistent with having formed at depth. MESSENGER images have documented examples of volcanic centers surrounded by material interpreted to be pyroclastic deposits. The implied magmatic contents of candidate volatiles indicate that Mercury’s accretion included the incorporation of volatile-rich planetesimals or embryos formed farther from the Sun and that some of those volatiles were preserved during whatever processes imparted to Mercury its anomalously high ratio of metal to silicate. MESSENGER showed that Mercury’s internal magnetic field is dominantly dipolar with a vector moment closely aligned with the spin axis, and no evidence for crustal magnetic anomalies has been found to date. Both results support the inference that Mercury’s magnetic field is the product of a dynamo in the planet’s fluid outer core. MESSENGER also demonstrated that under southward interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) Mercury’s magnetosphere is characterized by magnetic reconnection at rates ~10 times typical at Earth. The magnetosphere–solar wind interaction under such conditions can provide pathways for direct impact of energetic solar wind ions onto Mercury’s surface. In supporting theoretical work, Postdoctoral Associate Natalia Gómez-Pérez has shown that because Mercury’s internal magnetic field is weak, the interaction of the planet’s magnetosphere with the IMF may determine the internal dynamics and the overall behavior of the liquid core. In particular, regimes of stable dipolar and multipolar reversing dynamo magnetic fields known for isolated systems may be significantly changed by the action of external magnetic field sources. For models appropriate to Mercury, relatively weak external background fields (as low as 2% of the undisturbed core-mantle boundary surface average field strength) may change the energy balance and alter the regime in which natural dynamos operate. In work led by Postdoctoral Associate Thomas Ruedas, new numerical models for the thermochemical evolution of the mantle of Mars have been initiated. We combined a parameterized model of composition and thermoelastic properties of mantle material with a two-dimensional, anelastic, compressible convection and melting algorithm in a spherical annulus geometry. Results of the models may be compared with chemical and geophysical observations provided by spacecraft missions to Mars. Some models reproduce observed surface concentrations of K and Th and yield crustal thicknesses around 100 km, depths for ancient Curie temperatures for magnetite and hematite between 50 and 100 km, and mechanical lithosphere thicknesses that have increased from less than 50 km at ~3.8 Ga to 150-250 km now. Generally, models with a Mg# of about 75, radionuclide contents similar to those of standard cosmochemical models, and a large core tend to explain observations best. However, the present models indicate that convection is strongly layered and that no long-lived, whole-mantle plumes exist. Under these model assumptions, the existence of Tharsis and Elysium cannot be explained as sustained sites of upwelling from the core-mantle boundary. Task 3.3 CHON elements in Terrestrial Planetary Interiors CoIs Goncharov and Hemley have focused their research on the topic of phase diagram at the conditions of high-pressure and high-temperature, which is related to “The Origin, evolution and volatile inventories of terrestrial planets” and more specifically to “Are CHON elements sequestered in planetary interiors?”. Specifically, they have used Raman/laser heating systems at the Geophysical Laboratory and laser heating Diamond Anvil Systems located at National Synchrotron facilities to determine the phase diagram of nitrogen at high pressures and temperatures such as are encountered deep within Planetary interiors (Fig. 3.1). They have also been studying Chemical reactivity of methane under upper-mantle conditions specifically addressing the question whether hydrocarbons can also be produced from abiogenic precursor molecules under the high pressure, high-temperature conditions characteristic of the upper mantle. Methane when subjected to pressures higher than 2 GPa, and to temperatures in the range of 1000–1500 K, partially reacts to form saturated hydrocarbons containing 2–4 carbons (ethane, propane and butane) and molecular hydrogen and graphite (Fig. 3.2). Evidentlly hydrocarbons heavier than methane can be produced by abiogenic processes in the upper mantle (Fig. 3.3). CoIs Goncharov and Hemley have also used x-ray diffraction to determine the structure factor of water along its melting line to a static pressure of 57 GPa (570 kbar) and a temperature of more than 1500 K, conditions which correspond to the lower mantle of the Earth, and the interiors of Neptune and Uranus up to a depth of 7000 km. The results of these studies may suggest that an extended two-phase region could occur in planetary processes involving the adiabatic compression of water. Finally, CoIs Goncharov and Hemley have carried out a systematic investigation of the solid-solid phase transitions, melting behavior, and chemical reactivity of CO2 at pressures of 15-70 GPa and temperatures up to 2500 K where it is observed that molecular CO2 melts to a molecular fluid up to 34 GPa and approximately 1770 K, where it meets a solid-solid phase line to form a triple point (Fig. 3.5). Examination of decarbonation reactions of subducted magnesite (and calcite) in the Earth’s lower mantle reveals that decarbonation produces diamond and fluid oxygen, which in turn significantly affects the redox state of the Mantle, increasing local oxygen fugacity by several orders of magnitude. Over the past year CoI Mysen has focused on the solubility and solution behavior of reduced species in the COH and NOH systems in model Na2O-SiO2 melts in the 1-2.5 GPa pressure range at upper mantle temperatures and with hydrogen fugacity ranging from those defined by the hematite-magnetite + H2O [fH2(HM)] to iron wüstite Task 3.4 Primary Carbon in Martian meteorites and terrestrial analogues CoI Steele and collaborators have continued to study a range of martian meteorites for the distribution of carbon phases. Analysis has concentrated on Chassigny, Zagami and DaG 476. So far Macromolecular carbon (MMC) has been found within inclusions in all 3 meteorites. In all cases the MMC is associated with a spinel phase, except for instance in a large melt inclusion in Chassigny where the MMC seems to be associated with sulfide phases. Software updates to the Raman microscope have enabled high resolution 3-D scans to be implemented on suitable samples. Depth profiling of inclusions in DaG 476 have yielded excellent 3-D contextual data for the association of MMC with spinel. Furthermore, studies analyzing peak parameters of the MMC in comparison with other carbonaceous meteorites are ongoing. Comparison of the D and G band parameters of MMC in Martian and carbonaceous meteorites, Svalbard xenoliths and several terrestrial fossils show a trend where the fossil materials cluster at certain G band peak centres / full width half max values for the G band. This data is preliminary but may lead to insights on the use of Raman spectroscopy to determine biotic or abiotically formed MMC. Carbon isotope analysis of Zagami, DaG 476, NWA 998, and SAU 130, by a modified step combustion protocol are underway. Initial results on the Martian meteorite NWA 998 indicate a carbon content of 68ppm and ~δ13C – 22‰. The carbon isotopic value is similar to that seen in other studies however, the concentration is an order of magnitude higher than previously reported. Working with CoI Mysen, Steele and CIW-NAI Post Doc McCubbin are employing diamond anvil experiments to study the nature of carbon phases at high temperature and pressure under different oxygen fugacities. Preliminary data sets are currently being analyzed but show a trend of more reduced carbon species with lower fO2. Piston cylinder experiments in collaboration with CoI Mysen designed to investigate the formation of MMC under high temperature / pressure conditions are being planned for the very near future. Task 3.5 Terrestrial Evolution As part of this task undertaken by CoI Shirey is to extend surface geological processes seen on Earth’s continents to the 150 km depths of their continental lithospheric mantle keels. This is being done by using the age systematics (as determined by the radiometric Re-Os system) of sulfide mineral inclusions in ancient diamonds that have been erupted by recent volcanism of kimberlite melt. These macro diamonds have grown and resided in the mantle keels to continents and are the oldest, deepest minerals found on Earth; they provide a unique record of deep continental lithospheric processes. There are two expected outcomes of this endeavor: 1) by intimately relating continental geology to specific episodes of diamond formation it will possible to identify the source of diamond-forming fluids and 2) the diamond ages and sulfide compositions will lead to a better understanding of the role subcontinental lithosphere plays in the evolution of stable continents. Realizing these outcomes is important because understanding how diamond-forming fluids access the continental lithosphere has potential importance to understanding the source of the crustal fluids that support subsurface microbial ecosystems. In addition, the tectonic processes that deliver these fluids play a role in making continents emergent surfaces that then create new substrates for life. The Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe craton of southern Africa (Fig. 3.6) is the only ancient continental terrane whose commercial diamond mining operations have yielded enough diamonds over a wide enough geographic area to permit a pattern of diamond ages to be correlated with regional-scale continental geology. The center of the Kaapvaal craton is marked by a N-S suture (Fig. 3.6). Studies of crustal geology show that this suture is the trace of the collision and subsequent welding of two continental blocks by westward-dippping subduction 2.9 billion years ago. West of this suture, the oldest and by far the most abundant age obtained for eclogitic sulfide inclusions in diamonds is 2.9 billion years. East of this suture, few if any sulfides exist of 2.9 billion year age and most sulfides are younger by more than a billion years. This supports a model whereby subduction underthrusting of oceanic lithosphere, converted to eclogite by high pressure, released its C-O-H-S fluids to the base of the overlying lithospheric mantle. They percolated upward and crystallized diamonds only in that portion of the keel that overlay the subducted slabs. Since the eastern block does not reside above subducted lithosphere, the base of the lithosphere does not receive fluids and few diamonds of the 2.9 billion age were formed. The Kaapvaal craton was subsequently subject to subduction around its margins and magmatism from below in the Proterozoic. Diamond ages record these events, again documenting the access of fluids to the lithsopheric mantle at depths of hundreds of kilometers. The two northwestern diamond localities on the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe craton, Orapa and Jwaneng (red open symbols in Fig 3.6), are closest to the Magondi metamorphic belt. They show diamond populations with the largest range in age, including the original craton amalgamation age and three episodes at 2, 1.5 and 1 billion years ago (Fig 3.7). The latter ages are likely related to the orogenesis that produced the Magondi belt. It is quite significant that no other localities on the craton show more that 1 or two age pulses in their sulfide inclusions and that both Orapa and Jwaneng show the same age pulses. Both of these mines are prolific diamond producers and have abundant sulfides perhaps a result of being closest to the source of the diamond-forming fluids. Sulfides in diamonds from two of the kimberlites towards the northeast side of the craton (Premier and Venetia) have ages that reflect subcratonic magmatism related to the 2.05 billion year old Bushveld complex. Sulfide-bearing diamonds, as part of the larger gem diamond population are much rarer here perhaps because they are farther from the subduction source of fluids. Four eclogitic sulfide inclusions from Venetia regress to give a 2.05 billion age, in direct confirmation that the diamonds in this region grew at the time the Bushveld complex was intruded. Eclogitic inclusions from both Premier and Venetia have very elevated initial Os isotopic compositions that span the Bushveld complex range and indicate that the fluids that formed the diamonds and the magmas that formed the Bushveld share similar source characteristics. In general subduction is the fundamental plate tectonic process by which the continental crust has grown with time. It is logical then to extend subduction as far back in Earth history as possible in order to explore its role in producing stable, compositionally differentiated continental surfaces. Such surfaces are topographically 5 km higher than oceanic lithospheric surfaces and become new settings for subaerial life. Their creation presents a classic example of how planetary differentiation produces new types of habitat. Furthermore, subduction is the primary mechanism by which volatiles are recycled into the mantle and eventually provide deep fluids that could have harbored life within the crust. Our work will continue to use the diamond age evidence the explore the continent forming process from the bottom up and to synthesize available trace element and isotopic evidence from the literature to establish the onset of the subduction part of the plate tectonic cycle. Co-investigator Hazen and coworkers continue to investigate “mineral evolution,” which is a new way to frame mineralogy in an geohistorical context. The central premise of mineral evolution is that the geo- and biospheres have coevolved through a sequence of deterministic and stochastic events that result in the diversification of the mineral kingdom through Earth history. An important implication of this model is that different terrestrial planets and moons achieve different stages of mineral evolution. The initial exploration of the mineral evolution concept was published in November 2008. Subsequent efforts have focused on specific mineral groups. This past year Hazen and collaborators have focused on the uranium and thorium bearing minerals. The origins and near-surface distributions of the approximately 250 known uranium and/or thorium minerals elucidate principles of mineral evolution. This history can be divided into four phases. The first, from ~4.5 to 3.5 Ga, involved successive concentrations of uranium and thorium from their initial uniform trace distribution into magmatic-related fluids from which the minerals, uraninite (UO2), thorianite (ThO2) and coffinite (USiO4), precipitated in the crust. The second period, from ~3.5 to 2.2 Ga, saw the formation of large low-grade concentrations of detrital uraninite (containing several weight percent Th) in the Witwatersrand-type quartz-pebble conglomerates deposited in a highly anoxic fluvial environment. Earth’s third phase of uranium mineral evolution followed the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) at ~2.2 Ga and thus was mediated indirectly by biologic activity. Most uraninite deposited during this phase was low in Th and precipitated from saline and oxidizing hydrothermal solutions (100 to 300°C) transporting UO22+-chloride complexes. During this phase, most uranyl minerals would have been able to form in the O2-bearing near-surface environment for the first time through weathering processes. The fourth phase of uranium mineralization began approximately 400 million years ago, as the rise of land plants led to non-marine organic-rich sediments that promoted new sandstone-type ore deposits (Fig. 3.8). The near-surface mineralogy of uranium and thorium provide a measure of a planet’s geotectonic and geobiological history. In collaboration with Edward Grew (University of Maine) Co-investigator Hazen has begun a detailed examination of beryllium mineral evolution. Beryllium is a quintessential crustal element: it is highly enriched in the upper continental crust compared to other reservoirs, i.e., 3.0-3.1 ppm vs. 1.0-1.7 ppm in the lower crust and 60 ppb in primitive mantle. Beryllium minerals result from a variety of processes that concentrate Be and mix it with other constituents under conditions that favor their combining in a variety of compounds. Diversity in Be mineral assemblages appears to require special circumstances. For example, diversity in granitic pegmatites does not depend only on degree of fractionation, as some highly fractionated pegmatites are reported to contain no Be minerals, whereas less fractionated pegmatites contain several, e.g., beryl plus three secondary Be silicates derived from its alteration in central Sweden (Fig. 3.9). The latter example emphasizes the role of alteration and reworking of pre-existing Be minerals, commonly beryl, to create a host of secondary minerals. Co-investigator Hazen has begun research on the evolution of Hg, Br, I, and P minerals, as well as clay minerals. We continue to focus on the effects of the Great Oxidation Event, and on mineralogical evidence for the oxidation state of Earth’s near-surface environment during the Archean Eon. PROJECT INVESTIGATORS:John Chambers PROJECT MEMBERS:George Cody RELATED OBJECTIVES:Objective 1.1 Formation and evolution of habitable planets. Sources of prebiotic materials and catalysts Earth's early biosphere.

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Damage to family relationships as a collateral consequence of parental incarceration. The most obvious and perhaps most serious collateral consequence of incarceration is family separation. Imprisonment undermines families and has a detrimental impact upon children, caretakers, and the communities in which they live. Unlike other collateral consequences, family separation has an irreversible impact upon both parents and children. The time apart is lost forever, because a childhood can never be recovered. This Essay will review the available statistical information about incarcerated parents and their children and discuss the detrimental effects of parental incarceration upon families. The Essay will conclude with some reflections about why the adverse consequences of incarceration for prisoners' families remain largely unaddressed. I. DATA ON PARENTAL INCARCERATION By now, the statistics on parental incarceration are well known. The statistics were thoroughly documented in 2000 in a report produced by the United States Department of Justice's Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1) This report provides a wealth of information. The majority of prisoners are parents of minor children. (2) Among state prisoners, almost half of the fathers and two-thirds of the mothers lived with their children prior to incarceration. (3) Among federal prisoners, the corresponding figures were fifty-five percent of fathers and eighty-four percent of mothers. (4) Approximately eighty percent of the mothers who lived with their children prior to incarceration were single parents. (5) The number of children with at least one incarcerated parent increased in the past decade, from 936,000 in 1991 to 1.5 million in 1999. (6) The number of children with an incarcerated mother almost doubled during that period, increasing from 64,000 to 126,000. (7) The average age of children with an incarcerated parent was eight years old. Almost sixty percent of the children were less than ten years old. (8) The impact of incarceration has fallen disproportionately upon families of color. One out of every fourteen African-American children nationwide, seven percent, had at least one parent in prison in 1999. (9) The corresponding figure for all children was two percent. (10) In New York State, approximately eighty-one percent of the prisoners are African-American or Latino. (11) The extent of parental incarceration is therefore apparent. Equally obvious are the factors that have the greatest impact upon incarcerated parents and their families--time and distance. The increasing severity of sentencing laws ensures that incarcerated parents, and their children, will be separated for a significant portion of the children's lives. The mean length of time to be served for incarcerated fathers is almost seven years in the state systems and nine years in the federal system. (12) For mothers, the averages are four years in state prisons and five and one-half years in federal prisons. (13) Among those mothers, sixty-two percent in state prisons and seventy-four percent in federal prisons will serve two or more years. (14) In New York State, approximately eighty-two percent of women and eighty-nine percent of men will serve at least two years. (15) The extent of physical separation is equally pronounced: sixty-two percent of incarcerated parents in state prison and eighty-two percent in federal prison are incarcerated more than one hundred miles from their homes. (16) The situation is especially acute in the federal system where more than forty percent of incarcerated parents are imprisoned at least 500 miles from their homes. (17) For women, the distance from families is often a function of the limited number of available prisons. (18) For example, within the federal system, there are only six prisons in the entire United States: one each in Arizona, California, Connecticut, Florida, Texas, and West Virginia. (19) The distance separating incarcerated parents from their children severely limits their contact with each other. II. THE IMPACT OF INCARCERATION UPON FAMILIES Family separation is a collateral consequence of incarceration that is unique in its severity. Although parenting involves intangible qualities that survive the loss of day-to-day physical presence, (20) "parenting from a distance" places serious, undeniable limitations on the parent-child relationship. (21) The adverse effects of parental incarceration upon families are only exacerbated when incarcerated parents and their children lack regular contact with each other. (22) The importance to children of maintaining regular contact with their parents in prison has been well-documented. (23) Yet, despite the widely recognized importance of such regular contact, recent surveys reveal that this rarely occurs: fewer than half of the incarcerated parents in state prisons ever see their children in person. (24) Of those who do see their children, only about twenty percent have visits at least once a month. (25) Of those parents who have phone contact, only about of hall of the mothers and forty percent of the fathers in state prison make at least monthly phone calls. The figures are much better for parents in federal prison, with approximately eighty percent of the mothers and seventy percent of the fathers making phone calls at least once a month. (26) Oregon has conducted an extensive survey of incarcerated parents, that provides additional data about parent-child contact. (27) Of 6,250 incarcerated parents as of July 2002, nineteen percent of the fathers and forty-two percent of the mothers reported visiting with their children in the past three months; forty-seven percent of the fathers and seventy percent of the mothers reported phone contact within the past three months. (28) Among only those parents who expected to live with their children after release, seventy percent of the fathers and fifty percent of the mothers had no visits with their children in the past three months. (29) The main reasons given for the lack of visits were distance, lack of transportation, the schedule or wishes of the caretaker, and prison policies. (30) The limited contact between incarcerated parents and their children has a long-lasting, damaging impact upon the parent-child relationship. The impact, however, upon children in foster care is potentially even more severe. (31) As discussed more fully below, it is impossible to know with certainty what percentage of the children with an imprisoned parent are in foster care, because neither child welfare agencies, nor correctional officials compile such statistics. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics Survey approximately, ten percent of the mothers and two percent of the fathers in state prison had children in foster care. (32) For New York State, the numbers were somewhat higher for mothers included in this national study: 18.1 percent of these mothers had a child in foster care. (33) The Oregon study reported that fifteen percent of the mothers had children in foster care. (34) These numbers for mothers probably undercount the percentage of children in foster care. (35) A study of children in long-term foster care conducted in 1998 by the Center for Children of Incarcerated Parents measured this not only from the perspective of children with a parent who was currently incarcerated, but also from the perspective of children who had ever experienced parental incarceration. (36) The study found that while ten percent of the children had a currently incarcerated mother and thirty-three percent had a currently incarcerated father, approximately seventy percent of the children had had a parent incarcerated at some point during their time in foster care. (37) For the foster care population, the enactment of the Adoption and Sale Families Act ("ASFA") (38) in 1997 created a push for permanency. For children of incarcerated parents, this will most often mean adoption. ASFA is a federal reimbursement statute. To receive federal reimbursement for their child welfare and foster care systems, states were required to enact conforming legislation, and the states have done so in the years since the federal ASFA was enacted. (39) ASFA sets out the general rule that permanency decisions about children must be made within twelve months of the children's entries into foster care. (40) ASFA also sets a general limit on foster care placements by requiring, with limited exceptions, that petitions to terminate parental rights be filed when a child has been in foster care for fifteen out of the past twenty-two months. (41) In addition, ASFA sets out circumstances under which a state is not required to make "reasonable efforts" to reunite parents and children. (42) In at least five states--Alaska, Kentucky, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Tennessee--parental incarceration is one such circumstance. (43) ASFA has likely had a disproportionate impact upon incarcerated parents with children in foster care. (44) In particular, the mandatory termination petition filing requirement has the potential to sweep broadly, given that the average length of time served by incarcerated parents is six and one-half years. (45) The vast majority of incarcerated parents will serve more than the fifteen-month ASFA limit for foster care placements. (46) Because child welfare agencies do not categorize cases according to whether the parent of a child is in prison, it is impossible to measure precisely the effect of ASFA upon families of incarcerated parents. (47) One rough indicator, however, is available. As shown on the following chart, reported termination of parental rights decisions involving parental incarceration have increased by approximately 250 percent in the five years since 1997, the year that ASFA was enacted. Number of Reported Termination Proceedings Involving Prisoners (48) 1998:359 (thirty-eight percent increase) 1999:393 (nine percent increase) 2000:493 (twenty-five percent increase) 2001:655 (thirty-three percent increase) 2002:909 (thirty-nine percent increase) In contrast, for the five years before ASFA was enacted, the number of such termination proceedings remained relatively flat, increasing by only about thirty percent: (49) 1993:159 (six percent decrease) 1994:171 (seven percent increase) 1995:189 (six percent increase) 1996:218 (thirteen percent increase) Most trial level decisions are not reported, and not all states report intermediate level appeals. These statistics, therefore, almost certainly understate the number of termination cases that have been litigated since 1997. Thus, when parents go to prison, they can expect to be separated from their children at great distances for a significant portion of their children's lives. (50) They can expect to have only limited personal contact with their children. (51) They can also expect to have their relationship with their children impaired or, if their children 2are in foster care, permanently severed through the termination of their parental rights. (52) The concluding Section discusses the difficulties involved in addressing these collateral consequences of incarceration. III. THE DIFFICULTIES OF REMEDYING THE CONSEQUENCES TO FAMILIES OF PARENTAL INCARCERATION The issues described in the preceding Sections are not new. Twenty-five years ago, McGowan and Blumenthal documented the effects of maternal incarceration upon children in their groundbreaking study, Why Punish the Children? A Study of the Children of Women Prisoners. (53) In the years since, commentators have written extensively about the importance of maintaining family relationships while parents are incarcerated and the difficulties of doing so. (54) Despite all of the research that has been done on these issues, public policy aimed at preserving family relationships during and after incarceration is still severely lacking. (55) The detrimental impact upon family relationships continues to be a serious, often permanent collateral consequence of parental incarceration. (56) There are a number of reasons why the impact of incarceration upon families is so difficult to address. First, unlike other collateral consequences of incarceration, the effect upon family relationships is not technically part of the punishment. Criminal statutes generally articulate the specific civil rights lost as a direct result of incarceration. These statutes, with few exceptions, do not address the effect on family relationships as a consequence of criminal conviction. (57) Family relationships are instead affected more indirectly, not through the act of imprisonment itself, but through the circumstances of that imprisonment and through a division of responsibility among the branches of government. (58) For example, the legislative branch defines crimes and sets the sentences. It is the executive branch through prison administration agencies, however, that decides where the prisons will be built. (59) This decision alone may have the greatest impact upon family relationships because prisons tend to be built in remote rural locations. These rural sites are far from the urban centers from which most prisoners come and in which most of the families of prisoners continue to live. (60) The practical difficulties of maintaining regular contact between parents and children separated by several hundred miles become insurmountable for many families. (61) In addition, the distance becomes a barrier to the provision of meaningful therapeutic services to families. (62) Agencies that provide services to children in the community will not be able to do meaningful family work because of the difficulty of making a connection with a parent in a distant prison. (63) Service providers within the prison will have the same problem attempting to make contact with the children of prisoners. Finally, for advocates, there is no readily available way of addressing this situation. It is impossible to advocate for a transfer to a prison closer to the parent's home if no such prison exists. As discussed above, this is a particular problem for incarcerated mothers because of the limited number of women's prisons. Family relationships ate, therefore, most affected not by conscious penal theory, but by the practical administrative decisions about prison construction. A second factor preventing the consequences to families of parental incarceration from being addressed is the lack of meaningful policy coordination between criminal justice and child welfare agencies. These two systems see their missions as distinct--criminal justice policymakers are concerned with sentencing and punishment, while child welfare officials are concerned with safety and permanency for children. (64) The two systems are making decisions that, with respect to family relationships, are in conflict. (65) As sentences become longer, foster care time limits become shorter. (66) As a result, parents who have no alternative to the foster care system for their children cannot avoid permanent termination of parental rights. In addition, both systems are becoming increasingly inflexible--judges have been deprived of discretion in sentencing, (67) and caseworkers have been deprived of discretion in deciding when and under what circumstances to seek termination of parental rights. (68) Caseworkers, therefore, lack the needed flexibility to determine when it is in a child's best interests to preserve the relationships with incarcerated parents and to provide the services necessary to accomplish this. This apparent conflict between agencies might be acceptable public policy if it were the result of conscious, careful thought and study, but it is not. Criminal justice decisions are made without regard to the impact upon family members, and child welfare decisions are made without taking into account the unique situation of incarcerated parents. Despite ASFA's profound, potential impact upon incarcerated parents, there is no indication that parental incarceration was even considered as a possible factor when the ASFA provisions were being formulated. (69) It is, therefore, critically important that the criminal justice and child welfare systems work together to develop sound policies for incarcerated parents and their families. Several commentators have discussed this critical need. (70) The development of such policies is impossible, however, in the absence of reliable data. The importance of determining what portion of the child welfare caseload involves parental incarceration and assessing the particular needs of children of incarcerated parents (as well as children whose parents were previously incarcerated) seems obvious. No such information, however, appears to be available. An attempt to survey child welfare and correctional agencies around the country indicated that there is general agreement on the importance of knowing more about the relationship between child welfare and incarceration. (71) The state agencies, however, are not tracking this information. (72) As a result, child welfare agencies do not know how many of their termination of parental rights proceedings involve prisoners. Without this and other data agencies cannot even begin to determine the extent to which such proceedings further the best interests of the children. (73) Child welfare agencies have the ability to track these data. They are, in fact, required to keep detailed case records and conduct periodic service reviews for all families under their supervision. (74) Thus, if agencies made it a priority to identify the portion of their caseload in which a parent is incarcerated, they would have the means to do so. They must resolve to take on this task. It is even more difficult to obtain information about children of incarcerated parents who are not in foster care. Using empirical data about neighborhood incarceration rates, (75) it would be possible to target the communities in which the children of incarcerated parents and their caretakers most likely live and the schools the children most likely attend. This is a delicate task, however, for the children and caretakers may not want to be identified because of the stigma they feel. Any attempt to identify and work with such families must, therefore, be handled with extreme care. (76) The collateral consequences of parental incarceration to families are both intractable and difficult to measure precisely. The only real solution to the problem of family dissolution through incarceration is to expand the availability of alternatives to incarceration for those incarcerated parents who do not require high security confinement. (77) The defendant's role as a parent must be an explicit factor in sentencing. In the short-term, it is essential that precise data about the children of incarcerated parents be developed so that informed public policies can be formulated. (78) (1.) CHRISTOPHER MUMOLA, U.S. DEP'T OF JUST1CE, BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS SPECIAL REPORT: INCARCERATED PARENTS AND THEIR CHILDREN 1 (2002) [hereinafter BJS SPECIAL REPORT]. (2.) Id. at 1 tbl. 1 (State: 54.7 percent men; 65.3 percent women. Federal: 63.4 percent men; 58.8 percent women). (4.) Id. at 3 tbl. 4. (5.) Id. at 4 tbl. 5. (stating that of all incarcerated mothers, 56.5 percent lived with children; forty-six percent of all incarcerated mothers were single parents). (6.) Id. at 8. (7.) Id. at 2 tbl. 2 (state and federal combined). The number of incarcerated parents increased from 450,000 to 720,000 during this same period. Id. (8.) Id. at 2. (11.) DEP'T OF CORR. SERVS., STATE OF N.Y., HUB SYSTEM; PROFILE OF INMATE POPULATION UNDERCUSTODY ON JANUARY 1, 2002, at 7 (2002). The racial/ethnic categories referred to in the text are those used in the statistical report. (12.) BJS SPECIAL REPORT, supra note 1, at 6 tbl. 8. (14.) Id. (stating that sixty percent of mothers in state prison and fifty percent in federal prison will serve at least four years). (15.) Derived from statistics provided by the New York State Department of Correctional Services, August 2002. (16.) BJS SPECIAL REPORT, supra note 1, at 5. (18.) Philip M. Genty, Permanency Planning in the Context of Parental Incarceration: Legal Topics and Recommendations, 77 CHILD WELFARE 543, 547 (1998). (19.) BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS, U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, SOURCEBOOK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE STATISTICS 2001, at 88-89 (2001). There are also six minimum security camps: one in Arizona, two in Florida, two in Illinois, and one in Kentucky. There are also a number of local jails, which house both men and women. Federal Bureau of Prisons, BOP/NIC Directory, at http://www.bop.gov/facilnot.html (last visited July 15, 2003). (20.) The Author has argued elsewhere: In both the private and public spheres, family relationships survive the demise of their physical qualities. This is true because these family relationships involve intangible aspects that are at least as important as the more obvious physical characteristics. Such qualities may include love and affection, religious or moral guidance, emotional support and a sense of "roots" and family identity. Philip M. Genty, Procedural Due Process Rights of Incarcerated Parents in Termination of Parental Rights Proceedings: A Fifty State Analysis, 30 J. FAM. L. 757, 767 (1991-92). (21.) The phrase "parenting from a distance" originated at Bedford Hills Correctional Facility as the title of a class designed and taught by Kathy Boudin and other prisoners. See generally PARENTING FROM INSIDE/OUT: THE VOICES OF MOTHERS IN PRISON (Kathy Boudin & Rozenn Greco eds., 1998). In November 2002, students in a family law class and the Author taught at Green Haven Correctional Facility, a maximum security men's prison in New York State. A group of incarcerated fathers in the facility listed the following attributes of a father: person of trust and respect, teacher, protector, role model, provider, student, friend, cultivator, leader, motivator, counselor, and disciplinarian. The men movingly discussed the effect of incarceration on their ability to perform these parental roles. (22.) See Genty, supra note 18, at 545-46. (23.) See, e.g., Adela Beckerman, Incarcerated Mothers and Their Children in Foster Care: The Dilemma of Visitation, 11 CHILD. & YOUTH SERVICES REV. 175 (1989); Dorothy Driscoll, Mother's Day Once a Month, 47 CORRECTIONS TODAY 18 (1985); C.F. Hairston, The Forgotten Parent: Understanding the Forces that Influence Incarcerated Fathers' Relationships with Their Children, 77 CH1LD WELFARE 617 (1998); C.F. Hairston & P.M. Hess, Family Ties, Maintaining Child-Parent Bonds is Important, 51 CORRECTIONS TODAY 102 (1989); Donna C. Hale, The Impact of Mothers' Incarceration on the Family System: Research and Recommendations, 12 MARRIAGE & FAM. REV. 143 (1987); Denise Johnston, Effects of Parental Incarceration, in CHILDREN OF INCARCERATED PARENTS (Katherine Gabel & Denise Johnston eds., 1995); Christina Jose Kampfner, Post-Traumatic Stress Reactions in Children of Imprisoned Mothers, in CHILDREN OF INCARCERATED PARENTS, supra; Florence W. Kaslow, Couples or Family Therapy for Prisoners and Their Significant Others, 15 AM. J. FAM. THERAPY 352 (1987); Ariela Lowenstein, Temporary Single Parenthood--The Case of Prisoners' Families, 35 FAM. REL. 79 (1986). (24.) BJS SFECIAL REPORT, supra note 1, at 5 tbl. 6. (27.) OFFICE OF THE GOVERNOR, STATE OF OR., CHILDREN OF INCARCERATED PARENTS i (2002). (29.) Id. at ii. (30.) Id. at iii. (31.) See infra text accompanying notes 42-58. (32.) BJS SPECIAL REPORT, supra note 1, at 4. (33.) See HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, COLLATERAL CASUALTIES: CHILDREN OF INCARCERATED DRUG OFFENDERS IN NEW YORK tbl. 6 (2002). (34.) OFFICE OF THE GOVERNOR, STATE OF OR., supra note 27, at 5. (35.) While ninety-two percent of the fathers reported that their children were living with the mother, only thirty-one percent of the mothers reported that the children were living with the father. As discussed above, most of the mothers who were living with their children prior to incarceration were single mothers without another parent to provide backup care of the children. See supra text accompanying note 5. While a significant percentage of the mothers reported that their children were living with other family members, it is likely that many of these arrangements were "kinship foster care" placements. (36.) See Denise Johnston, Children of Criminal Offenders & Foster Care, 22 FAM. & CORRECTIONS NETWORK REP., Oct. 1999, at 7. (38.) Adoption and Safe Families Act, 42 U.S.C. [subsection] 670-679a (1997). (39.) Id. [section] 67(a). (40.) Id. [section] 675(5)(c). (41.) Id. [section] 675(5)(E)(i)-(iii). The statute itself provides three exceptions to the fifeteen month filing requirement. A termination of parental rights proceeding does not have to brought if: (i) at the option of the State, the child is being cared for by a relative; (ii) a State agency has documented in the case plan.., a compelling reason for determining that filing such a petition would not be in the best interests of the child; of (iii) the State has not provided to the family of the child, consistent with the time period in the State case plan, such services as the State deems necessary for the safe return of the child to the child's home, if reasonable efforts ... are required to be made with respect to the child. (42.) Id. [section] 671(a)(15)(D). ASFA allows an agency to forgo reasonable efforts where: (i) the parent has subjected the child to aggravated circumstances (as defined in State law, which definition may include but need not be limited to abandonment, torture, chronic abuse, and sexual abuse); (ii) the parent has-- (I) committed murder ... of another child of the parent; (II) committed voluntary manslaughter ... of another child of the parent; (III) aided or abetted, attempted, conspired, of solicited to commit such a murder or such a voluntary manslaughter; of (IV) committed a felony assault that results in serious bodily injury to the child or another child of the parent; or (iii) the parental rights of the parent to a sibling have been terminated involuntarily. (43.) Alaska: a court may determine that reasonable efforts are not required where "the parent or guardian is incarcerated and is unavailable to care for the child during a significant period of the child's minority, considering the child's age and need for care by an adult." ALASKA STAT. [section] 47.10.088(d) (Michie 2002) Kentucky: "aggravated circumstances" includes cases where "the parent is incarcerated and will be unavailable to care for the child for a period of at least one (1) year from the date of the child's entry into foster care and there is no appropriate relative placement available during this period of time." KY. REV. STAT, ANN. [section] 600.020(2)(b) (Michie 2002). North Dakota: "aggravated circumstances" includes circumstances where a parent's latest release date will occur after the child's majority if the child is nine or older, or after the child is twice her current age if the child is under nine. N.D. CENT. CODE [section] 27-20-02(f) (2001). South Dakota: reunification not required where a parent "Is incarcerated and is unavailable to care for the child during a significant period of the child's minority, considering the child's age and the child's need for care by an adult." S.D. CODIFIED LAWS [section] 26-8A-21(4) (Michie 2002). Tennessee: "aggravated circumstances" includes "abandonment," one definition of which applies to parents and guardians who are incarcerated at the time of the institution of the proceeding to terminate parental rights, of who have been incarcerated during all or part of the previous four months and who have wilfully failed to visit of provide reasonable support for their children in the four months prior to incarceration or have "engaged in conduct prior to incarceration which exhibits a wanton disregard for the welfare of the child." TENN. CODE ANN. [section] 36-1-102(1)(A)(iv) (2002). (44.) The potential impact of ASFA upon incarcerated parents is discussed in detail elsewhere. See Philip M. Genty, Incarcerated Parents and the Adoption and Sale Families Act (ASFA): A Challenge for Correctional Services Providers, THE ICCA JOURNAL ON COMMUNITY CORRECTIONS 5 (2002). In addition to the five states listed above, which include parental incarceration as a ground for excusing reasonable reunification efforts, two states, California and Utah, place a twelve-month limit on the provision of such efforts when a parent is incarcerated. At least half of the states include some form of parental incarceration as a ground for termination of parental rights. Id. at 46-47 nn. 9 & 15. (45.) BJS SPECIAL REPORT, supra note 1, at 6. The mean is eighty months. (47.) Cynthia Seymour, Children with Parents in Prison: Child Welfare Policy, Program and Practice Issues, 77 CHILD WELFARE 469, 470 (1993). (48.) These data were obtained using a Lexis search for cases involving parental incarceration and termination of parental rights and comparing results for each of the years indicated. The cases have not yet been analyzed. (49.) Seymour, supra note 47, at 470. (50.) See BJS SPECIAL REPORT, supra note 1, at 5-6 (table 6 shows frequency of contact and table 8 shows length of incarceration); Kathleen Block & Margaret Potthast, Girl Scouts Behind Bars: Facilitating Parent-Child Contact in Correctional Settings, 77 CHILD WELFARE 561, 565-66 (1998). (51.) See BJS SPECIAL REPORT, supra note 1, at 6. (52.) BRENDA MCGOWAN & KAREN BLUMENTHAL, WHY PUNISH THE CHILDREN? A STUDY OF CHILDREN OF WOMEN PRISONERS 30-33 (1978). This study remains the most powerful piece about the importance of the bonds between children and their incarcerated parents. The study concludes with a number of policy suggestions. (54.) See supra note 23 and accompanying text. (55.) See, e.g., Pamela Covington Katz, Supporting Families and Children of Mothers in Jail: An Integrated Child Welfare and Criminal Justice Strategy, 77 CHILD WELFARE 495, 500-05 (1998). (57.) The so-called "civil death" statutes are an exception to this. For example, N.Y. CIV. RIGHTS LAW [section] 79-a (1992) provides that persons serving a sentence with a minimum of more than one day and a maximum of life are "civilly dead" and may not enter into marriage. The ban on marriage has been found to be a part of the punishment itself and has been held to be constitutional: Insolar as the deprivation of the right to participate in the ceremony of marriage can be considered as imposing punishment in addition to incarceration it is a penalty which is well within New York's power to prescribe. A state has considerable freedom within the limits of the Eighth Amendment in determining what form punishment for crime shall take. Deprivation of physical liberty is not the sole permissible consequence of a criminal conviction." Johnson v. Rockefeller, 365 F. Supp. 377, 380 (S.D.N.Y. 1973). (58.) Susan Phillips & Barbara Bloom, In Whose Best Interest? The Impact of Changing Public Policy on Relatives Caring for Children with Incarcerated Parents, 77 CHILD WELFARE 531, 534-38 (1998). (60.) For example, in New York State, seventy-two percent of the prisoners came from New York City and the surrounding suburban counties (62.2 percent from New York City; 10.3 percent from Nassau, Rockland, Suffolk, and Westchester Counties). Of the approximately 49,000 prisoners from New York City and the surrounding suburban counties, however, only about 10,000 were incarcerated in the New York City and Green Haven "hubs," the clusters of prisons located closest to the New York City metropolitan region. In contrast, approximately 24,000 were incarcerated in the Clinton and Watertown hubs, in the rural far northern section of the state, and the Oneida and Wende hubs, in the western section of the state. DEP'T OF CORRECTIONAL SERVS., supra note 11, at 1, 9-10. (61.) See MCGOWAN & BLUMENTHAL, supra note 52, at 50-53. (63.) See Carl Mazza, And Then the World Fell Apart: The Children of Incarcerated Fathers, 83 FAMILIES IN SOC'Y: J. CONTEMP. HUM. SERVICES 521, 527 (2002). Mazza both describes the barriers to this work and offers practical recommendations for carrying it out: Social workers working with children of incarcerated fathers need to be in contact with the fathers--not just the mothers of caretakers in the community. It may not be possible to visit the men in prison, but contacting them through the mail, stating the nature of their children's problems, and how they need to play a part in helping their children adjust to their father's incarceration can be useful to both the children and the fathers. Social workers should also be encouraged to accept collect telephone calls from fathers trying to assist the children. (64.) See Katz, supra note 55, at 502-03. (65.) Id. at 506. (66.) Id. at 501. (67.) Id. at 501-02. (68.) Id. at 501. (69.) See Adela Beckerman, Charting a Course: Meeting the Challenge of Permanency Planning for Children with Incarcerated Mothers, 77 CHILD WELFARE 513, 51327 (1978); Katz, supra note 55, at 502-03; Phillips & Bloom, supra note 58, at 434-38. (70.) Beckerman, supra note 69, at 513-27; Katz, supra note 55, at 502-03; Phillips & Bloom, supra note 58, at 434-38. (71.) During the spring and summer of 2002, two Columbia University School of Law students conducted a telephone survey of child welfare and corrections personnel throughout the country. With two exceptions, the individuals contacted were not able to provide any information about the number of children of incarcerated parents who are part of the child welfare caseload or the number of incarcerated parents who are involved in termination of parental rights proceedings. The only two jurisdictions that reported compiling any of this information were Oregon and Pennsylvania. As noted above, the Oregon prison system has conducted a study of incarcerated parents, and the Governor's Office was able to provide information for 11,000 prisoners as of July 2002. The study, however, did not include information about foster care placements and termination of parental rights proceedings. SHEILA REED, OFFICE OF THE GOVERNOR OF OR., EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: CHILDREN OF INCARCEATED PARENTS 2 (2002). The Pennsylvania Department of Corrections--Inmate Services, was able to provide some mostly anecdotal information, but it has apparently not conducted a systematic survey of the extent to which prisoners are facing termination of parental rights programs. (73.) See Madelyn Freundlich, Expediting Termination of Parental Rights: Solving a Problem of Sowing the Seeds of a New Predicament?, 28 CAP. U. L. REV. 97, 97-110 (1999) (expressing concern that the Adoption and Safe Families Act's emphasis on expedited termination of parental rights may not serve the long-term interests of the children involved and that there may not be a sufficient number of suitable adoptive homes to meet the demand created by the increased number of termination (74.) See, e.g., Genty supra note 18, at 550. (75.) See Jeffrey Fagan et al., Reciprocal Effects of Crime and Incarceration in New York City Neighborhoods, 30 FORDHAM URB. L.J. 1551, 1568 (2003). The authors describe ingenious statistical methods for generating this information and map prison and jail rates by neighborhoods and police precincts. (76.) See Mazza, supra note 63, at 526-27. Mazza writes: Programs must be careful not to label these children, certainly never referring to them as the "Children of Incarcerated Parents" groups. The children already feel labeled and often rejected, and the staff must be very sensitive to this issue. The issue of stigma may be so strong that it is quite possible that many social workers who are currently working with children and adolescents are working with children of incarcerated fathers and not know it. It is therefore imperative that social workers conduct careful assessments.... The children should not be confronted with the fact that the social workers know that the fathers are incarcerated. Rather, as the relationship builds, the subject of incarceration should be slowly introduced. Because of the stigma, it is important for the children to know that there are others who have experienced the same situations. Therefore, it is vital for children to meet and share feelings and stories. (77.) See BJS SPECIAL REPORT, supra note 1, at 7. Almost three-quarters of the women in state prison, and more than ninety percent of the women in federal prison are incarcerated on non-violent offenses. (78.) The Federal Resource Center for Children of Prisoners, funded by the National Institute of Corrections and administered by the Child Welfare League of America, is undertaking research that will address some of these informational needs. The Center is also developing training materials for school personnel and other individuals who are likely to be working with children of incarcerated parents. For more information on this program, see the website for the Federal Resource Center for Children of Prisoners, at http://www.childrenofprisons.org (last visited July 15, 2003). Philip M. Genty, Clinical Professor, Columbia University School of Law; Director, Prisoners and Families Clinic, Columbia University School of Law; J.D., New York University, 1980. The Author gratefully acknowledges the research work of Amy Mody, Steven Olivas, and the late Jessica Billingslea. Support for this Article was provided by a research stipend from the Columbia University School of Law. |Printer friendly Cite/link Email Feedback| |Author:||Genty, Philip M.| |Publication:||Fordham Urban Law Journal| |Date:||Jul 1, 2003| |Previous Article:||Abusing state power or controlling risk?: sex offender commitment and Sicherungverwahrung.| |Next Article:||Are collateral sanctions premised on conduct or conviction? The case of abortion doctors.|

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- African cuisine African cuisine is a generalized term collectively referring to the cuisines of Africa. The continent of Africa is the second largest landmass on Earth, and is home to hundreds of different cultural and ethnic groups. This diversity is also reflected in the many local culinary traditions in terms of choice of ingredients, style of preparation and cooking techniques. Traditionally, the various cuisines of Africa use a combination of locally available fruits, cereal grains and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features a preponderance of milk, curd and whey products. In much of Tropical Africa, however, cow's milk is rare and cannot be produced locally (owing to various diseases that affect livestock). Depending on the region, there are also sometimes quite significant differences in the eating and drinking habits and proclivities throughout the continent's many populations: Central Africa, East Africa, the Horn of Africa, North Africa, Southern Africa and West Africa each have their own distinctive dishes, preparation techniques, and consumption mores. Central Africa stretches from the Tibesti mountains in the north to vast rainforest basin of the Congo River, and has remained largely free of culinary influences of the outside world, until the late 19th century, with the exception of the widespread adaptation of cassava, peanut, and Chile pepper plants which arrived along with the slave trade during the early 16th century. These foodstuffs have had a large influence on the local cuisine, perhaps less on the preparation methods. Central African cooking has remained mostly traditional. Nevertheless, like other parts of Africa, Central African cuisine also presents an array of dishes. The basic ingredients are plantains and cassava. Fufu-like starchy foods (usually made from fermented cassava roots) are served with grilled meat and sauces. A variety of local ingredients are used while preparing other dishes like spinach stew, cooked with tomato, peppers, chiles, onions, and peanut butter. Cassava plants are also consumed as cooked greens. Groundnut (peanut) stew is also prepared, containing chicken, okra, ginger, and other spices. Another favorite is Bambara, a porridge of rice, peanut butter and sugar. Beef and chicken are favorite meat dishes, but game meat preparations containing crocodile, monkey, antelope and warthog are also served occasionally. The cuisine of East Africa varies from area to area. In the inland savannah, the traditional cuisine of cattle-keeping peoples is distinctive in that meat products are generally absent. Cattle, sheep and goats were regarded as a form of currency and a store of wealth, and are not generally consumed as food. In some areas, traditional peoples consume the milk and blood of cattle, but rarely the meat. Elsewhere, other peoples are farmers who grow a variety of grains and vegetables. Maize (corn) is the basis of ugali, the East African version of West Africa's fufu. Ugali is a starch dish eaten with meats or stews. In Uganda, steamed, green bananas called matoke provide the starch filler of many meals. Around 1000 years ago, the Arabs settled in the coastal areas of East Africa, and Arabic influences are especially reflected in the Swahili cuisine of the coast – steamed cooked rice with spices in Persian style, use of saffron, cloves, cinnamon and several other spices, and pomegranate juice. Several centuries later, the British and the Indians came, and both brought with them their foods, like Indian spiced vegetable curries, lentil soups, chapattis and a variety of pickles. Just before the British and the Indians, the Portuguese had introduced techniques of roasting and marinating, as also use of spices turning the bland diet into aromatic stewed dishes. Portuguese also brought from their Asian colonies fruits like the orange, lemon and lime. From their colonies in the New World, Portuguese also brought exotic items like chilies, peppers, maize, tomatoes, pineapple, bananas, and the domestic pig – now, all these are common elements of East African food. Horn of Africa The main traditional dishes in Eritrean cuisine are tsebhis (stews) served with injera (flatbread made from teff, wheat, or sorghum), and hilbet (paste made from legumes, mainly lentil, faba beans). Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisine (especially in the northern half) are very similar, given the shared history of the two countries. Eritrean food habits vary regionally. In the highlands, injera is the staple diet and is eaten daily among the Tigrinya. Injera is made out of a variation and/or blend of: teff, wheat, barley, sorghum and corn and resembles a spongy, slightly sour pancake. When eating, diners generally share food from a large tray placed in the centre of a low dining table. Numerous injera are layered on this tray and topped with various spicy stews. Diners then break into the section of injera in front of them, tearing off pieces and dipping them into the stews. In the lowlands, the main dish is akelet, a porridge-like dish made from wheat flour dough. A ladle is used to scoop out the top, which is filled with berbere and butter sauce and surrounded by milk or yoghurt. A small piece of dough is broken and then used to scoop up the sauce. The best known Ethiopian cuisine consists of various vegetable or meat side dishes and entrées, usually a wat, or thick stew, served atop injera, a large sourdough flatbread made of teff flour. One does not eat with utensils, but instead uses injera to scoop up the entrées and side dishes. Tihlo prepared from roasted barley flour is very popular in Amhara, Agame, and Awlaelo (Tigrai). Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs no pork or shellfish of any kind, as they are forbidden in the Islamic, Jewish, and Ethiopian Orthodox Christian faiths. It is also very common to eat from the same dish in the center of the table with a group of people. Somali cuisine varies from region to region and consists of an exotic mixture of diverse culinary influences. It is the product of Somalia's rich tradition of trade and commerce. Despite the variety, there remains one thing that unites the various regional cuisines: all food is served halal. There are therefore no pork dishes, alcohol is not served, nothing that died on its own is eaten, and no blood is incorporated. Qaddo or lunch is often elaborate. Varieties of bariis (rice), the most popular probably being basmati, usually serve as the main dish. Spices like cumin, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon and sage are used to aromatize these different rice dishes. Somalis serve dinner as late as 9 pm. During Ramadan, dinner is often served after Tarawih prayers – sometimes as late as 11 pm. Xalwo or halva is a popular confection served during special occasions such as Eid celebrations or wedding receptions. It is made from sugar, cornstarch, cardamom powder, nutmeg powder, and ghee. Peanuts are also sometimes added to enhance texture and flavor. After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed using frankincense (lubaan) or incense (cuunsi), which is prepared inside an incense burner referred to as a dabqaad. North Africa lies along the Mediterranean Sea and encompasses within its fold several nations, including Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, Mauritania, and Egypt. This is a region marked by geographic, political, social, economic and cultural diversity, and the cuisine and the culinary style and art of North Africa are also as diverse as the land, its people and its history. The roots to North African cuisine can be traced back over 2000 years. Over several centuries traders, travelers, invaders, migrants and immigrants all have influenced the cuisine of North Africa. The Phoenicians of the 1st century brought sausages, the Carthaginians introduced wheat and its by-product, semolina. The Berbers, adapted this into couscous, one of the main staple diet. Olives and olive oils were introduced before the arrival of the Romans. From the 7th century onwards, the Arabs introduced a variety of spices, like saffron, nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger and cloves, which contributed and influenced the culinary culture of North Africa. The Ottoman Turks brought sweet pastries and other bakery products, and from the New World, North Africa got potatoes, tomatoes, zucchini and chilis. Most of the North African countries have several similar dishes, sometimes almost the same dish with a different name (the Moroccan tangia and the Tunisian coucha are both essentially the same dish: a meat stew prepared in an urn and cooked overnight in a public oven), sometimes with a slight change in ingredients and cooking style. To add to the confusion, two completely different dishes may also share the same name (for example, a "tajine" dish is a slow-cooked stew in Morocco, whereas the Tunisian "tajine" is a baked omelette/quiche-like dish). There are noticeable differences between the cooking styles of different nations – there's the sophisticated, full-bodied flavours of Moroccan palace cookery, the fiery dishes of Tunisian cuisine, and the humbler, simpler cuisines of Egypt and Algeria. The cooking of Southern Africa is sometimes called 'rainbow cuisine', as the food in this region is a blend of many cultures – the indigenous African tribal societies, European and Asian. To understand indigenous cuisine, it is important first to digress to understand the various native peoples of southern Africa. The indigenous people of Southern Africa were roughly divided into two groups and several sub groups. The largest group consisted of the Bantu-speakers, whose descendants today may identify themselves by various sub-group names such as Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, Sotho, Tswana, Pedi, Shangaan and Tsonga. They arrived in the region around two thousand years ago, bringing crop cultivation, animal husbandry, and iron tool making with them. Hence the Bantu-speakers grew grain crops extensively and raised cattle, sheep and goats. They also grew and continue to grow pumpkins, beans and leafy greens as vegetables. A smaller group were the primeval residents of the region, the Khoisan, who some archaeologists believe, had lived in the region for at least ten thousand years. Many descendants of the Khoisan people have now been incorporated into the Coloured population of South Africa. The Khoisan originally were hunter gathers (who came to be known as "San" by the Bantu-speakers and as "bushmen" by Europeans). After the arrival of the Bantu-speakers, however, some Khoisan adopted the Bantu-speakers' cattle raising, but did not grow crops. The Khoisan who raised cattle called themselves "Khoi-Khoi" and came to be known by Europeans as "Hottentots." People were, in other words, defined to some extent by the kinds of food they ate. The Bantu speakers ate dishes of grain, meat, milk and vegetables, as well as fermented grain and fermented milk products, while the Khoi-Khoi ate meat and milk, and the San hunted wild animals and gathered wild tubers and vegetables. In many ways, the daily food of Black South African families can be traced to the indigenous foods that their ancestors ate. The Khoisan ate roasted meat, and they also dried meat for later use. The influence of their diet is reflected in the universal (black and white) Southern African love of barbecue (generally called in South Africa by its Afrikaans name, a "braai") and biltong (dried preserved meat). Traditional beer was ubiquitous in the southern African diet, and the fermentation added additional nutrients to the diet. It was a traditional obligation for any family to be able to offer a visitor copious amounts of beer. Beer brewing was done by women, and the status of a housewife in pre-colonial southern Africa depended significantly on her skill at brewing delicious beer. Milk was historically one of the most important components of the southern African diet. Cattle were considered a man's most important possession, and in order to marry, a man had to compensate his prospective in-laws with a gift of cattle as a dowry for his bride. A married man was expected to provide a generous supply of milk to his wife and children, along with meat whenever he slaughtered cattle, sheep or goats. Because there was no refrigeration, most milk was soured into a kind of yogurt. The young men of the family often took care of the cattle far away from the villages at "cattle posts," and they sent a steady stream of yogurt home on behalf of their fathers. Today, many Black South Africans enjoy drinking sour milk products that are sold in the supermarket, and these products are comparable to American buttermilk, yogurt and sour cream. On weekends they, like white South Africans, will have a "braai" and the meal would usually consist of "pap and vleis," which is maize porridge and grilled meat. The basic ingredients include seafood, meat products (including wild game), poultry, as well as grains, fresh fruits and vegetables. Fruits include apples, grapes, mangoes, bananas and papayas, avocado, oranges, peaches and apricots. Desserts may simply be fruit, but there are some more western style puddings, such as the Angolan Cocada amarela, which was inspired by Portuguese cuisine. Meat products include lamb, and game like venison, ostrich, and impala. The seafood includes a wide variety such as crayfish, prawns, tuna, mussels, oysters, calamari, mackerel, and lobster. Last but not least, there are also several types of traditional and modern alcoholic beverages including many European-style beers. A typical West African meal is heavy with starchy items, meat, spices and flavors. A wide array of staples are eaten across the region, including those of Fufu, Banku and Kenkey (originating from Ghana), Foutou, Couscous, Tô, and Garri which are served alongside soups and stews. Fufu is often made from starchy root vegetables such as yams, cocoyams, or cassava, but also from cereal grains like millet, sorghum or plantains. The staple grain or starch varies region to region and ethnic group to ethnic group, although corn has gained significant ground as it is cheap, swells to greater volumes and creates a beautiful white final product that is greatly desired. Banku and Kenkey are maize dough staples, and Gari is made from dried grated cassavas. Rice-dishes are also widely eaten in the region, especially in the dry Sahel belt inland. Examples of these include Benachin from the Gambia and Jollof rice, a pan-West African rice dish similar to Arab kabsah, with its origins from Ghana. Seeds of Guinea pepper (Aframomum melegueta; also called grains of paradise or melagueta pepper) a native West African plant, were used as a spice and even reached Europe, through North African middlemen, during the Middle Ages. Centuries before the influence of Europeans, West African people were trading with the Arab world and spices like cinnamon, cloves, and mint were not unknown and became part of the local flavorings. Centuries later, the Portuguese, French and British influenced the regional cuisines, but only to a limited extent. However, as far as is known, it was European explorers who introduced the American Chile, or chili (Capsicum), to Africa sometime soon after Columbus sailed to America, and both chillies and tomatoes have become ubiquitous components of West African cuisines. The local cuisine and recipes of West Africa continue to remain deeply entrenched in the local customs and traditions, with ingredients like native rice (oryza glaberrima), rice, fonio, millet, sorghum, Bambara and Hausa groundnuts, black-eyed beans, brown beans, and root vegetables such as yams, cocoyams, sweet potatoes, and cassava. Cooking is done in multiple ways: roasting, baking, boiling, frying, mashing, and spicing. A range of sweets and savories are also prepared. Cooking techniques of West Africa are changing. In the past people ate much less meat and used native oils (palm oil on the coast and shea butter in sahelian regions). Baobob leaf and numerous local greens were every day staples during certain times of the year. Today diet is much heavier in meats, salt, and fats. Many dishes combine fish and meat, including dried and fermented fish. Flaked and dried fish is often fried in oil, and sometimes cooked in sauce made up with hot peppers, onions and tomatoes various spices (such as soumbala) and water to prepare a highly flavored stew. In some areas, beef and mutton are preferred, and goat meat is the dominant red meat. Suya, a popular grilled spicy meat kebab flavored with peanuts and other spices, is sold by street vendors as a tasty snack or evening meal and is typically made with beef or chicken. It is common to have a preponderance of seafood and the seafood, as earlier stated, is sometimes also mixed with other meat products. Guinea fowl eggs, eggs and chicken are also preferred. As far as beverages, water has a very strong ritual significance in many West African nations (particularly in dry areas) and water is often the first thing an African host will offer his/her guest. Palm wine is also a common beverage made from the fermented sap of various types of palm trees and is usually sold in sweet (less-fermented, retaining more of the sap's sugar) or sour (fermented longer, making it stronger and less sweet) varieties. Millet beer is another common beverage. African cuisine National cuisines - Burkina Faso - Cape Verde - Centrafrican (Central African Republic) - The Republic of the Congo - The Democratic Republic of the Congo - Ivorian (Côte d'Ivoire) - Nigerien (Niger) - Sierra Leone - South Africa Ethnic and regional cuisines Africa topics Culture Demographics Economy Geography History Politics Society Sport Years Book · Category · Portal · WikiProject Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. Look at other dictionaries: West African cuisine — Chicken Yassa Pan fried fish West African cu … Wikipedia South African cuisine — Potjiekos, literally translated small pot food , is a stew prepared outdoors in a traditional round, cast iron, three legged pot. This one is being cooked on a barbecue … Wikipedia North African cuisine — Dinner in Morocco Moroccan … Wikipedia Cuisine of South Africa — has had a variety of sources and stages:*Cookery practised by indigenous people of South Africa such as the Khoisan and Xhosa and Sotho speaking people *Settler cookery introduced during the colonial period by people of Indian and Afrikaner and… … Wikipedia Cuisine of Jamaica — contains cooking techniques, flavors, spices and influences from each of the many waves of immigration to the island. Today, dishes which grace nearly every Jamaican menu include curry goat, fried dumplings, ackee and salt fish (cod) (the… … Wikipedia Cuisine of Africa — The cuisine of Africa reflects indigenous traditions, as well as influences from Arabs, Europeans, and Asians.The continent of Africa is the second largest landmass on the earth and is home to hundreds of tribes, ethnic and social groups. This… … Wikipedia Cuisine — See also: Global cuisines, Outline of cuisines, and Regional cuisine Contents 1 History 2 Global and regional cuisines … Wikipedia Cuisine of Swaziland — Location of Swaziland Homemade beef biltong, a type of cured meat that originated in South Afric … Wikipedia Cuisine of Equatorial Guinea — The Cuisine of Equatorial Guinea is a blend of the cuisines of the native tribes, as well as that of Spain (their colonial motherland) and Islamic states such as Morocco. As the wealthiest nation in west Africa, its cuisine incorporates… … Wikipedia Cuisine of Niger — Location of Niger The Cuisine of Niger reflects many traditional African cuisines, and a significant amount of spices are used in dishes. Grilled meats, seasonal vegetables, salads and various sauces are some … Wikipedia

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“It is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy in creative expression and knowledge.” First Century Jesus by Mark Karapetyan If you traveled to the African nation of Angola, and told everyone that “the ball is in their court,” how do you think they would respond to you? What if you went to Fiji, and told some folks there that “Elvis has left the building?” What would those Fijians tell you? Better yet, what if you met a lovely couple from Portugal, and informed them that “you just hit the nail on the head?” How would they interpret your dialogue? I think you pretty much have an idea of what I am trying to tell you. Some sayings that we are familiar with in one culture make no sense what so ever in other cultures. Every language in every country has its own collection of unique expressions. They offer advice about how to live, and also carry some underlying ideas, principles, and values of a given culture / society. These expressions or axioms are called “idioms.” It is important to understand that the meaning of an idiom cannot be determined by looking up the meanings of the separate words. When these words are put together in a specific way, the meaning becomes something new. So, when we say that the ball is in your court, we actually mean that the decision to make is yours. To inform someone that Elvis has left the building means that it’s all over- it’s finished. Lastly, to hit the nail on the head means we got it right. I believe you understand my point so far… First century Palestine was no different! They too had their idioms and unique customs. Jesus, as a Jew was familiar with all that; thus, He preached His message accordingly. He constantly used idioms to simplify His sermons so that the people of His time would understand what it was that He was trying to communicate. Today, most people in the English speaking world read the Bible as if they are reading a post off of Face book from last month. Then, when the text makes no sense whatsoever (because we read a 1st century text with the understanding of 21st century American English), they come to false conclusions and distorted assumptions. When we read Scripture (New Testament specifically), we MUST always remember that the characters in these stories were Jewish men and women who lived in first century Israel. These people were familiar with the popular idioms used in their times. Therefore, when a Rabbi or a teacher, for example, referred to a specific idiom to illustrate a message, everyone understood the significance. In this study, I will present to you a few passages from the New Testament, where unless you are already familiar with the Jewish customs, and traditions, it would be difficult for you to understand the true meaning of the message intended by the writer. These customs and traditions I speak of make absolutely no sense to us today here in the West, but were perfectly normal and well understood by the Jews in 1st century Israel. Below are some examples: The woman with an issue of blood In Luke 8:43-48, we read a fascinating story about a woman with an issue of blood who came to Jesus for healing: “And a woman having an issue of blood twelve years, which had spent all her living upon physicians, neither could be healed of any, came behind Him, touched the edge of his garment, and immediately her issue of blood was healed. Jesus said: ‘who touched me?’ When all denied, Peter and they that were with him said, Master, the multitude push you and press you, and you say, who touched me? “And Jesus said, ‘somebody has touched me: for I perceive that virtue is gone out of me.’ And when the woman saw that she was not hid, she came trembling, and falling down before him, she declared unto him before all the people for what reason she had touched him, and how she was healed immediately. “And he said unto her, ‘Daughter, be of good comfort: thy faith hath made you whole; go in peace.’” My question to you is this: Why did the woman touch the “hem” of Jesus’ garment and not any other part? Did she, as a 1st century, Jewish woman, know something about hems of garments that we, westerners, don’t know? The answer is a resounding yes! Most of us assume that the woman just reached for Jesus’ garment for healing, since Jesus was miraculously healing everyone left and right. That is not so! What we fail to realize is that she touched the “edge” of His garment for a very specific reason: The Greek word “Kraspedon,” actually means “a little appendage hanging down from the edge of the mantle or cloak, made of twisted wool.” We must remember that Jesus, as a 1st century observant, Jewish man, wore a Jewish garment according to God’s command found in Numbers 15:37-41: “The LORD said to Moses, ‘speak to the sons of Israel and tell them to make for themselves tassels on the hems of their garments throughout their generations, and put a cord of blue on the tassel of each hem. It shall be a tassel for you to look at and remember all the commandments of the Lord, to do them, so that you do not follow after [the desires of] your own heart and eyes, [desires] after which you used to follow and play the prostitute, so that you may remember to do all My commandments and be holy (set apart) to your God. I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt to be your God. I am the LORD your God.’” Just like the Jews of Israel, Jesus also wore a cloak that resembles a modern-day “Tzitzit,” or a prayer shawl. What’s so interesting is that the Prophet Malachi prophesied that the coming Messiah would have healing in His wings. The Jews knew this! “But for you who fear My name with awe-filled reverence the sun of righteousness will rise with healing in its wings. And you will go forward and leap joyfully like calves released from the stall.” (Malachi 4:2) You see, out of this concept above, a belief developed that the wings of the Messiah would have healing powers. The Jews understood this text, and knew exactly what it meant! “Not so fast,” you might object, “for the text in Malachi says the “wings” of the garment shall have healing powers, not the hem or the edge!” I understand the objection, but perhaps what you didn’t know is that the Hebrew word “kanaph” is translated as corners, or wings. Therefore, the corners of the prayer shawl are often called the “wings” of the garment. Now you understand why the woman went directly for the “wings” or the “hem” of Jesus’ garment? She had been well versed in Jewish traditions and customs, and had known the prophecy of Malachi. In addition, this woman was fully convinced that Jesus was the Messiah from Malachi, and that she was going to be instantly healed the moment she touched His garment. How do we know this? Matthew’s version (Matthew 9:20) of the same story adds an amazing little detail for us: “for she said within herself, if I may but touch His garment, I shall be whole.” (V. 21) This story makes more sense if it is looked at from the eyes of 1st century Jews. The woman caught in adultery Most of us are familiar with the story of Jesus and the prostitute. If you recall correctly, the Jews were fed up with Jesus and His miracles. So, they sought to trap Him and accuse Him of violating Moses’ laws. Here is how it all went down: “Then the scribes and Pharisees brought to Him a woman caught in adultery. And when they had set her in the midst, they said to Him, ‘Teacher, this woman was caught in adultery, in the very act. Now Moses, in the law, commanded us that such should be stoned. But what do You say?’ This they said, testing Him, that they might have something of which to accuse Him. But Jesus stooped down and wrote on the ground with His finger, as though He did not hear. So when they continued asking Him, He raised Himself up and said to them, ‘He who is without sin among you, let him throw a stone at her first.’ And again He stooped down and wrote on the ground. Then those who heard it, being convicted by their conscience, went out one by one, beginning with the oldest even to the last. And Jesus was left alone, and the woman standing in the midst. When Jesus had raised Himself up and saw no one but the woman, He said to her, ‘Woman, where are those accusers of yours? Has no one condemned you?’ She said, ‘No one, Lord.’ “And Jesus said to her, ‘Neither do I condemn you; go and sin no more.’” (John 8:3-11) The part of this story that I want you to focus on is: Why and what did Jesus write in the sand? It is a strange behavior that Jesus demonstrated that day, in the midst of a serious event. Imagine, in today’s world, an attorney stooping down and writing with his finger on the floor of the court room when asked a question by the judge! It would be odd, wouldn’t it? Before I analyze this passage for you and reveal the truth of what happened that day, we need to understand a few things first: The Apostle John tells us that the adulterous woman was BROUGHT to Jesus, not the other way around. The question is, where was Jesus when they came to Him? In 1st century Israel, the Temple area was divided into sections. The outermost area of the temple was called the “court of the Gentiles” or the “outer court” because it could be entered into by all people. It was the most exterior and, by far, the largest of all the courts. Beyond this outer court was an area known as the Holy Place, where only righteous men were permitted to enter with their sacrifices. The Holy Place contained a seven-branched candlestick, a golden altar on which to burn incense, and a table on which show bread was placed. It also had five tables along both the north and south walls of the area. Lastly, Beyond the Holy Place was the Holy of Holies, where originally the Ark of the Covenant had been placed. Only the High Priest on one day of the year was granted access to this place. It was a sacred chamber where the Glory of God dwelt. Before I continue, let’s summarize the temple layout: - The outer court (or the court of the Gentiles): Everyone was allowed there. - The Holy Place: Only righteous men were allowed to enter with their sacrifices. - The Holy of Holies: Only the High Priest, once a year, was allowed to enter. Out of these areas in the Temple, which court do you think Jesus was in when they brought Him the woman caught in adultery? The correct assumption is that Jesus was present in the outer court, or the Gentiles’ Court, since all people were permitted to be there. However, do we know for a fact that Jesus was indeed in the Gentiles’ Court on that day? I believe He was, and here is why: Let me rewind John’s story a little and reveal to you an incredible hidden detail that will prove Jesus’ whereabouts on that day. If you read John 7: 14 carefully, you will know where Jesus was: “About the midst of the Feast, Jesus went up to the temple and taught.” So, we know that Jesus was present at the temple, teaching as usual. He even cried out to everyone: “If anyone is thirsty, let him come to Me and drink.” The Pharisees and the Scribes were bothered and offended by Jesus’ teachings. There was even a division amongst people regarding Jesus as to who He might be (John 7:43-52). Finally, everyone went home, and Jesus went to the Mount of Olives. Here is the kicker: John tells us that after the events above, early the next morning, Jesus came back AGAIN to the temple to teach: “But Jesus went unto the Mount of Olives. And early in the morning He came again into the temple, and all the people came unto him; and He sat down, and taught them.” (John 8:1-3) Aha! The word “again” explains the mystery! Now we know for a fact that early in the morning, Jesus was in the temple, when they brought Him the adulterous woman. Now that the “where” is established, let’s focus on the “when” of the story. John is careful to detail that the story of the adulterous woman happened on the last and greatest day of the feast (John 7:37). Why is this important? What most of us don’t know is that in those times, there was a ceremony associated with the Feast of Tabernacles known as the water libation ceremony (nisukh hamayim). This ceremony took place in the Temple every day during the feast. Remember, Jesus cried out on the last day of the feast “If anyone is thirsty, let him come to Me and drink. Whoever believes in Me, as the Scriptures have said, streams of living water will flow from within him.” The text says that Jesus “stood” to make His announcement, and that He “cried” meaning He spoke with a loud voice. He wanted everyone to hear the good news. The stunned crowd did hear and they knew what He meant. Basically, Jesus was declaring that He was Messiah and that everyone who would believe in Him would receive the gift or indwelling of the Holy Spirit, the “living water,” not measured in terms of a trickling spring, the Spring of Gihon, but a flowing river-even numerous rivers! Immediately, after Jesus expressed these words, many people accepted Him as the Messiah, others, such as the legalists and the Pharisees, rejected Him. That’s why the very next day, early in the morning, they bring the woman to Him! Jesus, however, was a brilliant teacher. He often spoke without saying a word! John tells us that, the next day, when the Pharisees kept asking Him about the adulterous woman’s punishment, instead of answering their question directly, Jesus knelt down and wrote in the sand. Ironically, the first time Jesus wrote in the sand, the woman’s accusers failed to respond to Jesus’ gesture. So, Jesus wrote in the sand once more, which produced a powerful, surprising reaction. The accusers dropped their stones, one by one, and walked away… “What did Jesus write in the sand that forced the woman’s accusers to leave?” You might ask. The astonishing answer is found in the Old Testament, mainly, in Jeremiah 17:13: “O lord, the hope of Israel, all who forsake You will be put to shame. Those who turn away from You will be written in the sand because they have forsaken the Lord, the spring of living water.” Did you catch it? Those who brought the adulterous woman to Jesus were Jewish Rabbis and teachers. They were knowledgeable, experts in the Torah and the Law. That’s why they only brought the adulterous woman alone to Jesus and not the adulterous man; their intention was not to seek justice according to the Laws of Moses, but rather, to ensnare Jesus and accuse Him of something criminal. Most likely, the accusers instantly made the connection between Jesus’ action-writing in the sand- and the passage in Jeremiah! I can almost imagine their angry and hate-filled faces, and hear their hearts racing as He reminds them from their own book of Jeremiah, that they indeed were the hypocrites who forsake God. Therefore, their names would be written in the sand! Jesus & the Scroll of Isaiah This is one of my personal favorites-the story of Jesus and the scroll of Isaiah. This thrilling event that took place in Jesus’ early ministry, made evident that Jesus was not just another Rabbi amongst many, but rather, the prophesied Messiah that the Jews had been awaiting for centuries. Sadly, the Jews failed to see this reality! Most, if not all people in the West, speed-read this story and overlook several, critical details that fill the gaps and connect the necessary dots to make the story coherent and comprehensible. Just like the other examples I have shown you, this story will only make sense through the lens of a 1st century Israelite. Before I tell you why, let’s read this pulsating passage first: “So Jesus came to Nazareth, where He had been brought up. And as His custom was, He went into the synagogue on the Sabbath day, and stood up to read. And He was handed the book of the prophet Isaiah. And when He had opened the book, He found the place where it was written: “The Spirit of the LORD is upon Me, because He has anointed Me, to preach the gospel to the poor; He has sent Me to heal the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed; and to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord.” “Then He closed the book, and gave it back to the attendant and sat down. And the eyes of all who were in the synagogue were fixed on Him.” (Luke 4:16-20) Luke tells us that Jesus went to the synagogue where “He had been brought up, as His custom was.” This is a remarkable detail because it clearly shows us that Jesus had been accustomed to going to the synagogue, He knew the traditions, and it wasn’t His first trip there-Jesus was one of them! Then, we are told that just like every other time, Jesus stood up to read, and was handed the book of the prophet Isaiah. Most Christians fail to understand that Jesus DID NOT PICK the book of Isaiah to read from. It was handed to Him. In Jesus’ times, the Torah (the first five books of the Bible), and some excerpts from the books of different prophets were read every week in the synagogue by the Jewish Rabbis. Astoundingly, the books or the portions were PRE-SELECTED, and then handed to the rabbi to read. Jesus was an observant Jewish Rabbi; going to the synagogue and reading the Torah or a portion of one of the books of the prophets was a normal procedure to Him. Basically, when Jesus stood up to read on that day, the scroll of Isaiah was HANDED to Him. Many Christians incorrectly assume that Jesus, Himself, picked that portion of Isaiah to demonstrate to everyone that He was the long awaited Messiah the Jews had been waiting for. Luke makes it clear that the scroll of Isaiah was handed to Jesus because Isaiah was the pre-selected portion for that specific week-it was chosen for Him. Now comes the riveting part! Luke tells us that as soon as Jesus finished reading the book, He closed the book, gave it back to the attendant, and sat down… “What’s so riveting about this?” you might ask. Well, Luke tells us that “the eyes of everyone in the synagogue were fastened on Him.” The question is, why? If Jesus had been going to the synagogue as an accustomed, observant, Jewish male (remember, Luke says Jesus grew up there), that means the Jews knew Jesus, and were familiar with Him reading one of the books in the synagogue. Why, then, were the eyes of EVERYONE fastened on Jesus this time, but not the previous times? What is it that Jesus said or did that made ALL the people in the synagogue stare at Him in shock? (Take a minute and think of the answer on your own before you continue reading). Unless you were familiar with 1st century Jewish customs and traditions, it would be hard for you to answer this question. In Jesus’ times, the tradition in the synagogue was as follows: After the two readings of the Torah, the reader was then given the chance to analyze and discuss the text that had just been read (just like in churches today). It is crucial to understand from the original passage of Luke that when Jesus made the statement “today, this Scripture is fulfilled in your ears,” the people listening didn’t have any reaction what so ever! Many people, including Christians, mistakenly claim that the Jews were amazed by Jesus’ statement about His Messiah-ship; therefore, they stared at Him in Awe. This is incorrect! If you read the passage carefully, “the eyes of everyone in the synagogue were fastened on Him” BEFORE Jesus had even read that specific verse. So, if the listeners in the synagogue weren’t reacting to Jesus’ bold statement, what, then, were they reacting to? The synagogue itself, that Jesus and the Jews were in, actually answers this puzzling question: In 1st century Israel, there was a place in the synagogue which was known as the Seat of Moses. It was a seat of high status and great importance because the rabbis alone were allowed to sit in that holy seat and teach. In fact, Jesus mentioned this Seat of Moses at one point when He rebuked His critics: “The scribes and the Pharisees sit in Moses’ seat.” (Matthew 23:2) The reason it was called the Seat of Moses, is that the coming Messiah, also known as the Second Moses, would sit in it one day. So, if the listeners in the synagogue on that day didn’t react to Jesus’ reading of Scripture, they reacted so because Jesus, in fact, closed the book and went ahead and sat in that sacred seat! Remember, Jesus had been accustomed to reading God’s word in the synagogue; this time, however, He took an extra step and sat in a seat where the Jews were aware that it belonged to the Messiah alone! By this act, Jesus was basically declaring to them that He was the Second Moses, the foretold Messiah! Like I have told you before, Jesus often communicated brilliantly without actually saying a word. He did it when He wrote with His finger in the sand, as well as in this story. Many skeptics reject this explanation and claim that the Seat of Moses in the synagogue did not exist, and that the Seat of Moses Jesus Mentioned in Matthew 23:2 wasn’t an actual, physical seat, but rather a figure of speech Jesus used to illustrate His massage. I fully disagree with this interpretation! Why would the eyes of everyone in the synagogue be fastened on a rabbi who was reading from Scripture, when they had heard it a million times before? What was so different this time? Bring to mind that the men, who were listening to Jesus on that day, were professed and avowed Jews who were fully capable of differentiating between a true message and a figure of speech. If Jesus’ message was symbolic, and meant nothing more than a tale; I assure you, they wouldn’t have been struck by awe! Moreover, if the Seat of Moses was never an actual place in the synagogue, why do we have archeological discoveries to prove otherwise? Go ahead, look it up! Jesus & the Temple Tax Another captivating event that took place during Jesus’ ministry which I would like to write about, is the story of Jesus and His fiercest adversaries, who clashed and feuded with one another regarding the temple tax. As was the norm, the Pharisees and the Scribes regularly sought to frame Jesus and accuse Him of something in order to have Him arrested. Therefore, one day, during the Passover week, while Jesus was teaching, the authorities came to Him and tried to trick Him into saying something that would ensnare Him. Before I reveal to you the striking details of this account, let’s read the entire passage first: “So they watched Him, and sent spies who pretended to be righteous, that they might seize on His words, in order to deliver Him to the power and the authority of the governor. “Then they asked Him, saying, ‘Teacher, we know that You say and teach rightly, and You do not show personal favoritism, but teach the way of God in truth: Is it lawful for us to pay taxes to Caesar or not?’ But He perceived their craftiness, and said to them, ‘Why do you test Me? Show Me a denarius.’ Whose image and inscription does it have?” “They answered and said, ‘Caesar’s.’” “And He said to them, ‘Render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s.’” “But they could not catch Him in His words in the presence of the people. And they marveled at His answer and kept silent.” (Luke 20:20-23) There are a few details behind the scenes we need to unpeel first in order to understand the passage better: The spies went to Jesus and asked Him a difficult question: should taxes be paid to Caesar? If Jesus agreed to pay taxes to the Roman authorities, then Jesus would have been considered a traitor to Israel because of His support for the Romans. If Jesus refused to pay the taxes, then Jesus would have been labeled as an insurrectionist and a rebel for refusing to obey Caesar. Either way, regardless of Jesus’ answer, the spies were ready to pounce on Jesus and accuse Him of being either a traitor or a criminal. The answer Jesus gave them, however, was mind-boggling and genius! Unless you were familiar with 1st century Jewish Laws, it would be difficult for you to understand the method Jesus used to silence His accusers and put them in their place. You have probably heard the saying: “turn your enemy’s weapons against them and you shall win without fighting” (I actually just made that up). Jesus brilliantly turned the spy’s accusations against them thus, neutralizing them at once. If you notice, Jesus specifically asked them for a “denarius,” a coin issued by the Roman Empire, and used by the Jews in Israel. Hence, we can conclude that the spies were in possession of those coins when they came to ensnare Jesus. Ironically, the spies who came to trap Jesus into breaking the law, were breaking the law themselves! The fact that they had this specific coin, the denarius, on them was an up-front violation of Jewish Laws. In Deuteronomy 4:15-16, God commanded the people of Israel not to worship idols: “Therefore, watch yourselves very carefully, so that you do not become corrupt and make for yourselves an idol, an image of any shape, whether formed like a man or a woman.” It is important to understand that in those days, the Roman emperor was worshipped as a god. The emperor’s image was carved on the denarius. Therefore, according to Jewish Laws, the emperor’s image was considered an idol. The most grievous act a Jew could do was to carry an image, an idol, with him in the Holy Temple of God. That would have been considered a blasphemy against the LORD and the Jews knew it! When Jesus asked the spies to show Him a denarius, He did it in plain view, in the temple, before a multitude of people. In a way, Jesus showed how wicked and evil the spies and the Pharisees were by exposing their hypocrisy. Jesus could have asked one of His disciples to produce the coin, but He chose not to, because His goal was to bring to light the dishonesty and deception of His accusers. The way Jesus dealt with the Pharisees shows how aware He was in their Jewish way of thinking, their customs, and their traditions. What’s so comical to me is that the foolish, futile spies and Pharisees, who came to the temple to accuse Jesus of breaking God’s Laws, failed miserably to realize that the very laws they so dearly adhered to and considered holy, were in fact, from the beginning, decreed to them by the same Person they were accusing of breaking these laws…How odd! In my opinion, one of the top items in everyone’s bucket list before he/she meets his/her Creator should be a trip to the Holy Land. By this, I don’t mean the Disney Land of the Christian world-the Vatican-but rather, Israel, where Jesus lived and died. Perhaps only then you would be able to better understand the culture and the traditions that trace back to first century Israel when Jesus was around. Perhaps only then you would be able to finally clarify your distorted image of Jesus and let go of your erroneous idea about who He really was and what He looked like. I hate to break it to you, but contrary to what most of you in the west believe, Jesus wasn’t a white man; He was a brown-skinned Middle-Eastern Jew! This may come as shocking to you, but Jesus was neither blonde nor had blue or green eyes. He never floated in mid-air and never hovered an inch above the ground. He wasn’t 007 and never acted like one. He never performed Hollywood-type dangerous martial arts stunts, and believe it or not, He didn’t walk around with a glowing halo on top of His head either! Jesus was a normal human being who was dashing, blunt, honest, fearsome, yet humble and modest at the same time. Mostly likely He had thin, slim, slender and powerful legs, since He walked everywhere (unlike modern day fake, lazy, greedy pastors and church leaders who travel in Limousines and first class on airplanes). Jesus had a powerful upper body and strong shoulders, something you’d expect from a carpenter. As a Jew, He had black/brown hair, black or brown eyes, and olive-color skin. Scriptures tell us that many times the Pharisees could not identify Jesus, as He was unrecognizable. It is no wonder that He went unnoticed among other Jewish men, since He looked like one. In all reality, whatever image you and I have in our minds about Jesus and what He looked like is probably not accurate. The closet we can get to the real Jesus comes from what we read about Him in the New Testament. Therefore, my advice to you is this: when you read the gospels, read them carefully and try to understand them from the point of view of Jewish men who lived in 1st century Israel. Better yet, visit the Holy Land, re-live the life of Jesus and walk in His foot-steps, and watch Him come alive in your mind as He is in your heart! “The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher demonstrates. The great teacher inspires.” William Arthur Ward APOLOGETICS - ARTICLES AND INFORMATION - What is Apologetics? - The Lost Truth - Logic & Reasoning - Truth & Reality - Does God Exist? - The Cosmological Argument - The Design Argument - The Moral Argument - Who is Jesus? - Satan’s Wish! - God’s Dilemma! - Did Jesus Rise From The Dead? - Does God Answer Prayers? - When Were The Gospels Written? - Was Noah's Flood Real? - Are Miracles Possible? - The Apostle Peter - Does Archaeology Support The Bible? - Science & The Bible - How Can Jesus be the only Way to Heaven? - Don’t All World Religions Teach the Same Thing? - Undesigned Coincidences - Are All Men Created Equal? - Is the Bible Really the Word of God? - Amazing Bible Facts - The Blind Atheists - Jesus Meets Einstein - Did the Gospel Writers Tell the Truth? - The Evolution Fairytale - The Day Common Sense Died! - The Philosophy of Jesus - The Report (Part 1) - The Report (Part 2) - Are All Religions True? - Are There Contradictions in the Bible? - Are All Religions True? - Why Does God Allow Evil & Suffering? - Bible Prophecy - New Age Christianity - The Wager - When God Cried - What Happened to America? - Don’t All Good People Go to Heaven? - Jesus at the United Nations - False Teachers - The Conference - Jesus & the Woman at the Well - The Day You face God - Was Jesus Really Crucified? - The Blind & the King - Is Jesus God? - The Meaning of Life - Hero & the Fake - The Insanity of Pluralism - Who is God? - The Tree of Good & Evil - The Confused Agnostic - Lazarus Come Forth! - When God Seems Silent - Case #1101 - The Proposal - The Prayer - Roman Catholicism - Jesus Meets the Pope - First Century Jesus - The Patterns of False Religions - Timid Christianity - The Foolishness of Life without God - An American Thanksgiving WHERE DO I GO? If you have questions or would like to catch one of our events, please do not hesitate to reach out using the form provided on this page or contact Mark with the email address provided below: Follow us on social media to stay up to date on the latest news and events from What If UR Wrong Apologetics!

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The First & Last Voyage of RMS Titanic The RMS Titanic set sail on her maiden voyage from Southampton on the 10th of April 1912. On the 15th of April 1012, she hit an iceberg in the North Atlantic Ocean and sunk. Of the 2,224 passengers and crew, only 710 survived. It remains one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history. On board were some of the wealthiest people in the world, and some of the poorest, emigrating to a new life in North America. The passengers travelled in three classes, with those in first class experiencing levels of luxury that had hitherto seldom been seen aboard a cruise ship. The largest ship afloat at the time, the Titanic was built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast, operated by White Star Line and famously touted as virtually unsinkable. With advanced safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors, it was thought that a breach to the hull would flood only a single compartment, at worst, which the ship could certainly survive. It was not the design of the ship alone that lead to the disaster. Message after message from other ships warned of heavy ice in the vicinity, reporting that they had either reduced speed drastically or heaved-to for the night. Between the 11th and the 14th, the Titanic received over 20 such warnings. Although these were all duly logged by the radio operators and passed on to the bridge officers, no order was given to slow down, even as the Titanic entered the region of hazard, and she steamed on at full speed. Shortly before midnight, the lookouts spotted an iceberg directly ahead. The bridge officer on duty immediately ordered the engines stopped, the wheel turned hard to one side, and the watertight doors below decks to be closed. Though the ship started to turn, it was too little too late, and the huge ice berg scraped down the starboard side of the ship. The nature of the collision caused hull plates to buckle in multiple locations and opened five out of the ship’s sixteen watertight compartments to the sea. It took two and a half hours for the ship to sink. Maritime safety regulations were hopelessly out of date in an era when the size of steamships had increased so much and so quickly. They stipulated that all British vessels over 10,000 tons must carry 16 lifeboats (with exact size also specified). The original plans for the ship included 64 lifeboats, but it was decided that these would not only increase costs unnecessarily, they would also clutter the decks to the detriment of the passenger experience. The Titanic was over 46,000 tons, and in the end, sailed with just 20 lifeboats on board. If each were loaded to full capacity, this would be enough for only 1,178 people, a third of her maximum capacity of passengers and crew. In addition, the ship carried two small cutters, with a capacity of 40 people each, intended to allow for a quick response to man overboard emergencies. The shortage of lifeboats was compounded by a lack of officer training – the officers didn’t know how many passengers each lifeboat could safely carry – and most were launched barely half full. The crew followed a ‘women and children first’ policy, prioritising those from first and second classes and indeed the 1,514 casualties were predominantly third class passengers, crew and male first and second class passengers. Those who didn’t make it aboard a lifeboat or cutter drowned on board or died within minutes from hypothermia in the freezing waters. The 710 survivors were taken aboard from the lifeboats by the RMS Carpathia a few hours later. The Human Story of the Sinking of the Titanic Of course, the other side of the story is the human one, and tales of heroic or romantic behaviour from crew and passengers alike have long been part of the lore surrounding this tragic event. Some stories are well known and have been represented by semi-fictional accounts in print, on stage and in film. Others are known less widely. Margaret “Molly” Brown was a well known American socialite, philanthropist and activist. She helped establish the Colorado chapter of the National American Women’s Suffrage Association, was a charter member of The Denver Woman’s Club, an organisation dedicated to helping other women through education and philanthropy and campaigned to help destitute children and establish the United States first Juvenile Court. On a tour of Europe, she learned that her eldest grandson was ill and booked first class passage back to the USA on the first ship available, the Titanic. After the collision, she helped many others to board life boats before being bodily forced into one herself. Once in the water, she ensured that crew and women worked together to row and keep spirits raised. When the Titanic finally went down, Brown and one or two others called for the boat to return towards the ship, in an attempt to take on additional survivors. They were overruled by the others in the boat, who were fearful that the boat would be overwhelmed and capsized by the sheer number of passengers in the water. They stayed away, but like the passengers in other boats, they recounted afterwards the harrowing experience of hearing the screams, for almost an hour after the ship went under. On being rescued by the Carpathia, Brown threw her energy into assisting with the care of other survivors and immediately set to work establishing a charitable fund and practical assistance for those who had lost everything they owned in the disaster. Dismissive of the heroine status accorded to her by the media, nonetheless she became one of the most well known survivors of the disaster. Her fame helped her continue to fight for the causes she felt deeply about, from the rights of workers and women, to education and literacy for children to historic preservation. Probably the story that wrenches most strongly at my heart is that of Isidor and Ida Straus, owners of the famous Macy’s department store. At the time of the sinking, the couple had been married for 41 years and had raised six children. They were almost inseparable, and on the rare occasions when they were apart, they wrote to each other every day. During the sinking, officers pleaded with Ida to board one of the lifeboats, but she refused to leave her husband, ensuring that her maid took a place, as well as Ida’s fur coat, before returning to her husband’s side. She is said to have told him simply, “Where you go, I go”. A Bronx cemetery monument to the couple carries the inscription, “Many waters cannot quench love, neither can the floods drown it.” Michel and Edmond Navratil were just 3 and 2 years old, respectively, when their father Michel kidnapped them from his estranged wife Marcelle. On Easter Sunday, on the 7th April, a day he had been accorded to spend with the children, he collected the boys from his mother-in-law, took them to England (from France) and boarded the Titanic under an assumed name. Other passengers reported that Navratil kept himself and the boys isolated during the journey, and rarely let them out of his sight. But after the collision, Navratil knew he must rely on others to save his children, and kissed his sons goodbye, before handing each one into the arms of passengers aboard collapsible lifeboat D. Navratil perished with the ship, but his sons were duly rescued by the Carpathia. Unable to speak any English, and thereby give any clue to their real names, the boys were dubbed the “orphans of the Titanic”, and temporarily taken into care by a first class survivor, Margaret Hays. Initially, the search for relatives centred on the name Hoffman, under which Navratil had booked tickets. Luckily, Marcelle, still in France, read the story of the orphans, and recalled that her husband had a friend by the name of Hoffman. She sent descriptions and pictures which quickly established hers, Michel’s and the children’s identities and White Star Line gave her a ticket on the Oceanic to New York, where she was reunited with the boys, before their return back to France soon after. Hudson and Bess Allison were successful and hard working young couple who met, fell in love and married against the wishes of Bess’ parents. They had two children, Lorraine and Trevor and owned homes in Montreal, London and Chesterville, Ontario. They were returning home from a European holiday and business trip, and had their children and nannies with them. On the night of the sinking, Trevor’s nanny became aware of the danger, and took it upon herself to evacuate him to a lifeboat. Unfortunately, she was not able to find Hudson and Bess, and they frantically searched the ship, for their son. When crew tried to persuade their daughter Lorraine to get into a lifeboat, her parents refused, wanting to keep the family together. In panic, they waited and waited, until it was too late. Only Trevor and his nanny survived the night. Lorraine was the only first class child to perish in the sinking. Edvard and Gerda Lindell were third class passengers from Sweden. During the sinking, the couple jumped from the ship into the waters and managed to get to lifeboat A. Edvard managed to clamber aboard, but Gerda could not. Another Swede aboard the boat, August Wennerström, held her hand over the side. The boat was partially filled with cold sea water and those aboard were quickly exhausted by hypothermia. Eventually Gerda slipped from Wennerström’s grip and was lost to sea. Edvard died on board. A month later, a drifting lifeboat was discovered by one of the teams recovering bodies. Within it they discovered a gold wedding ring, later identified as Gerda Lindell’s. It had likely slipped off her hand into the boat, as Wennerström struggled to hold her hand. The Plucky Little Countess, Lady Rothes Born on December 25th 1878, Lucy Noel Martha Rothes nee Dyer-Edwardes, was known by her family as Noelle. Refusing all suitors, in her first year after coming of age, she eventually fell for and married Norman-Evelyn Leslie, the 19th Earl of Rothes. Following their marriage in 1900 the couple settled in Paignton, Devonshire. They were very active on the London social scene, and were presented at the Royal Court where Noelle was received by the Princess of Wales. Indeed, both were later invited to participate in the coronation of Edward VII in 1909. Their first child, Malcolm, was born in 1902 and their second, John, in 1909. Having her own children inspired Noelle to help those of others, and she became active in charitable works to help poor and sick children, and their families. In 1904, Norman inherited the Fifeshire estate in Scotland, and they moved into Leslie House, where they quickly became well respected by the local community. As well as her fundraising and philanthropic activities, Noelle was also politically active, a chairman of local Women’s Unionist Associations. The couple’s pursuits were widely followed by the media, who reported on their horse riding, shooting, cricketing and boating pastimes, though the Rothes didn’t care for the attention they attracted. They had their critics – some members of the rather jaded and amoral Edwardian aristocracy derided them for their affectionate domestic lifestyle and they were described by one journalist as “a most unfashionably devoted couple.” But they remained more popular than not. In February 1912, Norman left on a business trip to America, on a mission to learn from the privately operated U.S. telegraph service, in comparison to the state-run British system. So enjoyable did he find his tour of the States and Canada, Norman invited Noelle to travel out and join him in California, so that they might celebrate their 12th anniversary together. Noelle invited one of her closest friends, Norman’s cousin Gladys Cherry, to join her for the voyage, which was booked on the Titanic. Gladys planned to visit her brother Charles, who was living in New York. To journalists before the trip, she said that she and Norman were planning to buy an American orange grove, and would be returning home in July, to take their children over. She was “full of joyful expectation” about the crossing. Noelle and Gladys took full advantage of the ship’s facilities, and enjoyed socialising with other first class passengers, amongst whom they made many friends. The evening of the sinking, the ladies attended a gala dinner in honour of the captain, Noelle dressed in designer gown and jewels, including a new necklace made from 300-year-old Leslie heirloom pearls. Shortly after 10 p.m. they retired to their cabin, awakened less than two hours later by the collision. Initially, the women put on their dressing gowns and fur coats, and went up on deck to find out more. Assured that the collision was nothing serious, the atmosphere on deck was calm, with passengers excited about the adventure. However, a short while later, Captain Smith came to the group and asked if they would go quietly to their cabins to retrieve and put on their lifebelts, and then go up to the top deck. Back in their cabin, the ladies found Cissy, Noelle’s maid who had come up from her E deck cabin to theirs on the C deck. She reported that water was pouring in to the raquet court. A passing steward helped them locate their lifebelts, and advised them to dress warmly. They donned their warmest woollen suits and heaviest furs. Leaving purses and money behind, Noelle grabbed only a hip flask of brandy and the string of Leslie pearls, and all three women headed out onto deck. Noelle recalled that crowds on deck were increasing, and people were milling about wondering what to do. No orders had been given to abandon ship, but passengers were still secure in the ship’s unsinkable strength, so there was not yet any atmosphere of panic. However, as the ship began to tilt, people began to grow uneasy. Finally, second officer Lightoller gave the command for women and children to board the lifeboats. As has famously been reported, the ship band set up instruments on the deck and began to play. Noelle, Gladys and Cissy boarded lifeboat 8. There were no officers aboard the boat, and just 4 members of crew including bedroom steward Alfred Crawford and able seaman Thomas Jones. Captain Smith gave both Crawford and Jones clear instructions to make for what appeared to be two masthead lights in the distance, pointing to the ship lights that could be seen from the deck. Assuming, from the clarity of the lights, that the other ship must be only a few miles away, he instructed them to deliver the passengers to the rescue ship before returning for more. The inexperience of the crewmen showed and squabbling threatened to scupper their efforts to head for the distant ship lights. However, Tom Jones and Noelle quickly developed a strong mutual respect, and Noelle took over the tiller. Retaining her composure, she offered comfort and encouragement to fellow passengers and was later heralded as a heroine and reported to be the cohesive force that kept all aboard focused and in good spirits during the next several hours. Many of the women took their turns at rowing. Gladys took over the tiller, which she manned for more than half of the time spent in the boat. As they continued to row it seemed that the distant ship lights never grew any closer. At 2.20 am the ship broke and sank with a roar, which was followed by the shrieks of drowning passengers. Jones insisted they turn back to try and save some, supported by Noelle, Gladys and one or two other passengers. The majority strongly protested, arguing that it would be wrong to risk their lives on the bare chance of finding anyone alive, and also citing the Captain’s orders to head for the ship lights. Jones lamented, “if any of us are saved, remember I wanted to go back. I would rather drown with them than leave them” but accepted the decision of the majority in the boat. Some hours later, still rowing for the original lights, a new light was spotted in the opposite direction. Lifeboat 8 turned about and headed to the ship they could now see heading full steam in their direction. Having travelled the farthest distance from the spot of the sinking, they had the farthest to travel back but their spirits were raised by the stronger hope of rescue, and they sang as they rowed towards what they eventually discovered to be the RMS Carpathia. After five hours in the lifeboat, they were eventually taken on board the Carpathia, at which point Noelle fainted, probably from strain and exhaustion, and was taken to the ship’s hospital to recuperate. However, on her recovery, she and Gladys immediately busied themselves with visiting the makeshift hospitals on board, providing what comfort they could to survivors from all classes. Noelle was a nurse, and was able to assist in bandaging and medicating patients. They also joined a crewman in rounding up spare blankets and linen from which they cut and sewed garments for second class and steerage survivors, some of whom had no clothes at all. Already, on the journey to New York, Noelle learned of her new nickname, “the plucky little countess” though she dismissed it instantly, insisting that Tom Jones had been the real hero and that the survival of their boat had been very much a team effort. Just like her more famous fellow survivor, Margaret “Molly” Brown, Noelle did her utmost to ensure that destitute survivors would be taken care of, before disembarking herself and being met by an anxious Norman. Although Noelle never courted the media, focusing on her husband, family and charitable interests, the papers continued to write about her, fuelled by the reports given by fellow survivors from lifeboat 8 and the Carpathia. When one headline labelled her as brave for taking charge of her boat, she was upset that it overstated her role and overlooked the contributions of Gladys, Jones and others. Though she did try and set the record straight, she soon realised that she could not control what was written. The moniker given her board the Carpathia stuck, taken up as it was by a world looking for positive stories within such an enormous tragedy. Norman and Noelle decided against buying property in America and returned to Scotland in the late summer. Over following years, as Britain went to war, Noelle resumed her local campaigns and charitable efforts, throwing herself into providing hospital facilities to wounded soldiers and shelter to European refugees, as well as coordinating fundraising efforts. Norman was called up, and went to serve in France. Wounded once, but quickly recovered and sent back into service, he was eventually invalided out of service after losing an eye when hit by shrapnel. By the end of the war, the Rothes were struggling financially, and made the sad decision to sell the Leslie estate, much to the upset of their tenants and the local community. They moved down to their Buckinghamshire estate, in England and also spent time in their Chelsea, London residence. In 1926, Noelle lost her father, and then the following year, Norman also passed away. However, she soon accepted the marriage proposal of a long time friend, and they lived a quiet life his country estate in Gloucestershire. As always, Noelle continued to help those in need. Noelle didn’t talk much about her experiences in 1912, but did maintain a correspondence with Tom Jones, having presented both him and Alfred Crawford with commemorative watches. Jones, returning her affection, presented her with a plaque on which was mounted the numeral 8, which he had saved from their lifeboat. Not long before her death, she agreed to share her memories with a young American journalist, Walter Lord, but never lived to see his resulting book, A Night to Remember. It proved to have a big influence on the understanding and perception of the disaster in the decades to follow. Noelle died in her sleep on September 12, 1956. Rediscovering the Titanic Since the wreck was found on the seabed, back in 1985, even more has been learned about the furniture, supplies, passenger luggage and cargo lost when the ship sank. During a recent visit to Berry Bros & Rudd we (carefully) flicked through an old ledger, covering transactions from March 1912, and saw the entries for orders to be delivered by the Titanic… 2 cases of original yellow Chartreuse, 2 of very fine sherry, 1 of Manzanilla sherry, 18 of dry champagne, 3 of “dry dry” gin and 3 of 10 year old Scotch whisky were loaded as cargo, for delivery to a variety of US-based customers. On the wall in the Berry Bros & Rudd shop is the insurance advisement letter from White Star Line. It reads, “Referring to your shipment by this steamer, it is with great regret we have to inform you that the Titanic foundered at 2-20 a.m. 15th instant, after colliding with an iceberg, and is a total loss. Details of shipment are shown at foot, Yours faithfully, for White Star Line”. To commemorate the centennial of the disaster, Berry Bros & Rudd decided to create a limited edition Scotch whisky. With scant information about the style of the whisky they had delivered to the ship, they decided to honour the “plucky little countess” Lady Rothes, with a Glenrothes, Speyside whisky. (BBR own the Glenrothes whisky brand, though not the distillery itself). Called Titanic, their commemorative bottling was distilled in 1998, aged in sherry casks and bottled this year. BBR’s Spirits Manager, Douglas McIvor, took us through a tasting of the whisky, sharing his own tasting notes and encouraging us to add our own. Pete Drinks and Kavey Eats attending the tasting as guests of Berry Bros & Rudd.

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United Kingdom census, 2011 A census of the population of the United Kingdom is taken every ten years. The 2011 census was held in all countries of the UK on 27 March 2011, it was the first UK census. The Office for National Statistics is responsible for the census in England and Wales, the General Register Office for Scotland is responsible for the census in Scotland, the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency is responsible for the census in Northern Ireland; the Office for National Statistics is the executive office of the UK Statistics Authority, a non-ministerial department formed in 2008 and which reports directly to Parliament. ONS is the UK Government's single largest statistical producer of independent statistics on the UK's economy and society, used to assist the planning and allocation of resources, policy-making and decision-making. ONS designs and runs the census in England and Wales. In its capacity as the national statistics office for the United Kingdom, ONS compiles and releases census tables for the United Kingdom when the data from England and Wales and Northern Ireland are complete. In the run-up to the census both the main UK political parties expressed concerns about the increasing cost and the value for money of the census, it was suggested that the 2011 census might be the last decennial census to be taken. The first results from the 2011 census and sex, occupied households estimates for England and Wales and Northern Ireland, were released on 16 July 2012; the first results for Scotland, the first UK-wide results, were published on 17 December 2012. More detailed and specialised data were published from 2013; the Registrar General John Rickman conducted the first census of Great Britain's population, was responsible for the ten-yearly reports published between 1801 and 1831. During the first 100 years of census-taking the population of England and Wales grew more than threefold, to around 32 million, that of Scotland, where a separate census has been carried out since 1861, to about 4.5 million. From 1911 onwards rapid social change, scientific breakthroughs, major world events affected the structure of the population. A fire that destroyed census records in 1931, the declaration of war in 1939, made the 1951 census hugely significant in recording 30 years of change over one of the most turbulent periods in British history. The 1971 census was run by the newly created Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, a body formed by the merger of the General Register Office and Government Social Survey. In 1996 the Office for National Statistics was formed by merging the Central Statistical Office, OPCS and the statistics division of the Department of Employment. In 2008 the UK Statistics Authority was established as an independent body. A population census is a key instrument for assessing the needs of local communities; when related to other data sources such as housing or agricultural censuses, or sample surveys, the data becomes more useful. Most countries of the world take censuses: the United Nations recommends that countries take a census at least once every ten years; the design for the 2011 census reflects changes in society since 2001 and asks questions to help paint a detailed demographic picture of England and Wales, as it stands on census day, 27 March. Data collected by the census is used to provide statistical outputs which central government uses to plan and allocate local authority services funding, which local authorities themselves use to identify and meet the needs of their local communities. Other organisations that use census data include healthcare organisations, community groups and businesses; the questionnaires, including people's personal information, are kept confidential for 100 years before being released to the public, providing an important source of information for historical and genealogy research. The 2011 census for England and Wales included around 25 million households. Questionnaires were posted out to all households, using a national address register compiled by the Office for National Statistics with the help of local authorities through comparisons of the National Land and Property Gazetteer and the Royal Mail and Ordnance Survey national address products. People could complete and submit their questionnaire online, or fill it in on paper and post it back in a pre-addressed envelope. Guidance was provided online and through the census helpline. Completed questionnaires were electronically tracked and field staff followed up with households that did not return a questionnaire. Special arrangements were made to count people living in communal establishments such as. In these cases field staff delivered and collected questionnaires and, where needed, provided advice or assistance in completing the questionnaire. There was a legal requirement to complete the 2011 census questionnaire, under the terms of the Census Act 1920; as at 27 March 2011 everyone who had lived or intended to live in the country for three months or more was required to complete a questionnaire. Failure to return a completed questionnaire could lead to a criminal record. Lockheed Martin UK, the UK arm of US-based aerospace, technology company Lockheed Martin was awarded the contract to provide services for the census comprising questionnaire printing, a customer contact centre and data capture and processing. The contract is valued at £150 million one third of the total £1 million census budget Grade I listed buildings in Herefordshire There are over 9,000 Grade I listed buildings in England. This page is a list of these buildings in the county of Herefordshire. Category:Grade I listed buildings in Herefordshire Grade II* listed buildings in Herefordshire English Heritage Images of England Media related to Grade I listed buildings in Herefordshire at Wikimedia Commons Hereford is a cathedral city, civil parish and county town of Herefordshire, England. It lies on the River Wye 16 miles east of the border with Wales, 24 miles southwest of Worcester, 23 miles northwest of Gloucester. With a population of 58,896, it is the largest settlement in the county; the name "Hereford" is said to come from the Anglo-Saxon "here", an army or formation of soldiers, the "ford", a place for crossing a river. If this is the origin it suggests that Hereford was a place where a body of armed men forded or crossed the Wye; the Welsh name for Hereford is Henffordd, meaning "old road", refers to the Roman road and Roman settlement at nearby Stretton Sugwas. Much of the county of Herefordshire was Welsh-speaking, as reflected in the Welsh names of many places in the county. An early town charter from 1189 granted by Richard I of England describes it as "Hereford in Wales". Hereford has been recognised as a city since time immemorial, with the status being reconfirmed as as October 2000. It is now known chiefly as a trading centre for rural area. Products from Hereford include: cider, leather goods, nickel alloys, poultry and cattle, including the famous Hereford breed. Hereford became the seat of Putta, Bishop of Hereford, some time between AD 676 and 688, after which the settlement continued to grow due to its proximity to the border between Mercia and Wales, becoming the Saxon capital of West Mercia by the beginning of the 8th century. Hostilities between the Anglo-Saxons and the Welsh came to a head with the Battle of Hereford in 760, in which the Britons freed themselves from the influence of the English. Hereford was again targeted by the Welsh during their conflict with the Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor in AD 1056 when, supported by Viking allies, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, King of Gwynedd and Powys, marched on the town and put it to the torch before returning home in triumph. Hereford had the only mint west of the Severn in the reign of Athelstan, it was to Hereford a border town, that Athelstan summoned the leading Welsh princes. The present Hereford Cathedral dates from the early 12th century, as does the first bridge across the Wye. Former Bishops of Hereford include Saint Thomas de Cantilupe and Lord High Treasurer of England Thomas Charlton; the city gave its name to two suburbs of Paris, France: Maisons-Alfort and Alfortville, due to a manor built there by Peter of Aigueblanche, Bishop of Hereford, in the middle of the 13th century. Hereford, a base for successive holders of the title Earl of Hereford, was once the site of a castle, Hereford Castle, which rivalled that of Windsor in size and scale; this was a base for repelling Welsh attacks and a secure stronghold for English kings such as King Henry IV when on campaign in the Welsh Marches against Owain Glyndŵr. The castle was landscaped into Castle Green. After the Battle of Mortimer's Cross in 1461, during the Wars of the Roses, the defeated Lancastrian leader Owen Tudor was taken to Hereford by Sir Roger Vaughan and executed in High Town. A plaque now marks the spot of the execution. Vaughan was himself executed, under a flag of truce, by Owen's son Jasper. During the civil war the city changed hands several times. On 30 September 1642 Parliamentarians led by Sir Robert Harley and Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford occupied the city without opposition. In December they withdrew to Gloucester because of the presence in the area of a Royalist army under Lord Herbert; the city was again occupied from 23 April to 18 May 1643 by Parliamentarians commanded by Sir William Waller but it was in 1645 that the city saw most action. On 31 July 1645 a Scottish army of 14,000 under Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven besieged the city but met stiff resistance from its garrison and inhabitants, they withdrew on 1 September when they received news that a force led by King Charles was approaching. The city was taken for Parliament on 18 December 1645 by Colonel Birch and Colonel Morgan. King Charles showed his gratitude to the city of Hereford on 16 September 1645 by augmenting the city's coat of arms with the three lions of Richard I of England, ten Scottish Saltires signifying the ten defeated Scottish regiments, a rare lion crest on top of the coat of arms signifying "defender of the faith" and the rarer gold-barred peer's helm, found only on the arms of one other municipal authority: those of the City of London. Nell Gwynne and mistress of King Charles II, is said to have been born in Hereford in 1650. Another famous actor born in Hereford is David Garrick; the Bishop's Palace next to the Cathedral was continually used to the present day. Hereford Cathedral School is one of the oldest schools in England; the Harold Street Barracks were completed in 1856. During World War I, in 1916, a fire at the Garrick Theatre killed eight young girls, performing at a charity concert; the main local government body covering Hereford is Herefordshire Council. Hereford has a "City Council" but this is a parish council with city status, has only limited powers. Hereford has been the county town of Herefordshire. In 1974 Herefordshire was merged with Worcestershire to become part of the county of Hereford and Worcester, Hereford became a district of the new county. Hereford had formed a historic borough and was reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. On 1 April 1998 the County of Hereford and Worcester was abolish River Frome, Herefordshire The River Frome is a river in Herefordshire, England. It flows through Bromyard, Bishops Frome. Below the depopulated village of Stretton Grandison its tributary, the river or brook named the Lodon, joins it, it flows west, past Yarkhill and the farmstead or locality of Prior's Frome before its confluence with the Lugg at Hampton Bishop about 2 miles before the latter joins the Wye. The river gives its name to hamlets on the high ground to the east: Halmond's Frome, Fromes Hill and Castle Frome. In 2007, like many other rivers in England, the Frome burst its banks; this occurred at places including lower parts of Bromyard. A smaller scale recurrence occurred in April and July 2012. Rivers of the United Kingdom Hereford and Leominster and Ledbury, Ordnance Survey, 2007, ISBN 978-0-319-22953-8 Media related to River Frome, Herefordshire at Wikimedia Commons A dormer is a roofed structure containing a window, that projects vertically beyond the plane of a pitched roof. A dormer window is a form of roof window. Dormers are used to increase the usable space in a loft and to create window openings in a roof plane; the term "dormer" is used to refer to a "dormer window" although a dormer does not contain a window. A dormer is one of the primary elements of a loft conversion; as a prominent element of many buildings, different types of dormer have evolved to complement different styles of architecture. When the structure appears on the spires of churches and cathedrals, it is referred to as a lucarne; some of the different types of dormer are: Gable fronted dormer: Also called a gabled dormer, this is the most common type. It has a simple pitched roof of two sloping planes, supported by a frame that rises vertically to form a triangular section below the roofline, i.e. a gable. It is known as a dog-house dormer. Hip roof dormer: Also called a hipped dormer, it has a roof composed of three sloping planes that rise from each side of the dormer frame and converge at the ridge—analogous to the hip roof. Flat roof dormer: The roof of this dormer is a single flat plane horizontal. Shed dormer: This dormer has a single flat plane roof, but in this case, it is sloped in the same direction as the principal roof, only at a shallower angle. A shed dormer can provide head room over a larger area than a gabled dormer, but as its roof pitch is shallower than the main roof, it may require a different roof covering. Wall dormer: As opposed to the dormer being set part way up the slope of the roof, this is a dormer whose face is coplanar with the face of the wall below; this means that the face of the dormer is a continuation of the wall above the level of the eaves. Eyebrow or eyelid dormer: A low and wide dormer with a curved roof and no sides. Instead, the roof covering is curved up and over the dormer in a flattened bell curve. Link dormer: This can be a dormer that houses a chimney or a dormer that joins one part of a roof to another. Bonneted dormer: This is an arched roof dormer, rounded in shape when viewed from front. Popular in Victorian homes in certain areas, like the Southcott-style row-houses called Jellybean Row in St. John's, Newfoundland. Nantucket dormer: This is a three-in-one dormer structure composed of two gable dormers connected by a shed dormer in between. Lucarne: A dormer on the slope of a gothic spire slender and gable fronted. Blind or false dormer: A dormer, only visible externally, i.e. does not provide any extra space or light internally. These are used to make the house appear more aesthetically impressive; the word dormer is derived from the Middle French dormeor, meaning "sleeping room", as dormer windows provided light and space to attic-level bedrooms. One of the earliest uses of dormers was in the form of lucarnes, slender dormers which provided ventilation to the spires of gothic churches and cathedrals. An early example are the lucarnes of the spire of Oxford. Dormer windows have been used in domestic architecture in Britain since the 16th century. Dormer windows were popularised by French architect Francois Mansart, who used dormers extensively in the mansard roofs he designed for 17th-century Paris. Today dormers are a widespread feature of pitched roof buildings. In some localities, permission must be sought for construction of other features. In England and Wales, the General Permitted Development Order states classes of development for which such planning permission is not required; such rights are only applicable outside conservation areas, national parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty or The Broads. Dormers may introduce imbalance in the street scene and be seen as inappropriate within the local setting of streets and buildings. Dormers are popular in Ulster. and used to create extra space when a loft is converted into a habitable room Bungalow Vernacular architecture Herefordshire is a county in the West Midlands of England, governed by Herefordshire Council. It borders Shropshire to the north, Worcestershire to the east, Gloucestershire to the south-east, the Welsh counties of Monmouthshire and Powys to the west. Hereford is the county town. Situated in the historic Welsh Marches, Herefordshire is one of the most rural and sparsely populated counties in England, with a population density of 82/km², a 2017 population of 191,000 - the fourth-smallest of any ceremonial county in England; the land use is agricultural and the county is well known for its fruit and cider production, the Hereford cattle breed. From 1974 to 1998, Herefordshire was part of the former non-metropolitan county of Hereford and Worcester. Herefordshire was reconstituted both as a new district and as a new county by Statutory Instrument as defined in The Hereford and Worcester Order 1996; this Order established Herefordshire as a unitary authority on 1 April 1998, combining county and district functions into a single council. Herefordshire is commonly called a unitary district, but this is not official nomenclature. Herefordshire is known as a unitary authority for local government purposes, it is governed by Herefordshire Council, created in 1998 with the new unitary district that absorbed the previous administrative areas of Leominster District Council, South Herefordshire District Council, Hereford City Council, parts of Hereford-Worcester County Council, parts of Malvern Hills District Council. The Lieutenancies Act 1997 made Herefordshire a ceremonial county, covering the exact area of the unitary district. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region and is one of three counties that comprise the "Herefordshire and Warwickshire" NUTS 2 region; the River Wye, which at 135 miles is the fifth-longest in the United Kingdom, enters the county after being its border with Powys. It flows through both Ross-on-Wye before returning to Wales. Leominster is situated on a tributary of the Wye. There are two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in the county. The Wye Valley is located in the river's valleys south of Hereford, while the Malvern Hills are in the east of the county, along its border with Worcestershire. Herefordshire is one of the 39 historic counties of England. In 1974 it was merged with neighbouring Worcestershire to form the Hereford and Worcester administrative county. Within this, Herefordshire was covered by the local government districts of South Herefordshire and part of Malvern Hills and Leominster districts. However, the county was dissolved in 1998, resulting in the return of Herefordshire and Worcestershire as counties; the current ceremonial county and unitary district have broadly the same borders as the pre-1974 historic county. Herefordshire's growth rate has in recent decades been higher than the national average, with the population increasing by 14.4% between 1991 and 2011 – the population of England as a whole increased by only 10.0%. However this has been from a lower base, with only Northumberland and Cumbria having lower population densities than Herefordshire. The population is White 98.2%, Asian 0.8%, Mixed 0.7%, Black 0.2%, Other 0.1%. Gypsies and Travellers have been Herefordshire's largest minority ethnic group, they are made up of three main groups: Romanichal or Romany "Gypsies" Irish Travellers New Travellers or New Age TravellersRomany Gypsies and Irish Travellers fall within the definition of a minority ethnic group under the Race Relations Amendment Act. They have contributed to the development of the county, for example through seasonal working in orchards. There were 400 people within this minority group in the county at the 2011 Census; the major settlements in the county include Hereford, the county town and Herefordshire's only city, as well as the towns of Leominster, Ross-on-Wye and Bromyard. This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Herefordshire at current basic prices published by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. ^ includes hunting and forestry ^ includes energy and construction ^ includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured ^ Components may not sum to totals due to rounding Many well-known cider producers are based in Herefordshire. These include Weston's cider of Much Marcle, Bulmer's cider, from Hereford, which produces the UK market leader Strongbow. Most employment in Herefordshire is in agriculture and services. According to Herefordshire Council's online document "worklessness", 10% of people are unemployed in Herefordshire including out-of-work, homeless and disabled and their carers. Cargill Meats and H. P. Bulmers are two of the largest private sector employers, with the Council and NHS being the largest public sector employers. There are two parliamentary constituencies in Herefordshire; as of January 2017, Bill Wiggin represents North Herefordshire and Jesse Norman represents Hereford and South Herefordshire. Both politicians are members of the Conservative Party; the Council is Conservative controlled. The Chairman is Councillor Brian Wilcox and the Leader of the Council is Councillor Jonathan Lester; the Cabinet Leader is appointed yearly by the full council of 53 councillors. The Cabinet Leader picks their deputy and up to 8 other councillors to form the executive cabinet. Ross-on-Wye is a small market town with a population of 10,700, in south eastern Herefordshire, located on the River Wye, on the northern edge of the Forest of Dean. Ross-on-Wye promotes itself as "the birthplace of British tourism". In 1745, the rector, Dr John Egerton, started taking friends on boat trips down the valley from his rectory at Ross; the Wye Valley's attraction was its river scenery, its precipitous landscapes, its castles and abbeys, which were accessible to seekers of the "Picturesque". In 1782, William Gilpin's book "Observations on the River Wye" was published, the first illustrated tour guide to be published in Britain. Once it was published, demand grew so much that by 1808 there were eight boats making regular excursions down the Wye, most of them hired from inns in Ross and Monmouth. By 1850 more than 20 visitors had published their own accounts of the Wye Tour, the area was established as a tourist area; the 700-year-old parish church of St. Mary's is the town's most prominent landmark and its tall pointed spire is visible when approaching the town from all directions. The church holds several distinctive tombs, one of which – that of a certain William Rudhall – is one of the last great alabaster sculptures from the specialist masons of Nottingham, whose work was prized across medieval Europe. Rudhall was responsible for the repair of the almshouses, situated to the north west of the church, in 1575. Another tomb is of John Kyrle, a prominent figure in 18th century Ross, whose name is now given to the town's secondary school and after whom one of the town's notable inns, The Man Of Ross, is named; the former United Reformed Church on Gloucester Road has now been converted into homes, with the congregation now based at Christ Church, Edde Cross Street, in premises shared with the Methodist Church. Eignbrook United Reformed Church is on Eign Street. Ross Baptist Church is on Broad Street; the Plague Cross known as the Corpse Cross, was erected in the church yard of St. Mary's church in 1637 as a memorial to 315 people who died in the town of the plague in the same year. They were buried nearby at night and without coffins. By 1896, the cross had fallen into disrepair and the top of the cross was missing, it was restored to its former state. The Prospect was created by John Kyrle and offers superb views over the Wye and to the Welsh mountains; the land was rented by John Kyrle from the Marquess of Bath in 1696 and turned into a garden and walking area. In 2008, following heavy rain, Roman remains were excavated under the site, it now contains trees, the V. E. Day Beacon and the War Memorial; the town is known for its independent shops, picturesque streets and market square with its market hall. Regular Thursday and Saturday markets are held at the red sandstone Market House building in the town centre, built between 1650 and 1654 replacing the older wooden Booth Hall; the upper storey of the Market House now houses a local Crafts centre. The town has not had a cinema since "The Roxy" in Broad Street closed its doors in 1985; the cinema site was purchased by Gateway Supermarkets for development. Opposite the church, The Prospect is a public garden offering a view of the famous horseshoe bend in the River Wye, as well as views as far as the Black Mountains. The ruins of Wilton Castle, which lie to the west of the town, have now been restored and are open to visitors; the town has a number of sculptures created by Walenty Pytel, the left bank of the River Wye shows two of these. Despite the held belief that both depict swans, one in fact shows ducks. Most local government functions are vested in Herefordshire Council, the unitary authority covering the county. Ross Town Council, which consists of 18 Councillors, has the statutory responsibilities of a parish council; the Mayor is Councillor Nigel Gibbs. Ross Rural was merged into the civil parish in 1 April 2015; the town is part of the Hereford and South Herefordshire parliamentary constituency represented in the House of Commons by Conservative MP Jesse Norman. The former Ross-on-Wye railway station was a junction railway station on the Hereford and Gloucester Railway constructed to the north of the town. It was the terminus of the Ross and Monmouth Railway, which joined the Hereford and Gloucester just south of the station. Opened on 1 June 1855, on 29 July 1862 the line was amalgamated with the Great Western Railway, in 1869 converted from broad gauge to standard gauge in a five-day period. A line to Tewkesbury was never built. Closed under the Beeching Axe, the lines to Ross closed in stages, with the final closure in 1964; the brick built station building has been demolished and the site redeveloped into an industrial estate, on which the brick built goods and engine sheds still stand. Today, although the nearest railway station is Ledbury on the Cotswold Line, Gloucester has a much better bus connection with Ross, is a major interchange on the national rail network. To the east of town is the end of the M50 "Ross Motorway" spur from the M5 motorway which links the area to the UK motorway network. Ross-on-Wye is home to ladies hockey clubs; the men's club fields two senior teams and were League champions in 2009/2010. Ross-on-Wye men's hockey club fields two Welsh international players. Ross United F. C. and Woodville F. C. both ran senior football teams but in 1993 the clubs were disbanded, Ross Town F. C. was established. Ross Town F. C disbanded and in 2011 a senior men's team was added to Ross Juniors F. C. who had fielded only Juni

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West Yorkshire Regiment The West Yorkshire Regiment (Prince of Wales's Own) (14th Foot) was an infantry regiment of the British Army. In 1958 it amalgamated with the East Yorkshire Regiment (15th Foot) to form the Prince of Wales's Own Regiment of Yorkshire which was, on 6 June 2006, amalgamated with the Green Howards and the Duke of Wellington's Regiment (West Riding) to form the Yorkshire Regiment (14th/15th, 19th and 33rd/76th Foot). |West Yorkshire Regiment| Badge of the West Yorkshire Regiment |Country|| Kingdom of England (1685–1707)| Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800) United Kingdom (1801–1958) |Size||1–3 Regular Battalions| |Garrison/HQ||Bradford Moor Barracks (1873–1878)| Imphal Barracks, York (1878–1958) |Nickname(s)||Calvert's Entire, The Old and Bold| |Motto(s)||Nec Aspera Terrent| (Afraid Of No Hardships) |Anniversaries||Imphal (22 June)| - 1 History - 2 Regimental Museum - 3 Battle honours - 4 Victoria Crosses - 5 Colonels-in-Chief - 6 Colonels of the Regiment - 7 References - 8 Sources - 9 External links The regiment was raised by Sir Edward Hales in 1685, by order of King James II. One of the nine new regiments of foot, raised to meet the Monmouth Rebellion it was termed Hales's Regiment. The regiment served in Flanders between 1693 and 1696 and gained its first battle honour at Namur in 1695. 1715 saw the regiment moved to Scotland to fight the Jacobite risings. In 1727, the regiment played a major part in defending Gibraltar against the Spanish, where it remained garrisoned for the next 15 years. 1745 saw the regiment in Flanders fighting at Fontenoy before being recalled to Scotland by Cumberland to fight the '45 Rebellion. Fighting at Falkirk and Culloden, it became the 14th Regiment of Foot in 1751. The regiment returned to Gibraltar in 1751 for another 8-year stay. In 1765, when stationed at Windsor, it was granted royal permission for the grenadiers to wear bearskin caps with the White Horse of Hanover signifying the favour of the King. The 14th although at the ready in their barracks did not play a part in the Boston Massacre. Captain Thomas (29th Foot) was the officer of the day in charge of the duty detail (29th of Foot) that faced the crowds outside of the Customs House. The crowd that gathered began taunting the detail until a shot, then volley was fired into the crowd, three civilians were killed outright and two more died later. Captain Preston and the detail went to trial and were successfully defended by Lawyer John Adams thus ending tensions between the crown and the citizens of Boston for the time being. The 14th would remain part of the Boston Garrison until 1772. American War of IndependenceEdit In 1772, the 14th arrived in St Vincent as part of the force to subjugate the maroons. Due to bush fighting and disease the regiment was depleted in numbers, it stayed for two years and was then scheduled to return to England in 1774. Due to the rising tensions in the colonies the regiment's return was cancelled and instead it was redeployed piecemeal, under Major Jonathan Furlong to St. Augustine, Florida and Providence Island in the Bahamas. At dawn on 1 January 1776, the fleet opened fire on Norfolk. Between the firing (burning) of the buildings and the fleet firing on the town, Norfolk burned for three days. 863 buildings were destroyed. After the fleet left, the rebels reoccupied what remained of the town but soon decided to burn even that to keep Lord Dunmore from using it. After all was said and done, 1,298 buildings were destroyed and the 5th largest city in colonial America ceased to exist. After Norfolk, the fleet left for Turkey Point near Portsmouth where it would base operations. While at Turkey Point, there were a series of small raids and skirmishes. The fleet would stay at Turkey point only until late May when it would leave for Gwynn's Island. In August, the fleet withdrew from the Chesapeake and headed to New York. The 14th was withdrawn from service, it being severely under strength from disease and battle in both the Caribbean and Virginia. In New York, the remaining men of the regiment were used to supplement other regiments in the area. The officers were sent back to Britain to recruit a new regiment. In 1777, while in training in England, one company each of the 14th and the 15th regiments were placed under the command of Col. Patrick Ferguson and sent to America to test the concept of the rifle company with the Colonel's new rifle. The rifle companies fought well at the battle of Brandywine in Pennsylvania on 11 September. After the experimental rifle companies returned to England, they were made the light companies of their respective regiments; thus ended the 14th Regiment's participation in the American Revolution. In 1782, the 14th was named The 14th (Bedfordshire) Regiment. The outbreak of the French Revolution and the subsequent French invasion of the Low Countries led to a British force commanded by the Duke of York being sent to join troops of the Imperial Austrian army. The 14th distinguished themselves in numerous actions, at Famars and Valenciennes in 1793 and at Tournai in 1794, for which they were subsequently granted the battle honour 'Tournay'. At the Battle of Famars, in order to encourage the men, Lieutenant-Colonel Welbore Ellis Doyle, the commanding officer, ordered the band of the 14th to play the French revolutionary song “Ça Ira”. This was subsequently chosen as the Regimental march. In the final, unsuccessful attempt to check the French invasion of the Netherlands, the 14th also suffered heavy casualties in the hard-fought rearguard action at Geldermalsen on 8 January 1795. There followed the disastrous winter retreat into Germany. Returning to England the following May, the Regiment was then posted to the West Indies, where it was on duty until 1803. In February 1797, the regiment participated in the bloodless invasion of Trinidad. The outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 led to the expansion of the British Army. The 14th formed a second battalion in Belfast in 1804, and a third battalion in 1813. The 1st Battalion spent much of the war on garrison duty in Bengal. In 1809, the Regiment was re-titled The 14th (Buckinghamshire) Regiment. The 1st Battalion served in India for 25 years until 1831. During this period, the 1st Battalion took part in campaigns against the French in Mauritius in 1810, and the Dutch in Java in 1811, with Java adding another Battle Honour. In 1808-9, the 2nd Battalion joined the Peninsular Army and gained the Battle honour Corunna. The 2nd Battalion saw service in the Walcheren Campaign and was disbanded in 1817. The 3rd Battalion fought at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815; it was disbanded in 1816. The Victorian eraEdit The 14th was then posted to the West Indies, Canada and Malta. In 1855, the Regiment served in the Crimean war. In 1876, the Prince of Wales presented new Colours to the 1st Battalion and conferred on the 14th the honoured title of The Prince of Wales's Own. A second battalion was again raised in 1858 and took part in the New Zealand Wars and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The regiment was not fundamentally affected by the Cardwell Reforms of the 1870s, which gave it a depot at Bradford Moor Barracks from 1873, or by the Childers reforms of 1881 – as it already possessed two battalions, there was no need for it to amalgamate with another regiment. The regiment moved to Imphal Barracks in York in 1878. Under the reforms the regiment became The Prince of Wales's Own (West Yorkshire Regiment) on 1 July 1881. Second Boer WarEdit 1899 saw the 2nd Battalion sent to the Second Boer War 1899–1902 in South Africa and after a number of engagements two members of the Battalion were awarded the Victoria Cross: Captain (later Colonel) Mansel-Jones in February 1900, and Sergeant Traynor in February 1901. The 4th (Militia) Battalion was embodied in December 1899, and 500 officers and men left for South Africa in February 1900. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Volunteer Battalions sent service companies to the Boer War and were granted the battle honour South Africa 1900–02. Early 20th centuryEdit In 1908, the Volunteers and Militia were reorganised nationally, with the former becoming the Territorial Force and the latter the Special Reserve; the regiment now had two Reserve and four Territorial battalions: - 1st (V) Bn became 5th Bn (TF), with RHQ at Colliergate in York. - 2nd (V) Bn became 6th Bn (TF), with RHQ at Belle Vue Barracks in Bradford (since demolished). - 3rd (V) Bn became 7th and 8th (Leeds Rifles) Bns (TF), a double battalion with RHQ at Carlton Barracks in Leeds. First World WarEdit The 1st Battalion landed at Saint-Nazaire as part of the 18th Brigade in the 6th Division in September 1914 for service on the Western Front. The 2nd Battalion landed at Le Harve as part of the 23rd Brigade in the 8th Division in November 1914 also for service on the Western Front. The 1/5th, 1/6th, 1/7th and 1/8th Battalions landed at Boulogne-sur-Mer as part of the West Riding Brigade in the West Riding Division in April 1915 also for service on the Western Front. The 2/5th, 2/6th, 2/7th and 2/8th Battalions landed at Le Havre as part of the 185th (2/1st West Riding) Brigade in the 62nd (2nd West Riding) Division in January 1917 also for service on the Western Front. The 9th (Service) Battalion landed at Suvla Bay in Gallipoli as part of the 32nd Brigade in the 11th (Northern) Division in August 1915; the battalion was evacuated from Gallipoli in January 1916 and landed in Marseille in July 1916 for service on the Western Front. The 10th (Service) Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-Mer as part of the 50th Brigade in the 17th (Northern) Division in July 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 11th (Service) Battalion landed at Le Havre as part of the 69th Brigade in the 23rd Division in August 1915 for service on the Western Front and then transferred to Italy in November 1917. The 12th (Service) Battalion landed at Le Havre as part of the 63rd Infantry Brigade in the 21st Division in September 1915 also for service on the Western Front. The 15th (Service) Battalion (1st Leeds), raised by the Lord Mayor and City of Leeds, and the 16th (Service) Battalion (1st Bradford), raised by the Lord Mayor and City of Bradford, landed in Egypt as part of the 93rd Brigade in the 31st Division in December 1915 and then moved to France in March 1916 for service on the Western Front. The 17th (Service) Battalion (2nd Leeds), raised by the Lord Mayor and City of Leeds, landed at Le Havre as part of the 106th Brigade in the 35th Division in February 1916 for service on the Western Front. The 18th (Service) Battalion (2nd Bradford), raised by the Lord Mayor and City of Bradford, landed in Egypt as part of the 93rd Brigade in the 31st Division in December 1915 and then moved to France in March 1916 for service on the Western Front. The 21st (Service) Battalion (Wool Textile Pioneers) landed in France as pioneer battalion to the 4th Division in June 1916 also for service on the Western Front. In 1937, the 6th Battalion became 49th (The West Yorkshire Regiment) Anti-Aircraft Battalion of the Royal Engineers, converting to a searchlight regiment of the Royal Artillery in 1940. In April 1938, the 7th (Leeds Rifles) Battalion converted to the armoured role as 45th (Leeds Rifles) Bn, Royal Tank Regiment. In June 1939, the company at Morley was split off to form the cadre for a duplicate unit, the 51st (Leeds Rifles) Bn, Royal Tank Regiment. Second World WarEdit Both the 1st and 2nd battalions of the West Yorks served in the Far East throughout the Burma Campaign, fighting in the British Fourteenth Army. The 2nd Battalion served with the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade from November 1940. In 1942, 2/5th Battalion West Yorkshire Regiment was converted to armour, becoming 113th Regiment Royal Armoured Corps. As with all infantry battalions converted in this way, they continued to wear their West Yorkshire cap badge on the black beret of the RAC. 51st (Leeds Rifles) Royal Tank Regiment, formed as a 2nd Line duplicate of 45th (Leeds Rifles) Royal Tank Regiment (previously the 7th (Leeds Rifles) Battalion of the West Yorks), served in 25th Army Tank Brigade in the Italian campaign under the command of Brigadier Noel Tetley of the Leeds Rifles, who was the only Territorial Army RTR officer to command a brigade on active service. The regiment distinguished itself in support of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division in the assault on the Hitler Line in May 1944. At the request of the Canadians, 51 RTR adopted the Maple Leaf as an additional badge, which is still worn by its successors, the Leeds Detachment (Leeds Rifles), Imphal (PWO) Company, The East and West Riding Regiment. In 1948, the 1st and 2nd Battalions were amalgamated and were stationed in Austria. They then moved to Egypt and on to Malaya. After a tour of duty in Northern Ireland in 1955–56, the 1st Battalion took part in the Suez Operation and was then stationed in Dover until the amalgamation in July 1958. In 1956, the merged 45th/51st (Leeds Rifles) RTR returned to the infantry role as 7th (Leeds Rifles) Bn West Yorkshire Regt and in 1961 it re-absorbed the 466th (Leeds Rifles) Light Anti-Aircraft Regt, RA, to form The Leeds Rifles, The Prince of Wales's Own Regiment of Yorkshire. The regiment's battle honours were as follows: - Namur 1695, Tournay, Corunna, India, Java, Waterloo, Bhurtpore, Sevastopol, New Zealand, Afghanistan 1879–80, Relief of Ladysmith, South Africa 1899–1902 (South Africa 1900–02 for Volunteer Battalions) - The Great War [31 battalions]: Aisne 1914 '18, Armentières 1914, Neuve Chapelle, Aubers, Hooge 1915, Loos, Somme 1916 '18, Albert 1916 '18, Bazentin, Pozières, Flers-Courcelette, Morval, Thiepval, Le Transloy, Ancre Heights, Ancre 1916, Arras 1917 '18, Scarpe 1917 '18, Bullecourt, Hill 70, Messines 1917 '18, Ypres 1917 '18, Pilckem, Langemarck 1917, Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Poelcappelle, Passchendaele, Cambrai 1917 '18, St. Quentin, Rosières, Villers Bretonneux, Lys, Hazebrouck, Bailleul, Kemmel, Marne 1918, Tardenois, Amiens, Bapaume 1918, Drocourt-Quéant, Hindenburg Line, Havrincourt, Épéhy, Canal du Nord, Selle, Valenciennes, Sambre, France and Flanders 1914–18, Piave, Vittorio Veneto, Italy 1917–18, Suvla, Landing at Suvla, Scimitar Hill, Gallipoli 1915, Egypt 1915–16 - The Second World War: North-West Europe 1940, Jebel Dafeis, Keren, Ad Teclesan, Abyssinia 1940–41, Cauldron, Defence of Alamein Line, North Africa 1940–42, Pegu 1942, Yenangyaung 1942, North Arakan, Maungdaw, Defence of Sinzweya, Imphal, Bishenpur, Kanglatongbi, Meiktila, Capture of Meiktila, Defence of Meiktila, Rangoon Road, Pyawbwe, Sittang 1945, Burma 1942–45 - 7th Bn (Leeds Rifles) wore a Maple Leaf badge in commemoration of the assault on the Adolf Hitler Line, and bore the badge of the Royal Tank Regiment with dates '1942–45' and two scrolls inscribed 'North Africa' and 'Italy' as an honorary distinction on the colours and appointments. The following members of the Regiment were awarded the Victoria Cross: - Captain (later Colonel) Conwyn Mansel-Jones, Second Boer War - Sergeant William Bernard Traynor, Second Boer War - Private William Boynton Butler, Great War - Corporal (later Major) Samuel Meekosha, Great War - Sergeant Albert Mountain, Great War - Corporal (later Captain) George Sanders, Great War - Acting Sergeant Hanson Victor Turner, Second World War - 1947: Maj-Gen. HRH Princess Mary, The Princess Royal, CI, GCVO, GBE, RRC, TD Colonels of the RegimentEdit Colonels of the regiment included: - 1685–1688: Lt-Gen. Sir Edward Hales, 3rd Baronet - 1688–1692: Col. William Beveridge - 1692–1713: Lt-Gen. John Tidcomb - 1713–1743: Lt-Gen. Jasper Clayton - 1743–1747: Brig-Gen. John Price - 1747–1753: Maj-Gen. Hon. William Herbert 14th Regiment of FootEdit - 1753–1755: Maj-Gen. Edward Braddock - 1755–1756: Lt-Gen. Thomas Fowke - 1756–1765: Maj-Gen. Charles Jeffereys - 1765–1775: Lt-Gen. Hon. William Keppel - 1775–1787: Gen. The Rt. Hon. Robert Cuninghame, 1st Baron Rossmore, PC 14th (Bedfordshire) Regiment of FootEdit - 1787–1789: Lt-Gen. John Douglas - 1789: Col. George Waldegrave, 4th Earl Waldegrave - 1789–1806: Gen. George Hotham - 1806–1826: Gen. Sir Harry Calvert, 1st Baronet, GCB, GCH 14th (Buckinghamshire) RegimentEdit - 1826–1834: Gen. Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lynedoch, GCB, GCMG - 1834: Sir Charles Colville, GCB, GCH - 1835–1837: Gen. Hon. Sir Alexander Hope, GCB - 1837–1862: Gen. Sir James Watson, KCB - 1862–1870: Gen. Sir William Wood, KCB, KH - 1870–1875: Gen. Maurice Barlow, CB - 1875–1879: Gen. James Webber Smith, CB The 14th (Buckinghamshire) Prince of Wales's Own RegimentEdit - 1879–1880: Gen. Sir Alfred Hastings Horsford, GCB - 1880–1897: Gen. Alfred Thomas Heyland, CB The Prince of Wales's Own (West Yorkshire Regiment)Edit - 1897–1904: Gen. Sir Martin Andrew Dillon, GCB, CSI - 1904–1914: Maj-Gen. William Hanbury Hawley - 1914–1934: Maj-Gen. Sir William Fry, KCVO, CB The West Yorkshire Regiment (The Prince of Wales's Own)Edit - Cannon, p. 10 - Cannon, p. 17 - Cannon, p. 22 - Cannon, p. 26 - Cannon, p. 28 - Cannon, p. 29 - "The West Yorkshire Regiment (The Prince of Wales's Own)". Regiments.org. Archived from the original on 4 January 2006. Retrieved 13 March 2016. - Cannon, p. 31 - Cannon, p. 32 - Cannon, p. 34 - Knollenberg, pp. 76–78 - Guy, Louis L. jr. (2001). "Norfolk's Worst Nightmare". Norfolk Historical Society Courier. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 14 March 2016. - "Battle of Brandywine" (PDF). Retrieved 14 March 2016. - "Major Patrick Ferguson, Inspector of Militia". Retrieved 14 March 2016. - Cannon, p. 40 - Cannon, p. 57 - Cannon, p. 68 - Cannon, p. 63 - Cannon, p. 65 - Cannon, p. 74 - "Regiments involved in the Second Anglo-Afghan War 1878–1880". Garen Ewing. Retrieved 14 March 2016. - "Training Depots 1873–1881". Regiments.org. Archived from the original on 10 February 2006. Retrieved 16 October 2016.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) The depot was the 10th Brigade Depot from 1873 to 1881, and the 14th Regimental District depot thereafter - "A History of Imphal Barracks" (PDF). Ministry of Defence. Retrieved 29 March 2014. - "No. 24992". The London Gazette. 1 July 1881. pp. 3300–3301. - "No. 27214". The London Gazette. 27 July 1900. p. 4653. - "No. 27356". The London Gazette. 17 September 1901. p. 6101. - "The War – Embarcation of Troops". The Times (36070). London. 20 February 1900. p. 8. - "6th Battalion, The West Yorkshire Regiment". Regiments.org. Archived from the original on 27 December 2005. Retrieved 13 March 2016. - "The Leeds Rifles". Regiments.org. Archived from the original on 26 December 2005. Retrieved 13 March 2016. - "Naval & Military intelligence". The Times (36882). London. 25 September 1902. p. 8. - "Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907". Hansard. 31 March 1908. Retrieved 20 June 2017. - "The West Yorkshire Regiment". The Long, Long Trail. Retrieved 13 March 2016. - "Prince of Wales's Own (West Yorkshire Regiment)". Orbat. Archived from the original on 16 October 2005. Retrieved 13 March 2016. - "66 (Leeds Rifles)(W Yorks Rgt) Heavy AA Regt RA (TA)". Blue Yonder. Retrieved 13 March 2016. - "49 (W Yorks Regt) Searchlight Regiment RA (TA)". Blue Yonder. Retrieved 13 March 2016. - "45th (Leeds Rifles) Royal Tank Corps (TA)". Yorkshire Volunteers. Retrieved 13 March 2016. - "9th Indian Infantry Brigade". Orders of Battle. Retrieved 14 March 2016. - Forty p. 51. - "West Yorkshire Regiment". British Army units 1945 on. Retrieved 14 March 2016. - "The York Army Museum wins Heritage Lottery Fund support". 9 December 2012. Retrieved 16 December 2017. - Army List 1959 - Cannon, Richard (1845). Historical Record of the Fourteenth, or, the Buckinghamshire Regiment of Foot. London: Parker, Furnivall, and Parker. - Forty, George (1998). British Army Handbook 1939–1945. Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-1403-3. - Knollenberg, Bernhard (1975). Growth of the American Revolution, 1766–1775. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-917110-3. OCLC 1416300. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to West Yorkshire Regiment.|

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The word “empathy” first appeared in English in 1909 when it was translated by Edward Bradford Titchener from the German Einfühlung, an old concept that had been gaining new meaning and increased relevance from the 1870s onward. While today we often treat “empathy” as a synonym for “sympathy,” if not—and more commonly—as an improvement on it, empathy at the turn of the century was used to describe a unique combination of cognitive effort and bodily feeling thought to characterize aesthetic experience. Such experience was not limited to contemplating works of art, however; for several of its earliest theorists, empathy named our aesthetic experiences of other people. It would seem to some that a radical break had been made between sympathy, seen as a primarily moral (and moralizing) activity, and a more scientific, physico-psychological process for which the human brain was hardwired. Yet the empathy of the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries may also be seen as sharing key features with sympathy, particularly as the latter was conceptualized by eighteenth-century moral philosophy and Romantic and Victorian aesthetics. Empathy is a hot topic these days, on the lips of cognitive scientists, philosophers, literary critics, and U.S. Presidents alike. But what is it? Consider the opening paragraph of the opening essay of a 2011 collection entitled The Social Neuroscience of Empathy. In “These Things Called Empathy: Eight Related but Distinct Phenomena,” C. Daniel Batson writes: Students of empathy can seem a cantankerous lot. Although they typically agree that empathy is important, they often disagree about why it is important, about what effects it has, about where it comes from, and even about what it is. The term empathy is currently applied to more than a half-dozen phenomena. These phenomena are related to one another, but they are not elements, aspects, facets, or components of a single thing that is empathy, as one might say that an attitude has cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Rather, each is a conceptually distinct, stand-alone psychological state. Further, each of those states has been called by names other than empathy. Opportunities for disagreement abound. (3, original emphasis) As Batson goes on to suggest, empathy can be difficult to define because it is often invoked “to provide an answer to two quite different questions” (3). The first is this one: how do we know what others think and feel? And the second: how can we explain the impulse to respond to the feelings of others? The first is principally a question of knowledge. It asks how we are able to infer the contents of other minds, or how and to what extent we project those contents from our own. The second, centered on motivation and behavior, is primarily ethical. It seeks to understand as well as “promote prosocial action” (4). The empathy of the moment has accrued a number of unique (and contradictory) meanings and associations, from benevolent, altruistic care to the biochemical and physiological responses of our minds and bodies as we mimic or mirror the feelings of others—as, for example, in the “primitive empathy” of motor mimicry, an automatic or reactive bodily response that (some say) is carried out unselfconsciously, without intention or will (Bavelas et. al.). We might well wonder, then, what relation empathy has to sympathy, a concept with which it is sometimes aligned, sometimes treated synonymously, and sometimes contrasted. It might seem intuitively correct to assume a wide distance between the two, if one takes as a starting point such recent titles as “The Empathetic Brain” and “Imitation, Empathy and Mirror Neurons.” Empathy is without a doubt the preferred term for describing brain phenomena that, it would appear, only the most cutting-edge technology has made visible. Yet empathy in the late-nineteenth-century, Darwinian era looks surprisingly like the empathy of today. There was, of course, no talk of mirror neurons then, but the material body and the interworking of its parts had become vital to those whose interest in loosening the grip of morality on our understanding of human experience had directed their attention to muscles and nerves. Indeed, we find family resemblances when we look back farther still. When, in 1987, the psychology professors Nancy Eisenberg and Paul A. Miller distinguished empathy from sympathy—defining empathy as a vicarious “emotional matching” occurring in the apprehension of another’s affective state and sympathy as involving “sorrow or concern for another’s welfare”—they opened their essay with references to David Hume and Immanuel Kant (92). Hume is among the first in a long line of thinkers who stress the emotional origins of moral behavior; Kant stands with those for whom cognition is key. If it is true that “psychologists generally have been less concerned than philosophers with delineating the ontological nature of morality,” the status of the emotions and the thinking mind, as well as the ostensible divide between them, has continued to occupy students of empathy and sympathy since the Scottish Enlightenment (Eisenberg and Miller 91). Empathy is the decidedly younger term, at least in English. Moreover, though “empathy” is favored over “sympathy” in modern discourse (for reasons we will explore), it rose to prominence and accrued new meaning in a field—psychological aesthetics—which for many of us no doubt remains unfamiliar.When the British psychologist Edward Bradford Titchener translated the German Einfühlung into the English “empathy” in 1909, he drew upon a number of recent writings dedicated in part to revising and refining the term’s aesthetic and moral implications. Einfühlung had been used by the German Romantics to describe aesthetic experience, particularly the experience of “feeling into” the natural world, but had become the object of serious philosophical scrutiny only in the later nineteenth century through the work of German philosophers like Robert Vischer and Theodor Lipps. The remainder of this essay considers why the introduction of that new term was important, what it meant, and how it differed from (or was continuous with) existing understandings of sympathy. It argues that while empathy and sympathy may sometimes be conceived differently, and necessarily so, a brief look at the history of these terms reveals that both share common merits. Finally, it suggests that empathy should be thought of less as an improvement over a sympathy understood as old-fashioned, pitying condescension than an innovation in theorizing a relation with which the first philosophers of sympathy were also concerned, that between the thinking mind, emotion, and aesthetic form. Such issues had preoccupied writers in the eighteenth century, when the fields of psychology and aesthetics were in their infancy. Empathy does not supplant a naïve, outmoded sympathy but seeks to answer different questions or to answer old ones in new ways. Indeed, empathy, or rather sympathy, had been understood in aesthetic terms at least since Adam Smith, Hume, and their eighteenth-century contemporaries began the rigorous study of moral feeling, into which aesthetic experience fell. The highly physicalized empathy of the early twentieth century in many ways represents a continuation of, rather than a radical break from, a sympathy that in Smith and Hume’s day was not without its own bodily discourse of taste and appetites, or its embroilment in debates concerning the nature of attraction and repulsion. Even the architectural, geometrical emphasis that, as we shall see, characterized empathy for writers like Vernon Lee was not without precedent. In Beauty & Ugliness (1912; first published in two-part essay form in 1897), a work attributed to both Lee and Clementina (“Kit”) Anstruther-Thomson, Lee contends that to articulate properly the aesthetic process one must connect an analytic vocabulary to an affective one: “visible qualities” like “red, blue, tall, long, triangular, [and] square,” she writes, “tell us of no aesthetic peculiarities”; “[f]or those we must go to the names of our moods: pleasant, unpleasant, harmonious, jarring, unified, etc.” (271, original emphasis). Lee, following Lipps’s lead, goes on to describe in brilliant detail how we empathize with triangles and squares. But in A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), Hume too had had a good deal to say about the relationship between shape and color, ideation, and emotional response, as when he describes how we “revolve in our mind the ideas of circles, squares, parallelograms, [and] triangles of different sizes and proportions,” or describes a man looking at a kind of color wheel missing a particular shade of blue (126.96.36.199). “Let all the different shades of that colour, except that single one, be placed before him, descending gradually from the deepest to the lightest,” Hume writes; “it is plain, that he will perceive a blank, where that shade is wanting. . . . Now I ask, whether it is possible for him, from his own imagination, to supply this deficiency, and raise up to himself the idea of that particular shade, though it had never been conveyed to him by his senses?” (188.8.131.52). Hume answers in the affirmative, drawing a parallel between color perception and sympathy with others. Both require imagination for filling in the gaps, yet neither is simply “subjective.” Our sympathetic responses are modified and corrected in the same way as are our judgments of color, line, and size. Both become objective in accordance with general rules. Empathy’s significance to late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century theories of the visual and plastic arts may thus be seen as an extension of (if also distinctive from) that early connection between sympathetic responsiveness, judgment, and aesthetic form. In Empathy, Form, and Space: Problems in German Aesthetics, 1873-1893 (1994), Harry Francis Mallgrave and Eleftherios Ikonomou describe the crucial twenty-year period during which Einfühlung acquired that modern significance as an important background for understanding the aesthetic transformations that would epitomize early-twentieth-century art. The formal experimentation of Futurism, Cubism, and Neoplasticism, they suggest, “was not without intellectual pedigree,” specifically in the shift away from “the erstwhile philosophical and physiological problem of how we perceive form and space” toward “the fledgling psychological problem of how we come to appreciate or take delight in the characteristics of form and space,” and the “analogous problem of how we might artistically exploit pure form and space as artistic entities in themselves” (1-2). The emphasis on pleasure is important. Though the intellectual tradition they trace leads them all the way back to Kant’s conception of “purposiveness” (Zweckmäßigkeit), which they define as “the sense of internal harmony that we presume to exist in the world” and thus “the heuristic rule or standard by which we relate to the forms of nature and art,” the final decades of the nineteenth century were marked by a profound attention to bodily response (Mallgrave and Ikonomou 6). Translating Einfühlung as “in-feeling,” Mallgrave and Ikonomou are keen to emphasize the physiological basis of, for instance, Robert Vischer’s “muscular” empathy, which links aesthetic appreciation to the rhythmic experiences of the body’s “self-motions,” or his conviction that certain “loud” colors “might actually provoke an auditory response” (23). As Vischer puts it, “[w]e move in and with the forms” (101). Whether carried far away in observing “fleeting clouds,” or mentally attempting to “scale [the] fir tree and reach up within it,” we “caress [form’s] spatial discontinuities”; by moving in this way “in the imagination,” we reproduce the kinetic motion of our internal organs and project it into other, even stationary, objects (101). This experience of a rhythmic continuity between self and other, outside and in, defines empathy in Vischer’s view. By objectifying the self in external, spatial forms, projecting it into and becoming analogous with them, subject merges with object. Self and world unite. Mallgrave and Ikonomou underscore how radical this proposal can seem once we recognize the pervasiveness of empathy in our unconscious, everyday activities. For Vischer’s conception of empathy involves “a pervasive attitude, an openness that we maintain with the world,” which in turn suggests (as Hume had done) that the self is a fiction, a form borne of imagination and maintained “only by force of habit” (Mallgrave and Ikonomou 25). One of empathy’s most pleasurable rewards, then, might be in the letting go (or loosening up) of that fiction. External objects lose their distinctiveness from the self when my feeling and my “mental representation” of a given object “become one” (25). This has important implications for the artist whose attempts at intensifying expressions of form do not attempt to copy nature but reveal the richly affective and energic processes “concealed therein”: art might strive “to objectify the human condition in a sensuous and harmoniously refined form,” translating “the instability of emotional life and the chaotic disorder of nature into a free, beautiful objectivity” (26). As Titchener explained in his Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought-Processes (1909), an author’s “choice and arrangement of words” could produce “attitudinal feels”: visceral pressures, muscular “tonicity,” and altered breathing and facial expressions felt by authors and readers alike (181). This collection of responses he calls “empathy,” yet it is not simply that aesthetic experience leads to physiological effects. For even ordinary, run-of-the-mill thinking and understanding involve similar exertions, in a kind of “motor empathy” in which one “act[s] the feeling out, though as a rule in imaginal and not sensational terms” (185). “Not only do I see” such abstract concepts as “gravity and modesty and pride and courtesy and stateliness,” Titchener explains; “I feel or act them in the mind’s muscles” (21). Such an empathy seems to have come a long way from sympathy as it is commonly understood, especially if by that word we mean something closer to the sentimental pitying often associated with Victorian morality (as we saw at the beginning of this essay, sympathy retains for many contemporary theorists an association with pity that empathy does not). Suzanne Keen reminds us in Empathy and the Novel (2007) that Victorian novelists like George Eliot were explicit in “articulat[ing] a project for the cultivation of the sympathetic imagination,” whereby novel readers “might learn, by extending themselves into the experiences, motives, and emotions of fictional characters, to sympathize with real others in their everyday lives” (38). Sympathy was urged as an urgent ethical response to the increasingly urban, disconnected, and morally uncertain world of full-blown capitalism. For some, though, that possibility came with messages fraught with danger, as from those who worried that novel reading corrupted readers (especially girls) by causing them to think and feel things they ought not, as well as from those who, from a different angle, considered sympathy a poor, overly personal substitute for large-scale social reform. Such concerns were as old as the novel itself, as was the sneaking suspicion that sympathy provided a cover for less than noble desires. As one Madame Riccoboni wryly remarked in 1769, “[o]ne would readily create unfortunates in order to taste the sweetness of feeling sorry for them” (qtd. in Boltanski 101). Yet Keen’s use of the terms “empathy” and “sympathy” more or less interchangeably marks an effort to rescue sympathy from the bad press it received not so much then as now, once empathy, having shed the moralistic overtones that had accrued to sympathy, was judged the more modern and better of the two. As I have written elsewhere, after 1909 (if not before it), sympathy seemed to belong to the Victorians, empathy to us (“Thinking” 418). How this came to pass over the course of the nineteenth century is a story too long and complex to cover fully here. Yet in some ways the shift is easy to explain. As Neil Vickers writes, “in eighteenth-century Britain, ‘proto-psychology’ and ‘proto-aesthetics’ laboured under a common burden”: that of having to “prove their worth in moral terms” (4). The first “psychologists” we might say—admittedly, by stretching the term—were the “moral doctors” described by Karl Philipp Moritz in 1782 as the physicians of heart and head (qtd. in Vickers 5). The shift from moral medicine to morality-free scientific rigor (if it ever, finally, took place) was neither quick nor unambivalent. As Vickers reminds us, Samuel Taylor Coleridge apologized for using the term “psychological” in series of lectures he gave on Shakespeare in 1811-12 (the “patient” was Hamlet). Yet serious examination of the mind—studied attention to the relay between perception, cognition, and affective response—was beginning to lead many thinkers toward more neutral, less patently moral explanations for human behavior. And as psychology (along with many other branches of science) became increasingly professionalized as the century progressed, so a new psychological aesthetics developed in tandem with other scientific developments, and, as Carolyn Burdett explains, “physiology and psychology converged” ( “Introduction” 1).By the latter half of the nineteenth century, Burdett argues, evolutionary theory offered new ways “to understand such psycho-physiological phenomena” as reflex actions and spontaneous emotional response, thus “linking even the most seemingly sovereign of human experiences, such as the feeling of love for another person or the love of God, to vestigial instinctive behaviors which had once conferred evolutionary advantage” (1). As emotion fell under the powerful sway of physiology, so too did aesthetic response. If love was in some fundamental way biochemical, perhaps a sensation borne of the nervous system, the same might be true for experiences of the beautiful, including the sympathetic facility—now becoming “empathetic”—to have aesthetic experiences with, and of, others. As Lipps argued in “Empathy, Inner Imitation and Sense-Feelings” (1903), when in empathy with another person I experience “a spatial extension of the ego,” I assume “the place of that figure. I am transported into it. As far as my consciousness is concerned, I am totally identical with it” (qtd. in Jahoda 155). That, he continues, “is aesthetic imitation, and it is at the same time aesthetic Einfühlung” (155). For Lipps, “aesthetic enjoyment is objectivated self-enjoyment” in that it enabled a formal experience of self (Pinotti 94). For Lee, following from Lipps while carving out her own theory of “anthropomorphic aesthetics,” empathy involved emotional memory: physical motions, grown abstract through continual repetition, are sensations that in empathy we feel, thrillingly, to have been revived (Beauty 1). For many such writers, empathy necessarily involved a cognitive component, though how strong, and how dominant, varied. As Burdett notes, Lee and Anstruther-Thomson’s Beauty & Ugliness offered “an empirically-based account of aesthetic experience” in which bodily sensation precedes and leads to emotion: “we fear because we tremble,” not the other way around (“Vernon Lee” 3). But Lee balked at entirely severing morality from aesthetic experience. Inspired, Burdett argues, by a proposition central to Darwin’s 1871 Descent of Man—that “female aesthetic choice” shapes and even dictates (hetero-)sexual selection—Lee was at once receptive to arguments for the primacy of sensation and resistant to any mechanistic understanding of aesthetic response (11). From Vischer she took the idea that we imaginatively experience our own bodies via those external objects into which our emotions are projected; from Lipps’s Spatial Aesthetics and Optical Illusion (1897), she took the notion that the seeming vitality of objects, including the erectness and “balance” of a Doric column, is among those “ideas of movement” and dynamism produced by empathy (Burdett “Vernon Lee” 20, original emphasis). Such ideas are “made out of the accumulated and synthesized, ‘abstracted’ memory store of our experiences of sensory motor activity, out of imagined similar movements, and out of an unconscious knowledge of primordial dynamism as such” (Burdett 20). They are, for Lee, “tantamount to life,” for beauty confirms us to ourselves: “forms and shapes,” she believed, “are how we keep feeling that we are alive” (Burdett 20). If by 1932 empathy had become a widely accepted term amongst psychologists, sympathy had in certain circles suffered a decline, at least in popular perception. It is worth remembering, however, that the moral and social theories of Smith and Hume are thick with references to the mental activities, perceptual and imaginative acuities, and ethical conundrums that, in the parlance of our own day, can seem to belong exclusively to empathy as well as the moment. Projection and mirroring, the role of inference, fiction, and the imagination in inhabiting other minds—these were central to the broad eighteenth-century attempt to reconceive how feeling fundamentally affected nearly every aspect of human life. Though their aims and conclusions sometimes differ, Smith’s insistence that our sympathies arise not simply by viewing another’s emotional expression firsthand, but from reflecting upon “the situation which excites it,” isn’t so far from the “in-feeling” that interested Lipps, Lee, and the rest (12). It too involves an experience of form, in what Smith calls the “going along with” others: imaginatively re-creating their mental movements, crafting narrative accounts so as to understand (and simulate) their attitudes, feelings, and thoughts (83). As with Lee’s “abstracted” memories, feelings in Smith’s sympathetic process must first be abstracted—turned into the stuff of story—to be imaginatively passed on and shared. His denial that feelings could pass from one body to the next in the contagious fashion Hume described, and his resistance to the idea that our sympathies arose in response to bodily feeling of any kind, turned sympathy into a mental process. It also made emotion thoroughly social. No man can “think of his own character,” Smith wrote in The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), without imagining how he appears to the minds of others; lacking that mental “mirror,” even the self is an “object which he cannot easily see, [and] which naturally he does not look at” (110). Smith illustrates the point by describing a man living in total isolation: on a good day, he might “view his own temper and character with that sort of satisfaction with which we consider a well-contrived machine”; on a bad day, he is but “a very awkward and clumsy contrivance” (192-93). Selfhood is so unthinkable on the social margins that only a minimal subjectivity is possible outside it. A man who cannot “suppose the idea of some other being, who is the natural judge of the person who feels,” is also incapable of having a self (193). Physiological accounts of empathy thus share with Smithian sympathy a crucial insight: that we project our feeling into other forms in order to experience ourselves. Indeed, it is also worth remembering in closing that empathy and sympathy were overlapping terms even for those who initially sought to clarify empathy’s aesthetic dimensions or to distinguish it from the moral sentiments associated with sympathy. In his commentary on Doric columns, for instance, Lipps had written that while the arrangement of materials constituted its “technical” creation, only a “combination of aesthetic relations for our imagination constitutes a work of art”: “the essential of the work of art,” he continues, “is an imaginary world unified and self-contained” (qtd. in Lee “Recent” 434). It may be difficult to see how any ordinary morality could function in this “self-contained,” “imaginary world.” Yet in “Recent Aesthetics,” published in 1904 in the Quarterly Review, Vernon Lee cites this same passage, declaring that [t]his phenomenon of aesthetic “Einfühlung” is . . . analogous to that of moral sympathy. Just as when we “put ourselves in the place” or more vulgarly “in the skin” of a fellow creature, we are, in fact, attributing to him the feelings we should have in similar circumstances, so, in looking at the Doric column . . . we are attributing to the lines and surfaces, to the spatial forms, those dynamic experiences which we should have were we to put our bodies into similar conditions. (434) As sympathy with “the grief of our neighours” can constitute “a similar grief in our own experiences,” so too an “aesthetic attribution of our own dynamic modes to visible forms implies the realisation in our consciousness of the various conflicting strains and pressures, of the resistance and the yielding which constitute any given dynamic and volitional experiences of our own” (434). The Doric column’s valiant effort to defy gravity revives in us a sense of the human condition. Its is “a little drama we have experienced millions of times” (434). Certainly, one must be wary of overstating the similarities between eighteenth- and nineteenth-century conceptions of sympathy and a fin de siècle empathy bearing the undeniable stamp of its post-Darwinian making. At present, though, the pendulum often swings too far in the opposite direction, making empathy seem inarguably superior to its old-fashioned cousin. In Upheavals of Thought: the Intelligence of Emotions (2003), Martha Nussbaum offers a corrective, asserting the continuing relevance of a sympathy that, unlike empathy, always entails an ethical stance: “a malevolent person who imagines the situation of the other and takes pleasure in her distress may be empathetic,” she writes, “but will surely not be judged sympathetic. Sympathy, by comparison, includes a judgment that the other person’s distress is bad” (302). There are no doubt plenty of good reasons why a recent study citing evidence for the altruistic behavior of rats toward their distressed fellows should refer to such behavior as empathetic rather than sympathetic (the moral question, surely, is number one). But Nussbaum’s distinction may nevertheless give us reason to pause before jettisoning sympathy altogether in explaining more human endeavors. We will do well, as historians and scholars of a long and lengthening nineteenth century, to continue scrutinizing the empathy/sympathy relation as well as its ostensible divide. HOW TO CITE THIS BRANCH ENTRY (MLA format) published March 2012 Greiner, Rae. “1909: The Introduction of the Word ‘Empathy’ into English.” BRANCH: Britain, Representation and Nineteenth-Century History. Ed. Dino Franco Felluga. Extension of Romanticism and Victorianism on the Net. Web. [Here, add your last date of access to BRANCH]. Bartal, Inbal Ben-Ami, Jean Decety, and Peggy Mason.“Empathy and Pro-Social Behavior in Rats.” Science 334.6061 (2011): 1427-30. Web. 12 Dec. 2011. Batson, C. Daniel. “These Things Called Empathy: Eight Related but Distinct Phenomena.” The Social Neuroscience of Empathy. Ed. Jean Decety and William Ickes. Cambridge: MIT P, 2011. 3-13. Print. Bavelas, Janet Beavin, Alex Black, Charles R. Lemery, and Jennifer Mullett. “Motor Mimicry as Primitive Empathy.” Empathy and its Development. Ed. Nancy Eisenberg and Janet Strayer. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1987. 317-38. Print. Boltanski, Luc. Distant Suffering: Morality, Media, and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1999. Print. Burdett, Carolyn. “Introduction: Psychology/Aesthetics in the Nineteenth Century.” 19: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century 12 (2011): 1-6. Web. 7 Nov. 2011. —. “‘The Subjective Inside Us Can Turn into the Objective Outside’: Vernon Lee’s Psychological Aesthetics.” 19: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century 12 (2011): 1-31. Web. 7 Nov. 2011. Eisenberg, Nancy, and Paul A. Miller. “The Relation of Empathy to Prosocial and Related Behaviors.” Psychological Bulletin 101.1 (1987): 91-119. Psycarticles. Web. 4 Jan. 2012. Greiner, Rae. Sympathetic Realism in Nineteenth-Century British Fiction. Baltimore: the Johns Hopkins UP, 2012. Print. —. “Thinking of Me Thinking of You: Sympathy v. Empathy in the Realist Novel.” Victorian Studies 53.3 (2011): 417-26. Print. Hume, David. A Treatise of Human Nature. Ed. David Fate Norton and Mary J. Norton. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005. Print. Iacoboni, Marco. “Imitation, Empathy and Mirror Neurons.” Annual Review of Psychology 60 (2009): 653-70. Annual Reviews. Web. 15 Sept. 2011. Jahoda, Gustav. “Theodor Lipps and the Shift from ‘Sympathy’ to ‘Empathy.’” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 41.2 (2005): 151-63. Academic Search Premier. Web. 4 Nov. 2011. Keen, Suzanne. Empathy and the Novel. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. Print. Lee, Vernon. “Recent Aesthetics.” Quarterly Review 199.398 (1904): 420-43. Vol. 199 (London: John Murray, 1904). Google Book Search. Web. 3 Jan. 2012. Lee, Vernon, and Clementina Anstruther-Thomson. Beauty & Ugliness and Other Studies in Psychological Aesthetics. London: John Lane, 1912. Print. Mallgrave, Harry Francis, and Eleftherios Ikonomou, eds. Empathy, Form, and Space: Problems in German Aesthetics, 1873-1893. Santa Monica: Getty Center, 1994. Print. —. Introduction. Empathy, Form, and Space: Problems in German Aesthetics, 1873-1893. Mallgrave and Ikonomou 1-85. Nussbaum, Martha. Upheavals of Thought: the Intelligence of the Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003. Print. Pinotti, Andrea. “Empathy.” Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics. Ed. Hans Rainer Sepp and Lester Embree. Heidelberg: Springer, 2010. 93-98. Google Book Search. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. Smith, Adam. The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Glasgow ed. Ed. D.D. Raphael and A.L. Macfie. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1982. Print. Titchener, Edward Bradford. Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought-Processes. New York: Macmillan, 1909. Google Book Search. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. Vickers, Neil. “Coleridge on ‘Psychology’ and ‘Aesthetics.’”19: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century 12 (2011): 1-14. Web. 7 Nov. 2011. de Vignemont, Frederique, and Tania Singer. “The Empathetic Brain: How, When and Why?” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10.10 (2006): 435-41. Science Direct. Web. 15 Sept. 2011. Vischer, Robert. “On the Optical Sense of Form: a Contribution to Aesthetics.” Mallgrave and Ikonomou 89-123. For instance, see de Vignemont and Singer’s “The Empathetic Brain: How, When and Why?” and Iacoboni’s “Imitation, Empathy, and Mirror Neurons.” Though no one was talking of “mirror neurons” in the late nineteenth century, neurons had been named in 1891 by Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz; three years later, Franz Nissl successfully stained them with dahlia violet. My thanks to the anonymous reader of this essay who clarified this point. I cover some of this ground in my forthcoming book on sympathy and realism, forthcoming from the Johns Hopkins University Press in 2012. For a more thorough account, Keen’s work is a good place to start. Vickers’s essay is part of a special issue of 19: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century devoted to nineteenth-century psychology and aesthetics. Lee found Lipps’s account of empathy overly abstract: “[o]ne might almost believe that it is the dislike of admitting the participation of the body in the phenomenon of aesthetic Empathy which has impelled Lipps to make aesthetics more and more abstract, a priori, and metaphysical” (Beauty 60). From Lipps’s study “has come,” she writes, “if not the theory, at least the empirical and the logical demonstration of the process to which Professor Lipps has given the convenient but misleading name Einfühlung” (60). As Gardner Murphy wrote that year in An Historical Introduction to Modern Psychology, “the term Einfühlung (‘empathy’) has in fact come into general psychological use” (qtd. in Jahoda 162). According to Jahoda, Lipps treated empathy and sympathy interchangeably except in the case of “negative Einfühlung,” which Jahoda calls “rather an elusive concept” (158). See Bartal et.al., “Empathy and Pro-Social Behavior in Rats.”

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Tuberculosis of spine or TB spine or spinal TB was first described by Percivall Pott. He noted this as a painful kyphotic deformity of the spine associated with paraplegia. Since then condition is also referred to as Pott’s disease or Pott’s spine. It is also called vertebral tuberculosis. Because tuberculosis is also called Koch’s lesion, the term spinal Koch’s is also used. Another term used is caries spine or spinal caries. Spine tuberculosis is the commonest form of skeletal tuberculosis. It constitutes about 50 percent of all cases of bone and joint TB. Spine TB is most commonly found in the first three decades of life but can occur in any age group. There is no gender predilection. Tuberculosis of the spine occurs most commonly in the lower thoracic region. It is followed by lumbar, upper dorsal, cervical and sacral regions in decreasing order of frequency. Tuberculosis of spine is also referred to as tuberculous spondylitis. Tuberculosis of the spine used to be a disease of early childhood in the past. But with improved public health measures, this age incidence has changed, and adults are more frequently affected. Before the availability of modern antitubercular drugs, the mortality rate of the patients was about 30 percent. With the use of modern antitubercular drugs, the outcomes of the treatment have been changed. Anatomy of Spine Detailed anatomy of spine is discussed separately. Here A general overview with terms is presented. Human spine or vertebral column is a structure made of multiple small units called vertebra and extends from just below the base of skull to a point just below the beginning of gluteal cleft. A vertebra is the smallest unit of vertebral column. Plural term is vertebrae. Vertebrae have been modified according to the function they are expected to serve in different parts of the spine. Spine appears straight in anteroposterior view (That means looking from front or back) but in lateral view or looking from a side, we can see multiple curves in the spine in different regions. These curves are called kyphotic if they are concave in anterior(front) and convex on posterior (back) and lordotic if they are convex in anterior and concave on posterior. Spine is divided into five regions This part of the spine is present in the neck and consists of first seven vertebrae. Thus the first vertebra is called C1 and last vertebra is called C7. The cervical spine has a normal lordotic curve. Also called dorsal spine, it is below the cervical spine and spans upper trunk or thorax or area corresponding to the chest. It contains a total of 12 vertebrae which are designated as T1 to T12 Thoracic spine has a normal kyphotic curve. It follows thoracic spine and consists of 5 vertebrae, L1 to L5. Anatomical variations in which 4 or 6 vertebrae might be present in lumbar spine are known. Sacral spine is composed of five sacral vertebrae S1 to S5. Vertebrae in sacral spine are fused to each other. This part of spine follows lumbar spine and is present in the pelvic area. Coccyx or Coccygeal Spine: This is also known as tailbone. It consists of four fused vertebrae (the coccygeal vertebrae) below the sacrum. Vertebrae, the structural units of the spine are stacked together to form the entire vertebral column. Discs are cushion-like structures acting as shock absorbers between two vertebrae. They also permit some movement between the vertebral bodies and the transmission of weight. Each vertebra consists of an anterior body which is attached to a posterior ring called posterior neural arch [pedicle and laminae together]. Two struts of bones called pedicles arise from body and join two converging struts called laminae. Pedicles, laminae and posterior surface of body forms boundaries of spinal canal, which is the space for passage of spinal canal. This spinal canal is the space where spinal cord passes. There is a transverse process on either side of the arch which serves as attachment to various muscles and ligaments. Posteriorly is the posterior spinous process that also serves as an attachment to ligaments and muscles of the spine. The neural foramen is the opening where the nerve roots exit the spine and travel to the rest of the body. There are two neural foramina located between each pair of vertebrae, one on each side. Muscles and Ligaments Various muscles and ligaments attach to the spine. They help the spine to stabilize and allow it to carry various movements. Pathology of Tuberculosis of Spine The bacteriae reach the site of infection via bloodstream. The focus of infection usually begins in the cancellous bone of the vertebral body. Occasionally, it is in the posterior neural arch, transverse process, or subperiosteally deep to the anterior longitudinal ligament in front of the vertebral body. Up to 5% of spinal tuberculosis has been reported in posterior elements. As the disease progresses, the area of infection gradually enlarges and spreads to involve two or more adjacent vertebrae by extension beneath the anterior longitudinal ligament or directly across the intervertebral disc. Sometimes there may be multiple vertebrae may be involved which are separated by normal vertebrae termed as skip lesions. The infection may be disseminated to distant vertebrae via the paravertebral abscess. As the tuberculosis of spine progresses, vertebral bodies lose their mechanical strength due to progressive destruction under the force of body weight. Extreme weakening leads to angular kyphotic deformity. The severity of the deformity depends upon the extent of destruction, the level of the lesion, and the number of vertebrae involved. Kyphosis is most marked in the thoracic area because of the normal dorsal curvature. In the lumbar area, it is less because of the normal lumbar lordosis because of which the body weight is transmitted posteriorly and collapse is partial. The collapse is minimal in the cervical spine because most of the body weight is borne through the articular processes. Healing takes place by gradual fibrosis and calcification of the granulomatous tuberculous tissue. Eventually, the fibrous tissue is ossified, with resulting bony ankylosis of the collapsed vertebrae. Paravertebral abscess [abscess around vertebra – literal meaning], formation occurs in almost every case. With the collapse of the vertebral body, tuberculous granulation tissue, caseous matter, and necrotic bone and bone marrow are extruded through the bony cortex and accumulate beneath the anterior longitudinal ligament. These cold abscesses gravitate along the fascial planes and present externally at some distance from the site of the original lesion. - In the lumbar region, the abscess gravitates along the psoas fascial sheath and usually points into the groin just below the inguinal ligament. - In the thoracic region, the longitudinal ligaments limit the abscess, which is seen in the radiogram as a fusiform radiopaque shadow at or just below the level of the involved vertebra. - Thoracic abscess may reach the anterior chest wall in the parasternal area by tracking via the intercostal vessels. Neural Deficit in Spine Tuberculosis Neurological complications may arise due to compression of the cord by the abscess, caseating or granulating mass, intervertebral disc or edge of bone c. Other contributory factors may be thrombosis of the local vessels and edema of the cord. The neural deficit can be paraparesis, to begin with, and eventually, lead to paraplegia. It occurs most often in the mid-or upper-thoracic region, where the kyphosis is most acute, the spinal canal is narrow, and the spinal cord is relatively large. The neural deficit in TB spine occurs due to pressure on the tissues of the cord, as follows. Other factors are cord edema and inflammation. Following can contribute to the pressure on the spinal cord. - Extradural Mass formed by tubercular abscess [fluid pus, granulation tissue or caseous material. - Extradural Granuloma and Tuberculoma - Sequestra [dead bone] from avascular diseased vertebral bodies or intervertebral disc - Granulation tissue on the with peridural fibrosis [cicatrization or scar formation] - Infarction of the cord by thrombosis or arteritis. - Cord atrophy Paraplegia due to tuberculosis of the spine can be early onset or late onset. Early onset paraplegia occurs during the active phase of the vertebral disease usually within first 2 years of the onset. Late-onset paraplegia occurs many more than 2 years after the disease has persisted and could be due to recrudescence of the disease or mechanical pressure on the cord. It is also called paraplegia associated with the healed disease. Types of Lesions in Spinal Tuberculosis Four types of the lesion are known in spinal tuberculosis - Paradiscal type – On either side of the disc - Central type – central part of the vertebral body - Anterior type – anterior surface of the vertebral body - Appendiceal type (involving pedicles, laminae, spinous process or transverse processes). In this type, the infection is on either side of the disc, involving two vertebrae. This is the most common type of presentation. The narrowing of the disc space is often the earliest radiological finding, often associated with a fuzziness of The narrowing of the disc space may either be due to either atrophy of the disc tissue or prolapsed. Central Type of Lesion The infection starts from the center of the vertebral body, where it reaches through Batson’s venous plexus or through the branches of the posterior vertebral artery. On x-ray, the diseased vertebral body loses the normal bony trabeculae and many show areas of destruction or the body may be expanded or ballooned out like a tumor and finally collapse like vertebra plana. Loss of disc space is minimal. The infection starts beneath the anterior longitudinal ligament and the periosteum. On x-ray, the peripheral portion of the vertebral body shows erosion as shallow excavations. Vertebral collapse and a decrease in the disc space is usually minimal and occurs late. This involves isolated infection of the pedicles, transverse processes, laminae, and the spinous process does occur. These lesions are not generally visible on routine x-rays. CT or MRI is better at detecting these lesions. Presentation of Tuberculosis of Spine The onset of is usually insidious. Initial symptoms are vague, consisting of generalized malaise, easy fatiguability, loss of appetite and weight, and loss of desire to play outdoors in children. There may be an afternoon or evening fever. However, the acute presentation of tuberculosis is known. A backache is usually minimal and may be referred segmentally. Muscle spasm makes the back rigid. The motion of the spine is limited in all direction. The patient may complain of inability to flex spine when picking an object up from the floor. For doing this, the patient flexes his hips and knees, keeping the spine in extension. On examination, the spine is stiff and painful on movement. The stiffness of the spine is noticed by an increase of depth of spinal midline gutter as paraspinal muscle spasm makes them prominent. There may be a localized kyphotic deformity which would be tender on palpation. A cold abscess may be noticed. The abscesses may be palpated as fluctuant swellings in the groin, iliac fossa, retropharynx, or on the side of the neck, depending upon the level of the lesion. In spite of the vast spectrum of the disease, the early cases may not have any clinical finding except for tenderness in the region of the complaint. Several of these symptoms and sign may be absent even in cases of the active vertebral disease. A history of contact with a known case of tuberculosis or a recent visit to an endemic area should be asked. A kyphus in the thoracic region may be the first noticeable sign. As the kyphosis increases, the ribs will crowd together and a barrel chest deformity may develop. When the lesion is situated in the cervical or lumbar spine, a flattening of the normal lordosis is the initial finding. The gait of the person with Pott’s disease is peculiar, reflecting the protective rigidity of the spine. His steps are short, as he is trying to avoid any jarring of his back. In tuberculosis of the cervical spine, he holds his neck is in extension and supports his head with one hand under the chin and the other over the occiput. Neural Deficit in TB Spine The compression of neural structures leads to signs of neurological deficit. The compression of neural structures is indicated by - Spasticity of the limbs [uper and lower limbs in case of the cervical spine and lower limbs in case of dorsal and lumbar spines] - Hyperactive deep tendon reflexes - Spastic gait - Motor weakness - Disturbances of the bladder and anorectal function. A neural deficit in tuberculosis could be caused by the following factors - Inflammatory edema – recovers by rest and drug therapy - Tuberculous granulation tissue – mostly recovers by rest and drug therapy - Tuberculous abscess – recovers by conservative therapy, rarely requires evacuation and decompression - Tuberculous caseous tissue – May subside by conservative therapy, sometimes requires evacuation and decompression - Tubercular debris- Solid debris requires removal and decompression - Sequestra from vertebral body and disc – Require operative removal and decompression - Constriction of cord due to stenosis of vertebral canal- Requires operative decompression - Localized pressure due to internal gibbus along anterior wall of the vertebral canal – Requires operative decompression - Prolonged stretching of the cord over a severe deformity – Decompression, release of cord, and anterior transposition may lead to recovery - Atrophy of cord – Does not recover completely - Infective thrombosis/endarteritis of spinal vessels – Does not recover appreciably - Pathological dislocation of spine – Rare complication, causes irreparable severance of cord - Tuberculous meningomyelitis – Does not recover completely - Syringomyelic changes – poor recovery - Spinal Tumor syndrome – Poor recovery - Diffuse extradural granuloma or tuberculoma or peridural fibrosis -Present as spinal tumor syndrome Neural deficit in spine TB is classified as follows - Patient walks normally and is not aware of any deficit - Extensor plantar response - Ankle clonus - May be accompanied by brisk tendon reflexes - Clumsy gait - Incoordinated jumpy gait - Weakness, walks with support - Severe weakness - Patient bedridden and cannot walk because - <50% sensory deficit - The patient has paraplegia with flexor spasms or paraplegia in flexion. - Paraplegia in extension with spontaneous flexor spasms - Sphincter disturbances - Flaccid paralysis [ occurs due to very severe cord compression] Neural deficit in tuberculosis is of slow onset. The earliest symptom may be twitching of muscles in the lower limbs and clumsiness while walking. Motor functions are almost always affected before and to a greater extent than the sensory functions due to anterior site because the disease is mostly in the anterior part [motor tracts are anterior too] and probably the motor tracts are more sensitive to compression of the cord. The paralysis as noted above may pass from spastic motor paraparesis to spastic paraplegia in extension and then on spastic paraplegia in flexion. In severe compression of the cord, flexor spasms may occur which refers to involuntary flexions of the lower limb. This indicates complete loss of conductivity in the pyramidal and extrapyramidal neural tracts. Bladder and anal sphincters may be involved. There may be a sensory deficit. The sense of position and vibration are the last to disappear. In severe cases all spasticity disappears and the paralysis becomes flaccid (areflexic paraplegia) with anesthesia and loss of sphincter control. Sometimes, the insult to the cord is sudden [such as ischemia] and the patient may present with flaccid paralysis ”spinal shock” and later gradually change into spasticity. Rarely, the disease may present like a ”spinal tumor syndrome” due to a localized tuberculoma or a diffuse granuloma or due to peridural fibrosis. Differential Diagnosis of Tuberculosis of Spine Mostly the diagnosis of tuberculosis can be made by clinical and radiological examination by its characteristic findings. Doubtful cases need to be confirmed by biopsy and/or culture. The differential diagnoses vary with age of presentation. Congenital defects of the spine, Calve’s disease are common d/ds in young patients. Schmorl’s disease and Scheuermann’s disease may sometimes cause confusion in adolescent patients. Tuberculosis is suggested by the presence of constitutional symptoms [fever, malaise etc], characteristic radiological appearance and disc space is well maintained. Local signs like pain, spasm, and tenderness are less pronounced in other diseases than TB spine. In adults, malignancy is major d/d. Following is a list of main differentials of the tuberculous spine. This may follow infection or surgery of urogenital tract, or postabortal or postpartum infections. Also called pyogenic osteomyelitis, it presents as sudden onset disease with severe localized pain, spasm and high-grade fever with chills and rigors. Bone destruction is eventually followed by sclerosis and new bone formation and even bony ankylosis. This is a rare complication of enteric fever. Most of the cases present at the time intervals of 4 weeks to a few months after the episode of typhoid fever. Excruciating pain and muscle spasm. The radiological picture resembles that of tuberculosis and low-grade pyogenic spondylitis. Confirmation can be obtained by agglutination tests, therapeutic trial or by biopsy. This can produce changes in the spine which can be very similar to those seen in tuberculosis of the spine. The diagnosis is best established by identification of the causative organisms, agglutination tests or by biopsy. Actinomyces group or blastomycosis group can be responsible for the infection of vertebrae. In blastomycosis, paravertebral abscess formation is a common feature. In actinomycosis sclerosis and destruction of bone proceed hand in hand. A collapse of the vertebra is rare, sometimes the involved vertebrae may produce an appearance described as ”honeycomb” or ”lattice-like” and the condition is usually accompanied by multiple sinus formations and involvement of the subcutaneous tissues. Diagnosis can be confirmed by a demonstration on the mycotic organism from the discharging sinuses, pus or from the diseased bone. It is quite rare. The commonest site of involvement is thoracolumbar and lumbar spine though it is of rare occurrence after modern antibiotics which cure syphilis much earlier. Three types are known - Arthralgic type of syphilitic spondylitis - Gummatous type of syphilitic spondylitis - Charcot’s disease of the spine. Xrays show gross disorganization and destruction of the involved vertebrae along with proliferative new bone formation extending into the adjacent paraspinal tissues. It is extremely difficult to differentiate this condition on x-rays alone. Diagnosis is confirmed by serological tests, tissue biopsy or by the response to antisyphilitic treatment. Hydatid disease of the spine is a very rare condition Following benign tumorous conditions may clinically and radiologically have some resemblance with spinal tuberculosis. - aneurysmal bone cyst - Osteogenic sarcoma - Multiple Myeloma - eosinophilic granuloma (spine-Calve’s disease) - Hand-Schuller-Christan disease - Letterer-Siwe disease - Block Vertebrae [Fusion of two or more vertebral bodies] - Neural arch defects It is an ischemic lesion of the apophysis of several vertebrae occurring in early adolescence. A rounded kyphosis develops because of fragmentation, and mild wedging of several vertebral bodies. The absence of any constitutional reaction, spasm or any radiological paravertebral shadows and bony destruction, together with minimal local symptoms distinguishes this condition from infective lesions of the spine. It is a forward displacement of one vertebra on another. The commonest sites are between L5 and S1, and L4 and L5. Destruction of posterior articular elements or destruction of pars interarticularis with or without the involvement of paradisical regions due to tuberculous process or other infective lesions may result in spondylolisthesis. Imaging in Tuberculosis of Spine In addition to the lesion-specific appearance of the disease [ radiolucent lesion, fuzzy vertebral margins, reduced disc space, vertebral collapse – refer to types of the lesions], the following findings may be noted. Findings are suggestive, but not pathognomonic. Routine views are anteroposterior and lateral views of the spine. Chest radiograms are taken to rule out outer foci of systemic disease in case of a suspected person. Paravertebral shadows in TB of the spine is produced by extension of tuberculous granulation tissue and the collection of an abscess in the paravertebral region. In the cervical region, this presents as increased prevertebral space. Prevertebral space is soft tissue shadow between the vertebral bodies and pharynx and trachea. On an average, the normal space between the pharynx and spine above the level of cricoid cartilage is 0.5 cm and below this, it is 1.5 cm. An increased space suggests collection in the prevertebral space. In the upper thoracic spine, abscess appears V-shaped shadow stripping the lung apices laterally and downwards. It may also show as squaring of borders of superior mediastinum. Shifting of tracheal shadow to one side may be present on AP view. Normal tracheal shadow is concave anteriorly in lateral view of the thoracic spine. Any change in the contour should raise the suspicion of the disease from C7 to D4 vertebrae. Below that region [D4 vertebra is watershed], a typical fusiform-shape (bird nest appearance) shadow suggests paravertebral abscess. Abscesses below the diaphragm tend to extend along the course of psoas muscle which may be noted as the bilateral widening of the psoas shadow but is less common. This occurs in typical para discal lesion due to the collapse of two vertebral bodies. Lateral Shift and Scoliosis A lateral curvature and deviation have been recognized as one of the rare deformities of Pott’s disease. CT and MRI CT and MRI provide cross-sectional imaging which describes the extent of involvement better and are good at showing the presence of an epidural component and cord compression. MRI is the investigation of choice for this, with CT with contrast being a distant second. In addition to this, MRI also reveals the status of the spinal cord health. These show vertebral destruction and paraspinal collections. Most of the times, especially in endemic regions, the diagnosis of tuberculosis is clinicoradiological but lab tests are called for help when a clear diagnosis cannot be reached out at. Routine lab investigations done in Pott’s spine are complete blood count, ESR, and CRP. Liver and kidney functions should also be assessed during treatment. CBC might show lymphocytosis but could be normal as well. ESR and CRP are generally elevated but in some cases, the increase is not seen. ESR is deemed to be inflammation marker and some authors recommend serial ESR levels to assess the decrease in activity of the tubercular disease. Tuberculin skin test is found positive in most of the patients with spine TB who are not infected with HIV The tissue for microbiological studies can be obtained through CT guided biopsy. This is more useful in cases with an equivocal diagnosis. - AFB staining of the tissue - Culture and sensitivity. Treatment of Tuberculosis of Spine The treatment of spinal tuberculosis is mainly by chemotherapy. Presence of neurological deficit complicates the matters and for sake of simplicity, I have divided the treatment into two groups Treatment of Spine Tuberculosis Without Neural Deficit The prevention of neural deficit in tuberculous disease of the spine is of paramount importance, it can be largely achieved by early diagnosis of spinal caries and its prompt and suitable treatment. These patients are treated with antitubercular chemotherapy which consists of isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol as the first line of drugs. However, depending upon the patient profile, drugs may be added or replaced. Gradual mobilization of the patient is encouraged in the absence of neural deficit with the help of suitable spinal braces. After 3 to 9 weeks of starting of treatment, the patient is put on back extension exercises. Spinal brace is continued for about 18 months to 2 years. Surface cold abscesses may be aspirated, deeper collections may not be required to drain. Open drainage of the abscess is performed if aspiration fails to clear the collection. Sinuses in a large majority of cases heal within 6 weeks to 12 weeks from the onset of the treatment Periodic evaluation of the patient with X-rays and ESR is done to assess the activity of the disease and decreasing ESR is deemed to be a sign of reducing bacterial activity. Treatment of Spine Tuberculosis With Neural Deficit Patients with neural deficit require a more aggressive approach. Classical approach was to put all the patients on chemotherapy and strict bed rest. Some authors in the recent past suggested a radical approach which advocated operating almost every tubercular lesion with [or even without] neural deficit to debride the tissue and relieve the pressure on neural structures. While the first approach produced less than desirable results, the second one is associated with an increased surgical burden and associated mortality. Middle path regime solves this problem to a great extent by taking the best of both approaches. It puts the patient on chemotherapy and rest and observes for a response. The premise of the treatment is that, as the drugs act on the bacteriae, the reduced destruction and pus production leads to lesser pressure on the neural structures which tend to recover once milieu gets better by use of medicine. This regime advocates surgery for the patients of TB of the spine who do not get better with the initial treatment or are not candidates for conservative treatment. The surgery is indicated in the following situations Every patient with neural complications will not be cured by antitubercular drugs and rest alone, however, all patients do not need surgical decompression. An absolutely conservative approach to Pott’s paraplegia is considered unjustifiable as one might be losing very valuable time. Irreparable damage of the cord may take place if the deterioration progresses to complete loss of motor and sensory function. Indications for surgery in presence of neural deficit are - Neurological complications which do not start showing signs of progressive recovery to a satisfactory level after a fair trial of conservative therapy (3 to 4weeks). - Patients with spinal caries in whom neurological complications develop during the conservative treatment - Patients with neurological complications which become worse while they are undergoing therapy with antituberculous drugs and bedrest - Patients who have a recurrence of neurological complication - Patients with prevertebral cervical abscesses, neurological signs, and difficulty in deglutition and respiration - Advanced cases of neurological involvement such as marked sensory and sphincter [bladder/bowel] disturbances, flaccid paralysis or severe flexor spasms. In the cases who started showing progressive recovery complications on triple-drug therapy between 3 to 4 weeks and progressed to complete recovery surgical decompression was considered unnecessary. Surgery in Spinal Tuberculosis Surgery in the spinal tuberculosis is required mostly for decompression of the neural structures or drainage of abscesses. Surgery is also done for deformity correction in severe kyphus. In children, posterior spinal fusion is done so as to correct the deformity with growth. Operative Procedures for Decompression of Neural Tissues - Decompression and debridement with or without bone grafting - Cervical spine and cervicodorsal junction- anterior approach - Dorsal spine and dorsolumbar junction – anterolateral approach or transpleural approach - Lumbar spine and lumbosacral junction – extraperitoneal approach. - Laminectomy for posterior spinal disease, extradural granuloma or tuberculoma - Anterior transposition of the cord through the anterolateral in severe kyphotic deformity causing paraplegia. Recovery after surgery has been observed after 24 hours to 12 weeks after the decompression. Most of the patients showed the first evidence of objective recovery within 3 weeks of the decompression, however, others took a longer time to recover. The time taken for near complete recovery varied between 3 to 6 months and in few cases more than a year. Extensor plantar response, a sign of pyramidal tract involvement, lasts for a very long time. Patients who recover are able to return to their full activity within 6 to 12 months of the treatment. Brace is recommended for about 2 years. The prognosis of the disease is determined by the severity and duration of the disease. If diagnosed and treated in very early stages, before bony destruction and deformity have occurred, the patient usually recovers completely without any residual problem. After, vertebral collapse, the deformity occurs. This deformity would persist after the treatment as well when tubercular activity has finished. If this deformity is severe, it could cause mechanical back pain in later years. With the neural deficit, the prognosis is better if there is - partial cord involvement - Neural complications are of short duration - Early onset neural deficit - Slow progression of neural complications - Young patient - Good general condition of the patient The prognosis is relatively poor if there is - Complete cord involvement - Severe flexor spasms - Flaccid paralysis - Gross sensory loss - Long-standing neural complication - Late-onset neural deficit - Rapid development of neural complications - Patient is of older age - Poor general condition of the patient. Irrespective of the mode of treatment the patients who show neural recovery various modalities generally recover in the following order. Vibration and joint sensation; temperature, touch, pain, voluntary motor activity, sphincter functions and wasting of muscles. Recurrence or relapse of a tuberculous lesion [ Also called recrudescence of the Disease] poses a special problem. The commonest cause is grumbling activity of infection caused by resistance strain of acid-fast bacilli. Surgery may be required in these cases. Atypical Presentation of the Tuberculosis of Spine The classical form of tuberculosis is usually easy to recognize. However, atypical forms of the disease may occur involving other parts of the vertebra or also in the form of the extraosseous involvement of the neural and perineural tissue. These are relatively uncommon and more difficult to diagnose. Posterior Complex Tuberculosis Posterior spinal tuberculosis is the lesion caused by Mycobacterium tuberculi in the posterior elements of the vertebral arch. The location is It has been reported with patients suffering from HIV infection. The lesion commonly arises in the dorsal, dorsolumbar and lumbar vertebrae. Cervical lesions involving the posterior complex are extremely rare. The clinical picture is often similar to that of typical spinal tuberculosis. However, posterior abscesses may present earlier while the typical radiographic changes will not be present. In fact, a conventional x-ray is not of much use in early diagnosis and one must have a high index of suspicion and get a CT Scan or an MRI done early to avoid delay in diagnosis. CT Scan or MRI can determine the site and extent of the lesion, the presence of any vertebral body involvement or encroachment of the spinal canal. These are able to pick up the diagnosis at an earlier stage. The lesion may occur in elements of the vertebral arch including the laminae, pedicles, transverse or spinous processes. Rarely the apophyseal joints may be involved. The lesions may be in isolation or in combination with each other. - Lesions involving the vertebral arch – lamina and pedicles - Lesions involving the processes of the vertebral arch i.e. the transverse articular and spinous process. - A combination of both The primary mode of treatment is anti-tuberculosis chemotherapy. Neurological involvement may warrant surgical treatment. Intraspinal Tuberculous Granuloma (Tuberculoma) Tuberculosis can involve neural and perineural tissue directly invading the spinal cord or meninges. Spinal tiberculoma could be - Extra dural - Sub dural - Sub dural and extra dural - Arachnoidal [no dural involvement These typically present with compression of the cord. MRI or CT myelography is required to localize these lesions. Where an extra dural granuloma is present surgery is advocated as there is a risk of healing with scar tissue on drug treatment only. If there is anterior body disease is present then the anterior or antero-lateral decompression is recommended. If there are associated neural arch lesions or when no osseous lesion is present, laminectomy and excision of the extra dural granuloma is recommended. Presents with compressive myelopathy with no radiological localization of lesions. Myelography, myelo CT or MRi is required to localize the lesion. Laminectomy at the level of the lesion is recommended. Where the dura is tense it needs to be opened to remove the sub dural granuloma. These are very rare and patients present with a picture of severe spinal cord compression with a rapidly progressive course. The presence of a tuberculous lesion elsewhere or in the past may be a clue to the diagnosis. MRI is the most useful investigation sequential. Anti-tubercular chemotherapy is the mainstay of the disease. Single Vertebral Disease Single vertebral disease without involvement of the disc spaces is also considered as atypical spinal tuberculosis. It may present as a cystic lesion involving the body or as vertebra plana simulating lesions such as eosinophillic granuloma. Here the diseased vertebral body is weakened by the permeation of granulation tissue and collapses. It protrudes radially and may cause the neurological deficit. Plain radiograph will slow collapse of a singe vertebral body with preservation of adjoining disk spaces. CT Scan and MRI may help in differentiating it from other lesions such as eosinophillic granuloma, solitary plasmacytoma, metastatic disease. However, the histological evidence is required in these atypical lesions and all efforts should be made to establish a tissue diagnosis. In the event of neurological deficit anterior decompression is recommended as laminectomy may worsen the neurological deficit. Other forms of Atypical Tuberculosis These may include - Multiple vertebral skip lesions - 2 – 7% of cases - Giant Tuberculous Abscess with little or no demonstrable bony focus. - May present as cold abscess in the thigh, loins or as a psoas abscess. - Sclerotic Vertebrae with intervertebral bony bridging. - Seen occasionally in healthy individuals with good immunity. - On x-ray, lateral osteophytes with little evidence of erosion or destruction can be seen. - Pan Vertebral Disease - concomitant involvement of anterior and posterior elements. - Have severe instability

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Feast Day of St. Martin of Tours, Patron Saint of Chaplains and Logisticians: When Sulpicius Severus first met Martin of Tours he was stunned. Not only did the bishop offer him hospitality at his residence — a monk’s cell in the wilderness instead of a palace — but Martin washed Sulpicius’ hands before dinner and his feet in the evening. But Sulpicius was just the kind of person Martin showed the greatest honor to — a humble man without any rank or privilege. People of nobility and position were turned away from his abbey by chalk cliffs, out of fear of the temptation to pride. From that visit, Sulpicius became Martin’s disciple, friend, and biographer. Little is known of many of the saints who died in the early years of Christianity but thanks to Sulpicius, who wrote his first biography of Martin before the saint died and who talked to most of the people involved in his life, we have a priceless record of Martin’s life. 1620 – The Mayflower Compact is signed in what is now Provincetown Harbor near Cape Cod. The Mayflower Compact was the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It was written by the Separatists, sometimes referred to as the “Saints”, fleeing from religious persecution by King James of England. They traveled aboard the Mayflower in 1620 along with adventurers, tradesmen, and servants, most of whom were referred to, by the Separatists as “Strangers”. The Mayflower Compact was signed aboard ship by most adult men. The Pilgrims used the Julian Calendar, also known as Old Style dates, which, at that time, was ten days behind the Gregorian Calendar. Signing the covenant were 41 of the ship’s 101 passengers, while the Mayflower was anchored in what is now Provincetown Harbor within the hook at the northern tip of Cape Cod. 1778 – Iroquois Indians and Torries, led by William Butler, massacred 40 inhabitants of Cherry Valley, N.Y. The Cherry Valley massacre was an attack by British and Iroquois forces on a fort and the village of Cherry Valley in eastern New York during the American Revolutionary War. It has been described as one of the most horrific frontier massacres of the war. A mixed force of Loyalists, British soldiers, Seneca and Mohawks descended on Cherry Valley, whose defenders, despite warnings, were unprepared for the attack. During the raid, the Seneca in particular targeted non-combatants, and reports state that 30 such individuals were slain, in addition to a number of armed defenders. The raiders were under the overall command of Walter Butler, who exercised little authority over the Indians on the expedition. Historian Barbara Graymont describes Butler’s command of the expedition as “criminally incompetent”. The Seneca were angered by accusations that they had committed atrocities at the Battle of Wyoming, and the colonists’ recent destruction of their forward bases of operation at Unadilla, Onaquaga, and Tioga. Butler’s authority with the Indians was undermined by his poor treatment of Joseph Brant, the leader of the Mohawks. Butler repeatedly maintained, against accusations that he permitted the atrocities to take place, that he was powerless to restrain the Seneca. During the campaigns of 1778, Brant achieved an undeserved reputation for brutality. He was not present at Wyoming, although many thought he was, and actively sought to minimize the atrocities that took place at Cherry Valley. The massacre contributed to calls for reprisals, leading to the 1779 Sullivan Expedition which drove the Iroquois out of western New York. 1811 – Confederate General Ben McCulloch is born near Rutherford City, Tennessee. Raised in Tennessee, McCulloch followed his friends Davy Crockett and Sam Houston to Texas in 1835. Measles kept him from joining Crockett at the Alamo, where its defenders, including Crockett, were massacred when the Mexican army overran the mission during the Texas War for Independence. McCulloch served with Houston at the decisive Battle of San Jacinto, in which Mexican General Santa Anna’s army was defeated and Texas gained its independence. After the war, McCulloch served in the Texas legislature and the Texas Rangers, the primary law enforcement agency in the Republic of Texas. He fought under General Zachary Taylor during the Mexican War and served as a U.S. marshal in the 1850s. When the Civil War broke out, McCulloch became a colonel in command of Texas troops. He rode to San Antonio and forced the surrender of a Federal arsenal there, while his brother, Henry, took control of Federal posts on the Texas frontier. In May 1861, Ben McCulloch became a brigadier general in the Confederate army and was assigned to defend Indian Territory. He formed alliances with several tribes in the area before moving his force to southwestern Missouri, where he played a key role in the Confederate victory at Wilson’s Creek on August 10, 1861. McCulloch commanded a wing of the Army of the West as it approached a Union force led by General Samuel Curtis in northwestern Arkansas in March 1862. Curtis took up a defensive position around Elkhorn Tavern and waited for the Confederates to attack. On the night of March 6, McCulloch marched his troops around Curtis’s right flank and prepared for an early morning assault on March 7. Curtis discovered the movement, and blocked McCulloch’s advance. That day, at the Battle of Pea Ridge, Curtis held off a furious attack by McCulloch’s force. McCulloch rode forward to monitor his men’s progress when he emerged from some underbrush directly in front of a Union regiment. Identifiable by his trademark black velvet suit (he eschewed uniforms), a volley from the Yankees killed McCulloch instantly. His successor, General James McIntosh, was killed minutes later and the leaderless Confederates retreated. McCulloch’s death was the turning point in the battle, and the Confederate defeat ensured Union domination of northern Arkansas for the rest of the war. 1813 – In the Battle of Crysler’s Farm, British and Canadian forces defeat a larger American force, causing the Americans to abandon their Saint Lawrence campaign. The Battle of Crysler’s Farm, also known as the Battle of Crysler’s Field, was fought on 11 November 1813, during the War of 1812. The name Chrysler’s Farm is sometimes used for the engagement, but Crysler is the proper spelling. 1831 – Nat Turner was hanged and skinned in Southampton county, Va. Hysteria surrounded this rebellion and over 200 slaves, some as far away as North Carolina, were murdered by whites in fear of a generalized uprising. A martyr to the anti-slavery cause, Turner’s actions had the adverse effect of virtually ending all abolitionist activities in the south before the Civil War. 1839 – The Virginia Military Institute is founded in Lexington, Virginia. 1861 – Thaddeus Lowe made balloon observation of Confederate forces from Balloon- Boat G.W. Parke Custis anchored in Potomac River. G. W. Parke Custis was procured for $150, and readied for the service at the Washington Navy Yard. Lowe reported: “I left the navy-yard early Sunday morning, the 10th instant– . . . towed our by the steamer Coeur de Lion, having on board competent assistant aeronauts, together with my new gas generating apparatus, which, though used for the first time, worked admirably. We located at the mouth of Mattawoman Creek, about three miles from the opposite or Virginia shore. [11 November] proceeded to make observations accompanied in my ascensions by General Sickles and others. We had a fine view of the enemy’s camp-fires during the evening, and saw the rebels constructing new batteries at Freestone Point.” 1864 – Sherman’s troops destroyed Rome, Georgia and continued on toward Atlanta. 1864 – Commander Henry K. Davenport, U.S.S. Lancaster, captured Confederates on board steamer Salvador, bound from Panama to California, after having been informed that they intended to seize the ship at sea and convert her into a raider. Salvador’s captain had warned naval authorities at Panama Bay that the attempt was to be made, and Davenport and his men arranged to search the baggage of the passengers after the vessel passed the territorial limits of Panama. The search revealed guns and ammunition, along with a commission from Secretary Mallory for the capture; the Confederates were promptly taken into custody. This daring party, led by Acting Master Thomas E. Hogg, CSN, was one of many attempting to seize Union steamers and convert them into commerce raiders, especially with a view toward capturing the gold shipments from California. Union warships usually convoyed the California ships to prevent their capture. 1865 – Dr. Mary Edward Walker, 1st Army female surgeon, was awarded Medal of Honor by Pres. Andrew Johnson for her work as a field doctor for outstanding service at the Battle of Bull Run, at the Battle of Chickamauga, as a Confederate prisoner of war in Richmond, Va., and at the Battle of Atlanta. 1870 – Navy expedition to explore the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, southern Mexico, commanded by CAPT Robert W. Shufeldt, enters the Coatzacoalcos River to begin a survey for possible interoceanic canal. Support provided by USS Kansas and USS Mayflower. 1885 – George Smith Patton, one of the great American generals of World War II, is born in San Gabriel, California. Patton came from a family with a long history of military service. After studying at West Point, he served as a tank officer in World War I, and his experience in that conflict, along with his extensive military study, led him to become an advocate of the crucial importance of the tank in future warfare. After the American entrance into World War II, Patton was placed in command of an important U.S. tank division and played a key role in the Allied invasion of French North Africa in 1942. In 1943, Patton led the U.S. Seventh Army in its assault on Sicily and won fame for out-commanding Montgomery during the so-called Race to Messina. Although Patton was one of the ablest American commanders in World War II, he was also one of the most controversial. He presented himself as a modern-day cavalryman, designed his own uniform, and was known to make eccentric claims that he was a direct descent from great military leaders of the past through reincarnation. During the Sicilian campaign, Patton generated considerable controversy when he accused a hospitalized U.S. soldier suffering from battle fatigue of cowardice and then personally struck him across the face. The famously profane general was forced to issue a public apology and was reprimanded by General Dwight Eisenhower. However, when it was time for the invasion of Western Europe, Eisenhower could find no general as formidable as Patton, and the general was again granted an important military post. In 1944, Patton commanded the U.S. Third Army in the invasion of France, and in December of that year his expertise in military movement and tank warfare helped crush the German counteroffensive in the Ardennes. During one of his many successful campaigns, General Patton was said to have declared, “Compared to war, all other forms of human endeavor shrink to insignificance.” On December 21, 1945, he died in a hospital in Germany from injuries sustained in an automobile accident near Mannheim. 1889 – Washington became the 42nd state of the US. Washington is located north of Oregon, west of Idaho, and south of the Canadian province of British Columbia on the coast of the Pacific Ocean. Named after George Washington, the first President of the United States, the state was made out of the western part of the Washington Territory which had been ceded by Britain in 1846 by the Oregon Treaty as a settlement of the Oregon Boundary Dispute. It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Although its official, unambiguous name is “The State of Washington,” the state’s name is often reversed and referred to as “Washington state” to the chagrin of many natives. This is meant to distinguish it from Washington, D.C., also named for George Washington. Another nickname is “the Evergreen State.” Its largest city is Seattle, situated in the west, followed by Spokane, located in the east, and its capital is Olympia. 1909 – Construction began on the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. 1918 – At the 11th hour on the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918, the Great War ends. At 5 a.m. that morning, Germany, bereft of manpower and supplies and faced with imminent invasion, signed an armistice agreement with the Allies in a railroad car outside Compiýgne, France. The First World War left nine million soldiers dead and 21 million wounded, with Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and Great Britain each losing nearly a million or more lives. In addition, at least five million civilians died from disease, starvation, or exposure. On June 28, 1914, in an event that is widely regarded as sparking the outbreak of World War I, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian empire, was shot to death with his wife by Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo, Bosnia. Ferdinand had been inspecting his uncle’s imperial armed forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina, despite the threat of Serbian nationalists who wanted these Austro-Hungarian possessions to join newly independent Serbia. Austria-Hungary blamed the Serbian government for the attack and hoped to use the incident as justification for settling the problem of Slavic nationalism once and for all. However, as Russia supported Serbia, an Austro-Hungarian declaration of war was delayed until its leaders received assurances from German leader Kaiser Wilhelm II that Germany would support their cause in the event of a Russian intervention. On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and the tenuous peace between Europe’s great powers collapsed. On July 29, Austro-Hungarian forces began to shell the Serbian capital, Belgrade, and Russia, Serbia’s ally, ordered a troop mobilization against Austria-Hungary. France, allied with Russia, began to mobilize on August 1. France and Germany declared war against each other on August 3. After crossing through neutral Luxembourg, the German army invaded Belgium on the night of August 3-4, prompting Great Britain, Belgium’s ally, to declare war against Germany. For the most part, the people of Europe greeted the outbreak of war with jubilation. Most patriotically assumed that their country would be victorious within months. Of the initial belligerents, Germany was most prepared for the outbreak of hostilities, and its military leaders had formatted a sophisticated military strategy known as the “Schlieffen Plan,” which envisioned the conquest of France through a great arcing offensive through Belgium and into northern France. Russia, slow to mobilize, was to be kept occupied by Austro-Hungarian forces while Germany attacked France. The Schlieffen Plan was nearly successful, but in early September the French rallied and halted the German advance at the bloody Battle of the Marne near Paris. By the end of 1914, well over a million soldiers of various nationalities had been killed on the battlefields of Europe, and neither for the Allies nor the Central Powers was a final victory in sight. On the western front–the battle line that stretched across northern France and Belgium–the combatants settled down in the trenches for a terrible war of attrition. In 1915, the Allies attempted to break the stalemate with an amphibious invasion of Turkey, which had joined the Central Powers in October 1914, but after heavy bloodshed the Allies were forced to retreat in early 1916. The year 1916 saw great offensives by Germany and Britain along the western front, but neither side accomplished a decisive victory. In the east, Germany was more successful, and the disorganized Russian army suffered terrible losses, spurring the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917. By the end of 1917, the Bolsheviks had seized power in Russia and immediately set about negotiating peace with Germany. In 1918, the infusion of American troops and resources into the western front finally tipped the scale in the Allies’ favor. Germany signed an armistice agreement with the Allies on November 11, 1918. World War I was known as the “war to end all wars” because of the great slaughter and destruction it caused. Unfortunately, the peace treaty that officially ended the conflict–the Treaty of Versailles of 1919–forced punitive terms on Germany that destabilized Europe and laid the groundwork for World War II. 1919 – The Centralia Massacre in Centralia, Washington results the deaths of four members of the American Legion and the lynching of a local leader of the Industrial Workers of the World. The Centralia Massacre, also known as the Armistice Day Riot, was a violent and bloody incident that occurred during a parade celebrating the first anniversary of Armistice Day. This conflict between the American Legion and workers who were members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or “Wobblies”) resulted in six deaths, additional wounded, multiple prison terms, and an ongoing and especially bitter dispute over the motivations and events that precipitated the massacre. It was the culmination of years of bad blood between members of the local Legion and members of the IWW. Both Centralia and the neighboring town of Chehalis had a large number of World War I veterans, with robust chapters of the Legion, as well as a large number of IWW members, some also war veterans. The ramifications of this event included a trial that attracted national media attention, notoriety that contributed to the Red Scare of 1919–20, the creation of a powerful martyr for the IWW, a monument to one side of the battle and a mural for the other, a formal tribute to the fallen Legionnaires by President Warren G. Harding, and a deep-rooted enmity between the local American Legion and the Wobblies that persists into the 21st century. 1920– Lenah S. Higbee becomes the first woman to be awarded the Navy Cross. It was awarded for her World War I service. 1921 – Washington Naval Conference begins. More formally known as the International Conference on Naval Limitation, this disarmament effort was occasioned by the hugely expensive naval construction rivalry that existed among Britain, Japan and the United States. Senator William E. Borah, Republican of Idaho, took the lead on this matter and urged that the major Allied nations from the recent war gather in an effort to slow the arms race. The proposal was not met with initial enthusiasm by the Harding administration, but it became a political imperative when it was portrayed as a Republican alternative to League of Nations’ peace efforts. In the summer of 1921, Harding extended invitations and expanded the agenda beyond arms control to include discussion of issues in the Pacific and Far East. The formal opening of the conference occurred on Armistice Day 1921. The major naval powers of Britain, France, Italy, Japan and the United States were in attendance as well as other nations with concerns about territories in the Pacific — Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal and China — who were not parties to the disarmament discussions. Soviet Russia was not invited, nor were the defeated Central Powers. The American delegation was led by Charles Evans Hughes, the secretary of state, and included Elihu Root, Henry Cabot Lodge and Oscar Underwood, the Democratic minority leader in the Senate. In the initial session, Hughes shocked the delegates by going beyond platitudes and offering a detailed plan for arms reduction. Labeled by some as one of the most dramatic moments in American diplomatic history, Hughes called for the scrapping of nearly two million tons of warships and a lengthy “holiday” on the construction of new ships. He was widely hailed in the press as a savior, but leaders of the other Allied governments were quietly skeptical. 1921 – Exactly three years after the end of World War I, the Tomb of the Unknowns is dedicated at Arlington Cemetery in Virginia during an Armistice Day ceremony presided over by President Warren G. Harding. Two days before, an unknown American soldier, who had fallen somewhere on a World War I battlefield, arrived at the nation’s capital from a military cemetery in France. On Armistice Day, in the presence of President Harding and other government, military, and international dignitaries, the unknown soldier was buried with highest honors beside the Memorial Amphitheater. As the soldier was lowered to his final resting place, a two-inch layer of soil brought from France was placed below his coffin so that he might rest forever atop the earth on which he died. The Tomb of the Unknowns is considered the most hallowed grave at Arlington Cemetery, America’s most sacred military cemetery. The tombstone itself, designed by sculptor Thomas Hudson Jones, was not completed until 1932, when it was unveiled bearing the description “Here Rests in Honored Glory an American Soldier Known but to God.” The World War I unknown was later joined by the unidentified remains of soldiers from America’s other major 20th century wars and the tomb was put under permanent guard by special military sentinels. In 1998, a Vietnam War unknown, who was buried at the tomb for 14 years, was disinterred from the Tomb after DNA testing indicated his identity. Air Force Lieutenant Michael Blassie was returned to his hometown of St. Louis, Missouri, and was buried with military honors, including an F-15 jet “missing man” flyover and a lone bugler sounding taps. 1922 – Kurt Vonnegut, American author who wrote “Slaughterhouse Five,” was born. Vonnegut was a World War II soldier who witnessed the firebombing of Dresden. Vonnegut was born in Indianapolis, Indiana. He attended Cornell and joined the Air Force during World War II. He was captured by Germans and held in Dresden, where he was forced to dig out dead and charred bodies in the aftermath of the city’s bombing. After the war, he studied anthropology at the University of Chicago and later wrote journalism and public relations material. Vonnegut’s other novels, including Cat’s Cradle (1963), Breakfast of Champions (1973), Galapagos (1985), and others, did not generate as much controversy as Slaughterhouse-Five. His experimental writing style, combining the real, the absurd, the satiric, and the fanciful, attracted attention and made his books popular. Vonnegut is also a gifted graphic artist whose satirical sketches appear in some of his later novels, including Breakfast of Champions. 1940 – Willys unveiled the “Jeep.” The invitation to submit bids was sent to 135 U.S. automobile manufacturers to produce 70 vehicles; the small Bantam company managed to meet the deadline delivering the pilot model in September 23, 1940. Although it was 730 lbs. overweight it was judged good. Willys-Overland submitted crude sketches of their vehicle and underbid Bantam, although they could not meet the 75 day delivery period; after adding penalties for this the Bantam proposal was lower and this company received an order to produce 70 Model 60 or MKII. Willys Overland submited two units of its pilot model, the Quad, on this day; this had many of the features from the Bantam as did another prototype from Ford, who delivered two of its Pigmy in November 23. Both Willys-Overland and Ford were given free access to Bantam’s prototype and blueprints, which goes a long way to explain the similarities. With all three prototypes satisfactory, the Army decided to order 1500 of each for field evaluation, with deliveries to begin in early 1941; each of the prototypes should suffer alterations to remedy deficiencies brought out by the testing. The modified versions were the Bantam 40 BRC, the Willys MA and the Ford GP (G for Government, P for 80″ wheelbase). In July 1941 the War Department decided to adopt one single model; Willys was selected because it bid lower than the others but the MA had to be redesigned in view of the experience gained with the tests. The redesigned model was named MB by Willys but the contracts to manufacture the vehicle went both to Willys and Ford, where it was named GPW (the W was added to refer to the Willys motor). Meanwhile, about 1000 Bantam 40 BRCs were built for the Russian Army. 1940 – The British Mediterranean Fleet attacks the Italian base at Taranto. During the night 21 Swordfish aircraft attack in two waves and gain three torpedo hits on the brand new battleship Littorio and one each on Caio Duilio and Conte di Cavour. Two other ships are damaged. The aircraft have come from the carrier Illustrious and only two are lost. This brilliant attack will certainly be studied by other navies and the potential for such an attack on an enemy fleet in harbor is clear to the Japanese. 1942 – On Guadalcanal, the American attacks to the west are halted when news of Japanese supply convoys comes in. 1942 – Congress approves lowering the draft age to 18 and raising the upper limit to age 37. In September 1940, Congress, by wide margins in both houses, passed the Burke-Wadsworth Act, and the first peacetime draft was imposed in the history of the United States. The registration of men between the ages of 21 and 36 began exactly one month later. There were some 20 million eligible young men-50 percent were rejected the very first year, either for health reasons or because 20 percent of those who registered were illiterate. But by November 1942, with the United States now a participant in the war, and not merely a neutral bystander, the draft ages had to be expanded; men 18 to 37 were now eligible. Blacks were passed over for the draft because of racist assumptions about their abilities and the viability of a mixed-race military. But this changed in 1943, when a “quota” was imposed, meant to limit the numbers of blacks drafted to reflect their numbers in the overall population, roughly 10.6 percent of the whole. Initially, blacks were restricted to “labor units,” but this too ended as the war progressed, when they were finally used in combat. By war’s end, approximately 34 million men had registered; 10 million had been inducted into the military. 1943 – American Admiral Sherman and Admiral Montgomery lead two separate carrier task forces in an attack on the Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain Island. Five carriers and 185 planes are involved. The Japanese lost almost 70 of their defending fighters as well as 1 light cruiser and 2 destroyers in the attack. A Japanese air strike on the carriers fails. Raid was first use of SB2C Curtiss Helldivers in combat. 1943 – On Bougainville, the Japanese 23rd Regiment is push back by the US 3rd Marine Division. 1943 – An Allied convoy east of Oran is attacked by about 50 German aircraft. It loses 3 transports and 1 tanker. 1944 – Private Eddie Slovik was convicted of desertion and sentenced to death for refusing to join his unit in the European Theater of Operations. 1944 – Aircraft from 8 carriers of US Task Force 38 attack a Japanese convoy off Leyte, near Ormoc. Four destroyers, 1 minesweeper and 5 transports (carrying nearly 10,000 troops) are sunk. 1944 – An American cruiser and destroyer task force, commanded by Admiral Smith, shells the island of Iwo Jima during the night. 1944 – In China, Japanese forces capture the Allied airbases at Kweilin and Liuchow. American forces have rendered the base at Liuchow unusable prior to withdrawing. 1954 – November 11 designated as Veterans Day to honor veterans of all U.S. wars. 1966 – Gemini 12 blasted off from Cape Kennedy, Fla., with astronauts James A. Lovell and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin Jr. 1967 – Three U.S. prisoners of war, two of them African American, are released by the Viet Cong in a ceremony in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The three men were turned over to Tom Hayden, a “new left” antiwar activist. U.S. officials in Saigon said that the released prisoners had been “brainwashed,” but the State Department denied it. The Viet Cong said that the release was a response to antiwar protests in the U.S. and a gesture towards the “courageous struggle” of blacks in the United States. Also on this day: In Vietnam, the Americal (formerly Task Force Oregon) and 1st Cavalry Divisions combine to form Operation Wheeler/Wallowa in Quang Nam and Quang Tin Provinces, I Corps. The purpose of the operation was to relieve enemy pressure and to reinforce the III Marine Amphibious Force in the area, thus permitting Marines to be deployed further north. The operation lasted more than 12 months and resulted in 10,000 enemy casualties. 1968 – U.S. joint-service Operation Commando Hunt is launched. This operation was designed to interdict Communist routes of infiltration along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, through Laos into South Vietnam. The aerial campaign involved a series of intensive air operations by U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps aircraft and lasted until April 1972. During the course of the operation, nearly 3 million tons of bombs fell on Laos. While Communist infiltration was slowed by this campaign, it was not seriously disrupted. Commando Hunt was ultimately considered a failure. 1972 – The massive Long Binh military base, once the largest U.S. installation outside the continental United States, is handed over to the South Vietnamese. This logistical complex, which had been constructed on the outskirts of Bien Hoa near the outskirts of Saigon, included numerous ammunition depots, supply depots, and other logistics installations. It served as the headquarters for U.S. Army Vietnam, 1st Logistical Command, and several other related activities. The handing-over of the base effectively marked the end–after seven years–of direct U.S. participation in the war. After the Long Binh base was turned over, about 29,000 U.S. soldiers remained in South Vietnam, most them advisors with South Vietnamese units, or helicopter crewmen, and maintenance, supply, and office staff. 1978 – Veteran’s Day, originally know as Armistice Day, became a national holiday in 1938. It was changed back by Congress in this year to this day rather than the 4th Monday of October, which had been set in 1968. 1981 – Commissioning of first Trident-class Nuclear Powered Fleet Ballistic Missile Submarine, USS Ohio (SSBN-726). 1991 – The United States stationed its first diplomat in Cambodia in 16 years to help the war-shocked nation arrange democratic elections. 1992 – By letter, Russian President Boris Yeltsin told U.S. senators that Americans had been held in prison camps after World War II and some were “summarily executed,” but that others were still living in his country voluntarily. 1993 – A bronze statue honoring the more than 11,000 American women who had served in the Vietnam War was dedicated in Washington, D.C. 1996 – The Army reported getting nearly 2,000 calls to a hot line set up after revelations of a sex scandal at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland. Meanwhile, a Pentagon official said the Army was ready to take action in another case of alleged sexual misconduct at Fort Leonard Wood, Mo. 1996 – Phan Thi Kim Phuc laid a wreath at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington. John Plummer, Vietnam era helicopter pilot, met with Phan Thi Kim at the Vietnam Memorial in Washington in reconciliation. Phan Thi Kim had suffered severe napalm burns after a napalm bombing of her village in Jun 1972. 1997 – In Pakistan 4 American oil company employees and their driver were shot dead in Karachi. It was believed to be in retaliation for the conviction of Amil Kasi for the 1993 murder of 2 CIA employees. 1998 – President Clinton ordered warships, planes and troops to the Persian Gulf as he laid out his case for a possible attack on Iraq. Iraq, meanwhile, showed no sign of backing down on its refusal to deal with U.N. weapons inspectors. 2000 – Pres. Clinton led groundbreaking ceremonies in Washington DC for the National WW II Memorial. 2000 – General elections were held in Bosnia. 2001 – In Afghanistan Northern Alliance forces with help from US warplanes and advisers captured Taloqan and some 200 Taliban were reported killed. Local warlords accepted a payment to change allegiance. 2001 – A Pakistani newspaper (Ausaf) published the second part of an interview in which Osama bin Laden was quoted as saying he had nothing to do with the anthrax attacks in the United States, and declared he would never allow himself to be captured. 2002 – Iraqi lawmakers denounced a new UN resolution on weapons inspections as dishonest, provocative and worthy of rejection. But the Iraqi parliament said it ultimately would trust whatever President Saddam Hussein decided. 2003 – The Kurdish guerrilla group that battled the Turkish army for some 15 years announced that it was dissolving itself and was planning to form a new group that would likely would pursue Kurdish rights through negotiations. The Kurdistan Workers Party changed its name to the Congress for Freedom and Democracy in Kurdistan, or KADEK, last year. 2010 – Iceland opens an inquiry as it emerges that its citizens may be being spied on by the United States embassy. This follows similar investigations into possible illegal U.S. activities in Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland, with possibly hundreds of Norwegians being monitored and Sweden describing the matter as “very serious”. Congressional Medal of Honor Citations for Actions Taken This Day STICKOFFER, JULIUS H. Rank and organization: Saddler, Company L, 8th U.S. Cavalry. Place and date: At Cienaga Springs, Utah, 11 November 1868. Entered service at:——. Birth: Switzerland. Date of issue: 3 March 1870. Citation: Gallantry in action. *LOGAN, JOHN A. Rank and organization: Major, 33d Infantry, U.S. Volunteers. Place and date: At San Jacinto, Philippine Islands, 11 November 1899. Entered service at: Youngstown, Ohio. Born: 24 July 1865, Carbondale, Ill. Date of issue: 3 May 1902. Citation: For most distinguished gallantry in leading his battalion upon the entrenchments of the enemy, on which occasion he fell mortally wounded. MULLIN, HUGH P. Rank and organization: Seaman, U.S. Navy. Born: 20 March 1878, Richmond, Ill. Accredited to: Illinois. G.O. No.: 537, 8 January 1900. Citation: On board the U.S.S. Texas during the coaling of that vessel at Hampton Roads, Va., 11 November 1899. Jumping overboard while wearing a pair of heavy rubber boots and at great risk to himself, Mullin rescued Alfred Kosminski, apprentice, second class, who fell overboard, by supporting him until he was safely hauled from the water. *LINDSTROM, FLOYD K. Rank and organization: Private First Class, U.S. Army, 3d Infantry Division. Place and date: Near Mignano, Italy, 11 November 1943. Entered service at: Colorado Springs, Colo. Birth: Holdredge, Nebr. G.O. No.: 32, 20 April 1944. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at risk of life above and beyond the call of duty. On 11 November 1943, this soldier’s platoon was furnishing machinegun support for a rifle company attacking a hill near Mignano, Italy, when the enemy counterattacked, forcing the riflemen and half the machinegun platoon to retire to a defensive position. Pfc. Lindstrom saw that his small section was alone and outnumbered 5 to 1, yet he immediately deployed the few remaining men into position and opened fire with his single gun. The enemy centered fire on him with machinegun, machine pistols, and grenades. Unable to knock out the enemy nest from his original position, Pfc. Lindstrom picked up his own heavy machinegun and staggered 15 yards up the barren, rocky hillside to a new position, completely ignoring enemy small arms fire which was striking all around him. From this new site, only 10 yards from the enemy machinegun, he engaged it in an intense duel. Realizing that he could not hit the hostile gunners because they were behind a large rock, he charged uphill under a steady stream of fire, killed both gunners with his pistol and dragged their gun down to his own men, directing them to employ it against the enemy. Disregarding heavy rifle fire, he returned to the enemy machinegun nest for 2 boxes of ammunition, came back and resumed withering fire from his own gun. His spectacular performance completely broke up the German counterattack. Pfc. Lindstrom demonstrated aggressive spirit and complete fearlessness in the face of almost certain death.

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According to Atienza, Ramos, Salazar and Nazal in their book Panitikang Pilipino, “true literature is a piece of written work which is undying. It expresses the feelings and emotions of people in response to his everyday efforts to live, to be happy in his environment and, after struggles, to reach his Creator.” It is important to study Philippine Literature as enumerated: To better appreciate our literary heritage: trace ideas passed down through generation from our ancestors and better understand ourselves and take pride in being a Filipino To understand that we have a great and noble tradition as means to assimilate culture To overcome limitations conditioned by certain historical factors Time Frames of Philippine Literature in English: Our ancient literature truly reflects our early customs & traditions as traced in folk stories, old plays and short stories. Back then, the alphabet used was different and were similar to the Malayo-Polynesian alphabet which we called Alibata. Written works however did not last long because the Spanish Friars burned them believing that they were works of the devil or that were destroyed because they were written in perishable materials like the barks of trees, dried leaves and bamboo cylinders. Those that survived are in oral form such as our folk songs. The Spaniards tried to prove that our ancestors were really fond of poetry, songs, stories, riddles and proverbs which we still enjoy until today and which serve to show descendants the true Filipino culture. Pre-Spanish literature is characterized by Legends, Folk tales, Epics, Folk Songs, and Epigrams/Riddles/Chants/Proverbs & Sayings. Spanish Period (1565-1872) At this regime, Philippine literature started to thrived at Governor-General Miguel Lopez de Legazpi’s reign. Due to three centuries of colonization, several changes were influenced by the Spaniards: 1. Alibata, the 1st Filipino alphabet, was changed to Roman alphabet 2. Basis of religious practices was the teaching of Christian Doctrine 3. Spanish language was infused with Filipino language 4. Assimilation of European legends & traditions to our own 5. Translation of ancient literature to our dialects 6. Printing of Filipino grammar books 7. Periodicals gained a religious tone. The first books published were Ang Doctrina Cristiana, Nuestra Señora del Rosario, Libro de los Cuatro Postprimeras de Hombre, Ang Barlaan at Josephat, The Pasion, Urbana at Felisa¸ and Ang Mga Dalit kay Maria. Several Literary compositions in this period were Arte y Reglas de la Lengua Tagala by Fr. Blancas de San Jose, Compendio de la Lengua Tagala by Fr. Gaspar de San Augustin and Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala by Fr. Pedro de San Buenaventura. Period of Enlightenment (1872-1898) After being passive under Spanish rule for 3 centuries, the Filipino spirit awakened when the 3 well known priests – Gomez, Burgos, Zamora – were guillotined without enough evidence and the Spaniards weren’t able to restrain the rebellion. The rebellion was divided in 2 efforts: The Propaganda Movement (1872-1896) and Period of Active Revolution (1896-1898). The Propaganda Movement were leaded by intellectual middle-class people like our “National Hero” Dr. Jose Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar, and Graciano Lopez Jaena, and its members were Antonio Luna, Mariano Ponce, Jose Ma. Panganiban, Pedro Paterno etc. The objectives of this movement were to seek reforms and changes for the liberation and equity of Filipinos through their literary works. The most famous works of these people that stirred the Filipinos were Noli Me Tangere, El Filibusterismo, Mi Ultimo Adios, A La Juventud Filipina, Pagibig Sa Tinubuang Lupa, La Soberania En Pilipinas, Ang Fray Botod, Noche Buena, Sobre Filipinos, A Mi Madre, and Ang Lupang Tinubuan. However, the petitions made by the propaganda movement were ignored and fell on deaf ears that this action led to the revolution leaded by Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, and Apolinario Mabini, whose members were Jose Palma, Pio Valenzuala, etc. Though it’s true that the group used weapons against the colonizers, they also contributed several literary works such as Pag-Ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa, Kartilya ng Katipunan, and Sa Bayan Pilipino. American Regime (1898-1941) After the Spaniards were defeated, peace movements started as early as 1900. Filipinos started writing again and nationalism remains undisturbed. During this period, writers went into all forms of literature like news reporting, poetry, stories, plays, essays, novels, etc. Their writing clearly depicted patriotism and longing for independence. In addition, 3 group of writers were formed – Spanish, Tagalog, and English. Though they differ in methods of reporting, they share the same ideas and spirit. The Spanish writers wrote on nationalism like in honoring Filipino heroes. Tagalog writers went on and on in their lamentations on the conditions of the country and their attempts to arouse love for one’s native tongue. English writers just imitated the themes and methods of the Americans. Also, this regime was divided into three periods. The First Period was of Re-orientation (1898-1910). Not much was produced during this period and was not much of literary worth. Writers were still adjusting from the idea of democracy – freedom of ideas and speech, the new phraseology of English language and standards of English literary style. They had to learn direct expression conditioned by direct thinking, sentence constructions, sounds & speech in English. They had to abandon sentimentality and floridity of language for the more direct and precise English language. Also, English becomes the official medium of instruction for all public schools. The Philippine Free Press was founded in 1905 and College Folio begun its publication. The Second Period was of Imitations (1910-1924). The UP College Folio was the pioneers’ in short English story and poetry writing. They were more into imitating American and British models which resulted in a stiff, synthetic and unnatural style, lacking vigor and naturalness. Writers of this folio included Fernando Maramag, Juan F. Salazar, Jose M. Hernandez, Vicente del Fierro, Francisco Tonogbanua, Maximo Kalaw, Vidal A. Tan, Francisco M. Africa, and Victoriano Yamzon. In addition, the Philippine Herald began its publication in 1920. The Third Period was of Self-Discovery and Growth (1925-1941). By this time, Filipino writers had acquired the mastery of English writing. They now confidently and completely wrote on a lot of subjects although the old-time favorites of love and youth persisted. They also went into all forms of writing like the novel and drama. Furthermore, Philippine Book Guild and Philippine Writers League was organized and the 1st Commonwealth Literary awards were given. Japanese Period (1941-1945) The progression of Philippine literature halted during the Japanese invasion. All newspapers except for Tribune and the Philippine Review were stopped. Because of the strict prohibitions in English writing by the invaders, Tagalog literature experienced renewed attention. Even the weekly Liwayway was placed under strict supervision until it was managed by Japanese man named Ishiwara. In other words, Tagalog literature was given a break during this period. Many wrote plays (but dramas became lull and were simply translated versions of English plays), poems (3 types arise: Haiku, Tanaga, and Karaniwang Anyo), short stories (its field expanded), etc. Topics and themes were often about life in the provinces. Philippine Literature in English experienced a dark period and those who dared to write did for propaganda. Writings that came out during this period were journalistic in nature and what literary output there was hardly negligible. Writers felt chained but slowly the spirit of nationalism returned. While some continued to write, others waited for a better time to publish their works. Rebirth of Freedom (1946-1970) Writers had learned to express themselves more confidently but post-war problems beyond language and print-like economic stability, the threat of new ideas, and mortality had to be handled well & together. There was proliferation of newspapers and it proved that there were more readers in English than vernaculars. Journalist became more radical. And as normality was restored, the tones and themes of writings turned to the less pressing problems of economic survival. Those who went abroad came back to publish their written works. It was noted that not all published books focused on war years but were simply compilations and second editions of what had been written before. Here are some works of this period: The Voice of the Veteran Twilight in Tokyo Death of the USAFFE For Freedom and Democracy Betrayal in the Philippines Seven Hills Away Most poems dealt with the usual love of nature and social & political problems. Novel & Short Stories became longer. Tagalog Literature was resurrected and mostly focused during the occupation of Japanese – brutality, poverty, exploits, etc. Several literary-related organizations were formed and literary awards were launched i.e. The Palanca Awards Period of Activism (1970-1972) The patriotic youths became active and ask for changes in the government. They believe that the system is okay but the stationed people are not. But because of this, several of them were imprisoned along with other rebel writers. They truly were heroes. Many books aptly record and embody these times but many of these are not known to many and many of these writers still have to be interviewed. These led to the declaration of Martial Law in 1972. Campus newspapers were malodorous of rebellious emotions. They attacked the ills of society and politics. Any establishment became the symbol of the ills that had to be changed. Frustrations of youths were felt in churches and schools. Even those with authority who should be respected were thought to be hindrances to the changes sought by youths hence, they were targeted. The literature of the activist reached a point where they stated boldly what should be done to effect these changes. Some of theses who rallied to this revolutionary form of literature were Rolando Tinio, Rogelio Mangahas, Efren Abueg, Rio Alma, and Clemente Bautista. The forms of literature that led during this period were the essays, debates and poetry. The short stories, novels and plays were no different in style from those written before the onset of activism. Some of these were I Married a Newspaperman by Maria Luna Lopez, The Modern Filipino Short Story by Patricia Melendez Cruz, Cross Currents in Afro-Asian Literature by Rustica D. Carpio, Brief Time to Love by Ofelia F. Limcaco, and Medium Rare and Tell the People by Julie Yap Daza Period of New Society (1972-1981) Bilingual education which was initiated by the Board of National Education as early as 1958 and continued up to the period of Martial Rule in September 1972, resulted in the deterioration of English in the different levels of education. The focus of education and culture were on problems of national identity, on re-orientation, renewed vigor and a firm resolve to carve to carry out plans and programs. The forms of literature that led during this period were the essays, debates and poetry. The short stories, like the novels and plays were no different in style from those written before the onset of activism. Books entitled The Modern Filipino Short Story(Patricia Melendez Cruz) and Brief Time to Love (Ofelia Limcao) came out during this epoch. Period of The Third Republic (1981-1985) After the Martial Rule was lifted, people still seethed with rebellion and protest from the previous oppression and suppression. Just because the rule was lifted, it doesn’t mean people will be peaceful. The anger and hatred felt didn’t dissipate immediately. It was even enflared when the late Benigno S. Aquino Jr. was assassinated. The people’s idol and hope brutally murdered, who wouldn’t feel mad? The aftermath was chaotic yet ironically, the people united and somehow brought change to our country. Such event was considered one of the major turning points in History. It should be noted that Philippine Literature retained its luster inspite of the numerous limitations. Also, the Palanca Awards continued whether on time or delayed. Contemporary Period (1986) Finally, freedom became a reality – won through peaceful, bloodless and God-blessed revolution. Through everyone’s effort, independence was blessed to them, true Republic of the Philippines. Several changes in literature during this period was evident: On Newspapers: buddy newspaper became opposition papers overnight (i.e. Bulletin Today & The Inquirer) and enjoyed an overnight increase in circulation. Being free of restrictions, columnists became vocal and a bumper crop of young journalist emerged. The old stalwarts of the former dispensation came back with retaliation. Excluding tabloids, 19 local dailies, both English & Tagalog, were in circulation by June 1986. On Books: Experiences during the Martial Law was documented and Philippine Literature is still progressing. Books that carry print and visual events of what occurred during the February Revolution were People Power (by Monina M.A. Mercado & J.B. Reuter) and Bayan Ko (Veritas Publication & Communications Foundation). Literary awards were continuously given like the National Book Awards in which in that period, Marjorie Pernia (Dreamwavers Selected Poems) and Damiana L. Eugenio (Awit sa Corrido: Philippine Metrical Romances) were awarded according to the choices made by the Manila Critics Circle. Also, Bookfair Manila ’88 by Philippine Exhibit Company was held with the belief that “requisition of knowledge not only enhances individual skills & capabilities but more importantly, makes positive contributions to the nations development program”. The flowering of Philippine literature in the various language continues as Filipino writers continue to write whether these are socially committed, gender/ethnic related or in personal intention. They became more conscious of their art with the proliferation of writers workshops here and abroad and the bulk of literature available to him via mass media including internet. With various literary awards, writers were encouraged to compete with peers and hope that their creative efforts will bore them rewards. With the new requirement by the CHED of teaching of Philippine Literature in all tertiary schools in the country emphasizing the teaching of vernacular literature or literatures of the regions, the audience for Filipino writers is virtually assured. And, perhaps, a national literature finding its niche among the literatures of the world will not be far behind. Development of Philippine Music The Filipinos are a musical nation is a fact. Their beautiful sentimental music is the result of their reaction to their physical and emotional environment. However, the Filipinos do not have sufficient authentic records of their forefathers’ invaluable writings because these were destroyed by conquerors or accidentally lost through carelessness or ignorance. Also, one cannot tell exactly the characteristics of certain epochs of Philippine music because music may develop continuously over different periods of history regardless of historic circumstances. As musical people, Filipinos have a particular brand of music for every occasion. Our ascendants had their own collection of songs, dances, and instruments which exemplified their religious and social life. Songs of our ancestors were more of recitative but the melody exudes customs, traditions, and aspirations of the people. Many of these songs were sung by non-Christian tribes. Early Filipinos had songs for the various activities. According to Agoncillo and Zaide, early Filipinos had: 1. Ordinary songs (diyuna, talindaw) 2. Street songs (indulamin, suliranin) 3. Sorrow (dalit, umbay) 4. Wedding (ihiman) 5. Rowing (tigpasin, kalusan) 6. Lullaby (hele, hili, oyayi, iyaya) 7. Success (baling-kungkong, dupayanin, hiliran, sambotani, tagumpay) 8. House (tingad) 9. General merrymaking (kalipay) 10. Counting (urukay) a) Buktot/kutibeng/bigwela – Visayan guitar made from coconut shell b) Butting/gurimbao – bamboo ties with hemps or banana fibers c) Kudyapi/ketyapi/hagalong – two-stringed elongated lute d) Litgit – bamboo violin e) Pas-ing/kuglong/pantig – bamboo guitar f) Karaga – guitar used by Karaga people in east coast of Mindanao g) Gurimbao – bamboo bow h) Bontok violin/hoggrine/kokin/sawduang/rayanastron i) Negrito violin a) Bansik/Kalaleng/Palawta – four-hole made of mountain cane b) Tulak/tulalo – flute with one hole for mouth and six holes for fingers c) Balingling/baling/kipanaw – nose flute d) Natoy/subbing – clarinet e) Sahunay – bamboo flute with coconut leaf trumpet attached to the lower end f) Pasiyak – water whistle g) Pasyok – toy instrument made of leaf of the coconut or nipa for small horn(turutot) h) Diw-diwas – pipe instrument i) Tambuli – trumpet made from horn a) Kalutang – most primitive percussion instrument still used b) Bunkaka/bilbil – bamboo musical instrument c) Sulibaw – hollow wooden drum; rhythm instrument to mark the times of the dance d) Tugo – drum e) Ludag – drum f) Neguet – drum g) Gansa – kind of bronze goong h) Kulingtangan – set of graduated melody gongs extensively used i) Gandingan – 4 big narrow-lidded gongs j) Babandir – single bronze gond k) Gabbang – native xylophone used in Sulu l) Subing – Jew’s harp Spanish Period (1521-1898) Spaniards not only brought their own culture but also European influence which marked the beginning of the cultivation of music as a fine art in the Philippines. The Educational Decree of 1863 was implemented and it provided for formal education for teachers where vocal music was one of the subjects to be taught. Because of this, Sacred Music was given importance because Christianity was the main goal of Spanish Colonization. a. Tagulaylay is a melody depicting grief. It is best adapted to the reading/singing of the Passion of our Lord during the Holy Week. It is also sung in monotone. b. Palimos is a song of the blind asking for alms c. Kumintang is the oldest and most popular song among Christian Filipinos. It is a nocturnal song sung to the accompaniment of the violin/guitar. It expresses the history, character and tradition of the people. d. Awit is a recitative written in ¾ time and in minor key. It is set freely to verses about Philippine legendary hero. e. Balitaw is a Visayan folksong with is a dance and song – though mostly sung. It is dived into 2 classes: Balinaw Mayor (derived from the graceful French slow waltz) and Balitaw Menor (characteristically a Visayan love song). f. Kundiman comes from the words “Kung hindi man”. It is a Tagalog love song whose rhythmic figure is derived from the lively Spanish bolero a typical ¾ waltz. Also, it is the favorite of serenaders. Duplo is an impromptu competition in which the loser recites a poem, a sort of entertainment to console the relatives of the deceased. Philippine Folk Dances: There are more than 175 folk dances in the Philippine which have remained unchanged through the years. Because Filipinos enjoyed European dances particularly fandango, curacha, tango, sapateado and the stately rigodon, some of these folk dances were modified to meet the need for change as modernization demands. These dances reflect almost all aspects of the people’s lives: religious, occupational, entertainment, recreational, courtship, marriage, baptism and even war. According to Mrs. Lucrecia Urtula, Philipine indigeneous music acan be divided into three distinct groups: The Rondalla The instruments of Muslim Filipinos (assortment of brass instruments) The instruments of the mountain region tribes (i.e. gong, flute, drums) Early Philippine Theatre: There were various native stage presentations Filipinos enjoyed during the Spanish period. The most popular vernacular presentations were the moro-moro, carillo and Zarzuela. During occasions of town fiestas, performers used provisional stage of nipa and bamboo. Later, huge “theatre bodegas” with pyramidal roofs such as those seen over cockpits appeared. The Moro-moro depicts the battle between Christians & Muslims, the adaptations of legends about knight-errants & princesses, the triumphant entry/exit of the conqueror and the downfall of the vanquished accompanied by Spanish music. The Carillo is a shadow play using puppets made from cardboard skillfully manipulated by a narrator behind the screen. The themes are usually derived from the libretto from “Don Quixote”, “Buhay ng Mahal na Panginoong Hesukristo” and “Don Juan Tenorio”. The Zarzuela are improvised plots by comedians using comic, tragic, fantastic, melodramatic, or a combination of all. It does not have a definite form. Singing was free and imaginative. Performers make extemporaneous comments. At times, the audience swapped comments with the artists. It is said that Zarzuela originated from Pampanga hence, they are the best. Before the birth of talkies and television, zarzuelas used to be the most popular form of entertainment especially during the barrio fiesta. The Bamboo Organ of Las Piñas: The man who conceived the idea of building the bamboo organ was a young Spanish priest of the Augustinian Recollect order, Fr. Diego’ Cera dela Virgen del Carmen. Due to low funds, he along with the village craftsmen created the Bamboo Organ and was credited for it. The organ has undergone repairs in several years. It is the oldest and most unique musical instrument for its durability is unsurpassed for having lasted more than 160 years compared to most organs of only 15 years. American Period (1898-1941) The first known law affecting the Philippine Public School System was Article 74 of the Philippine commission which provided formal training for teachers. The American Educational systems have greatly influenced the Philippine system of musical education with the treatment of music as part of a broad pattern of liberal education. American textbooks and song books were used. The radio, phonograph, and movies helped disseminate world culture. American singing through jazz invaded the country. Nevertheless, the spirit of nationalism triggered by the Spanish revolution, pushed Pilipino composers to use the native folk songs for their thematic materials. With the establishment of conservatories (school for special instruction in music), formal education in music started. Under a program of specialization was the training program for professionals which produced music specialist such as performer, composer, transcriber, conductor, researcher, musicologist, arranger, theorist, essayist, and critic. It was believed that Philippine Opera evolved from the Zarzuela. And because of the various opera companies engaged in the production of Zarzuela, Manila was dubbed “Italy of the Orient” Japanese Occupation Period (1942-1945) This was the darkest epoch in the history of the Philippines. The Japanese wanted only Oriental ways for the people. This gave the Filipinos no other choice but to revert to their traditional ways of entertainment – opera, musical plays and drama although a few appreciated Japanese music. Post Liberation Period (1945-1946) The Filipino is a lover of music. Music is as important as the air he breaths. He finds adequate expression of his feelings through singing, moving, creating, playing an instrument, and just listening. The reawakening of interest in diversified forms of culture is manifested in the proliferation of ensembles, vocal and instrumental not only in schools but also in churches, government and private offices, communities and within the family. Not only the gifted in institutions get involved but even the out of school youth has his share of participation. The people’s patrimony of the country caused the use of native instruments through rondalla, a favorite performing string ensemble in all public schools, private institutions, government offices, and other musically interested groups. Need for professional growth is evident in the holding of in-service-training programs, seminars, workshops, and conferences sponsored by schools, government agencies, and musical organizations. Teaching competency in music is assured with the appointment of Bachelor of Music graduates in Applied Music and Music Education as teachers. School songs, choral and instrumental arrangements are available in the market. Philippine Music comes in a variety of forms, covering a wide spectrum of sources, geographically and historically; representing more than 100 ethno-linguistic groups as well as different social and cultural environments in the Philippines. The totality of these forms may be categorized into three distinct repertoires: 1) Asiatic oral traditions; 2) westernized oral traditions; and 3) western-influenced art and popular music, and semi classical music. The first category covers forms that are closely related to the cultural traditions of Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, such traditions are practiced among the villages in the Cordillera Administrative Region, in the upland areas of Palawan, Mindoro and eastern Mindanao, the predominantly Muslim communities in western Mindanao and Sulu, as well as the different Negrito communities across the archipelago, e.g. Northern Luzon, Bicol and parts of Panay and Mindanao. Most of the musical forms are performed in connection with rites of passage and life cycle events as well as occupational activities. These occasions consist of birth, initiation and graduation ceremonies; courtship and marriage; death and funeral rites; hunting, fishing, planting and harvest; healing and various forms of armed conflicts. The second category of musical forms consists of orally transmitted genres and compositions that are performed in rural Christian communities in Luzon, Visayas and parts of lowland Mindanao, and are generally referred to as Philippine “folk music”. Their origins may be traced through four evolutionary processes: 1) forms that have been introduced by the Spanish colonial power and later adopted and modified by local artists and performers (metrical romances); 2) syncretic and hybrid forms that have been locally assimilated elements from Western religious traditions (subli, sanghiyang); and 4) locally processed songs based on older pre-colonial tunes (planting songs, children’ s play songs, lullabies, love songs and serenades). Much of Philippine folk music are found in the religious and paraliturgical repertoires of countryside Christian communities, as well as in various forms of entertainment and rites of passage such as marriage and funeral ceremonies. The third category of Philippine musical forms are found in urban communities and centers of population. In the last 100 years, Filipino composers have written works in the standard Western art music forms (chamber music, symphonic music, opera, serswela, etc.) and contemporary music styles, as well as the latest popular music industry- Latin American, jazz, country, rock, folk, rap, etc. In addition, modern compositions have also been written for such theatrical forms as dance and/or ballet, drama, musicales, and cinema. Outside the symphony orchestra tradition and the Filipino theater, the Filipinos have also developed a repertoire for three distinct musical ensembles: the band (brass and bamboo), the rondalla and the chorus. The Philippine band repertoire consists of marches, overtures, symphonic poems, concertant pieces, and medleys of Filipino folk tunes, which are performed duing the military and civic parades, as well as formal and semi-tests the playing prowess and physical endurance of the competing musicians. Incidental pieces for the comedia and other forms of local theater have also been written for the band. The rondalla(plucked string ensemble) that was introduced by Spain as the estudiantina and comparsa, has a similar repertoire. It consists of marches and pasodoble pieces (fast and brilliant music in two), medleys and arrangements of Filipino folk songs, overtures, concertant music, and folk dance accompaniments. In recent years, Filipino composers have written serious art pieces for the rondalla or individual rondalla instruments. In modern compositions, the rondalla instruments are also combined with symphonic instruments. In the field of vocal music, choral music in the Philippines has dramatically expanded in the last fifty years, with the rise of the high quality choral singing and the countrywide proliferation of choral groups in all sectors of society : church , government, business and culture. Initially, Philippine choral music consisted of folksong arrangements, old masses and hymns, as well as locally composed operas and sarswelas. Today, the repertoire has been augmented by local madrigal-like pieces, arrangements of popular love songs, and large scale compositions are very much in demand during choral competitions and choral festivals that occur during the Christmas season. Although Philippine musical forms may be classified according to a few general categories, e.g. welcome song, song debates, courtship music, etc. each culturally-related genre has its own distinctive features which include, language and/or idiom, style of rendition and other elements. For example, the pasyon in Pampanga and the pasyon from Bulacan would greatly differ from each other in language, the tunes used, the number of singers, and performance style (leader-chorus, antiphonal, etc.). Kahayon, Alicia, et. al. (1989). Philippine literature: Choice selections from a Historical Perspective. Croghan, S.J., Richard. (1975). The development of Philippine literature in english (since 1900). Rivadelo, R.F. (1987). Music education: Materials & methods. pp79-103 Bañas, Raymundo. (1979). Philippine music and theater. Pp8-16 Godinez-Ortega, C.F. The Literary forms in Philippine literature. Retrieved on August 10, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Literature/literary_forms_in_philippine_lit.htm Santos, Ramon P. Philippine Music Forms/Composition. Retrieved on August 10, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=1&i=152. Cite this page Development of Dance and Music in the Philippines. (2016, Apr 16). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/development-of-dance-and-music-in-the-philippines-essay

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An African sighthound of Afro-Asiatic type, the Azawakh originated in Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso. Raised in the Sahel region of the Sahara desert, they are named for the Azawakh valley. Azawakh means “land of the north”. They are the guardians, hunters and companions of the Tuareg and other ethnic tribes of the southern Sahel. The breed was first imported to Yugoslavia in the early 1970’s by Dr. Pecar, a Yugoslavian diplomat stationed in Burkina Faso. The dogs could not be bought, however, Dr. Pecar received his male as a gift from the nomads. He later bartered his services as a hunter, by killing a bull elephant who had been terrorizing the tribe, in exchange for a female Azawakh. The French military and civil servants also played a significant role in exporting the Azawakhs to Europe. France is the patron country of the Azawakh under FCI rules. The Azawakh made it’s debut in America in the mid 1980’s. The first litter was whelped on October 31, 1987 by Gisela Cook-Schmidt (Reckendahl). These first American Azawakhs were all red or fawn with white markings. The first brindles came to America in 1989, with the first brindle litter whelped November 27, 1990 by Deb Kidwell (Kel Simoon). In the mid 90’s, a parti-color male was imported from Burkina Faso and in 1997, a mixed parti-color and sand litter which was bred in Mali, was whelped in Alaska. It is hoped that an even larger selection of colors will find their way to the US from Africa in the near future. The Azawakh has a show history that begins very soon after its original importation. They were first shown in the early 1970’s under FCI rules as a variety of Sloughi. On January 1, 1981, they were accepted as a bona fide breed and were referred to as “Sloughi-Azawakhs”. In 1986, the Azawakh was finally recognized for the unique animal it is, when FCI dropped the word “Sloughi” from the name. In America, the Azawakh is recognized by the United Kennel Club (UKC), the International All Breed Kennel Club of America (IABKCA), the States Kennel Club (SKC), the American Rare Breed Association and many other smaller registries. The AKC Foundation Stock Service (AKC FSS) allows the breed to be registered through the service and compete in AKC performance events only at this time. The American Azawakh Association is the parent club for the breed in the US. Although the AAA doesn’t recognize the FCI Standard for the breed because of its color limitations, the dogs can be shown in any FCI recognized country under FCI rules which allow only sand to dark red and brindle, with all other colors disqualified. Their history as show dogs is in its infancy, but their natural regal presence demands recognition. Males range from 25-29 inches in height and weigh 44-55 lb., females, 23 1/2 – 27 1/2 inches and weigh 33-44 lb.. The short, smooth coat comes in a variety of colors to include, clear sand to dark red, white, black, blue, gray, brindle, grizzle, parti-color and all shades of brown, including chocolate. However, the FCI standard for the breed only recognizes sand to dark red and brindle at this time. Grooming of their short coat is accomplished easily with a zoom groom or hound glove. Frequent bathing is not necessary as the breed has no doggy odor. However, they do have sensitive skin, so use of a mild, hypoallergenic, unscented shampoo is recommended. Their life expectancy ranges from 12-15 years. Exercise requirements with all sighthound breeds is a very important subject. The Azawakh must have adequate exercise and make excellent companions for the serious jogger and runner. The Azawakh is a very active dog, however, they run and play in spurts interspersed with long naps on the sofa. They should have a large yard where they can stretch their legs, but more importantly they need interaction with the owner or another dog, to make them exercise. Left alone in the back yard with the expectation of self exercise is not acceptable for this breed. They should receive at least half an hour a day of hard running and/or playing exercise. Finding a securely fenced ball field is perfect for play excursions. This breed will become fat and lethargic or hyper and destructive without proper energy outlets. Azawakhs can be very reliable off lead if taught a strong recall. This is a boon for people who enjoy the company of sighthounds, but have difficulty enjoying them because they cannot be trusted off lead. When discussing the temperament of an Azawakh, consideration should be given to individual personalities and contributing backgrounds, both genetic and environmental. However, there are several general characteristics common to the breed. Described in a Dog World article as a “warrior class dog”, they have the intelligence and heart to protect. When approached on their own turf, they are very vocally intimidating. In situations where their duty as guardian isn’t necessary, their reactions may range from friendly, to mildly curious to arrogantly indifferent. Although generally not outgoing, several in the US and in Europe, have found the opportunity to make social contributions as therapy dogs in nursing homes and rehabilitation centers They seem to possess an uncanny combination of total loyalty and independence. Each new situation presents the potential for the struggle between the dog’s natural desire to please and his prideful desire to do things his own way. A firm, fair hand is called for. Properly socialized and trained, the Azawakh will live harmoniously within the family and community The Azawakh with other dogs Much discussion as been given to the guardedness of the Azawakh, but here we must remember that this is a sighthound. As a rule, they seem to accept other dogs, though sometimes grudgingly, as protected members of their own pack. Many less “gamy” dogs do well with an indoor cat, however, bets should not be placed on the chances of a cat in the yard or the neighbor’s Pomeranian. Because comparatively few generations have been removed from the need to hunt daily for personal and family survival, the hunting instinct is very strong in this breed Another point to mention is that the Azawakh is a very dominant breed. Within a household pack, they will almost always aspire to the alpha dog position. If there is an existing dominant dog in the pack, this can sometimes cause conflict within the pack. The Azawakh and Children No one can predict the individual personalities of all dogs in any breed There are some situations which should be avoided with guardian and sighthound dogs of any breed. Children playing together sometimes squabble. It is natural for a guard dog to protect “his” children from their playmates. Azawakhs, being spirited family participants, freely volunteer their assistance when another family member is being disciplined. This unexpected “assistance” can be frightening for everyone. Chase or prey behavior is another situation that can be a problem. Children or other pets running away from the hound can activate the prey drive instinct. The hound may try to “take down” the child from behind as they would while hunting. A good rule of thumb is to never leave the Azawakh with children while unsupervised by an attentive adult. There are individual dogs of all breeds which do not like children. The Azawakh, as a breed, with care given to the situations mentioned, should fit well into any family structure. As with most Sighthound breeds, many Azawakhs love to lure course or open field hunt. The American Sighthound Field Association has given provisional recognition to the Azawakh beginning Jan 2000. Full recognition of the breed should occur in 2001. The Azawakh is also recognized by the National Open Field Coursing Association (NOFCA) as a rare breed. There have also been supportive offers for recognition with the National Oval Track Racing Association (NOTRA), however, at this time no Azawakhs are participating in this sport. In the US, the breed is still considered a rare breed and is excluded from all AKC conformation events. The AKC has recognized the Azawakh for inclusion in all AKC performance events, such as obedience, agility, etc. There are, however, many rare breed clubs who sponsor conformation and performance events and the Azawakh is recognized by most of these. The breed is fully recognized by UKC (United Kennel Club) and the SKC (States Kennel Club). In all FCI countries, the breed is fully recognized to participate in any sport that it is eligible. This includes, conformation, lure coursing, racing, agility, obedience, etc. Another sport for which the Azawakh shows a lot of promise is the new sport of Canine Freestyle. In this sport, the hound’s basic obedience skills along with other learned skills are set to music and choreographed to create a performance similar to the sport of Dressage in horses. The emphasis is on matching the music to the dog’s gait, demonstrating the bond between the handler and the dog and creating an expressive, flowing picture to the audience. The Azawakhs springy, graceful movement and willingness to please makes this sport tailor made for them. Azawakhs are elegant, tall dogs of proud bearing. Lean and muscular of frame, their appearance should indicate swiftness when running. He should be longer of leg than of body, which may seem extreme when compared with other sighthounds His neck is long and graceful, his head held high when alert. His tail is proudly carried above the line of the back. The breed has pendant ears which are raised to the side of the head in response to sounds. Their movement is spectacular to watch. The gait is always very supple and elastic. At the trot, they are light and graceful; the gallop is leaping and they cover ground in great strides. The movement is an essential point of the breed. Key points of the breed standard: This sighthound presents himself as a rangy dog whose body fits into a rectangle with it’s longer sides in a vertical position. The length of the body is 90% the height of the hound. This ratio may be slightly higher in bitches. The height of chest is 40% the height at withers. Well developed and deep, the chest should not reach the elbow. The brisket may be rounded or angular, but should rise abruptly into a very small waist. The forequarters and hindquarters should exhibit very open angles. The shoulders should be at about 130 degrees, the hindquarters at about 145 degrees. The topline should be flat or slightly arching over the loin. The hips must always be at the same level or higher than the level of the withers. It is a major fault to have hips lower than the withers. Skin and coat: The skin should fit tightly over the whole body, the coat is short and fine. The belly may be completely hairless. The FCI standard admits only sand to dark red and black brindled. In the US, the American Azawakh Association recognizes all colors which naturally occur in the Azawakh’s countries of origin. These other colors include, white, black, gray, blue, dilute brindles, grizzle, parti-color and all shades of brown to include chocolate. The hound should have the requisite white markings to include: a white bib, and white brush at the tail tip. Each of the four limbs must have compulsorily a white “stocking”, at least in the shape of tracing on the foot. It is a breed disqualification to have a hound without any white markings on one or more of the limbs. Character & temperament Quick, attentive, distant, reserved with strangers and may even be aggressive, but he can be gentle and affectionate with those he is willing to accept. However, it is a breed disqualification to be timid, panicky or aggressive to point of attack. This part of the standard is at odds with many breeders in the US and Europe who are trying to breed Azawakh who are more approachable, maybe even friendly, and less apt to be “savage”. In the Sahel, the hound prefers not to be touched, but is not aggressive. Unprovoked aggression towards a family member or guest would not be tolerated. Health & Nutrition The Azawakh as a breed does have several health issues that need to be addressed. The most common of these health concerns are hypothyroidism, seizures, and several autoimmune mediated diseases, such as Eosinophilic Myositis, autoimmune thyroiditis and generalized Demodectic Mange. Cardiac problems are also not unknown in this breed. Bloat, though rare, has been known to occur. Breeders are strongly encouraged to test for as many diseases as possible, making it possible to make an informed breeding decision when considering a litter. Common tests are thyroid screens, complete blood chemistry profiles, autoimmune function blood work, cardiac screening, eye examinations (CERF), X-rays for hip/elbow dysplasia (OFA, PennHip). A blood test is now available for Eosinophilic Myositis. Seizures are hard to test for and cause determination is not always possible. However, dogs exhibiting seizures should not be bred. Unfortunately, many dogs start seizure activity later in life after they have been bred many times and have already adversely impacted the gene pool of the breed. The problem that breeders face in many cases is that because of the small gene pool, it is impossible to eliminate all dogs who carry a genetic disease from the breed program. But it makes sense to test for as many diseases as possible so as not to “double up” on the same disease in sire and dam. Pedigree research and disease tracking is an invaluable tool for Azawakh breeders. Some diseases can be tracked through an entire line from the original foundation dogs. Nutrition is an important point to consider in a breed so close to its “roots”. Though not all breeders feel it important, many feel that the hounds should be fed a simple diet of whole foods, rather than kibble. This is a personal preference, of course. Many generations of dogs have been kibble raised and have done well. In medical treatment of the hound, natural, holistic methods work very well. The Azawakh is generally a healthy breed. They heal amazingly well from cuts and scrapes. Care should be given with the use of chemicals, harsh shampoos and the feeding of excessive protein. The Azawakh is a natural breed whose immune system is not used to most Western chemicals, therefore, judicious use of chemicals around the hound is advised. The Azawakh should be fed a diet with a fat content of 12-16% fat to maintain good weight and a healthy coat, a moderate level of protein (22-26% ) is advisable. Weight maintenance of Azawakhs is another important area to consider. They should be slim. In proper weight, some ribs and vertebrae, and the hip bones should be visible. It’s not to say they should be skeletal, but a fat sighthound isn’t a happy nor a healthy sighthound. Azawakhs are structured to be on the thin side. Overfeeding will adversely affect the joint structure of the hound, especially in puppies. Azawakh puppies should never be fat and roly poly. Keeping them slim as they are growing permits the joints and other body parts to grow properly, without additional stress and wear and tear. Slim pups are less prone to growth plate problems. Grooming is simplistic in Azawakhs. An occasional brush with a zoom groom or hound glove is all that’s necessary to keep the hound’s coat in good condition. If the hound gets muddy, wait for it to dry and brush it off. Frequent bathing isn’t necessary, since they have no doggy odor. Teeth brushing may be necessary if the hound doesn’t have access to bones to clean their teeth. If the hound is fed an all natural diet, with raw meats and bones included, no extra teeth care should be necessary, however, kibble fed dogs will probably need frequent brushing and cleaning. Since the ears are pendant, ear infections can occur, but it’s not a major problem in the breed as the ear leather is thin and light, allowing air to access the ear canal. Generally, no routine eye care is necessary. Nail clipping should be started at a very early age. The breeder should be cutting the puppies nails once a week starting one to two weeks following birth. In the older puppy or adult, nails should be cut on a regular basis. A good rule of thumb is that if your dog’s nails are clicking on when it walks, then they need cutting. Don’t delay, as long overgrown nails can cause the dog’s feet to develop arthritis and also make it very uncomfortable walking around. Many Azawakhs really resist having their nails clipped. Be firm, yet gentle. Also, always have a supply of Kwik-Stop on hand in case you cut too short! Of course, prior health testing of the sire and dam is imperative. The Azawakh breeds and whelps naturally. As with all breeding dogs, the prospective breeding pair, should be in excellent health, and in good weight and physical condition. The bitch should be slim, not FAT. Don’t increase food for the pregnant bitch until at least half way through the pregnancy. Fat bitches have more problems whelping. Raspberry leaf or Solid Gold Conceptabitch is an excellent addition to the bitch’s diet in the third trimester of pregnancy and continuing through the first week or so postpartum. The bitches generally whelp very easily. Cesarean sections are unheard of in this breed. Litters generally range from 5-9 pups, though smaller and larger litters have occurred. The pups are usually very vigorous from the start and need little assistance finding the nipples and feeding. On a special note: As a breed, special care should be taken when trying to keep a male and female in heat apart. Their desire to procreate is VERY strong , indeed and they will go to amazing measures to fulfill that need! Azawakh puppies generally range in price from $1000-2500 depending on the breeding and breeder involved. It is sometimes possible to acquire one as a pet on a spay/neuter contract for less and occasionally, young adult rescues or returns are available. It is important to ask the breeder you are buying a puppy from lots of questions. And it is equally important that the breeder ask YOU lots of questions. Azawakhs are not a dog for every person. The prospective puppy buyer may be asked to fill out a questionnaire. Puppy buyers should visit the breeder’s home if at all possible to see the facilities and how the pups and adults are housed and what condition those facilities are in. Ask the breeder what health testing was performed on the sire/dam of the litter and ask to see the results and have them explained to you. Ask about the puppy buying contract, whether it is an outright purchase or a permanent or temporary co-ownership. Many breeders will not sell a dog “outright”. Ask yourself if this is a person you would want to be “friends” with, as you are considering making a 12-15 year commitment, and as a new Azawakh owner will need help and guidance from the pup’s breeder. Come equipped with lots of questions. Research the breed thoroughly before you make up your mind that an Azawakh is what you want. The Azawakh is usually trained fairly easily as long as gentle methods are employed. They respond very well to gentle, yet FIRM corrections and are usually very food motivated. Extremely dominant type training, such as alpha rollovers are NOT the training method of choice for this breed. The Azawakh has an amazing amount of dignity and must be treated with mutual respect and honor. Rough treatment and training can result in a hound that is either broken in spirit or very aggressive and impossible to handle. An Azawakh, broken in spirit, is a sad sight indeed! The hounds generally do well in a structured obedience class environment with care given to the training methods employed. Training started in a puppy kindergarten class is advisable in young puppies. These classes afford the opportunity for socialization with people and other dogs and can be an invaluable tool in the upbringing of the puppy. Also, early training, make the adult dog more receptive to the desires of his owner. Additionally, obedience training strengthens the bond between hound and owner. In terms of equipment, most pups and adults do fine with a martingale style sighthound collar, or a nylon choke collar. However, choke collars should NEVER be left on your dog while unattended. Always remove it immediately following the training session. Prong collars or pinch collars are not necessary for training an Azawakh. As previously mentioned, many Azawakhs can be reliable off lead. This aspect makes the breed an enjoyable companion for people who like to hike and camp or just hang out! Breeder Selection Criteria This subject was covered a bit in a previous section, however, it cannot be stressed enough to buy from a breeder you feel comfortable with. If the conditions that the puppies have been raised or the breeder raises concerns in your “gut”, run, don’t walk away from that breeder! You are entering into a relationship with this person that could last 12-15 years and beyond. Don’t think you will just buy the dog and never hear from the breeder again. If the breeder is a reputable, caring person, you will be encouraged to call or write with pictures and progress reports. The breeder may want to visit your home sometime in the future or before the dog is placed with you. The breeder will want to make your transition into the world of Azawakhs as easy as possible by, perhaps letting you know of other Azawakh owners in your area, or by giving you a subscription to the Azawakh club newsletter or by encouraging you to join and participate in events in your area that allow Azawakhs. Veterinarians: Vet choice is a very important area. It’s important when choosing a vet to find one experienced with sighthounds. With the proliferation of Greyhound adoptions around the world, finding vets with sighthound experience is much easier than it used to be. Find a vet that is open to all modalities of healing. Many vets abhor anything natural or holistic. Finding a vet open to all modalities gives many more options in the treatment of your Azawakh. Many “holistic” vets also practice western medicine and they are usually a good choice. Selection of the individual dog and criteria Since you will be spending many years in the company of your Azawakh, selecting the right dog for you is probably the most important thing you will do ! First the puppy vs. adult decision needs to be addressed. For the person who works many hours a day away from home, a puppy is a poor choice, unless arrangements can be made for a pet sitter or a friend to come in and walk the puppy during the day. Until the age of four months, puppies have little bladder control. Housebreaking, in reality, is training the owner to know when the puppy needs to eliminate and getting him outside in time to do it! Expecting a young pup to spend 8-10 hours alone at home is expecting way too much. In this case, a young adult or older dog would be the best bet. However if you life style permits, a puppy is a joy and a lot of fun (and a lot of work too) Adult Azawakhs are sometimes available and for some households work out quite well. Of course, an adult dog also comes with it’s own “baggage”. With any Azawakh, puppy or adult, a firm fair hand is called for. Consistent socialization, handling and treatment are imperative to the mental health of your dog. Sources and Resources The American Azawakh Association, Inc. (AAA) is the parent club for the Azawakh in the US. The AAA was founded on February 7, 1988 with the goals of promoting the pure Azawakh and to guarantee the breed a permanent future in the US. Further information may be obtained by writing to the American Azawakh There are also several books which have small sections about Azawakhs or deal with the nomads who breed them in the countries of origin. Dog’s Best Friend: Journey to the Roots of an Ancient Partnership. Ursula Birr, Gerald Krakauer, Daniela Osterlander The Pastoral Tuareg: Ecology, Culture and Society. Johannes & Ida Nicoloaisen Der Azawakh: Windhund der Nomades in Mali (in German) H.J. Strassner, E. Eiles Wind, Sand and Silence: Travels with Africa’s Last Nomads. Victor Englebert

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|Legacy: The first rough draft as of Sunday, June 12, 2016 by Bruce Camber, New Orleans Not too many people question the big bang theory (herein abbreviated bbt). We do. Back in September 2014 for the first time we publicly raised questions about the bbt. The world-renown Cambridge University physicist, Stephen Hawking, is the leading spokesperson for the bbt. He has become a rock star among scientists because he has been so successful as its primary advocate. Within his May 2016 PBS-TV series, Genius, he asks rhetorically, “Where did the universe come from? The answer, as most people can tell you, is the big bang. Everything in existence, expanding exponentially in every direction,from an infinitely small, infinitely hot, infinitely dense point, creating a cosmos filled with energy and matter. But what does that really mean and where did it all begin?” His confidence also exudes from his 1988, best-selling book, A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes, and even from his foundational writing in 1973 (co-authored with Cambridge colleague, George F. R. Ellis) the highly-technical book, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time. Only a fool would dare challenge all this work over so many years. So, such is life; each of us must sometime play the fool. With these facts and the basic premise established, this posting is a “rough draft.” It should become a first draft by July 4. Given the depth and breadth of the foundations upon which the big bang theory (bbt) currently rests, your comments while this posting is being refined, are most welcomed. If this embedded link does not open your email browser, my address is camber (at) bblu (dot) org or go to the Contact page. There are many key images for the big bang theory such as this image above right. More images will be added over time. Most links related to the bbt go to Wikipedia pages. Images for our model, called a Quiet Expansion (QE), will be added soon. The key to our model is multiplication by 2, starting with the Planck base units. Those pivotal Planck calculations were done in 1899 by Max Planck. Our simple work of multiplying them by 2, and then each result by 2, over and over and over again began in December 2011. We discovered that you readily emerge at the Age of the Universe and the Observable Universe, all in just 201 steps. That is crazy, but true. It is called “base-2 exponential notation.” It’s what cells do. It’s a bit like chemical bonding. Bifurcation theory describes another element of its dynamic. In just 201 doublings, layers or groups, you can capture the entire universe in an entirely-ordered fashion! Beyond belief? Our web presence, Big Board-little universe, can provide more background about our rather brief history. We’ve used the Wikipedia summaries of the big bang. Wikipedia appears to represent the current thinking of most within the relevant scientific communities. These scientists have lived within this theory throughout their professional careers. It is part of their intellectual being. We believe most all of their work can be absorbed within the QE. It is just from the starting point to the inflationary epoch — less than a fraction of a fraction of a second — are pointedly questioned. With a little-but-substantial tweak, we believe all the work on the subsequent epochs can be readily integrated. The writers within the Wikipedia community overlap with those within these scientific communities. Wikipedia, constantly in the process of refining their writing, provides several summaries of the History of the Universe based on the most current work of leading thinkers within the scientific community. The work that is based on observations has a place within the QE. Our guess is that those observations will become richer and more informative when the QE parameters and boundary conditions are engaged. Are space-and-time unbounded or bounded? If bounded, is our universe a container universe? Are the Planck base units and all the dimensionless constants part of the definitions of the boundaries between the finite and the infinite? Within the current bbt analysis gravitational waves arise from within their inflationary period. The bbt thought leaders ascribe a much faster-than-light expansion just after the big bang. And, that begs the question: What are the preconditions of superluminal events and motion? There haven’t been any answers since 1902 when Jacobus Kapteyn made his initial observations, since the 1983 “superluminal workshop” at Jodrell Bank Observatory, and since the subsequent studies of microquasars, their accretion disks and such phenomenon as magnetorotational instability. It is all a very special language, logic and reality; the observational results are well-defined; yet, we believe the most-penetrating conclusions are pending. In 1970 there were competing theories about the beginning of the universe. By 1990 the bbt had become dominant. In 2011 our little group of high school geometry people began to explore the interior structures of the tetrahedron and octahedron and that is when we found within our tilings and tessellations, just over 201 base-2 exponential notations from the Planck base units to the Age of the Universe and to the Observable Universe. That continuum appeared so simple, we first engaged it as an excellent STEM (Science-Technology-Engineering-Mathematics) tool. Yet, with further study and thought, it also seemed to challenge some of our basic commonsense assumptions about nature (the back story). As we studied our new little model, the bbt continued to solidify its dominance within the general culture and we started to question it. We began to believe that the actual physics of the first moments of creation might be better defined by the simple mathematics of a quiet expansion, especially the first 67 notations. Those 67 have never been recognized as such and certainly have not been discussed within academia. The great minds throughout the ages have been unaware of the 201+ base-2 notations and those first 67 notations. So mysterious were the 67, we began more actively to think about them and to make some postulations about their place and purpose. Our first posting about this Quiet Expansion is a result of our naive, informal, and often idiosyncratic studies of the Planck Base Units, base-2 exponential notation, and an inherent geometry assumed (hypothesized, hypostatized, and/or imputed) to be within every scale (doubling, layer, notation, step, etc) throughout the universe. We have moved slowly. Having backed into the Planck base units from our simple exercises in a high school geometry class, we were not at all sure of ourselves. So, after observing our results for a couple of years, we began asking the question, “Could this be a more-simple, more-inclusive model of the universe than the big bang theory?” Because we only have the beginnings of an outline of a model, we continued our quest and continued to ask more questions: Who: The history of the Big Bang Theory (bbt) is highly documented. It is an intellectual cornerstone within experimental and theoretical physics, cosmology, and astrophysics. Wikipedia says, “Planck scale is beyond current physical theories; it has no predictive value. The Planck epoch is assumed (or theorized) to have been dominated by quantum effects of gravity.” We say that the Planck scale is the starting point for the initial 24 notations (de facto defined by the bbt) and that these notations are shared by everything, everywhere in the universe. Painfully aware of the limitations of our vocabulary, these first notations are considered to be archetypal forms, structure and substance. Archetypal is used in the sense of the original pattern or model by which all things of the same type are representations, the prototype, or a perfect example. For more, see each of the four pages (24 columns) encapsulating notations 1-24 (opens in a new window or tab). Both models have made key assumptions. We believe the QE model is internally more consistent, imaginative, and stimulating. The key: More than just the bbt‘s four forces of nature within the Planck scale, we assume a certain unification of all five Planck base units and those constants that define them, and that this unification is carried through the entire 201+ notations to the current time and present day (until proven to be otherwise). The Planck base units are defined by length, time, mass, temperature and charge. These Planck units are further defined by the speed of light (or special relativity), the gravitational constant (or general relativity), the reduced Planck constant (or ħ or quantum mechanics), the Coulomb constant (or ε0 or electric charge or electromagnetism), and the Boltzmann constant (or kB or of temperature). The Planck scale is not beyond logic, numbers, and conceptual integrity. Homogeneity, isotropy and simple logic rule. Yet, within the Quiet Expansion (QE) model, we have followed a simple logic and placed the Planck Temperature at the top of the scale, just beyond the 201st notation and then it goes down, approaching Absolute Zero. We are increasingly finding a simple relational logic between the Planck base units. Of course, this logic will be revisited with every future analysis of the QE model. Within the QE model, the Planck Charge, a Coulombs value, is taken as it is given. Within the bbt, the Planck Charge is ignored and the bbt value is postulated to be as large as possible. Their measurement is given in GeV units, one billion electron volts. Add 1016 zeroes to it and you have a charge unlike any other! It is the penultimate, grand assumption that truly requires a leap of faith! To begin to understand all these numbers and their correlations, questions are asked, “Are these all non-repeating, never-ending numbers like Pi? Are all numbers that are non-repeating and never-ending somehow part of the infinite yet also the beginning of quantum mechanics?” The suggestion has been made that we carry out each number 10 decimal places, and if need be, 100 decimal places, and possibly even 1000 decimal places, to see if patterns can be discerned. The QE model holds that things are simple before complex and everything is related to everything. Imputed, hypostatized and/or hypothesized are pointfree vertices and simple geometries as the deep infrastructure that gives rise to the work on combinatorics, cellular automaton, cubic close packing, bifurcation theory (and the Feigenbaum’s constants), Langlands program, mereotopology ( point-free geometry), the 80-known binary operations, and scalar field theory. Here are people working on theories and constructions of the simple, yet their concepts are anything but simple. Wikipedia says, “Cosmic inflation expands space by a factor of the order of 1026 over a time of the order of 10−33 to 10−32 seconds. The universe is supercooled from about 1027 down to 1022 kelvins. The Strong Nuclear Force becomes distinct from the Electroweak Force.” (Our emphasis) First, consider that the Planck Temperature is 1.416 83×1032 Kelvin. The bbt totally skips the cooling from 1032 to 1027 Kelvin. It does not address what causes the cooling to 1022 Kelvin. Also, consider the amount of expansion and the short duration assumed in their statement above. To create that much space in that short of an interval would require light to travel so far beyond its normal speed, it would constitute the penultimate anomaly. Also, because the bbt begins at the Planck Temperature, they truly need a supercooled concept. With the Quiet Expansion these temperatures are all superconducting being well below the superconducting transition temperatures. Perhaps the very concept of temperature will become better understood as a result of our struggles to define a different model of the universe. About this inflationary epoch, Wikipedia says, “The forces of the Standard Model have separated, but energies are too high for quarks to coalesce into hadrons, instead forming a quark-gluon plasma. These are the highest energies directly observable in experiment in the Large Hadron Collider.” Within the QE, if a quark-gluon plasma requires 1012 Kelvin, it is not possible until up around Notation 136 where the temperature is up to 1.92016×1012 Kelvin. Notation 136 is 4.6965×10-3 seconds from the singularity. One second is between Notations 143 and 144. Also, the Kelvin scale is counter-intuitive in many ways. The temperature of the Sun is about 5,778 K. Within the QE, that is expressed between Notations 107 and 108 (7.153178×103 K). The human temperature at 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit is 310.15 Kelvin which is between Notations 103 and 104 (4.47073×102 K). Also, at Notation 103 we find the Planck Length is now .163902142 millimeters or 1.63902142×10-4 meters or about the size of a human egg. The exacting nature of the correlations between the multiples of the Planck base units is just being explored for the first time. Within the QE everything everywhere is related through simple mathematics. In Wikipedia, their category experts say, “The physics of the electroweak epoch is less speculative and much better understood than the physics of previous periods of the early universe. The existence of W and Z bosons has been demonstrated, and other predictions of electroweak theory have been experimentally verified.” Finally the the bbt gives us something that isn’t incomplete or highly speculative. Yet, even with such assurance, the logic of the bbt is difficult to follow. Again, within the QE model the only duration that would allow for W and Z bosons is about 30 notations away, somewhere around notation 65. There is just not enough “conceptual” space and time for elementary particles and their effects. By the way, within this simple, highly-integrated progression, there is the first measurement that has a visceral meaning for us. At Notation 32 the mass of the universe is 93.48 kilograms or about 206 pounds. By Notation 40 it is up to 2.39×104 kilograms. The universe is bulking up quickly and it is creating space and time as it goes. Also, consider this unusual concept: within every notation, the QE model aggregates base-8 pointfree vertices using scaling laws and dimensional analysis (recommended by Prof. Dr. Freeman Dyson). There are single line entries for both the base-2 and base-8 progressions within the horizontally-scrolled chart. — most active edit area— |At the 41st notation there are 10,633,823,966,279,326,983,230,456,482,242,756,608 pointfree vertices. The base-2 simple doublings could be aggregating structure as groups or sets. Defined by the Planck base units, in the range 41-to-60, we hypothesize that these are the domains for archetypal relations and systems. There are 549,755,813,888 base-2 pointfree vertices at Notation 41 and 5,070,602,400,912,917,605,986,812,821,504 at Notation 104. The bbt’s Quark Epoch generalizes 63 of the QE notations, from 41 to 104. These notations within the QE model are foundational so perhaps this comparison to Quark Epoch is a key. Consider the estimated requirement for temperature. The bbt epochs can not begin until the temperature is cool enough. Given that temperature requirement, within the QE model, the Quark Epoch would not begin until up-and-around Notation 136 where the temperature has finally risen to 1.9201×1012 Kelvin. If that is the right range, as suggested by proponents of the bbt, less than a second has transpired, the universe has a diameter of about 874 square miles and a mass of about 1.896×1032 kilograms. Within the QE model from around Notations 65 to 69 is the transition from the small scale to the human scale. This “human scale” is the middle third of the 201 notations, i.e. 67-to-134. Even though two-thirds of the way through the 201 doublings, less than a second has transpired from the start. In the Quark Epoch the bbt and QE begin to cross paths and overlap. Wikipedia says, “Quarks are bound into hadrons. Over the hadron epoch, the process of baryogenesis results in an elimination of anti-hadrons (baryon asymmetry).” As noted within Wikipedia, some of these perceptions come directly out of the laboratory, such as CERN in Geneva, where this phenomenon has been observed. So, other than the improbable placement within the time/temperature curve, all processes herein after become readily integrated within the QE model. The bbt and QE have overlapped and begun to become simpatico. A key question within the QE model is, “What is a notation?” Also known as a cluster, doubling, group, layer, set, and/or step, each word is perspectival and each notation is dynamic, always in the process of being defined, right up to the current time within the 201st notation. Each notation has an active role in defining who we are and what this universe is; and, each notation has an active role in defining all other notations. Today, right now, all of these notations activelyf define humanity or the human scale (67-to-134), must therefore be something like the archetypes of forms and functions (notations 1-to-67) that define our deeper beingness. The notations from 134-to-200 define our planetary and galactic systems and this is where most of the work of those physicists, cosmologist, and astrophysicists have worked. In just a few more notations, between 142 and 143, the universe is at the one second mark. This measurement is most often used to determine the speed of light. Yet, as noted in earlier postings, within every notation, the Planck length divided by the multiple of the Planck Time renders an approximation of the speed of light. It is just commonsense when we see that the speed of light plays prominently in the definitions of Planck Length and Planck Time. The question to be answered, “What is the meaning of temperature? …within the bbt? Within the QE model, we impute that it is the total temperature throughout the area defined by the notation (or cluster, container, domain, doubling, group, layer, or step). This measurement within the Hadron Epoch within the bbt is now lower than it is within the QE. There is a natural correlation between all these numbers within the QE simply because they start with the same definitional characteristics (the Planck base units) and the evolution of those numbers using base-2 exponential notation. The ratio of length to temperature renders .73322+ ratio. That result is currently being analyzed, space-to-temperature or kelvin per meters. In 1972 George Ellis and Stephen Hawking began to explore the boundary conditions that define our universe between 10-13 centimeters (elementary particles) and 1028 cm, the assumed radius of the universe. They did not approach the Planck base units which would have expanded their range to 1.616199×10−35 meters (Planck Length) and then it would have tucked them in at about 5.1942×1025 meters according to current best guesses regarding the Age of the Universe. With very few exceptions, it was not until Frank Wilczek (MIT) wrote a series of articles, Earlier it was observed that the big bang is not good philosophy and it is bad psychology. Philosophy is taken as a study of first principles and systems, the universals and constants that create the boundary conditions as well as the continuity equations that bind our universe together. Since 1972, especially with the very key question about the very nature of the first microseconds, the bbt has not progressed very far. Their Planck epoch is still mysterious. It is bad psychology for that very reason. It is so disjointed, so out of touch with anything human, it de facto promotes a certain form of nihilism. Theories should have elegance, beauty, coherence, and simplicity. Children should be able Disclaimer: Our charts and discussion are our first time to make a comparative analysis This ends the first story about two very different models of the universe. Of course, it is a story that is to be continued.

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The citron (Citrus medica) is a large fragrant citrus fruit with a thick rind. It is one of the original citrus fruits from which all other citrus types developed through natural hybrid speciation or artificial hybridization. Though citron cultivars take on a wide variety of physical forms, they are all closely related genetically. It is used widely in Asian cuisine, and also in traditional medicines, perfume, and for religious rituals and offerings. Hybrids of citrons with other citrus are commercially prominent, notably lemons and many limes. - 1 Etymology - 2 Origin and distribution - 3 Description and variation - 4 Uses - 5 See also - 6 Gallery - 7 Notes - 8 References - 9 External links The fruit's English name "citron" derives ultimately from Latin, citrus, which is also the origin of the genus name. A source of confusion is that citron in French and English are false friends, as the French word refers to the lemon. Indeed, into the 16th century, the English name citron included the lemon and perhaps the lime as well.[failed verification] In Italian it is known as cedro, the same name used also to indicate the coniferous tree cedar. In Persian languages, it is called turunj, as against naranj ('bitter orange'). Both names were borrowed into Arabic and introduced into Spain and Portugal after their occupation by Muslims in AD 711, whence it became the source of the name orange. In Syria it is called kabbad; in Japanese it is called bushukan (possibly referring only to the fingered varieties). In Hebrew, the citron is known as etrog (אתרוג). In Gujarati it is called bijora (બીજોરા). In Marathi it is known as mhalunga (म्हाळुंग) and is considered sacred. In Chinese, it is known as xiāngyuán (香橼). Origin and distributionEdit The citron is an old and original citrus species. There is molecular evidence that most cultivated citrus species arose by hybridization of a small number of ancestral types, including citron, pomelo, mandarin and to a lesser extent, papedas and kumquat. The citron is usually fertilized by self-pollination. This results in them displaying a high degree of genetic homozygosity, and it is the male parent of any citrus hybrid rather than a female one. The citron is thought to have been native to India, in valleys at the foothills of the eastern Himalayas. It is thought that by the 4th century BC, when Theophrastus mentions the "Persian or Median apple", the citron was mostly cultivated in the Persian Gulf on its way to the Mediterranean basin, where it was cultivated during the later centuries in different areas as described by Erich Isaac. Many mention the role of Alexander the Great and his armies as they attacked Persia and what is today Pakistan, as being responsible for the spread of the citron westward, reaching the European countries such as Greece and Italy. Leviticus mentions the "fruit of the beautiful ('hadar') tree" as being required for ritual use during the Feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:40). According to Rabbinical tradition, the "fruit of the tree hadar" refers to the citron. The Egyptologist and archaeologist Victor Loret claimed to have identified it depicted on the walls of the botanical garden at the Karnak Temple, which dates back to the time of Thutmosis III, approximately 3,000 years ago. In the east and south there are special plants... i.e. in Media and Persia there are many types of fruit, between them there is a fruit called Median or Persian Apple. The tree has a leaf similar to and almost identical with that of the andrachn (Arbutus andrachne L.), but has thorns like those of the apios (the wild pear, Pyrus amygdaliformis Vill.) or the firethorn (Cotoneaster pyracantha Spach.), except that they are white, smooth, sharp and strong. The fruit is not eaten, but is very fragrant, as is also the leaf of the tree; and the fruit is put among clothes, it keeps them from being moth-eaten. It is also useful when one has drunk deadly poison, for when it is administered in wine; it upsets the stomach and brings up the poison. It is also useful to improve the breath, for if one boils the inner part of the fruit in a dish or squeezes it into the mouth in some other medium, it makes the breath more pleasant. The seed is removed from the fruit and sown in the spring in carefully tilled beds, and it is watered every fourth or fifth day. As soon the plant is strong it is transplanted, also in the spring, to a soft, well watered site, where the soil is not very fine, for it prefers such places. And it bears its fruit at all seasons, for when some have gathered, the flower of the others is on the tree and is ripening others. Of the flowers I have said those that have a sort of distaff [meaning the pistil] projecting from the middle are fertile, while those that do not have this are sterile. It is also sown, like date palms, in pots punctured with holes. This tree, as has been remarked, grows in Media and Persia. Pliny the ElderEdit There is another tree also with the same name of "citrus," and bears a fruit that is held by some persons in particular dislike for its smell and remarkable bitterness; while, on the other hand, there are some who esteem it very highly. This tree is used as an ornament to houses; it requires, however, no further description. The citron tree, called the Assyrian, and by some the Median apple, is an antidote against poisons. The leaf is similar to that of the arbute, except that it has small prickles running across it. As to the fruit, it is never eaten, but it is remarkable for its extremely powerful smell, which is the case, also, with the leaves; indeed, the odour is so strong, that it will penetrate clothes, when they are once impregnated with it, and hence it is very useful in repelling the attacks of noxious insects. The tree bears fruit at all seasons of the year; while some is falling off, other fruit is ripening, and other, again, just bursting into birth. Various nations have attempted to naturalize this tree among them, for the sake of its medical properties, by planting it in pots of clay, with holes drilled in them, for the purpose of introducing the air to the roots; and I would here remark, once for all, that it is as well to remember that the best plan is to pack all slips of trees that have to be carried to any distance, as close together as they can possibly be placed. It has been found, however, that this tree will grow nowhere except in Media or Persia. It is this fruit, the pips of which, as we have already mentioned, the Parthian grandees employ in seasoning their ragouts, as being peculiarly conducive to the sweetening of the breath. We find no other tree very highly commended that is produced in Media. Citrons, either the pulp of them or the pips, are taken in wine as an antidote to poisons. A decoction of citrons, or the juice extracted from them, is used as a gargle to impart sweetness to the breath. The pips of this fruit are recommended for pregnant women to chew when affected with qualmishness. Citrons are good, also, for a weak stomach, but it is not easy to eat them except with vinegar. Description and variationEdit The citron fruit is usually ovate or oblong, narrowing towards the stylar end. However, the citron's fruit shape is highly variable, due to the large quantity of albedo, which forms independently according to the fruits' position on the tree, twig orientation, and many other factors. The rind is leathery, furrowed, and adherent. The inner portion is thick, white and hard; the outer is uniformly thin and very fragrant. The pulp is usually acidic, but also can be sweet, and even pulpless varieties are found. Most citron varieties contain a large number of monoembryonic seeds. They are white, with dark innercoats and red-purplish chalazal spots for the acidic varieties, and colorless for the sweet ones. Some citron varieties are also distinct, having persistent styles, that do not fall off after fecundation. Those are usually promoted for etrog use. Some citrons have medium-sized oil bubbles at the outer surface, medially distant to each other. Some varieties are ribbed and faintly warted on the outer surface. There is also a fingered citron variety called Buddha's hand. The color varies from green, when unripe, to a yellow-orange when overripe. The citron does not fall off the tree and can reach 8–10 pounds (4–5 kg) if not picked before fully mature. However, they should be picked before the winter, as the branches might bend or break to the ground, and may cause numerous fungal diseases for the tree. Despite the wide variety of forms taken on by the fruit, citrons are all closely related genetically, representing a single species. Genetic analysis has shown known cultivars to divide into three clusters, a Mediterranean cluster thought to have originated in India, and two clusters predominantly found in China, one representing the fingered citrons, and another consisting of non-fingered varieties. Citrus medica is a slow-growing shrub or small tree that reaches a height of about 8 to 15 ft (2 to 5 m). It has irregular straggling branches and stiff twigs and long spines at the leaf axils. The evergreen leaves are green and lemon-scented with slightly serrate edges, ovate-lanceolate or ovate elliptic 2.5 to 7.0 inches long. Petioles are usually wingless or with minor wings. The clustered flowers of the acidic varieties are purplish tinted from outside, but the sweet ones are white-yellowish. The citron tree is very vigorous with almost no dormancy, blooming several times a year, and is therefore fragile and extremely sensitive to frost. Varieties and hybridsEdit The acidic varieties include the Florentine and Diamante citron from Italy, the Greek citron and the Balady citron from Israel. The sweet varieties include the Corsican and Moroccan citrons. Between the pulpless are also some fingered varieties and the Yemenite citron. There are also a number of citron hybrids; for example, ponderosa lemon, the lumia and rhobs el Arsa are known citron hybrids, some are claiming that even the Florentine citron is not pure citron, but a citron hybrid. While the lemon or orange are peeled to consume their pulpy and juicy segments, the citron's pulp is dry, containing a small quantity of insipid juice, if any. The main content of a citron fruit is the thick white rind, which adheres to the segments and cannot be separated from them easily. The citron gets halved and depulped, then its rind (the thicker the better) is cut in pieces, cooked in sugar syrup, and used as a spoon sweet, in Greek known as "kitro glyko" (κίτρο γλυκό), or it is diced and caramelized with sugar and used as a confection in cakes. In Samoa a refreshing drink called "vai tipolo" is made from squeezed juice. It is also added to a raw fish dish called "oka" and to a variation of palusami or luáu. Citron is a regularly used item in Asian cuisine. The variety of citron used in Japan, yuzu, is juiced, and the juice is used regularly in dipping sauces, dressings and marinades. The juice is widely available bottled like lemon juice. Grated or shredded yuzu rind is also added to marinades and desserts, and hollowed out yuzu can be seen as decorative containers in higher end restaurants. In Korea, a popular tea, yuja-cha, is made by mixing citron meat and julienned peels with sugar and honey. This tea is consumed both hot and iced, and is often taken for sore throats and colds in winter. Today the citron is used for the fragrance or zest of its flavedo, but the most important part is still the inner rind (known as pith or albedo), which is a fairly important article in international trade and is widely employed in the food industry as succade, as it is known when it is candied in sugar. The dozens of varieties of citron are collectively known as Lebu in Bangladesh, West Bengal, where it is the primary citrus fruit. In Iran, the citron's thick white rind is used to make jam; in Pakistan the fruit is used to make jam but is also pickled; in South Indian cuisine, some varieties of citron (collectively referred to as "Narthangai" in Tamil and "Heralikayi" in Kannada) are widely used in pickles and preserves.In karnataka, heralikayi(citron) is uses to make lemon rice. In Kutch, Gujarat, it is used to make pickle, wherein entire slices of fruits are salted, dried and mixed with jaggery and spices to make sweet spicy pickle. In the United States, citron is an important ingredient in holiday fruitcakes. From ancient through medieval times, the citron was used mainly for medical purposes: to combat seasickness, pulmonary troubles, intestinal ailments, scurvy and other disorders. The essential oil of the flavedo (the outermost, pigmented layer of rind) was also regarded as an antibiotic. Citron juice with wine was considered an effective antidote to poison, as Theophrastus reported. In the Ayurvedic system of medicine, the juice is still used for treating conditions like nausea, vomiting, and excessive thirst. The juice of the citron has a high Vitamin C content and is used in the Indian system of medicine as an anthelmintic, appetizer, tonic, in cough, rheumatism, vomiting, flatulence, haemorrhoids, skin diseases and weak eyesight. The citron is used by Jews (the word for it in Hebrew is etrog) for a religious ritual during the Jewish harvest holiday of Sukkot, the Feast of Tabernacles; therefore, it is considered to be a Jewish symbol, one found on various Hebrew antiques and archaeological findings. Citrons used for ritual purposes cannot be grown by grafting branches. - Klein, J. (2014). "Citron Cultivation, Production and Uses in the Mediterranean Region". In Z. Yaniv; N. Dudai (eds.). Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the Middle-East. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the World. 2. Springer Netherlands. pp. 199–214. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9276-9_10. ISBN 978-94-017-9275-2. - "Home : Oxford English Dictionary". oed.com. - "Citrus medica" (PDF). plantlives.com. - "Buddha". University of California, Riverside. - Information about Citron on Kutch agriculture website - Gujarati Laxicon બિજોરું - The Search for the Authentic Citron: Historic and Genetic Analysis; HortScience 40(7):1963–1968. 2005 Archived September 21, 2008, at the Wayback Machine - E. Nicolosi; Z. N. Deng; A. Gentile; S. La Malfa; G. Continella; E. Tribulato (June 2000). "Citrus phylogeny and genetic origin of important species as investigated by molecular markers". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 100 (8): 1155–1166. doi:10.1007/s001220051419. - Noelle A. Barkley; Mikeal L. Roose; Robert R. Krueger; Claire T. Federici (May 2006). "Assessing genetic diversity and population structure in a citrus germplasm collection utilizing simple sequence repeat markers (SSRs)". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 112 (8): 1519–1531. doi:10.1007/s00122-006-0255-9. PMID 16699791. Retrieved 2018-12-04. - Asad Asadi Abkenar; Shiro Isshiki; Yosuke Tashiro (1 November 2004). "Phylogenetic relationships in the 'true citrus fruit trees' revealed by PCR-RFLP analysis of cpDNA". Scientia Horticulturae. 102 (2): 233–242. doi:10.1016/j.scienta.2004.01.003. - C. A. Krug (June 1943). "Chromosome Numbers in the Subfamily Aurantioideae with Special Reference to the Genus Citrus". Botanical Gazette. 104 (4): 602–611. doi:10.1086/335173. JSTOR 2472147. - R. Carvalho; W. S. Soares Filho; A. C. Brasileiro-Vidal; M. Guerra (March 2005). "The relationships among lemons, limes and citron: a chromosomal comparison". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 109 (1–3): 276–282. doi:10.1159/000082410. - Wu, Guohong Albert; Terol, Javier; Ibanez, Victoria; López-García, Antonio; Pérez-Román, Estela; Borredá, Carles; Domingo, Concha; Tadeo, Francisco R; Carbonell-Caballero, Jose; Alonso, Roberto; Curk, Franck; Du, Dongliang; Ollitrault, Patrick; Roose, Mikeal L. Roose; Dopazo, Joaquin; Gmitter Jr, Frederick G.; Rokhsar, Daniel; Talon, Manuel (2018). "Genomics of the origin and evolution of Citrus". Nature. 554 (7692): 311–316. doi:10.1038/nature25447. - Inquiry into Plants 4.iv.2. - Erich Isaac (January 1959). "The Citron in the Mediterranean: a study in religious influences". Economic Geography. 35 (1): 71–78. doi:10.2307/142080. JSTOR 142080. - "Citron: Citrus medica Linn". Purdue University. - Frederick J. Simoons (1990). Food in China: a cultural and historical inquiry. CRC Press. p. 200. ISBN 9780849388040. - "ethrog". University of California, Riverside. - Marion Eugene Ensminger; Audrey H. Ensminger (1993). Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia. volume 1 (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 424. ISBN 9780849389818. - Francesco Calabrese (2003). "Origin and history". In Giovanni Dugo; Angelo Di Giacomo (eds.). Citrus: The Citrus Genus. CRC Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780203216613. - Biology of Citrus[dead link] - H. Harold Hume (2007). Citrus Fruits and Their Culture. Read Books. p. 59. ISBN 9781406781564. - Emanuel Bonavia (1888). The Cultivated Oranges and Lemons, Etc. of India and Ceylon. W. H. Allen. p. 255. - Britain), Royal Horticultural Society (Great (1894). "Scientific Committee, March 28, 1893: The Antiquity of the Citron in Egypt". Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. 16. - Ramón-Laca, L. (Winter 2003). "The Introduction of Cultivated Citrus to Europe via Northern Africa and the Iberian Peninsula". Economic Botany. 57 (4): 502–514. doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0502:tiocct]2.0.co;2. - Historia plantarum 4.4.2-3 (exc. Athenaeus Deipnosophistae 3.83.d-f); cf. Vergil Georgics 2.126-135; Pliny Naturalis historia 12.15,16. - Historia plantarum 1.13.4. - "Chap. 31.—The Citron-Tree". Perseus Digital Library. Tufts University. excerpting from John Bostock; H.T. Riley, eds. (1855). The Natural History. Pliny the Elder. London: Taylor and Francis. - "Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Book XII. The Natural History of Trees, Chap. 7. (3.)—How the Citron Is Planted". Tufts University. - "Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Book XXIII. The Remedies Derived from the Cultivated Trees., Chap. 56.—Citrons: Five Observations upon Them". Tufts University. - Un curieux Cedrat marocain, Chapot 1950. - Ramadugu, Chandrika; Keremane, Manjunath L; Hu, Xulan; Karp, David; Frederici, Claire T; Kahn, Tracy; Roose, Mikeal L; Lee, Richard F. (2015). "Genetic analysis of citron (Citrus medica L.) using simple sequence repeats and single nucleotide polymorphisms". Scientia Horticulturae. 195: 124–137. doi:10.1016/j.scienta.2015.09.004. - "Website Disabled". University of California, Riverside. Archived from the original on 2008-03-08. - Meena, Ajay Kumar; Kandale, Ajit; Rao, M. M.; Panda, P.; Reddy, Govind (2011). "A review on citron-pharmacognosy, phytochemistry and medicinal uses". The Journal of Pharmacy. 2 (1): 14–20. - The Citron in Crete Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine - "Candied Citron". Vine Tree Orchards. - "Bijora Pickle". Jain World. - "Matulunga (Citrus medica)". frlht.org. Archived from the original on 2013-12-24. - Dalia A. Abdul. "Preparation and Characterization of Pectin from Peel of Kabad (Citrus Medica) Fruit in Sulaimani City, Iraqi Kurdistan Region" (PDF). International Journal of Current Research in Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1 (7): 142–146. - Ratchada Tangwongchai; K. Lerkchaiyaphum; Kasem Nantachai; T. Rojanakorn (November 2006). "Pectin extraction from Citron peel (Citrus medica Linn.) and its use in food system". Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology. 28 (6): 6 – via ResearchGate. - Frederick Hardy (1924). "The Extraction of Pectin from the Fruit Rind of the Lime (Citrus medica acida)". Biochemical Journal. 18 (2): 283–290. doi:10.1042/bj0180283. PMC 1259415. PMID 16743304. - Scholarly Document Archived July 26, 2011, at the Wayback Machine - "Nutritional compostions comprising a soluble viscous fiber in a solid crisp matrix: United States Patent Application 20060078593". Free Patents Online. - Jan Ridgely. "Facts on fibre". Peak of Health. - See also FiberStar and NYU Langone Medical Center Archived October 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine - See Etrog - Inouye, S.; Takizawa, T.; Yamaguchi, H. (2001). "Antibacterial activity of essential oils and their major constituents against respiratory tract pathogens by gaseous contact". Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 47 (5): 565–573. doi:10.1093/jac/47.5.565. PMID 11328766. - H. Harold Hume, Citrus Fruits and Their Culture - Richard S. Barnett, All Kinds of Scented Wood - Frederick J. Simoons, Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry - Pinhas Spiegel-Roy, Eliezer E. Goldschmidt, Biology of Citrus - Hugh Chisholm, ed., The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature ... - Citrus: The Genus Citrus By Giovanni Dugo, Angelo Di Giacomo - Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information - G. S. Nijjar, "Fruit Breeding in India" - Proceedings, Google Book Search - A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Culture - International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D By Geoffrey William Bromiley - Allen Susser, The Great Citrus Book: A Guide With Recipes - Citrus: The Genus Citrus By Giovanni Dugo, Angelo Di Giacomo - "Peel confection and candying" - Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge - Alphonse de Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants - Evyatar Marienberg and David Carpenter, The Stealing of the 'Apple of Eve' from the 13th century Synagogue of Winchester[permanent dead link], Henri III Fine Rolls Project, Fine of the Month: December 2011 |Wikispecies has information related to Citrus medica| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to |

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- 1 A Brief Historical Sketch on Paper Dolls - 2 Questions of Gender Identity - 3 Mapping Mediated Characteristics from Shadow Playing to Children’s Princess Playing - 4 Questions of Body as Medium - 5 The Medium is NOT the Message - 6 “The Obvious” – Ethnically biased dolls? - 7 Conclusion - 8 Works Cited A Brief Historical Sketch on Paper Dolls Before Barbie, paper dolls were one of the most popular dolls for girls. The history of paper dolls is much longer than we assume.“The first paper dolls were reported in 1280 by explorer Marco Polo. He told of seeing paper figures of human beings as part of Chinese religious rights. Paper dolls as we know them, however, were not seen till the 18th century, when often life-size, jointed paper dolls were created and used as jumping jack toys or marionettes. “(Antiques Collect Mag, 2003:63) As the name itself suggests, “paper dolls are printed on sheets of flat papers, were being made in the early 19th century in England, Germany and France. Some were hand painted in color. Others were printed in black and white, to be colored by the buyer. “(Ibid, 63) When were paper dolls made for the first time in America? “By 1854, the first paper doll for children was made in America. The publishing company of Crosby, Nichols & Company of Boston included a paper doll named Fanny Gray. The doll came in a box and with a wooden base along with several costumes and a booklet of verses. By 1859 Godey’s Lady’s Book began publishing a complete series of paper dolls.”(Ibid, 63)Paper dolls have “frayed edges, creased mid-sections, and bent clothing tabs. From stubborn Scotch tape to indelible crayon markings, the pitiful paper stories are never-ending. Exceptions to the well-loved-well-worn rule are three series of paper dolls released by Hallmark in the late 1940s: ‘Dolls From The Land of Make Believe,’ ‘Dolls of the Nations,’ and the ‘Little Women Dolls.’ Many can still be found in the colorful and pristine condition that delighted young collectors when the dolls made their debut.” (Johnson, 2010: 20) After Hallmark’s success, competitors joined the paper doll market. But the market did not last. “After their late-1940s flurry, the Hallmark dolls disappeared until 1954. On re-release, the album covers had changed. Hallmark Dolls originally sold for just 25 cents each (50 cents with the album). Today, individual dolls in mint condition can fetch from $40-45, with each “Little Women” doll averaging $50-75. Just right for any young or young-at-heart doll collector you may know-especially if you “care enough to send the very best.”(Ibid: 25) Moreover, “Grayson notes that black paper dolls, especially those that appeared in the mid-1800s into the mid-1900s, commonly depicted people of African ancestry in subservient and stereotypical roles. “(Ibid, 21)“About 120 examples of Arabella Grayson’s Collection, which totals 300 sets and individual pieces, are now on view at the Smithsonian’s Anacostia Community Museum in Washington D.C. The display includes, ‘Nyla,’ Grayson’s first paper doll, and ‘Mammy and Her Thanksgiving Dinner,’ 1912.” (Ibid, 23) After the introduction of Barbie, paper dolls gradually disappeared. “Barbie was introduced in 1956. Originally, she had five movable body parts, large pointed breasts, a skinny waist, wore high heels and a black-and-white striped bathing suit.”(Wager-Ott, 2002:248) Barbie is, of course, a three dimensional figure unlike the paper dolls. “Hander, who creates the Barbie, noticed that her own daughter loved to dress and undress paper dolls; therefore, Barbie was finally designed with this notion in mind – to become a manikin for displaying a plethora of fashionable clothing and accessories. “(Wagner-Ott, 2002:248) Questions of Gender Identity In general, the connection between gender identity and playing with dolls is explored by many researchers.How girls “dress, the daily rituals through which we attend the body – is a medium of culture.” (Bordo, 1993:165)Duncum (1997) asserts below: “It is from popular culture that most people weave their identities and establish their relationships with others and the environment. Mass media images saturate our lives, structuring much of what we know beyond personal experience. “(Duncum, 1997:70) As Duncum notes above, most children build up their identity to differentiate themselves from others in the environment. In this sense, Wagner-Ott (2002) asserts “Because of the crucial issues associated with many girl’s perceptions of their own bodies, and about themselves in relation to the formation of gender identities.”(2002:247) The discussion of gender identity has been a controversial issue – which focuses on taking advantage or disadvantage of playing with dolls. Scholars who have commented on children playing with dolls in relation to gender identity have expressed favorable and unfavorable opinions/analyses of this activity. On the one hand, one researcher in the 1950s argued that female children accustom themselves to the mother’s role by playing dolls. Moreover, De Beauvoir (1957) argued that “since the middle of the 1800s, manufacturing industries had been manipulating parents and girls via dolls in order to help girls adjust and learn about their future roles as wives and mothers.”(Ibid: 251) In this sense, children easily adapt to their mother’s characteristics by role playing. In other words, girls mirror the mother throughout this playing. On the other hand, some scholars posit that gender identity is negatively affected when children pretend their dolls are princesses. Since playing with dolls is an indoor activity, it may be related to girls becoming passive, motionless. Moreover, girls become emotionally attached to dolls. These associations—indoors as a female space, passive and without agency, emotionally-attached—are characteristics of female stereotypes. As a result, the social construction of the feminine is a significant issue related to playing with dolls. Mapping Mediated Characteristics from Shadow Playing to Children’s Princess Playing Being passive or active as a mediator “Toys invite players to read and perform particular identities through play. The identity text ‘cool girl’ is communicated through the doll’s anime features as well as its hairstyle, makeup, and clothing. The doll’s snippets of talk, ‘I’m bored – let’s go shopping,’ voice gendered consumer identity messages for children in the target demographic 6 – to 12- year – old girls.” (Wohlwend, 2009: 59) In general, being a princess is a kind of archetype for the beauty of a girl. Most girls have dreamed the fantasy of being a princess as a result of reading or seeing Disney stories. According to Butler (1993), “Critical discourse analysis of play activity showed that children regulated each other’s gender performances through talk and actions that demonstrated their ability to adhere to the heterosexual matrix.” (Wohlwend, 2009:60) The fascinating issue here is that children’s princess playing takes a significant role in mediating their characteristics. In this sense, playing with dolls may be the first socializing moment as they often take place children are old enough to go to school. When playing with dolls, the children, not adults or teachers, decide who plays with whom and what roles each child (or doll) will take in the group. In other words, there are no restrictions set by external forces when children decide their position or roles since they regulate this at the beginning of play. Hence, they experience how they set up the stories and create the first tiny mediated world including their own voices and different visualized icons: paper dolls. “During princess play, girls focused on achieving beauty ideals and rejected play scenarios that stretched stereotypical male/female roles.” (Wohlwend, 2009:60) Blaise (2005b) asserts below that princess playing is a pivotal role for gender performances: “The value that a small group of girls placed on being beautiful and pretty became evident in the dramatic play area while they were pretending to be princesses… Often, early childhood teachers and parents view children’s pretend play as ‘simply play,’ failing to recognize how gender is created and re-created in these story lines. As children enact the story lines of princes and princesses, the importance of being pretty and the role it plays in creating femininities and masculinities provide another opportunity for locating the heterosexual matrix in the classroom.” (77) In general, “Toys must communicate meanings that appeal to children to be taken up and must be malleable enough to allow players to invent new meanings; that is, toys invite a particular meaning and simultaneously enable its revision.”(Brougere, 2006) In this sense, children give names to and create unique meanings about their paper dolls. Questions of Body as Medium Children’s Material Cultures When girls played with paper dolls, they could not avoid facing the back part of the doll – which is just blank paper. The front part was facing the other child a girl is playing with, and the back part was facing the girl herself. The limitation of the material characteristics allowed a girl to embed their voice and character in the paper doll. In this sense, there was a kind of appointment among players, they pretended the actual person was not there. This is a basic assumption among players; the paper doll represented themselves and then the player was identical to the paper doll. This was the first experience a girl might have with how communication is mediated with the medium itself. The communication process in playing with dolls is definitely similar to shadow play. In shadow play, “the performance consisted of a screen, and a light source and an artist behind the screen. The artist created shadow portraits, which were cast onto the screen. Like a theater play, this show also had a scenario and was performed accordingly.” (Ozcan, 2002:19) We can consider this to be completely homogeneous characteristics to with playing paper dolls. In playing with dolls, girls have the experience of representing themselves as dolls, experiencing a kind of embedded mediated communication. In addition, the paper doll could not have movable body parts. Its shape was fixed and limited to their body. Even if the most fascinating thing about paper dolls was changing their outfits, it was still very limited. If the figure had a special pose, all outfits may not have fit the doll. The cultural habitus was based on how many paper dolls and outfits that a girl had. From the point of community formation, the doll had an invisible power among girls. Today, an avatar in cyber space represents the simulation mentioned above. An avatar in the internet world can have as many outfits as possible, but may need a cyber token as part of the trading process. This whole process in the avatar simulacra is definitely represented by those whom have an experience either playing with dolls or with the concept of shadow play. The Medium is NOT the Message McLuhan’s formula, the medium is the message, is not appropriate in the context of playing with paper dolls. Most media can be categorized as a continuum between Iris and Hermes. For Iris, the medium is the message. However, Hermes was more of a letter carrier, keeping the outer envelope differentiated from the inner content of the message. According to Kittler, “In order for signs to be comprehensible rather than simply readable, they must first be endowed with the figural quality of images drawn from nature, then these images must be animated by the hallucinated Mother’s voice. As in the phonetic method, optical signs are surrounded with the echo of maternal orality. The result is that instead of signifier one has signified that can be ‘seen,’ as if the text were a film. (Kittler, 590) In understanding media, McLuhan asserts “All media are active metaphors in their power to translate experience into new forms.”(64) According Kittler’s interpretation below: “But if media transpositions are again simply the movement of a metaphorization, then 1800 and 1900 can no longer be distinguished from one another in the way Kittler would like: namely, in the belief in a transcendental signified in the former case and the knowledge of manipulatable signifiers in the latter.” (Sebastian and Geerke, 1990; 593) Moreover, Kittler “thinks of technology merely as technical apparatuses in their empirical facticity and not, like Foucault, as a function of knowledge. And Kittler does not recognize that if he replaces language by technologies – conceived of as such empirical apparatuses – then everything that Foucault says about language hold true precisely for technology. In other words, the specificity that Kittler reserves for psychoanalysis and his own enterprise can be nothing more than illusion that is transverse by an exterior element called technologies.” (Ibid, 594) “The Obvious” – Ethnically biased dolls? Can you remember the first dolls in your childhood? If so, you remember the white dolls with the curly blond hair. This is no exception in the case of paper dolls -- which were the formal dolls -- before the fantasy Barbie icon. DuCille (1994), “warns of the potential determent of white dolls and Barbie only promoting white, middle class values and image.” (48) As an African American scholar, she explained that, as a child, she did not notice that her dolls did have her same skin color. She asserts “a personal adult analysis of how the dominant vision of whiteness in dolls perpetuates a common identity to which many girls aspire.” (Ibid) In this sense, little girls do not have an opportunity to differentiate the self from the other. The hegemony around paper dolls are built up by those who have high cultural capital and enough financial support or corporate backing to make them. In this sense, a historical bias is always going on here. Who do you think can make paper dolls and go much further than Barbie? The answer is, of course, those who have an enough financial support and high cultural capital. Even if enormous funds were not needed to make paper dolls, these toys were still limited in their production. As we well know, the social circumstances around the heyday of paper dolls are totally different from today. Hence, there was no alternative to white values and standards. Wagner-Ott (2002) discusses some fascinating early research about dolls and skin color: “Drs. Kenneth and Mariam Clarck interviewed children in the 1930s and the 1940s on doll color preferences. The conclusion was that 67% of African American children preferred white dolls.” (255) As a result of this research, black dolls were produced. “In 1968, Christie, a Black friend for Barbie, came on the market for the first time.” (ibid: 256) Mrs. Rubie’s assertions that “it is children’s relationship with things rather than people that is most critically important for their sense of itself is utterly startling, and yet utterly in line with a consumerist ethic. This understanding fits in well with the emergence of an industry ready to supply the things kinds need in order to have a ‘positive self image’ but neatly sidesteps the question of fundamental social, political, and historical issues that also impinge on children’s experiences and hence their perceptions of themselves as people in the world.” When Do Media Go to Die? If paper dolls did not take such a significant role beyond just “playing”, it might be extinct. First of all, using paper dolls are sufficient for educating girls and boys in middle, and high school students. In the Art Institute of Washington, paper dolls are used to educate middle or high school students to encourage them to create inspiring artwork. Through the project, Brew (2009:32), an adjunct professor at the Art Institute, explains the learning objectives below: - "develop basic skills in determining and drawing the proportions of the human figure and face" - "apply visual thinking, seeing and recording" - "observe works of artists and discuss possible meanings and interpretations" - "gain knowledge of possible careers in art" - "develop basic skills in applying the proportions of the fashion figure" - "determine the differences in proportion between the male and female figures" When paper dolls came out in public for the first time, ownership was restricted to highly capitalized people. Today’s technology allows anyone to make a paper doll with a digital photograph. These may be used for play or celebration or for creating memories. In other words, access is no longer limited. Furthermore, paper dolls can be easily adapted to represent famous figures. As such, this is one more reason why paper dolls will not disappear. In 2008, Philadelphia Weekly released the news about “Political Paper Dolls” below: “Hold the president candidates in the palm of your hand thanks to Dover Books. Paper cutouts of Obama and McCain come complete with wardrobe changes – including a cowboy hat for Obama and a bulletproof vest for McCain that looks suspicious like and adult bib. Fingers crossed for Palin doll with pageant sash and AK-47 accessories.” (Philadelphia Weekly, Oct 8-Oct14, 2008:22) (See, In general, ecology is always monitored by itself unlike media systems. Different kinds of media has appeared and disappeared over the years, yet it is hard to evaluate media itself as a characteristic. As Appadurai’s five financial scapes and flows are well-explained terms for understanding how media history and archetypes are confirmed and compromised and evaluated by other media that comes before and after. In this sense, exploring dead media is not just about discovering dead media but also for understanding why a medium that gradually dies does not satisfy popular needs and what the complex mechanism is for understanding the related story. - Brew, Charles Anne, A Future in Fashion: Designing Wearable Art, Arts Act, 146(4), 2009. - Chamberlain, Jailer-Mildred. 200 years of Black Paper Dolls, Antiques & Collecting Magazine, 111(12), 2007, pp.20-24. - Gilbert, Anne. Old Paper Dolls: Popular Adult Collectibles, Antiques Collect Mag, 108(4), 2003, pp.63. - Goodman, Gail S. and Aman, Christine, Children’s Use of Anatomically Detailed Dolls to Recount an Event, Child Development, 61(6), 1990,pp.1859-1871. - Hello, Dollies!: Collectible Paper Dolls from Hallmark, Antiques Collect Mag, 115(1), 2010, pp.20-25. - Kotsosavas, Anastasia. Political Paper Dolls, Philadelphia Weekly, Oct 8-Oct 14, 2008, pp. 22. - Ozcan, Oguzhan. Cultures, the Tranditional Shadow Play,and Interactive Media Design, Design Issues, 18(3), 2002, pp. 18-26. - Sebastian, Thomas and Geerke, Judith. Review: Technology Romanticized: Fredrich Kittler’s Discourse Networks 1800/1900, MLN, 105(3), 1990,pp,.583-595. - Wagner-Ott, Anna. Analysis of Gender Identity Through Doll and Action Figure Politics in Art Education, Studies in Art Education, 43(3), 2002, pp.246-263. - Wohlwend, Karen E. Damsels in Discourse: Girls Consuming and Producing Identity Texts Through Disney Princess Play, Reading Research Quarterly, 44(1), 2009, pp.57-83.

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Kranzberg’s Third and Sixth Laws Kranzberg’s Third Law By Laura Ann Twagira “Technology comes in packages, big and small” In 1986 Melvin Kranzberg wrote: “If we look into the history of any mechanical device, we find that the basic invention required other innovative changes to make it fully effective and that the completed mechanism in turn necessitated changes in auxiliary and supporting technological systems, which, taken all together, brought many changes in economic and sociocultural patterns.” It was a statement of Kranzberg’s Third Law: “Technology comes in packages, big and small.” In a brief elaboration of the law, Kranzberg offers the example of radar and how as a technology it relies on multiple components (both big and small). In the additional example of the assembly line Kranzberg referenced the idea of a technological system, especially as analyzed by Thomas Hughes. Similarly, the tractor in figure 1 (see below) is comprised of multiple components and, as configured in this image, served to power other machines at a colonial agricultural project in French West Africa (the other unseen machine is a rice thresher). Here, elements both big and small worked together to produce threshed rice, visible in the large sacks piled behind the tractor. Importantly, in this example (and in the case of the assembly line) the centrality of human labor and expertise is made visible. What might this driver have made of Kranzberg’s Third Law in relation to his work and the tractor? A few more thoughts on “systems” and “packages” offer some context for this question. Kranzberg suggested that technological systems were akin to his packages in that they were comprised of diverse components and processes, which together formed a kind of technological package. The system is a common metaphor in the history of technology, but Kranzberg’s package merits greater critical reflection. In particular, the notion of a technological “package” takes on distinct meaning in the colonial context and pushes us to reflect on the implications of, in Kranzberg’s words, “changes in economic and sociocultural patterns.” Quite simply, technological packages like technological transformations are not neutral. Indeed, colonial technological packages were more than an assemblage of small and intricate components, devices, processes, and mechanisms. By the time Kranzberg articulated his laws, Daniel Headrick had demonstrated how Europeans in the nineteenth-century relied on new technologies, such as steamships and quinine, to solidify their empires in Asia and Africa. These new technologies were imbued with the trappings of imperialism. Similarly, European agents working for colonial agricultural projects, mining corporations, railroad companies, or health clinics in the twentieth century participated in the “transfer” of Western technology and know-how as a means of civilizing or developing their new colonies. It was a technological practice rooted in the projection of political power. Implied in such transfers was an accompanying re-ordering of the economic and social realms. At the same time, colonial subjects often re-worked and re-imagined the meanings of colonial technologies. The irrigated agricultural scheme called the Office du Niger (Office) in French West Africa is an instructive example. It is a large irrigation project located along the Niger River. Created in the 1930s under French colonial rule, the Office was meant to modernize rural French West Africa. The French administration imported industrial digging machines to carve out a vast irrigation network. Colonial authorities also conscripted workers to build a large dam across the Niger River in order to send water to new irrigated cotton and rice cash-crop fields. In the subsequent decades the project increasingly mechanized, reinforcing its association with technology and modernization. Some early French observers even referred to the project as a machine. Yet, building the Office and farming its lands required a great amount of manual labor. Like many other colonial modernization projects it was marked by disastrous failures (both in its simple failure to produce crops to sell, or the technological failures of the irrigation system). Colonial era criticisms of the scheme even voiced concerns about its potential for dehumanization. One memorable critique along these lines referred to farmers at the project as having become like robots. They had simply become part of the machine. In short, this project easily could be framed as a large technological system. As a system the Office was also connected to larger systems of colonial exchange and political governance. In this framing, however, the role of African technological agents is quite conscripted. What then do we make of the tractor operator in this system (see figure 1)? The driver likely had a sophisticated understanding of the big and small components of the tractor in relation to other technology at the project, as well as his particular role in the new colonial economy, and the Office’s role in colonial politics. In short he had a role through his technological work in shaping the Office and rural West Africa in the twentieth century. It also mattered that his work had strong masculine associations. Indeed, gender, work, and technology mattered a great deal at the Office. Women who lived at the Office (and were often out of view of the planners) were essential to making the project a livable space. Specifically, women produced food for local consumption, and it was critical work at a project plagued by food shortages. To accomplish this task, women planted food crops along the edges of irrigated cash-crop fields and created market networks with neighboring women to exchange project cotton and rice for necessary foodstuffs. They even interacted with the big technologies of the project: women winnowed rice alongside threshing machines and drew water from the project canals for domestic use (circumventing their designation to only water cash-crop fields). Women also drew on small or modest household technologies such as pots, buckets, and calabashes (see figure 2). This interplay between big and small technologies was not readily apparent to the planners of the Office, but the women’s technological work across these “systems” enabled them to turn the agricultural machine into a project that produced food for daily consumption (and not just crops for export). In short, the Office as a technological system would not have worked without women and their specifically gendered work of preparing food. The colonial Office as a machine was comprised of multiple technological components and gendered processes working together in a very particular historic context. These systems (the women’s food production system and the canals and machines of the colonial cash-crop project) overlapped and also interacted with political, social, and economic systems more widely. While the system metaphor sheds light on some of these processes and connections across technological, social, economic, and political realms, most analyses of the Office rarely integrate women’s technological experiences. Kranzberg’s idea of a technological “package” is potentially helpful in analyzing the colonial and gendered contexts of technological processes (even if it was not Kranzberg’s original intent). For example, the idea of a modernized industrial irrigation project is not just a “system” of production. It was created because French planners assumed that modernization and development under French rule involved a whole bundle of technologies, practices, and ideas rooted in French notions of civilization and progress. This is one package. It is illustrated by examining the history of one machine at the Office. In 1951 European staff at the Office nicknamed a rice threshing machine La Bourguignonne. The name associated the machine and more broadly technology at the scheme with France. Specifically, the name evoked the Burgundy region famous for its agricultural production (and not necessarily associated with modernity). The name also suggested a romanticized notion of French rural life and peasants transformed through modern French technology. This machine was meant to materialize this imagined identity or personality specifically associated with France. The playful nickname further suggested that French technological interventions at the scheme worked to transfer the hardiness and productivity of the Burgundy region to rural West Africa. Finally, La Bourguignonne symbolized the move beginning in the late 1940s to increase mechanization in the face of manual labor shortages. La Bourguignonne was an ill-fitting name in part because it failed to process the harvest. The machine did not mechanically reproduce the ideal bounty of France. Rather, male workers (all African) still processed much of the project’s rice by hand. It was their labor by and large that produced the project’s cotton and rice harvests. Yet, in the early 1950s La Bourguignonne made sense to the European staff as a name and as a symbol of French technological solutions for agriculture at the Office. Quite simply, the machine represented more than an effort to efficiently process rice paddy and modernize the harvest in West Africa. It symbolized a larger bundle of ideologies and ideas wrapped up in the transfer of colonial technology to the region. Male workers at the project shaped other bundles of meaning at this scheme. They also identified particular machines (not to give them names) but as part of gaining masculine technological expertise. They knew the specific manufacturer names for tractors and diggers from England, France, Germany, the United States, and in later years from the Eastern Bloc. That knowledge was drawn together with a region-wide cultural understanding of work with metal as dangerous but also powerful and directly related to a respected male occupation and identity (the blacksmith). The association of masculinity, modernity, and work was one African male workers shared with the male European staff. For African workers the scheme was about technology and making it work, but it was rooted in ideas about technological work that were not associated specifically with France. In fact, the African workers at the Office saw themselves as experts at evaluating its machines (not the European staff), and understood that through their work handling machines they knew where the best ones came from. This is another package for understanding how technological and non-technological components of the Office functioned together. Women also saw technologies working together and with distinct gendered meanings. For example, women’s technologies, or the tools for women’s housework were often drawn together as a bundle of women’s things. In fact they even called these tools –such as pots, buckets, calabashes, the mortar and pestle, etc. — collectively “women’s things.” It was a gendered technological package, and its components were understood to work together for specifically gendered work. The package metaphor in both latter cases lends itself to an analysis of specific gendered technological cultures and histories. In looking back at this law, Kranzberg’s thinking about packages offers a way to think creatively about the history of technology and in different ways that we have not done through the trope of a system. As a metaphor the system evokes movement, dynamism and sometimes breakdown. A package suggests other frameworks to think through the technological history of a colonial irrigation scheme. In its design the Office was meant to be a technology transfer. Yet, the transfer of that colonial “package” of things could be unpacked and re-ordered in myriad ways. Indeed, looking at how the tractor driver at the Office might have conceived of his work as part of a new masculine mechanical world allows the historian to push back on the narrow framework of the Office as machine (or system). By also looking at women, who make sense of the Office from their own shifting technological world, the very nature of the Office is shifted. It is no longer a machine meant only to produce for export but one with components that are combined with women’s things and re-designed for local consumption. Finally, Kranzberg’s attention to components both “big and small” encourages scholars to see modest tools like a cooking pot and analyze them alongside large-industrial scale machines. The cooking pot is one of those singular components without which cooking would not work, but also without which the Office, a large irrigated agricultural scheme, would not work either. Moreover, it draws attention to quotidian labor at the center of a mundane but essential technological process. Indeed, both men’s and women’s gendered labor is central to this story of technology in colonial West Africa. While Kranzberg is careful to draw the social world into the history of technology, the value of human expertise, labor, and techne is absent in his elaboration of what actually makes these technological packages take shape in practice. Putting African tractor drivers and cooks into the analysis of technological processes allows us to more fully appreciate the work of packages big and small. Laura Ann Twagira is Assistant Professor of History at Wesleyan University. Melvin Kranzberg, “Technology and History: ‘Kranzberg’s Laws,’” Technology and Culture 27 no. 3 (1986) pp. 544-560, here p. 549. Kranzberg, p. 549. Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983). Daniel R. Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981). For a critical overview of the idea of “technological transfer” see Clapperton Chakanetsa Mavhunga, “Introduction” in What Do Science, Technology, and Innovation Mean from Africa? (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2017) pp. 1-27, here, pp. 2-9. See for example Luise White, Speaking with Vampires: Rumor and History in Colonial Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Clapperton Chakanetsa Mavhunga, Transient Workspaces: Technologies of Everyday Innovation in Zimbabwe (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2014); Jennifer Hart, Ghana on the Go: African Mobility in the Age of Motor Transportation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2016). Laura Ann Twagira, “‘Robot Farmers’ and Cosmopolitan Workers: Technological Masculinity and Agricultural Development in the French Soudan (Mali), 1945-1968,” Gender and History 26 no. 3 (2014) pp. 459-477, here p. 459-460. On the Office du Niger see also, Amidu Magasa, Papa-Commandant a jeté un grand filet devant nous : les exploités des rives du Niger, 1902-1962 (Paris : François Maspero, 1978); Jean Filipovich, “Destined to Fail : Forced Settlement at the Office du Niger, 1926-1945” Journal of African History 42 no. 2 (2001) pp. 239-60; Monica van Beusekom, Negotiating Development: African Farmers and Colonial Experts at the Office du Niger, 1920-1960 (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2002). Laura Ann Twagira, “Women and Gender at the Office du Niger (Mali): Technology, Environment, and Food ca. 1900-1985” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University, 2013). Twagira, 2014, p. 467. On the cultural importance of blacksmiths in this region of West Africa see Patrick R. McNaughton, The Mande Blacksmiths: Knowledge, Power, and Art in West Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988). Twagira, 2014, pp 468-473. Laura Ann Twagira, “Machines that Cook, or Women that Cook? Lessons from Mali on Technology, Labor, and Women’s Things” Technology and Culture (forthcoming). Kranzberg’s Sixth Law by Mara Mills “Technology is a very human activity” Thomas Winpenny, the historian of steel bridge construction whose 1988 article “Dare Anyone Add to Kranzberg?” indeed dared to more than double Kranzberg’s list, elsewhere asked “what better example could anyone find of this great truth”—Technology is a Very Human Activity—than an “1800-foot cantilevered bridge.” Kranzberg offered a similar illustration himself in the 1984 volume he co-edited to celebrate the centennial of the Brooklyn Bridge: a structure, he argued, that “represents and incorporates many of the sociocultural elements of the age that produced it.” The building of the bridge entailed “more than machines, tools, processes, structures, and…material artifacts”; it “involve[d] institutions, value systems, and, especially, human beings.” Opened in 1883, it was the longest suspension bridge at the time and the first with steel wires. The Brooklyn Bridge did not just convey wheeled vehicles across the East River: it was heavily trafficked with handwritten messages, flying through a pneumatic mail tube, and electrified voices coursing through telephone cables; it became, straightaway, a meeting place of lovers and criminals, the muse of modernist painters and poets. More so than the other laws, #6 was Kranzberg’s salvo against “technological determinism,” the “intellectual cliché,” as he put it, that “technology is the prime factor in shaping our life-styles, values, institutions, and other elements of our society.” At worst, as he told a SHOT audience in Dearborn during his 1985 Presidential address, technological determinism implied that technology “has become autonomous and has outrun human control; in a startling reversal, the machines have become the masters of man.” The 1980s and 1990s witnessed extensive debate about the agency of technology and other elements in the physical world, with hardliners of social constructionism refusing to give technological determinists an inch, and compromises made in domains such as actor-network theory. Surveying the conceptual history of technological determinism in an article published last year in Representations, John Durham Peters enumerates what seem to have been the “sins” of this doctrine: A sense of historical inevitability, pessimism or even fatalism; …a denial of cultural contingency; the reification of technology into monolithic blocks; the overestimation of the power of engineers; an insistence on a single cause; the failure to appreciate the part played by people in the making of technical worlds. Peters notes that technological determinism is a pejorative phrase—it tends to be wielded as an accusation by one scholar of a “fallacy” (or unsound reasoning) on the part of another; yet he concludes with the provocative suggestion “that a fallacy might not necessarily be wrong.” If fallacies can contain some truth, perhaps truisms, or “obvious truths”—another name Kranzberg gave his Laws—are not, in fact, always obvious. Technology is a Very Human Activity may still apply, though not universally or unquestionably. For one thing, non-human animals build bridges and use tools, too. Moreover, the technoscape that informed truism #6 has changed, and the political force of its anti-technodeterminist stance is less self-evident in an era of AI and the Anthropocene, mobile phones and the digital humanities—to list a few keywords from the present—than it was in an anti-nuclear era marked by more certainty (arguably) about the effects and management of technology, greater technophobia in the arts and humanities, and an urgency regarding the democratization of high-tech. In his coda on the Brooklyn Bridge, for instance, Kranzberg at once rebuked “the anti-technological stance of…[many] humanists” and the state of living “in a world potentially on the brink of extinction through our technical capacities of mass destruction.” Kranzberg employed the phrases “social constructivism” and “social shaping” to describe his own approach, but it’s worth noting that in his writing beyond the 6th Law, he left open the possibility for the causal action of things themselves, especially in large-scale systems. In my brief reflection on this Law, I want to try thinking differently about the Brooklyn Bridge, running the history of technology and my own subfield of disability studies across it like parallel cables through which crosstalk might occur, to give two other examples of the ways the terrain has shifted, such that topics of previous fervent debate are no longer central matters of concern. First, across the humanities and social sciences, few authors use the phrase social constructionism, hard or soft, in their publications anymore, choosing instead to develop more specific models of technology use or political economic context—or to turn away from “the social” toward topics of materiality and embodiment. In disability studies, for instance, the long-dominant “social model of disability”—a constructivist thesis that takes disability to be the result not of medical factors but of societal ones such as workplace discrimination, stigma, and design exclusions—has been repeatedly challenged over the last ten years for its disregard or denial of bodily constraints. The building of the Brooklyn Bridge, to continue with this example, was famously beset with injury and death, as engineers and laborers were impaired by human-designed machines as well as the natural elements and sheer accident. John Roebling, who began designing the bridge in 1867, died of tetanus after his foot was crushed while scouting locations along the riverbank. His son Washington then developed decompression sickness, or “the bends” (with lifelong painful consequences) in 1870 while working underwater on one of the tower’s foundations. Recent work in disability studies has questioned the adequacy of “the social model” to account for every variety of infection, accident, illness, or impairment—not to mention their lived experiences. Alison Kafer summarizes this new position in her 2013 book Feminist, Queer, Crip: In its well-intentioned focus on the disabling effects of society, [the social model] overlooks the often-disabling effects of our bodies. People with chronic illness, pain, and fatigue have been among the most critical of this aspect of the social model, rightly noting that social and structural changes will do little to make one’s joints stop aching or to alleviate back pain…Focusing exclusively on disabling barriers, as a strict social model seems to do, renders pain and fatigue irrelevant to the project of disability politics. In response to criticisms such as these, scholars have proposed new vocabulary and new theories for the field of disability studies. Tobin Siebers, for instance, has suggested that social construction be replaced by a “new realism of the body” that foregrounds human variation. My second example is meant to suggest that the ban on theorizing technological agency has perhaps been lifted, even for those of us working outside the camps that go by such acronyms as ANT and OOO. I would argue, for instance, that aspects of the design of the Brooklyn Bridge point as readily to the causal agency of artifacts and their material elements as they do to human activity. In 1879, for instance—four years before the Bridge formally opened—several experimental telephone cables (each containing many wires) were laid across the structure within a handrail. Engineers soon discovered that voices leapt between the wires through inductive coupling. This phenomenon, known as crosstalk, would not be easily eradicated, and it came to be categorized as a transmission “impairment,” an almost nonexistent word in 1800 that was increasingly applied to both human bodies and to telecommunications by the end of the century, set against the backdrop of statistics, life insurance, and a rising interest in workers’ compensation and rehabilitation. Along with noise, echo, and a host of other transmission impairments, crosstalk impelled a great deal of engineering. It functioned somewhat like a “reverse salient,” to paraphrase Thomas Hughes, “an area where the growth of technology is seen as lagging…a set of ‘critical problems’ that, when solved, will correct the situation.” Yet distinct from the reverse salient, transmission impairments are understood (even today) to be omnipresent in telecommunications. These not completely “solvable” problems range from endemic random noise to transient glitches to more serious distortion. More importantly, transmission impairment and its management have seemed to require human factors engineering—in this case the bending or molding of human perception to the obduracy of the material world. Writing in 1998, former Bell Labs engineer A. Michael Noll commented on the necessity for human physiological solutions to impairments in media systems: “Transmission systems cannot be perfect in the sense of eliminating all forms of impairments,” he wrote, “…Instead, the design goal is to reduce their subjective effect on users to an acceptable level. Hence, the human factors of transmission impairments are an important consideration in the performance specifications for transmission systems.” Technology is a very human activity, and if we grant technology more agency than the passive voice of this formulation allows, it does not presuppose determinism, nor the passivity of humans and societies. Tom Misa, the current president-elect of SHOT, observed in the 1990s that attempts “to demonstrate the socially constructed nature of technology [generally conducted through micro-studies] often omit comment on the intriguing question of whether technology has any influence on anything.” I’ve offered these reflections, strung along the Brooklyn Bridge, not to raise the determinism-constructionism debate from the dead, but to suggest that as a result of these debates, and a changing sociopolitical context, the 6th Law has become a truism that is no longer obviously—or necessarily—true. Mara Mills is Associate Professor in the Department of Media, Culture, and Communication at New York University. Thomas Winpenny, “Dare Anyone Add to Kranzberg?” STS Newsletter (June 1988): 11-12; Thomas Winpenny, “Review: The Bridge at Quebec by William D. Middleton,” Technology and Culture 43, 1 (2002): 173. Melvin Kranzberg, “Opening Remarks,” in: Bridge to the Future: A Centennial Celebration of the Brooklyn Bridge, edited by Margaret Latimer, Brooke Hindle, and Melvin Kranzberg (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1984), 1. Melvin Kranzberg, “Presidential Address: Kranzberg’s Laws,” Technology and Culture 27, 3 (July 1986): 545. John Durham Peters, “‘You Mean My Whole Fallacy is Wrong”: On Technological Determinism,” Representations 140, 1 (Fall 2017): 23. Peters, “You Mean My Whole Fallacy,” 10. Melvin Kranzberg, “Confrontation or Complementarity? Perspectives on Technology and the Arts,” in: Bridge to the Future: A Centennial Celebration of the Brooklyn Bridge, edited by Margaret Latimer, Brooke Hindle, and Melvin Kranzberg (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1984), 343, 344. Kranzberg, “Presidential Address,” 549. Alison Kafer, Feminist, Queer, Crip (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2013), 7. Tobin Siebers, “Disability in Theory: From Social Constructionism to the New Realism of the Body,” American Literary History 13, 4 (Winter 2001): 737-754. On the relationship between the term impairment and the rise of the life insurance industry in the United States, see Dan Bouk, How Our Days Became Numbered: Risk and the Rise of the Statistical Individual (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2015). Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman, “Introductory Essay: The Social Shaping of Technology,” in: The Social Shaping of Technology, 2nd edition, ed. MacKenzie and Wajcman (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1999), 11. For more on this theme, see my forthcoming book On the Phone: Hearing Loss and Communication Engineering (Durham: Duke University Press). A. Michael Noll, Introduction to Telephones and Telephone Systems (Boston: Artech House, 1998), 89. Thomas Misa, “Retrieving Sociotechnical Change from Technological Determinism,” in: Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994), 141. Editor’s Note: These essays are drawn from the roundtable plenary “Kranzberg’s Laws at Sixty”, held at the Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) Annual Meeting, October 11, 2018 in St. Louis. 2018 is the sixtieth anniversary of the founding of SHOT, and Melvin Kranzberg, a seminal figure in the emergence of both SHOT and the history of technology as a discipline. The article in which Kranzberg’s Laws first appeared is: Melvin Kranzberg, “Technology and History: “Kranzberg’s Laws”, Technology and Culture 27, no. 3 (1986): 544-560.You can find it at http://www.jstor.org. To learn more about Melvin Kranzberg see Robert C. Post. “Chance and Contingency: Putting Mel Kranzberg in Context.” Technology and Culture 50, no. 4 (2009): 839-872. Your can find this at Project Muse https://muse.jhu.edu/.

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What We're Reading Divine Glory and Human Suffering Johann Sebastian Bach’s St. John Passion was first heard during the Good Friday Vespers service at the Nikolaikirche in Leipzig on April 7, 1724. It was thus composed to be experienced in a liturgical setting, within a Christian congregation at worship. Today, it is much more likely heard in concert or on recordings. In deference to the origins of the work, the 2013 recording featuring the Dunedin Consort, conducted by John Butt, presented a reconstruction of the liturgical experience of the original performance, complete with congregational singing, liturgical chant, and the reading of a sermon (in German) originally given by Erdmann Neumeister and published in 1720. In 2017, John Butt conducted a performance of the St. John Passion at a BBC Proms concerts, in which the audience at the Royal Albert Hall sang with the choir the same Lutheran chorales that were sung during the original 1724 service. (The YouTube recording of this concert provides English subtitles for the text being sung throughout the work, a helpful addition for listeners without adequate German.) Just last week (March 23, 2018), the Netherlands Bach Society released a video recording of their performance of the St. John Passion. It is one of many fine performances on their remarkable website, allofbach.com. In addition to the performance, the website offers interviews with the conductor, Jos van Veldhoven, a soloist, and a member of the orchestra discussing musical and theological aspects of the work. It is better to listen to Bach’s St. John Passion than to read about it. But the books and articles listed below might help enrich the experience of listening for you. Jaroslav Pelikan, Bach among the Theologians (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986) A learned theologian and Church historian situates Bach’s sacred choral music in several contexts, including the rhythm of the Church year, the musical heritage of the Reformation, and the cultural revolution of the Enlightenment. Of special interest is his essay on the Christological and soteriological emphases in the St. John Passion. Markus Rathey, Bach’s Major Vocal Works: Music, Drama, Liturgy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016) A guest on volume 135 of the MARS HILL AUDIO Journal, Dr. Rathey includes a chapter in his book on the St. John Passion, along with discussions of the St. Matthew Passion, the Magnificat, the Christmas, Easter, and Ascension oratorios, and the B-minor Mass. Calvin Stapert, “Christus Victor: Bach’s St. John Passion," The Reformed Journal, March 1989. Similar in emphasis to Pelikan’s essay in Bach among the Theologians, Dr. Stapert discusses in detail how the St. John Passion emphasizes the themes in John’s Gospel of the power and glory of Jesus the King. Michael Steinberg, “The Passion of Saint John, BWV 245,” posted on the Bach Cantatas Website. This brief essay is adapted from Steinberg’s Choral Masterworks: A Listener’s Guide (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). In it, Steinberg offers a brief historical background to Bach’s composition of the St. John Passion, as well as some helpful points in understanding how the structure of the work establishes its meaning. The following texts are more specialized and scholarly: John Butt, Bach’s Dialogue with Modernity: Perspectives on the Passions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010) A discussion by a prominent Bach scholar and conductor of how the two extant settings of the Passion story by Bach illustrate an interplay between traditional and modern mentalities and sensibilities. Eric Chafe, J. S. Bach’s Johannine Theology: The St. John Passion and the Cantatas for Spring 1725 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014) A detailed study of how the distinctive theological concerns of the Gospel of St. John are reflected in the structure of the St. John Passion. Robin Leaver, “The mature vocal works and their theological and liturgical context,” The Cambridge Companion to Bach, edited by John Butt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) This scholarly article includes a long section on the St. John Passion, which concludes: “Here is Bach the preacher in sound, whose purpose is not simply to relate in musical terms the great dramatic story, as if he had written a religious opera, but rather to draw the worshipper at Good Friday Vespers into the story itself and to find within it a contemporary significance.” Michael Marissen, Bach and God (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016) Dr. Marissen discussed this book on volume 137 of the MARS HILL AUDIO Journal. Michael Marissen, Bach’s Oratorios: The Parallel German-English Texts with Annotations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008) The literal translations of the German texts for these major works (including the St. John Passion) are explicated with citations from the Luther Bible of Bach’s own day, as well as extensive footnotes discussing theological themes addressed in the text. Michael Marissen, Lutheranism, Anti-Judaism, and Bach’s St. John Passion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998) Dr. Marissen discussed this book on volume 37 of the MARS HILL AUDIO Journal. Oliver O’Donovan on how authority and language connect us with reality and thus sustain community In his magisterial primer on what makes Christian ethics Christian, Resurrection and Moral Order (Eerdmans, 1988), moral philosopher Oliver O’Donovan presented a thorough and compelling account of the nature of authority. Authority, O’Donovan argued, “is what we encounter in the world which makes it meaningful for us to act. An authority, we may say, is something which, by virtue of its kind, constitutes an immediate and sufficient ground for acting.” Authority is that which authorizes our actions, because it informs us about what really is the case, and thus reliably guides us in the way that we should go. Such authorization assumes that reality itself is the work of an Author, who has given the world an intelligible and good order in which our actions can be meaningful. In his 2013 Self, World, and Time, O’Donovan briefly revisits the question of authority in the context of discussing the social nature of moral reflection, what was traditionally designated practical reasoning. In a chapter titled “Moral Communication,” he examines the giving of advice, the obeying of authority, and the teaching of moral principles as three forms of communication in which our role as moral actors in community is made evident. “Authority,” he writes, “is a focused disclosure of reality, one that demands we turn our attention away from everything else and concentrate it in this one place.” When authority speaks, those under authority do well to attend. But authority doesn’t always explain or justify every word spoken. “‘There are good reasons for this, which I dimly perceive but do not fully comprehend!’ — that is the characteristic form of recognition we accord to any authoritative utterance. That is the best reason available to us in the circumstances. Faith in things unseen is always an element in practical reasonableness. The communicative framework of our practical reasoning does not allow us to take in the complete picture straight off. . . . Truth is mediated in successive moments, giving directions step by step when and as we need it. So while every authority presents reasons to act thus and not otherwise, it presents these reasons without their being wholly conspicuous. They are implicit, only partially disclosed; we must act according to a truth we have only imperfectly grasped.” Modern societies prefer to speak of “leadership” rather than “authority,” because the latter suggests both hierarchy and a pre-existing order of things to which we should all conform our lives. But suspicion of authority is destructive of community, and its degenerative consequences are becoming more evident by the day. As O’Donovan writes, “Authority penetrates social existence and gives it cohesion. Discomfort with authority in general (as opposed to discomfort with this or that exercise of it) is discomfort with society itself. Liberal and egalitarian philosophy is perfectly clear-sighted in distrusting authority, for authority undermines the presumption that society is a contractual relation among equally self-possessed adults, a presumption which screens out, in Martha Nussbaum’s apt phrase, ‘all the times of asymmetrical or unusual dependency . . . through which all citizens pass.’” O’Donovan notes that submission to authority in society is not an act of blind and mindless obedience. In our experience, “one exercise of authority may disclose a more extensive view than another, and it is this that makes the difference. Those whose power of speech — explaining, clarifying, making the mysterious plain — commands our believing adherence exercise ‘intellectual authority,’ the authority of wisdom. The teacher who first opens the disciple’s eyes gestures towards a wide horizon.” And then comes a paragraph that connects with many of the motives, means, and manners of MARS HILL AUDIO. I will leave it to readers and listeners to make the connections: “Communication is the key. Knowledge uncommunicated, however great, is socially unfruitful. (There is, it must be confessed, a slightly desperate air about the great libraries of the Western world, so full of books unread from century to century; but at least the books are there, and encourage us to hope that we may, one day, get round to reading more of them. More desperate by far are the unread bibliographies of our scholarly writings and the databases of our online bookstores, where so much intellectual labor is reduced to a minuscule electronic note!) Intellectual authority is connected with speech used to good effect, the ability to deploy language powerfully and clearly. ‘The tongue of the wise commends knowledge, but the mouths of fools poor out folly’ (Prov. 15:2). The relentless output of gabble never compensates for loss of articulate control. Acquired skill in the resources of language, its vocabulary, linguistic structures, and rhetorical organization, is essential to framing and focusing the nuanced discernment of reality. It sustains authority, and when it falls into decay, authority falls with it. Linguistic impoverishment in a community causes the most urgent expressions of concern to be dismissed as subjective opinion, and drives the structures of its government away from subtle discernment back upon the crude manipulations of power. Such is our age, which congratulates itself that language evolves, while forgetting that it devolves. Such are our great enterprises with their large budgets and tiny dictionaries, and such is our public discourse, where a leader’s incapacity to construct the simplest sentence is seen as a strong political selling point.” — From Oliver O’Donovan, Self, World, and Time: Ethics as Theology: An Induction (Eerdmans, 2013) Click here to subscribe to the Addenda RSS feed. Oliver O’Donovan on the difficult but essential task of reading our times In preparing to interview moral philosopher Oliver O’Donovan about his most recent book, Entering into Rest, I have been re-reading the two earlier volumes with which the new book forms a trilogy. The series is called Ethics as Theology, and in these three books O’Donovan describes how Christian Ethics is “done” — how theologically informed thought becomes action. In the first book, Self, World, and Time (which he designates as An Induction, paving the way for further explorations), O’Donovan examines the nature of moral agency (what it means to be an ethical self), the nature of the world in which we act morally, and the temporal trajectories (both past and future, involving memory and hope) in which ethical decisions made in our present moment are situated. In the book’s Preface, O’Donovan summarizes the challenges we face when we try (as we must) to understand the characteristics of our cultural moment. Given the editorial mission of MARS HILL AUDIO, this paragraph especially caught my attention: “That ‘late modernity’ in which we are given to live and act can never be taken as self-evident; it is a philosophical task in itself to understand it. There is a style of dealing with modernity all too knowingly. Modern ‘social conditions’ are comprised, we are told, of individualism, egalitarianism, technology, and capitalist enterprise; these are the terms on which mankind today lives, and we must either acknowledge them sensibly or be doomed to be forever criticizing them nostalgically — end of discussion! Alas, it is the doom of modernity to be bound up in an ever over-simple knowingness about itself! Our own age is the hardest of all ages to understand. It is composed of a mass of popular ideas and perceptions, often difficult to document though they are as familiar as the air we breathe, which acknowledge no duty to be consistent with each other. They may be derived from the thoughts of great thinkers, but when they are, they have lost most of what subtlety and discrimination they once had. They ration and restrict our access to thought about life and action in ways we must look hard in order to recognize. (It is not easy to think in a disciplined way through any social question outside the constraints of a would-be economic calculus which scarcely deserves the serious philosophical name of ‘utilitarianism.’) Even more cramping, they determine the way we describe the material objects of our thought, so that there are decent and gullible souls, for example, who think it ‘unscientific’ to refer to the child in the womb as ‘a person.’ Sophistry treads hard, as it has always trodden, on the heels of Ethics, but never harder than in a world of intense and overheated communications. The tramp of its boot must be heard before we can step to one side and free ourselves, recognizing where we have come and what decisions we must take. Such coming to recognition of our place and time is the condition for doing, or indeed being, anything.” — From Oliver O’Donovan, Self, World, and Time: Ethics as Theology: An Induction (Eerdmans, 2013) Click here to subscribe to the Addenda RSS feed. Michael Hanby on the nihilism that drives the quest for spectacle In my conversation with R. J. Snell about his book Acedia and Its Discontents: Metaphysical Boredom in an Empire of Desire (on volume 129 of the MHA Journal), he explained how his thinking on the subject of acedia had been initially inspired by Michael Hanby’s essay, “The Culture of Death, the Ontology of Boredom, and the Resistance of Joy” (in Communio 31, Summer 2004). Snell said it was one of the best journal articles he had ever read. I share Snell’s enthusiasm, and recently found an occasion to re-read Hanby’s bracing diagnosis of how the modern understanding of freedom presupposes a meaningless universe (and meaningless selves), the terror of which gives rise to a restless and relentless drive to distraction. Here is a key passage: “[I]f one considers many of the more garish artifacts of this culture — Las Vegas, Disneyworld, gnostic, digitalized forms of community and sexuality, a virtual arms race of violent spectacle and vulgar celebrity expressionism — or even the increasingly isolated character of entertainment through ever more personalized electronic devices, they seem less the expression of a celebration of the self, the pleasure principle or a will to power than the expression of an opposed and more fundamental pathology: boredom. “The advent of this concept of boredom coincides, tellingly, with the rise of bourgeois society and the triumph of industrialization. There is no etymological record of the word or the concept prior to the eighteenth century. Boredom differs in important ways from such antecedents as ennui or acedia. The diagnosis of these maladies traditionally contained within them a moral judgment of the subject, whose melancholy was understood as a moral and spiritual affront to a true and meaningful order of things. Boredom, by contrast, names a twofold failure of an altogether different kind: a failure of the world to be compelling to a subject ostensibly entitled to such an expectation and a failure or incapacity on the part of the subject to be compelled. In this, boredom is closely aligned with hopelessness, and there may indeed be a more profound relation between the excesses of consumer society and the sense of helplessness that leads an increasing number of citizens of that same society to despair of social and political involvement. It is this double nullity of both subject and world, I contend, that underlies entertainment culture and the numbing array of cultural choices produced by it. The very notion of entertainment presumes the state of boredom as the norm, which means that a culture increasingly fueled by this notion assumes that our lives are innately and intrinsically meaningless without the constant stream of ‘stimulation’ and distraction, a stream inevitably subject to the law of diminishing returns. This nullity on the side of the subject is matched by a similar noughting in the world, for latent in this assumption is a corollary denial of form, objective beauty, or a true order of goods that naturally and of themselves compels our interest. As a consequence, according to this cultural logic, all such choices can only be indifferently related to one another. None is intrinsically good or bad, and indeed no good approaches that of choice itself. Hence most citizens of the modern West, almost of necessity, live lives of profound fragmentation and internal contradiction, and yet these contradictions too frequently make no real competing claims on lives and loyalties and cause little pain or anguish to those who are subject to them. Yet the effect of many of these choices is less to please than to stupefy, anesthetize or distract us from the failed festivals, broken communities, and otherwise empty existence imposed by a formless goalless world. Long before the advent of tasteless fast food, fat free cream, and an array of other products offering endless consumption without much discernible pleasure, Eric Gill foresaw these developments in his criticism of the Leisure State, which incarnates ‘at best, an impossible angelism, and at worst, an impossible aestheticism, the worship of the pleasure of sensation.’ People won’t really love the “good things” they enjoy in such plenty. They won’t love them in the sense that they will see them and use them as holy things, things in which and by which God is manifest. In reality they will despise everything. Things will be made only for passing enjoyment, to be scrapped when no longer enjoyable.” — From Michael Hanby, The Culture of Death, the Ontology of Boredom, and the Resistance of Joy, Communio 31, Summer 2004 Click here to subscribe to the Addenda RSS feed. On our most current issue, Volume 131 of the Journal, we featured an interview with historian, Peter Harrison, on his book The Territories of Science and Religion. If you would like to read an excellent summary of Harrison's book, or if you need a little more incentive to listen to the interview, we encourage you to read Peter Leithart's review of Harrison's book "Not Religion v. Science," published on October 6, 2016 on the First Things website.

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Konya (Turkish pronunciation: [ˈkon.ja]) is a major city in south-western edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau and is the seventh-most-populous city in Turkey with a metropolitan population of over 2.1 million. Konya is an economically and industrially developed city and the capital of Konya Province. |• Mayor||Ugur Ibrahim Altay (AKP)| |• Total||38,873 km2 (15,009 sq mi)| |Elevation||1,016 m (3,333 ft)| |• Density||56/km2 (150/sq mi)| |Time zone||UTC+3 (FET)| |Area code(s)||(+90) 332| The Konya region has been inhabited since the 3rd millennium BC. Known as Iconium during classical antiquity, the city was ruled successively by the Phrygian, Persian, Hellenistic and Roman civilizations. In the 11th century the Seljuk Turks conquered the area from the Byzantines, and Konya then became the capital of the Sultanate of Rum. Under the Seljuks, the city reached the height of its wealth and influence. Following the demise of Rum, Konya came under the rule of the Karamanids, before being taken over by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century. After the Turkish War of Independence the city became part of the modern Republic of Turkey. - 1 Name - 2 History - 3 Government - 4 Geography - 5 Climate - 6 Education - 7 Economy - 8 Transportation - 9 Notable people - 10 Main sights - 11 Sports - 12 Culture - 13 Twin towns - 14 See also - 15 Sources - 16 Further reading - 17 External links Konya was known in classical antiquity and during the medieval period as Ἰκόνιον (Ikónion) in Greek (with regular Medieval Greek apheresis Kónio(n)) and as Iconium in Latin. Ikónion is merely the Hellenization of an older Luwian name Ikkuwaniya. By some the name Ikónion is commonly explained as a derivation from εἰκών (icon), as an ancient Greek legend ascribed its name to the "eikon" (image), or the "gorgon's (Medusa's) head", with which Perseus vanquished the native population before founding the city. In some historic English texts, the city's name appears as Konia or Koniah. Excavations have shown that the region was inhabited during the Late Copper Age, around 3000 BC. The city came under the influence of the Hittites around 1500 BC. Later it was overtaken by the Sea Peoples in around 1200 BC. The Phrygians established their kingdom in central Anatolia in the 8th century BC. Xenophon describes Iconium, as the city was called, as the last city of Phrygia. The region was overwhelmed by Cimmerian invaders c. 690 BC. It was later part of the Persian Empire, until Darius III was defeated by Alexander the Great in 333 BC. Alexander's empire broke up shortly after his death and the town came under the rule of Seleucus I Nicator. During the Hellenistic period the town was ruled by the kings of Pergamon. As Attalus III, the last king of Pergamon, was about to die without an heir, he bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic. Once incorporated into the Roman Empire, under the rule of emperor Claudius, the city's name was changed to Claudioconium, and during the rule of emperor Hadrianus to Colonia Aelia Hadriana. According to the Acts of the Apostles, the apostles Paul and Barnabas preached in Iconium during their first Missionary Journey in about 47–48 AD, having been persecuted in Antioch, and Paul and Silas probably visited it again during Paul's Second Missionary Journey in about 50. Their visit to the synagogue of the Jews in Iconium divided the Jewish and non-Jewish communities between those who believed Paul and Barnabas' message and those who did not believe, provoking a disturbance during which attempts were made to stone the apostles. They fled to Lystra and Derbe, cities of Lycaonia. This experience is also mentioned in the Second Letter to Timothy,. 19th century American theologian Albert Barnes suggested that Timothy had been present with Paul in Iconium, Antioch and Lystra. The city became the seat of a bishop, which in ca. 370 was raised to the status of a metropolitan see for Lycaonia, with Saint Amphilochius as the first metropolitan bishop. Under the Byzantine Empire, the city was part of the Anatolic Theme. During the 8th to 10th centuries, the town and the nearby (Caballa) Kaballah Fortress (Turkish: Gevale Kalesi) (location) were a frequent target of Arab attacks as part of the Arab–Byzantine wars. The Seljuk Turks first raided the area in 1069, but a period of chaos overwhelmed Anatolia after the Seljuk victory in the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and the Norman mercenary leader Roussel de Bailleul rose in revolt at Iconium. The city was finally conquered by the Seljuks in 1084. From 1097 to 1243 it was the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. It was briefly occupied by the Crusaders Godfrey of Bouillon (August 1097), and Frederick Barbarossa (May 18, 1190) after the Battle of Iconium (1190). The area was retaken by the Turks. Konya reached the height of its wealth and influence in the second half of the 12th century when the Seljuk sultans of Rum also subdued the Anatolian beyliks to their east, especially that of the Danishmends, thus establishing their rule over virtually all of eastern Anatolia, as well as acquiring several port towns along the Mediterranean (including Alanya) and the Black Sea (including Sinop) and even gaining a momentary foothold in Sudak, Crimea. This golden age lasted until the first decades of the 13th century. Many Persians and Persianized Turks from Persia and Central Asia migrated to Anatolian cities either to flee the invading Mongols or to benefit from the opportunities for educated Muslims in a newly established kingdom. Following the fall of the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate in 1307, Konya was made the capital of a Turkish beylik (emirate); which lasted until 1322 when the city was captured by the neighbouring Beylik of Karamanoğlu. In 1420, the Beylik of Karamanoğlu fell to the Ottoman Empire and, in 1453, Konya was made the provincial capital of Karaman Eyalet. During Ottoman rule, Konya was administered by the Sultan's sons (Şehzade), starting with Şehzade Mustafa and Şehzade Cem (the sons of Sultan Mehmed II), and later the future Sultan Selim II. Between 1483 and 1864, Konya was the administrative capital of Karaman Eyalet. During the Tanzimat period, as part of the vilayet system introduced in 1864, Konya became the seat of the larger Vilayet of Konya which replaced Karaman Eyalet. Turkish War of IndependenceEdit Konya had a major air base during the Turkish War of Independence. In 1922, the Air Force was renamed as the Inspectorate of Air Forces[a] and was headquartered in Konya. The Third Air Wing[b] of the 1st Air Force Command[c] is based at the Konya Air Base. The wing controls the four Boeing 737 AEW&C Peace Eagle aircraft of the Turkish Air Force. Population exchange between Greece and TurkeyEdit In 1923 in the frame of the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, the Greeks that inhabited Konya left as refugees and settled in Greece. At the same time, a significant influx of Albanians came and settled in the area. The first local administration in Konya was founded in 1830. This administration was converted into a municipality in 1876.[d] In March 1989, the municipality became a Metropolitan Municipality. As of that date, Konya had three central district municipalities (Meram, Selçuklu, Karatay) and a Metropolitan Municipality. The city is in the southern part of the Central Anatolia Region. The land is broad and flat with a lot of lowlands and plateaus. The plateaus are covered with rich steppes, therefore, affecting the agriculture sector. Additionally, the southernmost part of Konya is largely surrounded by the Taurus Mountains. The city and the southern parts of the greater Konya enjoy abundant sunshine across the country, resulting in big potential in solar farming. The largest solar farm of Turkey is located 20 miles west of the city. Lake Tuz, known in Turkish as Tuz Golu, is the second-largest lake in all of Turkey. This lake supplies Turkey with a large amount of Turkey's salt demand. Beysehir Lake is on the western part of Konya and is near the border. It is known to be the largest fresh water lake in Turkey and one of the most important national parks. Beysehir Lake is important for tourism in Konya and attracts thousands of people each year to its 2 beaches and 22 islands for water and mountain sports. Meke Lake is on the border of the Karapinar province and is considered to be a heavily protected natural area. Lake Aksehir is on the border of the Afyon Karahisar province and it is famous from "Nasreddin Hodja" stories. The lake also provides a good habitat for famous "Aksehir cherries". Summers temperatures average 30 °C (86 °F). The highest temperature recorded in Konya was 40.6 °C (105 °F) on 30 July 2000. Winters average −4.2 °C (24 °F). The lowest temperature recorded was −26.5 °C (−16 °F) on 6 February 1972. Due to Konya's high altitude and its dry summers, nightly temperatures in the summer months are cool. Precipitation levels are low, but precipitation can be observed throughout the year. |Climate data for Konya (1929–2017)| |Record high °C (°F)||17.6 |Average high °C (°F)||4.6 |Daily mean °C (°F)||−0.2 |Average low °C (°F)||−4.2 |Record low °C (°F)||−28.2 |Average precipitation mm (inches)||37.4 |Average precipitation days||9.5||8.1||8.6||8.7||10.2||6.3||2.1||1.4||2.9||5.8||6.3||9.7||79.6| |Average relative humidity (%)||79||74||65||57||56||50||41||40||46||58||72||80||60| |Mean monthly sunshine hours||102.3||130.0||182.9||213.0||275.9||318.0||359.6||347.2||285.0||223.2||159.0||99.2||2,695.3| |Mean daily sunshine hours||3.3||4.6||5.9||7.1||8.9||10.6||11.6||11.2||9.5||7.2||5.3||3.2||7.4| |Source #1: Turkish State Meteorological Service| |Source #2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (humidity 1931–1960)| Konya hosts the Tactical Training Center Anatolian Eagle, a center for training NATO Allies and friendly Air Forces. Real Like training environment with large area and skilled aggressors provides a training opportunity to reach the maximum combat readiness for Air Force Fighters. Official Web Site Selçuk University had the largest number of students, 76,080, of any public university in Turkey during the 2008-09 academic year. It was founded in 1975. The other public university is Necmettin Erbakan University which was established in Konya in 2010. Private colleges in Konya include the KTO Karatay University. The city ranks among the Anatolian Tigers. There are a number of industrial parks. In 2012 Konya's exports reached 130 countries. A number of Turkish industrial conglomerates, such as Kombassan Holding, have their headquarters in Konya. While agriculture-based industries play a role, the city's economy has evolved into a center for the manufacturing of components for the automotive industry; machinery manufacturing; agricultural tools; casting industry; plastic paint and chemical industry; construction materials; paper and packing industry; processed foods; textiles; and leather industry. Konya has a tramway network in the city center, on which the Škoda 28 T trams are being used. The Konya Metro is currently in the planning and development phase and is slated for construction starting in 2020. - Amphilochius of Iconium, Christian bishop of the 4rth century - Kaloyan (Byzantine Greek: Καλό Γιάννη, "Kalo Yianni," literally 'good John') architect of Cappadocian Greek origin who constructed the Gök Medrese in Sivas. - Shah Jalal Famous Sufi Muslim figure in Bangladesh - Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, also called mawlana or Mevlana, was the inspirer of the Sufi Mevlevi order (known for the Whirling Dervishes and Masnavi). He died in Konya in 1273 and his mausoleum is located here. - Prokopios Lazaridis, Greek Orthodox metropolitan bishop of the Metropolis of Iconium - Orkut Büyükkökten, a software engineer who developed the social networking service Orkut, was born in 1975 in Konya. - Mehmet Oz, has a degree as a cardiothoraic surgeon from University of Columbia, a popular televized doctor on The Oprah Winfrey Show, and his own medical informative tv serie The Dr. Oz Show. Konyaspor is the football club of the city, that appear in Turkish Professional Football League. On May 31, 2017, they won the first national trophy of their history, winning Türkiye Kupası in the final against İstanbul Başakşehir in penalty shootout. The team repeated on August 6, 2017, following winning Türkiye Süper Kupası against Turkey's Beşiktaş champion. Konya was the final home of Rumi (Mevlana), whose tomb is in the city. In 1273, his followers in Konya established the Mevlevi Sufi order of Islam and became known as the Whirling Dervishes. Konya has the reputation of being one of the more religiously conservative metropolitan centers in Turkey. It was once known as the "citadel of Islam" and its inhabitants are still comparatively more devout than those from other cities. Konya produced Turkish carpets that were exported to Europe during the Renaissance. These expensive, richly patterned textiles were draped over tables, beds, or chests to proclaim the wealth and status of their owners, and were often included in the contemporary oil paintings as symbols of the wealth of the painter's clients. Etli ekmek – flat bread baked with ground meat, peppers, onions, and tomatoes Pişmaniye – similar to American cotton candy and resembling a fully white ball of yarn Fırın kebab – over-cooked meat (usually lamb) Various candies – Konya is known for its sweets, including cezerye, an old Turkish sweet made of carrots Tirit – a traditional rice dish that is made with meat and various vegetables Tavuk suyu – a tomato broth-based soup made with shredded chicken and noodles Konya is twinned with: - Christian saints born in Iconium - Turkic:Kuva-yı Havaiye Müfettişliği - Ana Jet Üssü or AJÜ - Hava Kuvvet Komutanlığı - "İhtisab Agalıgi" (Islamic-Ottoman office for public regularity) - "Turkey: Major cities and provinces". Citypopulation.de. Retrieved 2015-02-08. - "Financial Times: Reports — Anatolian tigers: Regions prove plentiful". Ft.com. Retrieved 7 August 2018. - root. "Anatolian Tigers". Investopedia. Retrieved 25 May 2015. - "Zaman: Anatolian tigers conquering the world". Archived from the original on 2013-08-21. Retrieved 2013-08-21. - Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (2017). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. De Gruyter. p. 239. ISBN 978-3-11-026128-8. - "Konya". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 25 May 2015. - Acts 13:51 - Acts 14:1–5 - Acts 14:21) - Acts 16:2 - Ramsay, William Mitchell (1908). The Cities of St. Paul. A.C. Armstrong. pp. 315–384. - Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (1977). Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Eerdmans. p. 475. ISBN 978-0-8028-3501-7. - 2 Timothy 3:10-13 - "Acts 14 Barnes' Notes". Bible Hub. Retrieved 2019-08-29. - Foss, Clive (1991). "Ikonion". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. London and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 985. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. - Hiro, Dilip (2011). Inside Central Asia. Gerald Duckworth & Company. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-7156-4038-8. - Mango, Andrew (1972). Discovering Turkey. Hastings House. p. 61. ISBN 0-8038-7111-2. OCLC 309327. - "Bir Hata Oluştu". Hvkk.tsk.tr. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2015. - Kocatürk, Utkan (1983). Atatürk ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti tarihi kronolojisi, 1918–1938 (in Turkish). Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi. p. 634. - Mehmet Kayhan YILDIZ- Hasan BÖLÜKBAŞ- Serdar ÖZGÜR- Tolga YANIK- Hasan DÖNMEZ/ KONYA,(DHA). "TSK yeni yıldızı Barış Kartalı'na kavuştu". HÜRRİYET – TÜRKİYE'NİN AÇILIŞ SAYFASI. Retrieved 25 May 2015. - "Turkey takes delivery of military aircraft". TodaysZaman. Archived from the original on February 22, 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2015. - "IFMSA Exchange Portal". Exchange.ifmsa.org. Retrieved 7 August 2018. - "Turkey: Provinces & Major Cities – Statistics & Maps on City Population". Archived from the original on 2017-01-14. Retrieved 2013-12-31. - "Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification" (PDF). Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions. Retrieved 7 August 2018. - "Resmi İstatistikler: İllerimize Ait Genel İstatistik Verileri" (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service. Archived from the original on 13 January 2019. Retrieved 13 January 2019. - "Klimatafel von Konya / Türkei" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 13 January 2019. - "Small Ruminant Congress". kucukbas2014.com. 2014-10-18. Archived from the original on 2014-10-18. Retrieved 2019-08-29.CS1 maint: unfit url (link) - "Konya Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi". Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2015. - "KTO Karatay Üniversitesi". Karatay.edu.tr. Retrieved 2011-09-16. - "General Overview Of The Konya Economy". En.kto.org.tr. Retrieved 25 May 2015. - "History « Kombassan Holding". Kombassan.com.tr. Archived from the original on 2015-05-25. Retrieved 25 May 2015. - "Škoda Transportation wins Konya tram contract". Railway Gazette. 2013-03-04. Retrieved 2019-08-29. - "Opening of Ankara – Konya fast line completes strategic link". Railway Gazette. 24 August 2011. Retrieved 2013-02-12. - "Invensys commissions ERTMS solution on Turkish High Speed Line". European Railway Review. 7 September 2011. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2011. - "Konya Hava Meydanı". DHMİ (State Airports Authority) (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2010-01-13. Retrieved 2019-08-29. - Thonemann, Peter (2011-05-04). "Amphilochius of Iconium and Lycaonian Asceticism". Journal of Roman Studies. 101: 185–205. doi:10.1017/s0075435811000037. ISSN 0075-4358. - Speros Vryonis (1981). Studies on Byzantium, Seljuks, and Ottomans. p. 282. Perhaps the best known of these architects was the Greek from Konya, Kaloyan, who worked on the Ilgin Han in 1267-8 and three years later built the Gök Medrese of Sivas. - ŞAHİN, SAMİ (2016-10-18). "Sıvas Blue Madrasa (Sahibia Madrasa) And The Traditional (Hadith) Value Of The Narratives On Its Inscriptions" (PDF). Cumhuriyet University Journal of Faculty of Theology (in Turkish & English). 10 (1): 145–163. OCLC 960847402.CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - Battutah, Ibn (2002). The Travels of Ibn Battutah. London: Picador. pp. 106, 309. ISBN 978-0-330-41879-9. - Savramis, Demosthenes (1968). Die soziale Stellung des Priesters in Griechenland [Social position of the priest in Greece] (in German). E. J. Brill. - Kiminas, Demetrius (2009). The ecumenical patriarchate : a history of its metropolitanates with annotated hierarch catalogs. San Bernardino, CA: Borgo Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-4344-5876-6. - "Introduction to Orkut". Programmerworld.net. Retrieved 25 May 2015. - "Konya Museums and Ruins". www.ktb.gov.tr. - McLean, B. Hudson (2018). Greek and Latin Inscriptions in the Konya Archaeological Museum. British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara. ISBN 978-1-898249-14-6. Retrieved 7 August 2018 – via Google Books. - "'Islam problem' baffles Turkey". BBC NEWS. 2004-12-03. Retrieved 2019-08-29. - King, Donald; Gallery, Hayward (1983). The Eastern carpet in the Western world from the 15th to the 17th century. Arts Council of Great Britain. pp. 26–27, 52–57. ISBN 978-0-7287-0362-9. - Campbell, Gordon (2006). "Carpet II: History". The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts. 1. Oxford University Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-19-518948-3. - "Carpets of the Ottoman Period". Old Turkish Carpets. 2019-06-19. Retrieved 2019-08-29. - "Konyalım". bekirhoca.com (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2019-08-29. - "Konya Büyükşehir Belediyesi". Konya.bel.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 2019-08-29. - Kyoto İle Kardeş Şehir Protokolü İmzalandı, Heyet Japon Parkı'nı Gezdi Archived 2014-10-16 at the Wayback Machine, Konya Büyükşehir Belediyesi (2010) - "Rumi Remembered in Birthplace of Shams". Archived from the original on 7 April 2015. Retrieved 21 March 2015. - "PAKISTAN – TURKEY JOINT STATEMENT" (Press release). Islamabad, Pakistan. Pakistan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2008-10-31. Archived from the original (HTML) on 2012-02-11. Retrieved 2018-03-30. Published in the 19th century - "Konia". Handbook for Travellers in Turkey (3rd ed.). London: J. Murray. 1854. OCLC 2145740. - Clément Huart (1897). Konia, la ville des derviches tourneurs (in French). Paris: Leroux. Published in the 20th century - "Konia", The Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.), New York: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1910, OCLC 14782424 - E. Broadrup (1995). "Konya/Catal Huyuk". International Dictionary of Historic Places. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. Published in the 21st century - C. Edmund Bosworth, ed. (2007). "Konya". Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. - "Konya". Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture. Oxford University Press. 2009. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Konya.| |Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Konia.| - Konya travel guide from Wikivoyage - Encyclopædia Britannica: Konya - More information about Konya - Emporis: Database of highrises and other structures in Konya - Detailed Pictures of Mevlana Museum - Pictures of the city, including Mevlana Museum and several Seljuk buildings - 600 Pictures of the city and sights - Extensive collection of pictures of the Mevlana museum in Konya - Ramsay, William Mitchell (1908). The Cities of St. Paul. A.C. Armstrong. pp. 315–384. - ArchNet.org. "Konya". Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: MIT School of Architecture and Planning. Archived from the original on 2012-10-23. Retrieved 2013-02-10. - "Konya". Islamic Cultural Heritage Database. Istanbul: Organization of Islamic Cooperation, Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture. Archived from the original on May 16, 2013.

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The Asia-Canada timeline presented here is a chronological record of over 250 years of history since the first Chinese settlers helped build a trading post in Nootka Sound. The timeline touches on the settlement history of various Asian groups, the discrimination that many suffered in our early history, accomplishments, firsts, biographies, and the gradual changes through which Canadian society came to accept the rights and equality of its Asian immigrants. January 01, 1788 First Chinese Settlers The first Chinese to settle in Canada were 50 artisans who accompanied Captain John Meares in 1788 to help build a trading post and encourage trade in sea otter pelts between Guangzhou, China and Nootka Sound. January 01, 1858 First Chinese Community in Canada In 1858, Chinese immigrants began arriving from San Francisco as gold prospectors in the Fraser River valley, and Barkerville, BC, became the first Chinese community in Canada. By 1860, the Chinese population of Vancouver Island and BC was estimated to be 7,000. January 01, 1877 Manzo Nagano Settles in Victoria The first known immigrant from Japan, Manzo Nagano, settled in Victoria, BC. The first wave of Japanese immigrants, called Issei (first generation), arrived between 1877 and 1928. By 1914, 10,000 people of Japanese ancestry had settled permanently in Canada. January 01, 1885 Chinese Labourers and the CPR Some 15,000 Chinese labourers completed the British Columbia section of the CPR, with more than 600 of them perishing under adverse working conditions during this essential construction. Largely because of the trans-Canada railway, Chinese communities developed across the nation. January 01, 1885 Chinese Head Tax Chinese migrants were obligated to pay a $50 "entry" or "head" tax before being admitted into Canada. The Chinese were the only ethnic group required to pay a tax to enter Canada. By 1903, the head tax was increased to $500; the number of Chinese who paid the fee in the first fiscal year dropped from 4719 to 8. March 09, 1885 Chinese Restriction Act BC passed the Act to Prevent the Immigration of Chinese. This act and its predecessor, which was passed in 1884, restricted the entry of Chinese immigrants. Both were disallowed by the federal government. January 01, 1897 First Sikhs in Canada The first Sikhs came to Canada at the turn of the 20th century. Some came to Canada as part of the Hong Kong military contingent en route to Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee (1897) and the coronation of Edward VII (1902), and returned to Canada to establish themselves in British Columbia. More than 5,000 South Asians, more than 90 per cent of them Sikhs, came to British Columbia before their immigration was banned in 1908. January 01, 1902 Royal Commission on Chinese and Japanese Immigration The federal government appointed a Royal Commission on Chinese and Japanese Immigration, which concluded that the Asians were "unfit for full citizenship ... obnoxious to a free community and dangerous to the state." January 01, 1903 Chinese Head Tax Increased to $500 After the 1903 session of Parliament passed legislation raising the head tax to $500, the number of Chinese who paid the fee in the first fiscal year dropped from 4,719 to 8. January 20, 1904 Disallowance of Chinese Ban The Canadian government disallowed a BC Act restricting Chinese immigration to that province. October 01, 1906 The Suian Maru Voyagers In October 1906, the Japanese vessel Suian Maru landed at Beecher Bay, on Vancouver Island. The group of 80 men and 3 women subsequently settled on Don and Lion islands near Richmond, BC. They worked in the fishing industry until the 1942 Japanese Internment. In October 2006, Richmond city council unveiled a plaque commemorating the Suian Maru voyagers. January 01, 1907 The Khalsa Diwan The Vancouver Khalsa Diwan Society was created in 1907 and through its leadership, Sikhs built their first permanent temple or gurdwara ("gateway to the guru") the following year. January 01, 1907 The Hayashi-Lemieux Gentlemen’s Agreement In 1907, at Canada's insistence, Japan limited the migration of males to Canada to 400 per year. As a result, most immigrants thereafter were women joining their husbands or unmarried women who were betrothed to men in Canada. January 01, 1907 South Asian Immigration Banned An order-in-council banned immigration from India and South Asian countries. The population of South Asians in Canada would drop to roughly 2,000, the majority being Sikh. Though wives and children of legal Sikh residents were allowed entry to the country in the 1920s, it would not be until the late 1940s that the policies were changed to allow for full South Asian immigration to Canada. September 07, 1907 Several hundred people rioted through Vancouver's Asian district to protest Asian immigration to Canada. Discriminatory legislation and social practices in BC denied Chinese, Japanese and South Asians the right to vote, practise law or pharmacy, be elected to public office, serve on juries, or work in education or the civil service. Public opinion resulted on several occasions in violent anti-Asian riots. January 01, 1908 Japanese Gardens in Canada Isaburo Kishida, a noted professional gardener and park designer from Yokohama, designed four Japanese gardens in or near Victoria. Two are still extant; a rock garden in the Butchart Gardens, 1908, and the Japanese Garden at Hatley Park National Historic Site, originally created in 1909 and expanded in 1913. May 23, 1914 The Komagata Maru arrived in Vancouver Harbour In 1914, 376 people from India aboard the immigrant ship Komagata Maru languished in Vancouver Harbour while Canadian authorities debated what to do with them. Exactly two months later, Canada's new navy, in action for the first time, escorted the ship from Canadian waters on 23 July while many Vancouver residents cheered approvingly from shore. January 01, 1916 Japanese Canadians in the First World War Although the federal government did not support the enlistment of first generation Japanese immigrants during the First World War, some Issei men persisted and in 1916, the first group was sent overseas. Of the 222 men who served, 54 were killed and 13 men received the Military Medal of Bravery. January 01, 1919 Reduction of Japanese Fishing Licences In 1919, Japanese fishermen controlled more than 3,200 fishing licences. The Department of Fisheries reduced the number of licences issued to people other than white residents, British subjects and Canadian First Nations, and by 1925 Japanese fishermen would lose close to 1,000 licences. January 01, 1923 Gentlemen’s Agreement Amendment An amendment to the 1908 Hayashi-Lemieux agreement reduced the number of male Japanese immigrants to a maximum of 150 annually. In 1928, the Gentlemen’s Agreement was amended further to include women and children in the count of 150. January 01, 1931 Japanese Canadian Veterans Given Right to Vote The federal government granted the franchise to Japanese Canadian veterans of the First World War. They were the first Japanese Canadians given the right to vote. May 29, 1933 Chinese Soccer Team Wins The Chinese Students Soccer Team of Vancouver, BC, won the prestigious Mainland Cup, indicative of Lower Mainland soccer supremacy, and became heroes for the long suffering Chinese community who experienced severe institutional racism and economic depression. In September 2011, the team was inducted into the BC Sports Hall of Fame. January 01, 1936 Japanese Canadians Request Franchise A delegation of Japanese Canadians travelled to Ottawa to speak before the Special Committee on Elections and Franchise Acts. Despite their presentation, the federal government upheld the denial of the franchise. January 01, 1939 Japanese Canadians and the Second World War Despite Canadian citizenship, Japanese Canadians were excluded from military service. Several second generation (Nisei) Japanese fought to enlist before and during the Second World War; however, only 32 Nisei (most of whom lived outside of BC) were allowed to enlist in regular service. In 1945, an additional 119 Nisei men, most of whom had been expelled from their homes in BC and whose families were in detention sites, enlisted in the Canadian Intelligence Corps. March 01, 1941 Everyone of Japanese descent over 16 years old was required by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to register. December 07, 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December, 38 Japanese-Canadians were arrested as subversives. The federal government used the War Measures Act 12 weeks after the attack to order the removal of all Japanese Canadians residing within 160 kilometers of the Pacific coast. About 20,000 Japanese Canadians in BC, 75 per cent of whom were Canadian citizens, were fingerprinted, issued identification cards and removed from their homes. More than 8,000 were moved to a temporary detention camp (where women and children were held in a livestock building) at the Pacific National Exhibition Grounds in Vancouver. January 01, 1943 Japanese Property Sold Between 1943 and 1946, the federal government sold all Japanese Canadian-owned property — homes, farms, fishing boats, businesses and personal property — and deducted from the proceeds any social assistance received by the owner while confined and unemployed in a detention camp. March 14, 1944 Ontario Passes Racial Discrimination Act Ontario was the first province to respond to social change when it passed the Racial Discrimination Act of 1944. This landmark legislation effectively prohibited the publication and display of any symbol, sign, or notice that expressed ethnic, racial, or religious discrimination. It was followed by other sweeping legislation. January 01, 1945 Immigration and Labour Demand At war's end, Canadian immigration regulations remained unchanged from the restrictive prewar years. But with a great demand for labour, Canada gradually re-opened its doors to European immigration; first to immigrants Canada traditionally preferred — those from the United Kingdom and Western Europe — but eventually to the rest of Europe as well. Immigration from Eastern Europe came to a halt, however, as borders to the west were closed by the Soviet Union and its Cold War allies. January 01, 1946 Protest against Deportation of Japanese Canadians In 1946, after the war was over, the government attempted to deport 10,000 Japanese Canadians to Japan but was stopped by a massive public protest from all parts of Canada. Nevertheless, 4,000 Japanese Canadians, more than half of whom were Canadian citizens, were deported to Japan. January 01, 1947 Chinese and South Asian Canadians Gain Right to Vote Federally and Provincially The Citizenship Act extended the right to vote federally and provincially to Chinese Canadian and South Asian Canadian men and women, but ignored Indigenous peoples and Japanese Canadians. April 01, 1949 Japanese Canadians Enfranchised Japanese Canadians were given the franchise and the legal restrictions used to control the movement of Japanese Canadians were removed. With their freedom re-established, some moved back to British Columbia, but due to the hardships suffered, most Japanese Canadians who were expelled from the coast did not return. With the extension of the federal franchise to Japanese Canadians, the last statutory disenfranchisement of Asians was removed. January 01, 1967 Second Wave of Japanese Immigration The second wave of Japanese immigration began in 1967 as a result of the “points system.” Many Japanese immigrants who came to Canada during this period worked in the service or skilled trades sectors. October 01, 1967 Immigration "Points System" Prior to 1967, the immigration system relied largely on immigration officers' judgment to determine who should be eligible to enter Canada. Deputy Minister of Immigration Tom Kent established a points system, which assigned points in nine categories, to determine eligibility. January 01, 1971 Majority of Immigrants Non-European The last vestiges of racial discrimination in immigration were gone from Canadian immigration legislation and regulations by the late 1960s. This opened Canada's doors to many of those who would previously have been rejected as “undesirable.” In 1971, for the first time in Canadian history, the majority of those immigrating into Canada were of non-European ancestry. October 01, 1971 Trudeau Introduces Canada's Multicultural Policy Canada's multiculturalism policy grew partly in reaction to the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, which endorsed a "bicultural Canada," barely recognizing "other ethnic groups." This dilemma was partially resolved in 1971 by Prime Minister Trudeau's assertion that Canada was a "multicultural country with two official languages." April 30, 1975 Fall of Saigon The Vietnam War ended with the fall of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, to Communist forces. In the years that followed, many refugees risked their lives to escape the turbulent political context, human rights violations and rapidly deteriorating living conditions in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. By 1985, Canada had admitted more than 98,000 refugees from these countries. Since 2015, 30 April has been designated Journey to Freedom Day in commemoration of the perilous journey undertaken by Vietnamese refugees. January 01, 1978 New Immigration Act and Refugees In 1978, Canada enacted a new Immigration Act that affirmed Canada's commitment to the resettlement of refugees from oppression. Refugees would no longer be admitted to Canada as an exception to immigration regulations. Admission of refugees was now part of Canadian immigration law and regulations. November 01, 1978 The Hai Hong In 1978, Canada accepted 604 refugees from the freighter Hai Hong. The situation of the "boat" people and of Lao, Khmer and Vietnamese "land people" who fled to Thailand grew increasingly severe, and in response Canada took in 59,970 refugee and designated-class immigrants during the next two years. September 30, 1979 W5’s "Campus Giveaway" CTV’s W5 program made the allegation that foreign students were taking the place of white Canadians in such career-related university programs as pharmacy, engineering and medicine. Since the "foreign faces" in the report were Chinese,W5's implication was that all students of Chinese origin were foreigners, and that Canadian taxpayers were subsidizing Chinese students — in spite of the fact that almost all of the identified students were Canadian citizens. Sixteen anti-W5 committees from Victoria to Halifax mobilized the Chinese population and secured a vague apology from CTV. January 01, 1980 Illegally Stranded Refugees The refugee issue was dramatically brought home to Canadians in the late 1980s, when two ships illegally stranded their respective cargoes of Sikh and Tamil refugee claimants on Canada's East Coast. Amid greatly exaggerated fears that Canada was about to be flooded with refugees, Parliament and immigration authorities began tightening up refugee regulations and procedures. January 01, 1980 Southeast Asian Refugees The first major refugee resettlement program under the new immigration legislation of 1978 came during the early 1980s, when Canada led the Western world in its welcome to Southeast Asian refugees and particularly those from Vietnam, often referred to as the "boat people." Many had escaped Vietnam in tiny boats and found themselves confined to refugee camps in Thailand or Hong Kong awaiting permanent homes. January 01, 1981 Joy Kagawa’s Obasan Published In 1981, Joy Kogawa’s Obasan, the first novel to trace the internment and dispersal of 20,000 Japanese Canadians from the West Coast during the Second World War is published. Kogawa was made a member of the Order of Canada in 1986. In 2006, her family's original Vancouver home was purchased by the Land Conservancy of British Columbia, and saved from imminent demolition, a testament to the significance of Kogawa's work for the history and culture of British Columbia. November 17, 1981 Conrado Santos became the First Filipino Elected Conrado Santos became the first Filipino to be elected to office when he was elected to the Manitoba Assembly for the New Democratic Party. December 19, 1984 Hong Kong Invests in Vancouver The signing of the Chinese-British Joint Declaration mandating the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997 began to cause a flow of Hong Kong capital and immigration into Vancouver. January 01, 1985 Canada's New Immigration Policy Canada changed its immigration policy to expand the list of business immigrants to include investors, entrepreneurs and those who are self-employed. This led to increased immigration from Hong Kong where people had begun to leave after Britain agreed to transfer its colony to China in 1997, and to a lesser extent from Taiwan. April 04, 1985 In the Singh Case, the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that a refugee has the right not to "be removed from Canada to a country where his life or his freedom would be threatened." August 11, 1986 Sri Lankan Migrants Rescued Off Newfoundland Canadian fishing boats rescued over 150 Sri Lankan refugees off St. Shott’s, NL. The refugees were left in international waters by a smuggler. Without water, food or fuel, the refugees drifted for three days before being spotted. The rescue sparked a debate over how Canada approaches refugees, with some accusing the group of making false claims. In response to a string of similar events, the Mulroney government initiated a reform of the refugee system in 1988. October 06, 1986 UNHCR Nansen Refugee Award to the people of Canada The United Nations awards the people of Canada the Nansen Refugee Award "in recognition of their essential and constant contribution to the cause of refugees within their country and around the world”. Between 1979 and 1981, Canada had accepted more than 60,000 refugees from Vietnam, Cambodge and Laos, many of whom were sponsored by Canadian families and private organizations. It was the first and only time the award was presented to an entire nation. January 01, 1988 Hong Kong Immigrants Between 1988 and 1993, 166,487 Hong Kong immigrants settled in Canada, with Ontario (50.57 per cent) and BC (26.7 per cent) receiving the bulk of these new Canadians; by 2001, 82 per cent of people of Chinese origin lived in one of these two provinces. January 01, 1988 Chan Hon Goh In 1988, Chan Hon Goh became the first Canadian to win a silver medal at the prestigious Adeline Genée International Ballet competition in England. September 22, 1988 Redress to Japanese Canadians Prime Minister Brian Mulroney acknowledged the wartime wrongs committed against Japanese Canadians and announced compensation for each individual who had been expelled from the coast, was born before 1 April 1949 and was alive at the time of the signing of the agreement. The compensation also provided a community fund to rebuild the infrastructure of the destroyed communities, pardons for those wrongfully convicted of disobeying orders under the War Measures Act, Canadian citizenship for those wrongfully deported to Japan and their descendants and funding for a Canadian Race Relations Foundation. November 08, 1988 Ondaatje and the Order of Canada Author Michael Ondaatje was invested as an Officer of the Order of Canada. The Sri Lankan-born highly acclaimed author emigrated from Sri Lanka and came to Canada through England in 1962. He became a Canadian citizen in 1965. Perhaps his most well-known work, The English Patient (1992) was awarded the Governor General's Award for fiction in 1992, and earned Ondaatje a share of the prestigious Booker Prize, the first ever awarded to a Canadian. A 1996 film version of the novel won nine Academy Awards. November 21, 1988 Dr. Rey D. Pagtakhan Elected MP Dr. Rey D. Pagtakhan, a Liberal from Manitoba, became the first elected Filipino Member of Parliament. July 01, 1997 Hong Kong Handover After 156 years as a British colony, Hong Kong was returned to China. Many people left Hong Kong in the years leading up to the transfer. Canada, with the main destinations being Toronto and Vancouver, saw increased immigration in the mid 1980s and early 1990s. Unlike earlier Chinese immigrants, those from Hong Kong were educated and generally wealthy. September 17, 1998 Vivienne Poy appointed to the Senate Vivienne Poy became the first Canadian of Asian descent to be appointed to the Senate. Born in Hong Kong, Poy was a historian, entrepreneur and fashion designer. During her time in the Senate, Poy sponsored the Famous Five monument in Calgary and was instrumental in the designation of May as Asian Heritage Month. October 07, 1999 Adrienne Clarkson Sworn in as Governor General Adrienne Clarkson took office as Canada’s governor general. Prime Minister Jean Chrétien appointed Clarkson marking several "firsts" in the selection of Canada's governor general: she was the first without a military background and the first non-white Canadian to be appointed to the vice-regal position. January 01, 2001 Religious Tolerance and the Kirpan In 2001, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that a Québec student had the right to wear a kirpan while in school. The Québec Court of Appeal struck down the decision in 2004, ruling that community safety was more important than wearing the ceremonial dagger, but in 2006 the Supreme Court again decided that religious tolerance was to be encouraged in Canadian society and that a total ban infringed on the guarantee of religious freedom under the Charter of Rights. June 28, 2004 Bev Oda Elected to Parliament Bev Oda became the first Japanese Canadian Member of Parliament, when she was elected as the representative for Durham, Ontario. December 26, 2004 Earthquake and Tsunami in the Indian Ocean A giant earthquake struck about 150 kilometres off the west coast of northern Sumatra Island (Indonesia) generating a catastrophic tsunami that caused devastation in eleven countries around the Indian Ocean. The tsunami waves caused killed people more than 2,000 kilometers away, as far as the Seychelles and Somalia By February 2005, the global death toll was estimated as 226,566, with many unreported deaths. The Government of Canada donated some $425 million to relief and reconstruction in the affected region. January 01, 2005 Deepa Mehta’s Water Filmmaker Deepa Mehta released the final film of her elements trilogy with 2005’s Water. The story of socially marginalized widows who are ostracized in conservative parts of India went through a series of delays as violent protesters threatened Mehta's life and destroyed film sets in the holy city of Varanasi, where "widow houses" can still be found. April 12, 2005 Chinese Begin Investing in Alberta’s Oil Sands China National Offshore Oil Corp (or CNOOC) is the first Chinese company to invest in Alberta’s oil sands with the purchase of a 16.7 per cent share of MEG Energy Corp. China's two other state-controlled oil companies, PetroChina and Sinopec, would also purchase shares in other oil sand companies by 2009. February 03, 2006 Suzuki named Companion of the Order of Canada Geneticist and broadcaster David Suzuki was promoted to Companion of the Order of Canada. He was named an Officer of the Order in 1977. Suzuki has won multiple awards for his work in both science and broadcasting, where he has raised public awareness on important environmental issues. June 22, 2006 Chinese Head Tax Apology Under much community pressure, Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered an apology to the Chinese community for the implementation of the head tax, which had been originally introduced in 1885. An official directive made in Parliament ordered compensation for the head tax of approximately $20,000 to be paid to survivors or their spouses. September 17, 2007 Ève-Mary Thaï Thi Lac Elected Ève-Mary Thaï Thi Lac became the first Canadian of Vietnamese Origin elected to the House of Commons, representing Saint-Hyacinthe–Bagot, Québec for the Bloc Québécois. November 05, 2009 Moriyama Invested as a Companion of the Order of Canada Architect Raymond Moriyama was invested as a Companion of the Order of Canada. He was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in 1985. He won the Governor General’s Medal for Architecture in 1977 and 1984. April 12, 2010 Chinese Oil Producer Buys Shares in Syncrude Sinopec Corp, China's second-largest oil producer, paid $4.65 billion for a 9.03 per cent share of Syncrude. The purchase more than doubled that country’s presence in Alberta's oil sands since its companies began investing there in 2005. August 13, 2010 Tamil Refugees in Victoria A Thai registered cargo ship with as many as 500 Tamils on board arrived in Canadian waters. The MV Sun Sea was intercepted by armed Canadian military vessels. Health and security officials boarded the ship in Victoria, BC, and the passengers given medical check-ups. They were then moved to detention centres in the Vancouver area to await processing of their refugee claims. March 11, 2011 Earthquake and Tsunami in Japan A massive earthquake caused a catastrophic tsunami to strike the coast of Japan causing devastation in the coastal towns, tens of thousands of deaths and a lingering nuclear crisis. May 18, 2016 Formal Apology for the Komagata Maru Incident Prime Minister Justin Trudeau formally apologized for the Komagata Maru incident before the House of Commons. In 1914, a chartered ship carrying Punjabis who sought a better life in Canada was denied entry at the Port of Vancouver. A dramatic challenge to Canada’s former practice of excluding immigrants from India ensued. The passengers were finally turned away after a long legal ordeal, only to face a deadly conflict with police upon their return to India.

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Presentation on theme: "A2 Physical Education Sport Psychology"— Presentation transcript: 1 A2 Physical Education Sport Psychology PERSONALITYRevision GuideMr Leighton 2 Personality TIPS!Make sure you learn the specific definition of personality!Have awareness of the links between personality and sports performance.It is important to understand the NATURE (trait) V NURTURE (social learning) and interactionist perspectives of behaviour.Learn the strengths and weaknesses of each perspective.Be aware of the problems associated with the use of personality profiling in sport. 3 Personality“The sum total of an individuals characteristics which make him unique” (Hollander).“Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a persons character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines the unique adjustment to the environment” (Eysenck). 4 Personality Types TRAITS INTROVERT Shy, timid, reserved, aloof, NARROW BAND APPROACH, GIRDANO, 1990INTROVERTShy, timid,reserved, aloof,self sufficientTYPE ‘A’Highly competitive,Strong desire to succeed,Works fast, likes to control,Prone to suffer stressEXTROVERTAdventurous,confident,Sociable,Group dependent,enthusiasticTYPE ‘B’Non-competitive,Unambitious,Works more slowly,Does not enjoy controlLess prone to stress 5 Personality Theories Social Learning Theory (Bandura) Trait Theory NATUREV’sNURTUREPersonality TheoriesSocial Learning Theory (Bandura)“All behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment”BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF ENVIRONMENT-ve = Does not consider inherited behaviour (traits)Trait Theory“People are born with established personality characteristics”Inherited at birth.StableEnduringconsistent in all situations.BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY+ve = Can be easily measured through questionnaires-ve = Does not take into account environmental influences. It is not a true indicator of behaviour.CATTELL (1965) identified 16 personality traitsINTROVERT & EXTROVERTInteractionist Theory“Behaviour occurs from the interaction between inherited traits and learned experiences”BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY × ENVIRNOMENT 6 Personality Theories Concentric Ring Theory (Hollander 1967) Role Related Behaviour – Surface of personalityTypical Response – Your usual response in most situationsThe Psychological Core – The ‘real you’The boundary line of each layer gets wider as you get closer to the centre of the model which shows that each layer is harder to enter. As you move closer to the centre, your ‘real’ personality begins to surface 7 ****THINK OF AGGRESSION AS AN EXAMPLE!**** Personality TheoriesPsychodynamic Theory (Freud, 1933)IDBasic Instinct(no consciouscontrol)EGOConsciouslink with realityID, EGO & SUPER EGO interact to produce individual patterns of behaviour in sport.SUPER EGOMoral Arm(social conscience)Personality is formed from the conflict of SEEKING, RELEASING and INHIBITING behaviour.****THINK OF AGGRESSION AS AN EXAMPLE!**** 9 Personality Testing Methods of Testing Observation Psychometric methods: self report questionnaires (16 personality factor questionnaire designed by CATTELL)ProblemsQuestionnaires, observations and self-reports are not reliable as people can fix answers.SCEPTICAL APPROACH: Evidence is too general – personality alone can not predict behaviour.CREDULOUS APPROACH: Although there is a link between personality research and performance in sport, there is lack of evidence to support this. 10 Attitudes TIPS!Make sure you understand how attitudes are formed and influenced.You need to be able to explain how attitudes can be changed.Try to understand the links between attitude and behaviour in sport. 11 ATTITUDE OBJECTSThe people, subject or situation towards which an attitude is directed. 12 & BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE What is an ATTITUDE?ATTITUDES – A learned behavioural predisposition. (linked with personality)UNSTABLELEARNEDCAN BECHANGED/CONTROLLEDDIRECTED TOWARDSATTITUDE OBJECTSENDURING EMOTIONAL& BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE 13 Formation of Attitudes COACHES/ TEACHERSPAST EXPERIENCESATTITUDESPREDUJICEPARENTSMEDIAFRIENDS/ PEERSAttitudes are mainly formed through experiences.Socialisation: The process of mixing and relating to other people. 14 Triadic Model of Attitudes This is known as the information componentThis concerns how a person intends to behave towards an attitude objectThis is known as the emotional component 15 Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) If a person hold two ideas that oppose and conflict with each other an element of discomfort arises. Emotional conflict is called DISSONANCE. 16 Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) To reduce this feeling of dissonance, the impact of one of the conflicting ideas could be lessened and therefore an attitude would change.Updating knowledge or providing a person with new information can change the cognitive component.Providing a person with new and positive experiences can modify the affective component.If a skill is simplified or if some form of guidance is used to make execution easier, the behavioural component of attitude can be changed.Remember METHODS OF GUIDANCE from AS SKILL 17 Persuasive Communication Theory You need to be aware of most effective way of persuading someone to change their attitude.Would these people persuade you or would they just cause you stress? 18 Persuasive Communication Theory The PersuaderSignificant otherwith high status2. The MessagePositive to initiatethe changePERSUASIVE COMMUNICATIONthe person mustpay attention- understand- accept- retainthe message being giventhe coach must- be expert- be trustworthythe message must- be clear- be unambiguous- be balanced between pros and cons3. The recipientsEasy to changedan attitude if therecipient reallywishes to bechanged4. The situationThe presence ofother persuaders 19 TASK…………You are a GCSE PE pupil. How could persuasive communication change your negative attitude towards cross country? 20 ANSWER…………A significant other, e.g. teacher/captain persuades you that cross country has excellent fitness benefits for a GCSE PE pupil. The teacher explains that they can chose cross country as one of their 4 sports.The teacher tells you it will improve your practical grade if you opt for cross country.You understand that this could improve your overall practical grade so you begin to realise the benefits of taking part.Other pupils in your GCSE class share positive experiences of cross country with you and actively encourage you to take part. 21 TASK…………How could a physical education teacher change the negative attitude that a pupil may have towards swimming? 22 ANSWER….. Educate the pupil about the benefits of swimming Use cognitive dissonance theoryPersuasive communication from a significant other, e.g. teacherSet achievable goals to ensure pupil achieves success and experiences enjoyment.Offer rewards, e.g. praise, trophies.Familiarise with role models from within the sport of swimming.Use floats to make execution of some strokes easier.Attribution retraining. 23 To conclude……….Attitudes are generally poor predictors of behaviour.Social and situational factors influence actual behaviour very strongly.“Behavioural intention is the strongest predictor of behaviour (Fishbein, 1974).” 24 Achievement Motivation TIPS! You need to understand the meaning of the term ‘achievement motivation’.Make sure you know the characteristics of the different personality types – TAS and TAF.You need to be aware of the links between personality and the motive to achieve.It is important to make links between TAS and TAF and ‘attributions’ for success and failure. 25 Achievement Motivation Achievement Motivation is a concept developed by sports psychologists to link PERSONALITY and COMPETITIVENESS.The major issue centres on the extent to which an INDIVIDUAL IS MOTIVATED TO ATTAIN SUCCESS.Success in sport is measured against some type of COMPETITIVE GOAL. 26 THINK BACK TO GOALS FROM AS SKILL! Types of GoalsAccording to BIDDLE, there are several types of goal against which success can be judged:MASTERY or TASK GOALS: Associated with self-improvement, e.g. trying to achieve a PB in athletics (the same as PROCESS GOALS).EGO or ABILITY GOALS: Involve a comparison against ones rivals, e.g. beating everyone else to win the club tennis tournament (the same as OUTCOME GOALS)SOCIALLY APPROVED GOALS: Involves seeking social reinforcement as a measure of success, e.g. winning to earn approval from parents or coaches.THINK BACK TO GOALS FROM AS SKILL! 27 Atkinson & McClelland (1976) – Interactionist View In any challenging situation, everyone will have both a ‘need to achieve’ and a ‘need to avoid failure’. Whichever feeling is stronger will determine whether the task is accepted or declined.Competitive orientation is generated through personality and situational factors 28 Personality Factors TAS = Tendency to APPROACH success A = TASsomeone with a high need to achieve will probably have a low need to avoid failure and will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are more risky, e.g.the hard route up a rock faceB = TAFsomeone with a high need to avoid failure will probably have a low need to achieve and will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily achieved, e.g. the easy route up the rock faceTAS = Tendency to APPROACH successTAF = Tendency to AVOID failure 29 Situational Factors A = If the probability of success low (competing against the world champion) you will strive very hard to win (incentive high). You will be highly chuffed if you win.B =If the probability of success high (competing in local club match) you don’t need to try as hard to win (incentive low and expect to win easily). It is not so pleasing if you win. 30 IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach) What can the coach do?IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach)Increase positive reinforcement hence increasing pride and satisfactionEnsure that goals are achievableEnsure that at least some situations guarantee successand subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line with progressEnsure that tasks are challengingEnsure that the probability of success is goodEnsure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the race worth winning?) 31 REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID FAILURE (NaF) What can the coach do?REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID FAILURE (NaF)Reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of performer worrying about failureFocus negative feedback on effort rather than ability. This avoids the performer tending to believe that causes of failure are internal (due to lack of ability for example) and reduces the risk of learned helplessness.Avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable (such as performing against a much superior opponent)if this is not possible alter the criteria for success (you will have succeeded if you only lose by 2 goals). 32 Group Dynamics TIPS! Be able to define the terms ‘group’ and ‘team’. You need to understand Steiner’s model of group performance.Be able to explain the Ringlemann effect and social loafing and how they damage the cohesiveness of a team.Learn the factors affecting the cohesiveness of a group and how any breakdowns can be prevented.Learn the characteristics of an effective leader.Describe emergent and prescribed leaders.You need to be able to understand the different perspectives on and theories of leadership. 33 Groups A collective identity GROUPS (Carron) A sense of shared purpose “Groups are those social aggregates that involve mutual awareness and the potential for interaction” (McGrath)A collective identityGROUPS(Carron)A sense of shared purposeA clear structure for communication 34 Group Cohesion“The extent to which a group sticks together in pursuit of a common goal.”TASK COHESIONThe way team memberswork together tosuccessfully completea task, e.g. a football team setsOut to win by adopting attackingTactics at home & away matchesVital in INTERACTIVESports, e.g. hockeySOCIAL COHESIONThe personal relationshipswithin a group which relieson individuals enjoyingsocial interaction, e.g. strongBond developed whilst on tour.Vital in CO-ACTIVE sports,e.g. track and field 35 Group Dynamics“The social processes operating within the group between individual members.”TO ACHIEVE COHESIONBreak down cliquesand sub groupsSeparate pairsIntegrate isolatesSUB GROUPSSmall groupscontained withinthe whole groupGROUP DYNAMICSOCIOGRAMThe best way ofillustrating thegroup dynamics ofa team.Team sports rely onunits within the teamWorking closelytogether 36 Steiner’s ModelACTUAL = POTENTIAL LOSSES DUE TOPRODUCTIVITY PRODUCTIVITY FAULTY PROCESSES(AP) (PP) (FP)The maximum capability of the group when cohesiveness is strongestFactors that go wrong in team performance which impede/ prevent group cohesion e.g. co-ordination losses & motivational lossesThe team performance at any given time (due to successful interaction)GROUP COHESION IS THE FORCE THAT BINDS A GROUP TOGETHER, HELPING TO PREVENT FAULTY PROCESSES. 37 Faulty Processes Co-ordination Losses Motivation Losses These occur when the ‘operational effectiveness’ of the group cannot be sustained for the whole match.Planned strategies/tactics may go wrong due to positional error or bad timing, e.g. Line out in rugby.Motivation LossesThis may occur if the task is too difficult.Also an individual might suffer loss of motivation causing them to withdraw effort and coast through that part of the game.A motivation loss that leads to a reduction in effort is called SOCIAL LOAFING. This is called when an individuals efforts go unnoticed or when someone feels like the others on their team are not trying hard enough. People with low SC tend to be loafers.A co-ordination loss that leads to a breakdown in team work is called the RINGLEMANN EFFECT. Problems with team co-ordination are more likely to increase as the number of team members increase. 38 Group Locomotion“ The process that explains the reasons why the group has formed. It symbolises the activity of the team.”****Don’t always assume that good players make good leaders! Make sure you know the characteristics of a good leader****For locomotion to be efficient there must be a LEADER to ensure the co-ordination of the team. 39 Leadership Think of Woody from Toy Story! What makes a good Leader? DeterminationUnderstand the needs of othersGood communication skillsHighly developed perception skillsWhat makes a goodLeader?AmbitionExperienceVisionGood at making decisionsEmpathy with team members 40 Selection of a LeaderEMERGENT LEADERS: Already belongs to the group & selection is made formally, e.g. by vote or interview.PRECRIBED LEADERS: Selected from outside of the group and is known as an external appointment. 41 Leadership Theories IS A LEADER BORN OR MADE? TRAIT APPROACH: Leaders are born with the skills necessary to take charge……however, although certain traits may be helpful in leadership, they are not essential, so this theory is NOT A GOOD PREDICTOR OF BEHAVIOUR.SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: The skills of leadership can be acquired by copying others and then developed through experiences. Copying successful role models is called ‘vicarious reinforcement.’ This DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE.INTERACTIONIST THEORY: Leaders emerge because of inherited abilities (traits) and learned skills. Interactionist theory gives a MORE REALISTIC EXPLANATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOURS IN SPORT. 42 Styles of Leadership Autocratic Leaders (task orientated): Tend to make all decisionsMotivated to complete a task as quickly and effectively as possibleAuthoritarian style – they do not take into account the groups opinionsDoes not share responsibilityEffective when quick decisions need to be madeDemocratic Leaders (social/personal orientated):Shares decisions and responsibilities with groupInterested in developing inter-personal relationships within the teamEffective in co-active sportsLaisser-faire Leaders:Leader stands aside and allows the group to make their own decisionsMembers of this type of group tend to be aggressive towards one another when mistakes occurred and they gave up easily. 43 Fiedler’s Contingency Model According to Fiedler, the correct style of leadership to adopt depends on the ‘favourableness’ of the situation.Highly favourable situationHighly unfavourable situationLeaders position is strongLeaders position is weakTask is simple with clear structureTask is complex with vague structureWarm group and leader relationsHostile group and leader relationsAUTOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in both the MOST FAVOURABLE and the LEAST FVOURABLE situations.DEMOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in MODERATELY FAVOURABLE situations. 45 Multidimensional Model of Sports Leadership CHELLANDURAI believed that the effectiveness of the group could be judged on:The degree of success accomplished during a taskThe extent to which the group experienced satisfaction while being led to the goal.SITUATIONAL, LEADER AND GROUP MEMBER CHARACTERISCS interact to determine the behaviour adopted by the leader (these are ANTECEDENTS)REQUIRED, ACTUAL AND PREFERRED BEHAVIOUR are 3 types of leader behaviour that would be guided by these antecedents.If all three of the leader behaviours are CONGRUENT (coincide exactly) then members will be highly satisfied and produce high group performance.Effective leadership has taken place if the ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR HAS SURPASSED THE SITUATIONAL DEMANDS AND THE STYLE HAS MET WITH THE APPROVAL OF THE GROUP. 46 Mental Preparation TIPS! You need to understand the meaning and links between commitment, self-confidence, concentration and control of emotion.Be able to explain each term in the context of mental preparation for sport performance.You must be able to identify and explain the relevant theories associated with each term. 48 **********INFORMATION OVERLOAD OCCURS ********** ConcentrationLINKED WITH AROUSAL!“A state of mind in which attention is directed towards a specific aim or activity.”“Mistakes in top level sport happen not because technique is suspect, but because of attentional errors” (MARTENS)When AROUSAL IS LOW the PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS and an excessive number of environmental cues enter into the information processing system.SELECTIVE ATTENTION IS NOT in operation and CONCENTRATION ON RELEVANT INFORMATION IS DIFFICULT.**********INFORMATION OVERLOAD OCCURS **********LOW AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS LIMITED SELECTIVE ATTENTION = LACK OF CONCENTRATION 49 Cue Utilisation Theory This theory predicts ‘THE SELECTION OF THE MOST RELEVANT ENVIRONMENTAL DATA AT THE OPTIMAL AROUSAL LEVEL’.As arousal increases the perceptual field will adjust to the ideal width enabling the performer to focus on the most relevant cues/information. Selective attention is fully operational and the potential to concentrate is maximised.OPTIMAL AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD AT IDEAL WIDTH SELECTIVE ATTENTIONS IN OPERATION = CONCENTRATION IS MAXIMISED!Beyond this optimal threshold (over aroused), the perceptual focus narrows excessively and the relevant cues may be missed. The athlete appears highly agitated and panics. This condition is known as HYPER-VIGILANCE or PANIC.HIGH AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD NARROWS RELEVANT CUES MISSED = HYPER-VIGILANCE & PANIC 50 NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL STYLES Think of the difference between a C & GA in NetballNIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL STYLESAll players have a preferred attentional style. To improve performance it is necessary to operate successfully in all styles.NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL STYLESBROAD- a player concentrates on the whole game- all players’ positions and movements- open skillsNARROW- the player concentrates on one aspect of the game- the goalkeeper- closed skillsINTERNAL- the player decides to concentrate on his own techniqueEXTERNAL-the player focuses on the position of his opposite numberEXTERNALBROADNARROWINTERNAL 51 Emotional ControlAROUSAL, ANXIETY, STRESS and ACTIVATION all relate to MOTIVATION. Arousal will improve performance up to an optimal point, however this optimal threshold changes or ‘shifts’ for every individual and different situation.Task TypeSimple/ Gross skills are performed better in high arousal, e.g. shot putComplex/ fine skills are performed better in low arousal, e.g. spin bowling in cricketStage of LearningAutonomous stage perform better in high arousalCognitive/ associative phase perform better in low arousalExperienceExperienced performer is best in high arousalNovice performer is best in low arousalPersonalityExtroverts perform best when arousal is high (seek stimulation of RAS)Introverts perform best at low arousal (sensitive RAS system) 52 Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin) Athlete A(low ZOF)In zone(best performance)Out of zoneAthlete B(moderate ZOF)Out of zoneIn zone(best performance)Out of zoneAthlete C(high ZOF)Out of zoneIn zone(best performance)Increasing ArousalAn athlete will enter the zone when arousal is at an optimum level and the situation matches the athlete’s strongest attentional style. 53 Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin) Different people perform better under different (arousal) conditions:PersonalityTask TypeStage of LearningExperienceLow Zone of Functioning(low arousal)INTROVERTSIMPLE/ GROSS SKILLS, E.G. SHOT PUTCOGNITIVE/ ASSOCIATIVE PHASENOVICE PERFORMERSHigh Zone of Functioning(high arousal)EXTROVERTCOMPLEX/ FINE SKILLS, E.G. SPIN BOWLINGAUTONOMOUSEXPERIENCED PERFORMER 54 Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin)……… Teachers and coaches should guide the performer towards their personal ‘optimal threshold’ or ‘individual zone of optimal functioning’.EFFORTLESS PERFORMANCETHE ATHLETE FEELS IN FULL CONTROLIN THEZONE!ATTENTION AND CONCENTRATION OF THE PERFORMER IS FOCUSEDEXECUTION OF THE SKILL BRINGS ENJOYMENT AND SATISFACTION 55 AnxietyTRAIT ANXIETY: Genetically inherited. These people appear to be anxious at all times. This tends to be permanent and relatively stable.STATE ANXIETY: This fluctuates in response to a given situation and is associated with arousal. It is a learned behavioural response, but can be controlled and manipulated to facilitate optimal performance.(SPIELBERGER)SOMATIC (physical) RESPONSE: Follows the inverted U hypothesis and refers to physiological changes. Somatic responses include excesses muscular tension, heart and respiration rates, resulting in impaired movement. This condition will not allow the performer to enter a ‘peak flow’ state.COGNITIVE (psychological) RESPONSE: Reflects increasing worry about performance. They could become increasingly apprehensive and develop doubts and negative thoughts. Attentional changes occur which negatively impact on the information processing system. If the athlete experiences worry, he or she will not attain a ‘peak flow’ state. 56 Anxiety‘Anxiety occurs when there is a substantial imbalance between the individual’s perception of their ability and their perception of the demands and importance of the situation.’ (MARTENS)Perception of the situationalDemands.e.g. I must win my leg of the relay if myteam is to have the chance of winning.Perception of ability to cope.e.g. I am not as good as myopponentANXIETYPerception of the importance of the situation.e.g. The result of this competition hingeson this relay race. 58 PEAK FLOW Excitement, happiness Anxiety, anger Relaxation, Drowsiness PEAK FLOW: Optimal experience that facilitates best performance and is intrinsically valuable. (Csikzentmimalyi)Peak flow occurs when somatic anxiety has reached an appropriate threshold and cognitive anxiety is low.flow state is attained when the performer has a balanced perception of the demands of the situation and his/her ability to cope.a high incentive value is to be gained from a challenge that is both realistic and attainable.The focus of attention and concentration is maximised.there is a self-confident belief that nothing could go wrong.the situation suits the athlete’s strongest attentional style.High somatic arousalExcitement,happinessAnxiety,angerHigh cognitiveArousalanxietyLow cognitiveArousalanxietyRelaxation,DrowsinessBoredomfatigueLow somatic arousalDuring these rare moments in sport, the athlete assumes control over all internal and environmental variables and a time of greatest happiness and self-fulfilment is experienced. 59 Competitive Effects on Sport Performance TIPS! You need to be able to recognise the difference between aggression, assertion and channelled aggression.You need to understand the main theories of aggression.Be able to describe how aggressive tendencies can be limited.Understand the difference between social facilitation and social inhibition.Describe the major theories of social facilitation and be able to link them to arousal.Try to understand the homefield advantage phenomenon.Be able to suggest strategies to combat social inhibition. 60 Aggression“Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or verbal means.” (BULL)“Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another human being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.” (BARON)HOSTILE (OR REACTIVE) AGGRESSIONMain aim is to harm and inflict injury.Aggressive actions are outside the rules of the game‘Hostile destructiveness’ (PARENS)Hostile aggression involves anger.This type of aggression needs to be eliminated from sport!INSTRUMENTAL (OR CHANNELLED) AGGRESSIONActions within the rules of the game.Although PRIME motive is the successful execution of the skill, there is still the intention to harm.Anger is not evident.Present in many sporting situations.ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOURNo intention to harm.Strictly within the rules and spirit of the game.Robust, but functional play.Primarily focused on completing the skill successfully.‘Non-hostile self-protective mastery behaviour’ (PARENS, 1987) 61 Antecedents of Aggression HOSTILE CROWDSFRUSTRATION CAUSED BY POOR PERFORMANCE, OPPOSITION OR REFS DECISIONS.NATURE OF THE GAMEAGGRESSIONWIDE DIVISION BETWEEN SCORESVENUE…AWAY TEAMPREVIOUSLY DEVELOPED GRUDGES OR SCORES TO SETTLEEXTRINSIC REWARDSHIGH AROUSAL LEVELS 62 Theories of Aggression INSTINCT THEORY (TRAIT PERSPECTIVE)- Proposed by FRUED butdeveloped but LORENZ in 1966.- ‘Aggression is genetically inheritedand that trait of violence lies within everyonedue to a basic instinct to dominate.’- ‘Death instinct’ (FREUD)- ‘Aggressive energy is constantly buildingup and needs to be released’ (LORENZ)SOCIAL LEARNING THEORYProposed by BANDURA, 1966 butdeveloped by LEAKEY.Aggression is not biologically basedbut is nurtured through environmental forces.Learned by watching and copyingrole models and it becomes anexcepted mode of behaviour if reinforced.FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS– INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE- Proposed by DOLLARD.- ‘Frustration develops when goal-directedbehaviour or NACH is blocked.’It is instinctive to fulfil the needto release frustration.- Instinct theory – aggression is the goal.- Aggression = successful = catharsis- Aggression = unsuccessful = more frustrationAGGRESSION CUE HYPOTHESIS(BERKOWITZ, 1969)– INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE- Builds upon DOLLARD’S work.Frustration leads to an increase in arousal which,in some situations will result in aggression.Cues = baseball bats, violent acts being witnessed,nature of the game will trigger aggression ifarousal is high.Best players have the ability/temperamentto control frustration and arousal. 63 Methods to eliminate aggression Punish aggressive play.Withdraw violent players from the situation.Stress performance rather than the outcome.Emphasise non-aggressive role models.Make use of cognitive strategies to prevent aggressive play.Positively reinforce non-aggressive behaviour and negatively reinforce aggressive behaviour.Change athletes perceptions of the situation.Implement stress management techniques.Lower arousal levels 64 Social Facilitation/Inhibition SOCIAL FACILITATION: The presence of an audience positively increases arousal levels and performance is enhanced.SOCIAL INHIBITION: A negative effect on performance is experienced due to the attendance of an audience.TRIPLETT (1898) –1st Sport Psych Experiment:The presence of others…Arouses competitive driveReleases energyIncreases the speed of performanceZAJONC- The ‘mere’ presence of others is sufficient to increase the arousal level of the performer.This uses ‘drive theory’ to predict the effect of others on performance.As arousal increases (as would happen when spectators are present), there is a greater likelihood of the dominant response occurring.COTTRELL’S EVALUATION APPREHENSION- In some circumstances the audience can have a calming effect.- Increases in arousal were only present when the performer perceived that the audience was assessing performance. 65 Social Facilitation/Inhibition Homefield Advantage:Large supportive home crowds have a positive effect on performance.Most evident in indoor sports such as basketball.Crowd gets close to the action, increasing audience influence. This is called the ‘proximity effect.’Distraction/ Conflict Theory (Barron, 1986)Individuals can only attend to a limited amount of environmental cues.Spectators demand the same attention as other players, resulting in more competition for attentional space.Complex actions would therefore be impaired in front of large crowds.Strategies to Combat Social Inhibition:Practice selective attention.Use imagery, mental rehearsal to block out audience effects.Ensure essential skills are over-learned and grooved.introduce evaluative others into practice.Raise athletes’ awareness of the zone of optimal functioning.Incorporate stress management into training.Appropriate use of attribution 66 Attribution Theory TIPS! You should be able to identify the reasons for success and failure in sport.You need to understand ‘Weiner’s Attribution Model’ and be able to relate it to specific sporting situations.Learn the definitions of ‘mastery orientation’ and ‘learned helplessness’. 67 Weiner’s Attribution Model ability / task difficulty Attribution TheoryAttribution theory looks at the common reasons coaches and players give for their success or failure in sport.LOCUS OF CAUSALITYis the performance outcome caused by- INTERNAL factorsunder the control of the performerability / effort- EXTERNAL factorsbeyond the control of the performertask difficulty / luckWeiner’s Attribution ModelSTABILITYis the performance outcome caused by- STABLE factorsfixed factors which don’t change with timeability / task difficulty- UNSTABLE factorsfactors which can vary with timeeffort / luck 68 HIGH ACHIEVER LOW ACHIEVER Attribution TheoryHIGH ACHIEVERSattribute success to internal factorsand attribute failure to external factorsLOW ACHIEVERSattribute success to external factorsand attribute failure to internal factorsHIGH ACHIEVER LOW ACHIEVERmotivation? high motive to achieve success low motive to achieve successlow motive to avoid failure high motive to avoid failurefocuses on pride on success focuses on shame and worry about failureattributions ascribes success to stable ascribes success to unstable internal and controllable factors external uncontrollable factorsascribes failure to unstable ascribes failure to stable external uncontrollable factors internal controllable factorsgoals adopted adopts task oriented goals adopts outcome oriented goalstask choice seeks challenging tasks and avoids challenge, seeks very difficult competitive situations or very easy tasks / competitionperformance performs well in front of performs badly in front of evaluative audiences evaluative audiences 69 Attribution Retraining The athlete has little control over ability, luck or task difficulty but has complete control over EFFORT. Effort is internal and unstable and can be changed by the performer.The coach changes the usual external attributions for failure into internal, unstable controllable factors.Attributing a lack of success to internal and unstable factors will help to prevent learned helplessness.LEARNED HELPLESSNESSA belief acquired over time that one has no control over eventsand that failure is inevitable. A feeling of ‘hopelessness.’

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One of the things that cryptocurrency, and really any new genre of technology, is notorious for is the sheer quantity of vocabulary that gets generated to describe all of the new concepts. Anyone dealing with peer-to-peer internet software on anything more than a casual basis needs to deal with concepts of cryptography, including hashes, signatures and public and private keys, symmetric and asymmetric encryption, denial of service protection, as well as arcane constructions such as distributed hash tables and webs of trust. New Bitcoin users are forced to contend with learning not just the common basics of cryptography, but also additional internal jargon such as "blocks", "confirmations", "mining", "SPV clients" and "51% attacks", as well as economic concepts like incentive-compatibility and the fine nuances of centralization and decentralization. Ethereum, being a decentralized application development platform based on a generalization of a cryptocurrency, necessarily incorporates both of these sets of concepts, as well as adding many of its own. To help anyone new to Ethereum, whether they are in it as cryptocurrency enthusiasts, business owners, social or political visionaries, web developers or are simply ordinary people looking to see how the technology can improve their lives, the following list is intended to provide a basic summary of the vocabulary that Ethereum users often tend to use: See also: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-key_cryptography - Computational infeasibility: a process is computationally infeasible if it would take an impracticably long time (eg. billions of years) to do it for anyone who might conceivably have an interest in carrying it out. Generally, 280 computational steps is considered the lower bound for computational infeasibility. - Hash: a hash function (or hash algorithm) is a process by which a document (ie. a piece of data or file) is processed into a small piece of data (usually 32 bytes) which looks completely random, and from which no meaningful data can be recovered about the document, but which has the important property that the result of hashing one particular document is always the same. Additionally, it is crucially important that it is computationally infeasible to find two documents that have the same hash. Generally, changing even one letter in a document will completely randomize the hash; for example, the SHA3 hash of "Saturday" is c38bbc8e93c09f6ed3fe39b5135da91ad1a99d397ef16948606cdcbd14929f9d, whereas the SHA3 hash of Caturday is b4013c0eed56d5a0b448b02ec1d10dd18c1b3832068fbbdc65b98fa9b14b6dbf. Hashes are usually used as a way of creating a globally agreed-upon identifier for a particular document that cannot be forged. - Encryption: encryption is a process by which a document (plaintext) is combined with a shorter string of data, called a key (eg. c85ef7d79691fe79573b1a7064c19c1a9819ebdbd1faaab1a8ec92344438aaf4), to produce an output (ciphertext) which can be "decrypted" back into the original plaintext by someone else who has the key, but which is incomprehensible and computationally infeasible to decrypt for anyone who does not have the key. - Public key encryption: a special kind of encryption where there is a process for generating two keys at the same time (typically called a private key and a public key), such that documents encrypted using one key can be decrypted with the other. Generally, as suggested by the name, individuals publish their public keys and keep their private keys to themselves. - Digital signature: a digital signing algorithm is a process by which a user can produce a short string of data called a "signature" of a document using a private key such that anyone with the corresponding public key, the signature and the document can verify that (1) the document was "signed" by the owner of that particular private key, and (2) the document was not changed after it was signed. Note that this differs from traditional signatures where you can scribble extra text onto a document after you sign it and there's no way to tell the difference; in a digital signature any change to the document will render the signature invalid. See also: https://bitcoin.org/en/vocabulary - Address: an address is essentially the representation of a public key belonging to a particular user; for example, the address associated with the private key given above is cd2a3d9f938e13cd947ec05abc7fe734df8dd826. Note that in practice, the address is technically the hash of a public key, but for simplicity it's better to ignore this distinction. - Transaction: a transaction is a document authorizing some particular action associated with the blockchain. In a currency, the dominant transaction type is sending currency units or tokens to someone else; in other systems actions like registering domain names, making and fulfilling trade offers and entering into contracts are also valid transaction types. - Block: a block is a package of data that contains zero or more transactions, the hash of the previous block ("parent"), and optionally other data. The total set of blocks, with every block except for the initial "genesis block" containing the hash of its parent, is called the blockchain and contains the entire transaction history of a network. Note that some blockchain-based cryptocurrencies instead use the word "ledger" for a blockchain; the two are roughly equivalent, although in systems that use the term "ledger" each block generally contains a full copy of the current state (eg. currency balances, partially fulfilled contracts, registrations) of every account allowing users to discard outdated historical data. - Account: an account is the entry in a ledger, indexed by its address, that contains the complete data about the state of that account. In a currency system, this involves currency balances and perhaps unfulfilled trade orders; in other cases more complex relationships may be stored inside of accounts. - Proof of work: one important property of a block in Bitcoin, Ethereum and many other crypto-ledgers is that the hash of the block must be smaller than some target value. The reason this is necessary is that in a decentralized system anyone can produce blocks, so in order to prevent the network from being flooded with blocks, and to provide a way of measuring how much consensus there is behind a particular version of the blockchain, it must in some way be hard to produce a block. Because hashes are pseudorandom, finding a block whose hash is less than 0000000100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 takes an average of 4.3 billion attempts. In all such systems, the target value self-adjusts so that on average one node in the network finds a block every N minutes (eg. N = 10 for Bitcoin and 1 for Ethereum). - Nonce: a meaningless value in a block which can be adjusted in order to try to satisfy the proof of work condition - Mining: mining is the process of repeatedly aggregating transactions, constructing a block and trying difference nonces until a nonce is found that satisfies the proof of work condition. If a miner gets lucky and produces a valid block, they are granted a certain number of coins as a reward as well as all of the transaction fees in the block, and all miners start trying to create a new block containing the hash of the newly generated block as their parent. - Stale: a stale is a block that is created when there is already another block with the same parent out there; stales typically get discarded and are wasted effort. - Fork: a situation where two blocks are generated pointing to the same block as their parent, and some portion of miners see one block first and some see the other. This may lead to two blockchains growing at the same time. Generally, it is mathematically near-certain that a fork will resolve itself within four blocks as miners on one chain will eventually get lucky and that chain will grow longer and all miners switch to it; however, forks may last longer if miners disagree on whether or not a particular block is valid. - Double spend: a deliberate fork, where a user with a large amount of mining power sends a transaction to purchase some produce, then after receiving the product creates another transaction sending the same coins to themselves. The attacker then creates a block, at the same level as the block containing the original transaction but containing the second transaction instead, and starts mining on the fork. If the attacker has more than 50% of all mining power, the double spend is guaranteed to succeed eventually at any block depth. Below 50%, there is some probability of success, but it is usually only substantial at a depth up to about 2-5; for this reason, most cryptocurrency exchanges, gambling sites and financial services wait until six blocks have been produced ("six confirmations") before accepting a payment. - SPV client (or light client) - a client that downloads only a small part of the blockchain, allowing users of low-power or low-storage hardware like smartphones and laptops to maintain almost the same guarantee of security by sometimes selectively downloading small parts of the state without needing to spend megabytes of bandwidth and gigabytes of storage on full blockchain validation and maintennance. See also: http://ethereum.org/ethereum.html - Serialization: the process of converting a data structure into a sequence of bytes. Ethereum internally uses an encoding format called recursive-length prefix encoding (RLP), described here - Patricia tree (or trie): a data structure which stores the state of every account. The trie is built by starting from each individual node, then splitting the nodes into groups of up to 16 and hashing each group, then making hashes of hashes and so forth until there is one final "root hash" for the entire trie. The trie has the important properties that (1) there is exactly one possible trie and therefore one possible root hash for each set of data, (2) it is very easy to update, add or remove nodes in the trie and generate the new root hash, (3) there is no way to modify any part of the tree without changing the root hash, so if the root hash is included in a signed document or a valid block the signature or proof of work secures the entire tree, and (4) one can provide just the "branch" of a tree going down to a particular node as cryptographic proof that that node is indeed in the tree with that exact content. Patricia trees are also used to store the internal storage of accounts as well as transactions and uncles. See here for a more detailed description. - GHOST: GHOST is a protocol by which blocks can contain a hash of not just their parent, but also hashes for stales that are other children of the parent's parent (called uncles). This ensures that stales still contribute to blockchain security, and mitigates a problem with fast blockchains that large miners have an advantage because they hear about their own blocks immediately and so are less likely to generate stales. - Uncle: a child of a parent of a parent of a block that is not the parent, or more generally a child of an ancestor that is not an ancestor. If A is an uncle of B, B is a nephew of A. - Account nonce: a transaction counter in each account. This prevents replay attacks where a transaction sending eg. 20 coins from A to B can be replayed by B over and over to continually drain A's balance. - EVM code: Ethereum virtual machine code, the programming language in which accounts on the Ethereum blockchain can contain code. The EVM code associated with an account is executed every time a message is sent to that account, and has the ability to read/write storage and itself send messages. - Message: a sort of "virtual transaction" sent by EVM code from one account to another. Note that "transactions" and "messages" in Ethereum are different; a "transaction" in Ethereum parlance specifically refers to a physical digitally signed piece of data that goes in the blockchain, and every transaction triggers an associated message, but messages can also be sent by EVM code, in which case they are never represented in data anywhere. - Storage: a key/value database contained in each account, where keys and values are both 32-byte strings but can otherwise contain anything. - Externally owned account: an account controlled by a private key. Externally owned accounts cannot contain EVM code. - Contract: an account which contains, and is controlled by, EVM code. Contracts cannot be controlled by private keys directly; unless built into the EVM code, a contract has no owner once released. - Ether: the primary internal cryptographic token of the Ethereum network. Ether is used to pay transaction and computation fees for Ethereum transactions. - Gas: a measurement roughly equivalent to computational steps. Every transaction is required to include a gas limit and a fee that it is willing to pay per gas; miners have the choice of including the transaction and collecting the fee or not. If the total number of gas used by the computation spawned by the transaction, including the original message and any sub-messages that may be triggered, is less than or equal to the gas limit, then the transaction processes. If the total gas exceeds the gas limit, then all changes are reverted, except that the transaction is still valid and the fee can still be collected by the miner. Every operation has a gas expenditure; for most operations it is 1, although some expensive operations fave expenditures up to 100 and a transaction itself has an expenditure of 500. - EtherBrowser: the upcoming primary client for Ethereum, which will exist in the form of a web browser that can be used to access both normal websites and applications built on top of the Ethereum platform - Whisper: an upcoming P2P messaging protocol that will be integrated into the EtherBrowser - Swarm: an upcoming P2P data storage protocol optimized for static web hosting that will be integrated into the EtherBrowser - Solidity, LLL, Serpent and Mutan: prorgamming languages for writing contract code which can be compiled into EVM code. Serpent can also be compiled into LLL. - PoC: proof-of-concept, another name for a pre-launch release Surrounding concepts: applications and governance - Decentralized organization: an organization that has no centralized leadership, instead using a combination of formal democratic voting processes and stigmergic self-organization as their primary operating principles. A less impressive but sometimes confused concept is a "geographically distributed organization", an organization where people work far apart from each other and which may even have no office at all; GDOs can still have formal centralized leadership. - Theseus criterion: a test for determining how decentralized an organization is. The test is as follows: suppose the organization has N people, and aliens try to pick K people in the organization at a time (eg. once per week) and zap them out of existence, replacing each group with K new people who know nothing about the organization. For how high K can the organization function? Dictatorships fail at K = 1 once the dictator is zapped away; the US government does slightly better but would still be in serious trouble if all 638 members of the Senate and Congress were to disappear, where as something like Bitcoin or BitTorrent is resilient for extremely high K because new agents can simply follow their economic incentives to fill in the missing roles. A stricter test, the Byzantine Theseus criterion, involves randomly substituting K users at a time with malicious actors for some time before replacing them with new users. - Decentralized autonomous organization: decentralized organizations where the method of governance is in some fashion "autonomous", ie. it's not controlled by some form of discussion process or committee. - No common language criterion: a test for determining how autonomous an organization is. The test is as follows: suppose the N people in the organization speak N different languages, with none in common. Can the organization still function? - Delegative democracy (or liquid democracy): a governance mechanism for DOs and DAOs where everyone votes on everything by default, but where individuals can select specific individuals to vote for them on specific issues. The idea is to generalize the tradeoff between full direct democracy with every individual having equal power and the expert opinion and quick decision making ability provided by specific individuals, allowing people to defer to friends, politicians, subject matter experts or anyone else to exactly the extent that they want to. - Futarchy: a governance mechanism originally proposed by Robin Hanson for managing political organizations, but which is actually extremely applicable for DOs and DAOs: rule by prediction market. Essentially, some easily measurable success metrics are chosen, and tokens are released which will pay out some time in the future (eg. after 1 year) depending on the values of those success metrics, with one such token for each possible action to take. Each of these tokens are traded against a corresponding dollar token, which pays out exactly $1 if the corresponding measure is taken (if the corresponding measure is not taken, both types of tokens pay $0, so the probability of the action actually being taken does not affect the price). The action that the market predicts will have the best results, as judged by the token's high price on its market, is the action that will be taken. This provides another, autonomous, mechanism for selecting for and simultaneously rewarding expert opinion. - Token system: essentially, a fungible virtual good that can be traded. More formally, a token system is a database mapping addresses to numbers with the property that the primary allowed operation is a transfer of N tokens from A to B, with the conditions that N is non-negative, N is not greater than A's current balance, and a document authorizing the transfer is digitally signed by A. Secondary "issuance" and "consumption" operations may also exist, transaction fees may also be collected, and simultaneous multi-transfers with many parties may be possible. Typical use cases include currencies, cryptographic tokens inside of networks, company shares and digital gift cards. - Namespace: a database mapping names to values. In the simplest example anyone can register an entry if the name has not already been taken (perhaps after paying some fee). If a name has been taken then it can only be changed (if at all) by the account that made the original registration (in many systems, ownership can also be transferred). Namespaces can be used to store usernames, public keys, internet domain names, token systems or other namespaces, and many other applications. - Identity: a set of cryptographically verifiable interactions that have the property that they were all created by the same person - Unique identity: a set of cryptographically verifiable interactions that have the property that they were all created by the same person, with the added constraint that one person cannot have multiple unique identities - Incentive compatibility: a protocol is incentive-compatible if everyone is better off "following the rules" than attempting to cheat, at least unless a very large number of people agree to cheat together at the same time. - Basic income: the idea of issuing some quantity of tokens to every unique identity every period of time (eg. months), with the ultimate intent being that people who do not wish to work or cannot work can survive on this allowance alone. These tokens can simply be crafted out of thin air, or they can come from some revenue stream (eg. profit from some revenue-generating entity, or a government); in order for the BI to be sufficient for a person to live on it alone, a combination of revenue streams will likely have to be used. - Public good: a service which provides a very small benefit to a very large number of people, such that no individual has a large effect on whether or not the good is produced and so no one has the incentive to help pay for it. - Reputation: the property of an identity that other entities believe that identity to be either (1) competent at some specific task, or (2) trustworthy in some context, ie. not likely to betray others even if short-term profitable. - Web of trust: the idea that if A highly rates B, and B highly rates C, then A is likely to trust C. Complicated and powerful mechanisms for determining the reliability of specific individuals in specific concepts can theoretically be gathered from this principle. - Escrow: if two low-reputation entities are engaged in commerce, the payer may wish to leave the funds with a high-reputation third party and instruct that party to send the funds to the payee only when the product is delivered. This reduces the risk of the payer or payee committing fraud. - Deposit: digital property placed into a contract involving another party such that if certain conditions are not satisfied that property is automatically forfeited to the counterparty - Hostage: digital property placed into a contract such that if certain conditions are not satisfied that property is automatically either destroyed or donated to charity or basic income funds, perhaps with widely distributed benefit but necessarily with no significant benefit to any specific individual.

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How do you diagnose Hyperparathyroidism / parathyroid disease? Hyperparathyroidism is diagnosed by measuring the amount of calcium and parathyroid hormone (PTH) produced by parathyroid glands in the blood. If both are high, the diagnosis of hyperparathyroidism is made. In 20% of patients, the calcium is high and the PTH is normal. A high PTH level is not required to diagnose this disease. This is an advanced page aimed at helping doctors (and knowledgeable patients) make the swift and correct diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism. This and the video page are two of the best pages of this website. The information here is based upon our experience with over 35,000 patients that we have operated on for parathyroid disease. We use a lot of graphs in a combined fashion to build a logical method for the correct, swift, (and cheap) diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism. All of these graphs and more can be found on our CalciumPro app for smart-phones and tablets. If you are on this page, then you should get the app so you can put your data on all of these cool graphs. Canada and Europe Your calcium levels are reported in mmole/L, not mg/dl like the US. To convert: calcium level in mg/dl x 0.2495 = mmol/L. To convert the other way around: Calcium in mmole/L divided by 0.2495 = mg/dl. Thus, a calcium level of 11.0 mg/dl = 2.75 mmole/L. Let's start with normal and abnormal calcium levels. The illustration below shows that the normal range for calcium as reported with a patient's labs is between 8.6 and 10.2 mg/dl (some go as high as 10.4). However, almost all adults actually live in the 9's. It is uncommon for an adult over age 40 to have persistent calcium levels above 10.1 or below 9.2. It is OK to have a calcium level in the 10's on occasion (infrequently), but usually when checked again it will be back in the 9's. Calcium levels that are consistently in the low to mid 10's (in an adult over 40) are usually caused by a parathyroid tumor. Remember this rule: Most adults over age 40 will live in the 9's, not the 10's. An occasional calcium level in the low 10's is ok. Start at the top left of this illustration and work your way around clockwise to examine what normal calcium levels are and what it means to have a high calcium level. It is classically taught that the diagnosis of hyperparathyroidism requires a high calcium and a high PTH level at the same time. Unfortunately, about 20% of patients will not follow this pattern, with some having high calcium levels and all normal PTH levels (18%), while others have normal calcium levels with high PTH levels (2%). This will be looked into extensively below. A high calcium and a high PTH at the same time is absolutely NOT required to diagnose primary hyperparathyroidism! The First Step in Building our Calcium/Parathyroid Hormone Normogram. The following graph shows normal calcium levels (between 8.8 and 10.2 mg/dl) on the X-axis which are then graphed according to normal parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels (between 14 and 65 pg/ml) on the Y-axis. This produces a green box where all of us healthy humans live. Remember, calcium is the means by which our nerves conduct impulses and by which our muscles contract. Our brains and muscles don't feel good outside this box. Our calcium is maintained in the green box by the actions of our parathyroid glands making the appropriate amount of PTH. We will build on this graph multiple times as this page progresses. What are Calcium Levels in Primary Hyperparathyroidism? 98% of patients with primary hyperparathyroidism have high blood calcium, above 10.0 mg/dl in adults over 40 years of age, and above 10.5 for young people. High blood calcium is almost always caused by hyperparathyroidism. Two percent with primary hyperparathyroidism will have normal calcium levels. The following graph looks at blood calcium levels in 16,000 patients with symptomatic hyperparathyroidism from whom we removed a parathyroid tumor. Note that the average calcium level for somebody with primary hyperparathyroidism is 10.89, with a mode of 10.7, and a standard deviation of 0.597. Importantly, 85.6% of patients with a parathyroid tumor and symptomatic hyperparathyroidism have an average calcium level of 11.5 or lower, with 68% of them never having a single calcium higher than 11.4.Calcium Normogram for the diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism A common mistake we see occurs when a doctor will make a recommendation to a patient with high calcium to "watch and wait" to see if the calcium goes above 11.5. The thought process is that below this number it's ok to have high calcium, but above this "magic" number something should be done. It is absolutely unclear where this "magic" number came from (we know it is propagated in the NIH consensus guidelines), but there has never been a single study to suggest this "magic" number, and there is no scientific basis for this. Two thirds (68%) of patients with a parathyroid tumor in their neck making them sick will never achieve a calcium level this high regardless of any other issues (stones, osteoporosis, etc, etc). Calcium levels are an independent parameter and as such, it is impossible to predict which patients will develop higher calcium levels and which will be stuck below 11.5 until they quit your practice to find another doctor that will help them. As is discussed in great detail on another page of Parathyroid.com, the severity of symptoms or the number of symptoms a patient has is absolutely unrelated to the degree to which their calcium is elevated... with one exception: severe symptoms such as stroke increase in frequency with increasing calcium levels. Note just how few patients there are on the graph above that have calcium levels of 12 or higher. If you are waiting until your patient has a calcium level of 11.5 to send them to a surgeon, this is not proper. It will probably never happen and they will continue to suffer. The second important aspect of the purple bar graph above is to note how many patients have "normocalcemic" hyperparathyroidism. That is, their calcium levels are normal yet they have symptoms of hyperparathyroidism that were cured by removing a parathyroid tumor. Approximately 2% of all patients with hyperparathyroidism will have average calcium levels that are in the normal range. "Normocalcemic hyperparathyroidism" is discussed in more detail below, but this can be a tough group to diagnose. What are Parathyroid Hormone Levels in Patients with Primary Hyperparathyroidism? Parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels can be either normal or high in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. Most will have high PTH levels, but 18% will have normal PTH levels. The following graph (updated May, 2012) shows average parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels in 18,000 patients in whom we removed a parathyroid tumor for primary hyperparathyroidism. Note how many of these patients have average PTH levels in the "normal" range (below 65 pg/ml)... 2981 out of 18,000. Of course all of these patients had high calcium levels making their "normal" PTH levels what we call "inappropriately normal" parathyroid hormone secretion. It is absolutely not necessary to have high PTH levels to make the diagnosis of hyperparathyroidism... but if the PTH is not high, then the calcium must be high (and the PTH levels are usually over 35 pg/ml). This is examined later in more detail. Thus, most of the time, calcium and PTH are both high, about 18% of the time the calcium is high and the PTH is normal, and about 2% of the time, the calcium is normal and the PTH is high. (This later group can be difficult to diagnose but almost always the PTH levels are above 105 pg/ml). Building the Primary Hyperparathyroidism Normogram: Adding PTH Levels Onto our Normal Calcium Box On this graph we've superimposed the PTH data onto our graph with the green box. Virtually 100% of all patients with primary hyperparathyroidism can be plotted onto this graph within the blue area. As we can see, some can have normal calcium with high PTH (top left part of the blue area), some can have high calcium with normal PTH (bottom part of the blue area). But most will have high calcium and high PTH. "Confusion Areas" A & B, Defining the Easy to Diagnose and Hard to Diagnose ases of Primary Hyperparathyroidism. Now we will look at the blue area closer. We have superimposed two more darker blue areas which represent the vast majority of patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. The large oval represents 80% of all patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. The smaller blue oval represents 50% of all patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. So even though the overall blue area is quite large and includes patients with dramatically different biochemical profiles, the vast majority of patients have classic high calcium and high PTH. These patients should be quickly diagnosed and sent for tumor removal. Note that we've added "Confusion Area A", and "Confusion Area B". Patients who fall into one of these two areas on our graph are frequently misdiagnosed by even the most respected endocrinologists (they don't see enough patients in these two areas to have much experience). Patients in "Confusion Area A" are those with high calcium levels with normal PTH levels. We operate on somebody in this category every day, so it is quite common. But, these patients are often misdiagnosed for many years as the well-meaning doctor checks and re-checks their blood... hoping that the PTH will some day be above normal so they can make the diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism with confidence. This is most unfortunate. Hopefully after reading this page you will understand that high calcium levels means primary hyperparathyroidism unless the PTH is very low (under 20). Patients in "Confusion Area B" have "normocalcemic" hyperparathyroidism. That is, they have hyperparathyroidism due to a tumor in the neck just like all other patients with primary hyperparathyroidism, but their blood calcium levels are normal. These patients typically will have a high ionized calcium level in their blood, and may have a high urine calcium level. The diagnosis is made clear when many other clinical data are examined. These patients are the hardest patients to diagnose, and we usually need to evaluate many lab values over time, including total calcium, ionized calcium, PTH, and Vitamin D levels. Finally, there are a few RARE patients who are in the white area BELOW the Confusion Area A... Ionized calcium levels may be useful in all of these confusing patients. There are some very rare patients outside of the blue area, but they are very difficult to diagnose. Many other clinical issues need to be examined (bone density, urine calcium, variability of the labs, etc). High Calcium Associated With Malignancy. Easy to Differentiate from Primary Hyperparathyroidism. Let's look at patients with high calcium in their blood due to advanced cancer and see where these patients fit on our calcium normogram. Usually, patients with hypercalcemia due to cancer are sick and dying of their cancer. It isn't a surprise to anybody that they have cancer... it's advanced cancer. When the calcium is high due to cancer, the normal parathyroid glands will shut down in the face of high calcium levels. Thus, normal parathyroid glands will make very little hormone in the presence of high blood calcium. High calcium levels due to cancer will virtually always be associated with PTH levels below 20, often below 10. Vitamin D Deficiency and its Relationship to Primary Hyperparathyroidism. This graph shows where patients with a vitamin D deficiency fall onto our calcium normogram. Low Vitamin D levels can lead to low calcium, which in turn raises the PTH level. It has been suggested (wrongfully) that low Vitamin D levels will cause normal parathyroid glands to hypertrophy and over-produce PTH... which in turn will cause the calcium to rise. This does not happen. Low Vitamin D levels will NEVER cause the calcium to increase above normal. Low Vitamin D does not ever cause a high calcium. It is possible, as shown on the graph above, that low vitamin D levels in patients with low-normal or low calcium levels will be associated with modest elevations in the PTH. But that's as far as it goes. Low Vitamin D will not produce a cascade of events that lead to high calcium levels in the blood. Remember, most patients with tumor-proven primary hyperparathyroidism will have LOW Vitamin D levels.Read more about Vitamin D in primary hyperparathyroidism on this page. It describes in more detail that the low vitamin D-25 is caused by an increased conversion to 1-25 Vitamin D... the 1-25 vitamin D is high, and the active form (Vit-D25) is LOW. Read more on our Vitamin D page. Secondary Hyperparathyroidism Due to Kidney Disease. The next set of patients that cause confusion in the diagnosis of PRIMARY hyperparathyroidism are those with renal insufficiency (kidney failure). All patients with severe kidney failure on dialysis will develop SECONDARY hyperparathyroidism to some degree or another. All four of their parathyroid glands become enlarged and overproduce parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to the high phosphorus in the blood associated with renal failure. Thus, their parathyroid glands become enlarged "secondarily" to (caused by) the kidney disease. These patients generally have normal or low normal calcium levels and VERY high PTH levels (250 to 4000--way off the top of our graph). These patients do not have a single parathyroid tumor... they have four big juicy glands that are responding appropriately to the high serum phosphorus and are trying to signal the kidney to do the right thing. Unfortunately the kidney has failed and cannot respond, and the parathyroid glands just keep trying harder. We see confusion between primary hyperparathyroidism and secondary hyperparathyroidism due to kidney disease on a daily basis...however, this really shouldn't be confusing! The confusion arises when a patient with primary hyperparathyroidism (high calcium, high PTH) will be noted to have a high creatinine and/or BUN in their blood. These are measures of kidney function and when elevated usually indicate that the kidney has lost some of it's function. HOWEVER, secondary hyperparathyroidism will almost never occur in patients unless they have such severe kidney function that they are on dialysis, or at least had significant kidney problems for many years (it isn't a secret that they have kidney problems). Patients with high calcium, high PTH, and modest elevations in their creatinine and modest or even significant decreases in their GFR (glomerular filtration rate)... have PRIMARY hyperparathyroidism and need an operation to remove their ONE parathyroid tumor. In fact, it is VERY LIKELY that the long-standing PRIMARY hyperparathyroidism is causing the kidney failure! Please understand this paragraph, as we see people misdiagnosed in this category every single day! Secondary hyperparathyroidism occurs in patients with SEVERE renal function for YEARS... it is not subtle, and it is NOT associated with high calcium levels! High calcium levels with high PTH levels in a patient with modest increases in creatinine and BUN have PRIMARY hyperparathyroidism... they need an operation urgently to remove their one parathyroid adenoma to prevent further kidney destruction. High Parathyroid Hormone Levels in Patients with Intestinal Absorption Problems, Such as Gastric Bypass Surgery, Celiac Sprue, and Crohn's Disease. There is a growing group of patients who have dramatic life-long problems absorbing calcium in their diet. These patients are illustrated on our graph in the purple area. These patients have difficulty absorbing calcium from their intestines, and end up with chronically low blood calcium levels as a result. Since they don't (can't) absorb calcium from their diet, their NORMAL parathyroid glands will do what they are supposed to do in order to try to maintain a proper calcium level in the blood. There is only one thing these normal parathyroid glands can do... all four glands enlarge and produce lots of PTH which removes calcium from the bones--it's the only place to get the calcium. The blood calcium will usually be in the low-normal range between 8.2 and 9.2 mg/dl, but can be as low as 7.0. Thus these patients can develop very significant osteoporosis, high PTH levels, and high alkaline-phosphatase (shows increased bone destruction). These patients have developed a total-body calcium deficit due to a longstanding inability to absorb calcium through their intestines. This is a form of secondary hyperparathyroidism, and should be treated with calcium and Vitamin D supplementation. The most common people in this purple group are 1) those who have had gastric bypass surgery for weight loss, 2) those with chronic diarrhea, most commonly from Celiac or Crohn's disease, and 3) those who have had a significant part of their intestines surgically removed. Most of the calcium that gets absorbed in your intestines is absorbed in the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. During a gastric bypass, the duodenum is bypassed, so the food does not encounter the area where most calcium absorption should occur, which leads to chronic malabsorption of calcium. This will happen to all patients who have had a gastric bypass or gastrectomy with Roux-en-Y reconstruction. The treatment is lifelong calcium and Vitamin D supplementation to help the intestines absorb enough calcium. Most people with secondary hyperparathyroidism due to a gastric bypass do not need parathyroid surgery. They need more calcium and Vitamin D. In most cases, bringing the calcium level up will lead to a reduction in the PTH levels. Chronic diarrhea due to celiac or Crohn's disease will also lead to an inability to fully absorb calcium, which leads to a total-body calcium deficit and secondary hyperparathyroidism. The best way to prevent this is to treat the underlying condition, the diarrhea. In Crohn's disease, many patients also need to have portions of their small intestines removed, which increases the difficulty in absorbing enough calcium. Note that in all of the cases in which the PTH is high due to calcium absorption issues, the blood calcium level is LOW. If the calcium level is HIGH, then the cause of the PTH elevation is NOT malabsorption. It is a parathyroid tumor. Surgery is usually not necessary in cases of secondary hyperparathyroidism due to malabsorption. The treatment is increased supplementation with calcium and Vitamin D. If the calcium is HIGH, then it is primary hyperparathyroidism due to a parathyroid tumor, and surgery is the only treatment. Patients who have had gastric bypasses (or have Crohn's disease, or celiac disease, or chronic diarrhea due to any cause) can still get parathyroid tumors! If the calcium level is HIGH, then malabsorption is not causing the high PTH. A high calcium with a non-suppressed PTH in any patient - gastric bypass or not - indicates a parathyroid tumor. Completed Picture of Updated Calcium/Parathyroid Hormone Normogram. This is the completed Calcium Normogram, based upon our experience with many thousands of patients. Our graph of normal and abnormal calcium and parathyroid hormone is complete only after we add those patients with hypOparathyroidism. HypOparathyroidism is a disease of low parathyroid hormone secretion. This is covered on two separate pages of this website so it is not covered here. There should never be an instance where hyperparathyroidism and hypOparathyroidism are confused. Low Vitamin D The graph below is different from all the graphs above. The horizontal (X) axis is the same, but the vertical (Y) axis has been changed to show Vitamin D-25 levels. Again, the green box in the middle represents normal calcium levels for an adult, and normal vitamin D-25 levels (between 30 and 65 ng/ml). There are many people out there running around with low vitamin D, however, some of these people have low vitamin D for a non-dangerous reason, and some have low vitamin D because a serious problem exists. Let's talk about the non-dangerous (most routine) reason first: These people are represented by the yellow blob on this graph. These folks have low vitamin D because they are not getting enough in their diet, and/or because they don't go out in the sun enough (we make vitamin D in our skin when exposed to sunlight). These people simply need to be given some vitamin D (orally) so that they can continue to maintain good, normal blood and bone calcium. No big deal, if you have normal blood calcium and your vitamin D is low, then take vitamin D. It's not rocket science. HOWEVER, there is a BAD reason for having a low vitamin D, and this is a sign that something else is wrong with the calcium in our bodies. The blue blob represents people with primary hyperparathyroidism (who need an operation to remove a parathyroid tumor from their neck). These people have high blood calcium (frequently or persistently above 10.1 mg/dl) because they have a parathyroid tumor in their neck. 84% of patients with primary hyperparathyroidism have low vitamin D-25. Note that this is compensatory and protective: the body has enough calcium and so it turns off vitamin D production--it simply does not want more calcium. Thus, the calcium is too high, we stop making vitamin D so we don't absorb more calcium in our diet. The purple area shows where 80% of patients with primary hyperparathyroidism are on this graph: 80% of patients with a parathyroid tumor have calcium levels between 10.2 and 11.4, and vitamin D levels between 8.5 and 31.5. Remember, a LOW vitamin D cannot ever be the cause of a HIGH blood calcium level. This form of "secondary" hyperparathyroidism does not exist. There is no such thing as a low vitamin D causing hyperparathyroidism leading to high blood calcium. If your doctor says this, then you have some teaching to do. A patient with high blood calcium has a low vitamin D to protect them--do not give this patient vitamin D--they can develop severe high blood calcium levels and have a stroke. We've seen it! We have an entire page of this website dedicated to this graph (and a few others). If you are dealing with a "Low Vitamin D" problem, then it is time for you to go to our Low Vitamin D page and learn more about this graph and the role of vitamin D in maintaining good calcium health. If your vitamin D is low, then you need to know what your calcium is. If your vitamin D is low and your calcium is normal, then you need more vitamin D. If your vitamin D is low and your calcium is high (even a little high), then you do not want to take vitamin D, you want to take a trip to the operating room to get the tumor removed from your neck. Still want to know more about low vitamin D??? Go to our page on this topic. Urine Calcium Levels. A Test that is Frequently Done, and RARELY Helpful. Urine calcium levels are a tool that can occasionally be used to help make the diagnosis of hyperparathyroidism but usually just wastes time and makes people put their urine in their refrigerator for no good reason. This test is often obtained on patients with high blood calcium levels by physicians to "rule out FHH". But FHH is rare, and urine calcium testing can't rule it out anyway! Most of our patients who have been told they have FHH actually have hyperparathyroidism, and we prove the doctor wrong by taking a large tumor out of the patient's neck. (We have an entire page on FHH). FHH is a genetic disorder that has been written about more often than there are patients afflicted. A LOW calcium level in the urine associated with high PTH and high blood calcium means the patient has primary hyperparathyroidism. Period. FHH will not cause high blood calcium and high PTH! A doctor who is looking for FHH will frequently miss patients who have primary hyperparathyroidism but who reside in "Confusion Area A" on our graph. We have never seen a case where low urine calcium levels made us decide not to operate on a patient. We operate on patients every single day who have low urine calcium levels... and they all have a parathyroid tumor... of course, their labs fall into the blue area of the curve, and their clinical history and other data support the diagnosis. The graph here shows Urine Calcium levels (mg/24 hours) on the X-axis compared to Serum Calcium Levels (mg/dl) on the Y-axis in 10,000 patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. All of these 10,000 patients had a parathyroid tumor removed from their neck, thus the diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism is not in question. As you can see, there is no correlation between blood calcium and urine calcium in patients with hyperparathyroidism. That is, a patient with a blood calcium of 10.7 is just as likely to have a urine calcium level of 150 as he is to have a urine calcium level of 400. In fact, 44% of patients with a parathyroid tumor in their neck have a urine calcium level of 250 or below (normal levels). 11% will have urine calcium levels below 100, yet they still have primary hyperparathyroidism and they do NOT have FHH. Thus, measuring urine calcium on a patient with high blood calcium will simply put them somewhere on this graph... HOWEVER, it does not matter where they are on this graph since EVERYBODY on this graph has primary hyperparathyroidism and needs an operation to remove their parathyroid tumor. As a final clarification about FHH, please note that there is no artificial cutoff at 100 mg/24 hours on this graph. To arbitrarily say that patients with urine calcium levels below 100 mg/24 have FHH and those above 100 have primary hyperparathyroidism is ridiculous. There is no such artificial cutoff--the data is a perfect scatter and patients with parathyroid tumors often have urine calcium levels that are low. Hey endocrinologist! Are you listening? You cannot make the diagnosis of FHH by measuring the amount of calcium in your patient's urine despite what you were taught. We have a complete page on FHH which breaks down these 24-hour urine graphs even further. Again, the page on FHH is an advanced page and the only people who should read it are doctors and patients who were told they had FHH by a doctor. They almost certainly do not. Another important point made very clear from this data is that (contrary to popular belief), the amount of calcium in the urine in a patient with primary hyperparathyroidism does NOT correlate with the incidence of kidney stone formation. As shown in this graph, patients who had stones (shown in red) have the exact same distribution of 24-hour urine calcium concentrations as those patients who did not have stones (shown in blue). Thus using the 24-hour urine calcium concentration as an indicator for surgical referral (as suggested in the NIH consensus panel guidelines) is without scientific basis. They "guessed" at an arbitrary number (400 mg/24 hours) as a level that "is likely" to result in a higher incidence of stone formation. They guessed wrong--there is no correlation and you cannot predict which patient with primary hyperparathyroidism will develop kidney stones by measuring the amount of calcium in their urine. The graph is a perfect scatter, with zero correlation (p=0.98). Stones do NOT form more frequently in parathyroid patients with high urine calcium than they do in parathyroid patients with normal or low urine calcium. You cannot predict who will get stones, who has a big vs. a small parathyroid tumor, who has one tumor vs. two tumors... based upon urine calcium levels. Urine calcium levels carry no predictive value and have nearly zero diagnostic value. Our recent examination of the medical records of 1122 endocrinologists who referred us nearly 7000 patients between 2005 and 2010 shows that only 34% of them ever obtained a 24-hour urine test on a patient they were testing for primary hyperparathyroidism. When we consult with a patient regarding the potential diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism, we couldn't care less if they had a urine calcium level, unless they have normal serum calcium levels. If the blood calcium is high, then we don't care what the urine calcium is... it is often high, it is often normal, and it is often low (as seen on our graph). This test provides no useful information and carries no predictive value if the blood calcium is high. It is a worthless test in 95% of patients. Obviously, 66% of endocrinologists already have figured this out on their own. Note, we use the terms blood and serum interchangeably on this page for the benefit of patients who are reading it. Of course we understand that we don't actually measure blood calcium levels, rather we measure the calcium concentration in the blood after the red blood cells have been removed, and thus the correct term would be serum calcium levels. But, everybody knows what we are talking about if we say blood calcium. Sestamibi Scans and Ultrasound Scans. Scans are mentioned here in the diagnosis section of parathyroid.com only to be condemned. Sestamibi scans are not diagnostic scans! We will say this again... sestamibi scans are not to be used to determine if a patient does or does not have hyperparathyroidism! Geeze, we even see doctors use this scan to tell the difference between primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism. Can you hear us jamming toothpicks into our corneas? If you use this scan for this purpose, you will make the wrong diagnosis almost half of the time! Flip a coin, it will be cheaper and faster. Sestamibi scans are not to be used to determine who has parathyroid disease, who doesn't, what kind of parathyroid disease they have, or who should have surgery or not. This scan CANNOT tell you this kind of information. We review 4,200 sestamibi scans per year and have developed a grading system that examines the technical quality of the scan, and therefore, its worth. Nearly 80% of the scans we are sent for review are essentially worthless for the evaluation of parathyroid tumors. Unfortunately, many endocrinologists will obtain a Sestamibi Scan on a patient with obvious hyperparathyroidism because they feel better about the diagnosis and sending the patient for surgery when a tumor can be seen on an x-ray. We feel using a sestamibi scan for diagnostic purposes is the BIGGEST MISTAKE of all mistakes made in the diagnosis and treatment of primary hyperparathyroidism. These scans are not intended to be diagnostic scans. We have a paper out shortly showing that endocrinologist-obtained sestamibi scans delay surgery by 2.5 years when the scan is negative... even though the patient has obvious hyperparathyroidism by all laboratory studies. ALL SCANS (sestamibi and Ultrasound) are NOT diagnostic tests and should never be used to determine if a patient does or does not have hyperparathyroidism. Furthermore, the results of these scans should NEVER be used to make management decisions regarding who does or does not need an operation to have the tumor removed. In other words, deciding to send one patient for surgery because a scan is positive and telling another to "wait and see" because a scan is negative is not based upon any medical facts or clinical data. These patients are identical, their risk of osteoporosis is identical, their risk of kidney stones and renal failure is identical, their risk of stroke is identical, their increased risk for developing breast or colon cancer is identical, their risk of depression is identical, their symptoms of fatigue and irritability is identical, their risk of cardiac arrhythmias and heart attack is identical. A patient either has hyperparathyroidism or they do not. The results of a sestamibi scan or ultrasound should never have a role in the diagnosis aspect of primary hyperparathyroidism, or in determination of who is or is not a candidate for surgery. Do we use sestamibi scans? Yep, absolutely... 100% of our patients get a scan... about 1 hour prior to their operation. We never obtain scans to determine who does or does not have parathyroid disease. We developed many of the techniques for a modern high-resolution sestamibi scan and its results are invaluable in the operating room. Most importantly, the injected isotope is what we use in the operating room to measure the amount of hormone produced in each individual parathyroid gland (in 2 seconds). The scan should play no role in the decision to operate; it is usually negative because of the poor technique used, and will need to be repeated immediately prior to the operation. Please do NOT get a sestamibi scan or ultrasound scan on your patient if they are going to come to us for surgery. We are running out of toothpicks! You may note that parathyroid cancer is not on our normogram... for good reason. For all practical purposes, it doesn't exist and is WAY over-reported by well meaning but inexperienced surgeons who find old, scarred tumors. Virtually 100% of the parathyroid cancer cases that are sent to us we change the diagnosis to benign parathyroid disease in an old, scarred tumor. That's it; we will no longer discuss diagnosing something that nobody will ever see. If you must read about it, it's covered on another page of this website that almost nobody should read. Summary: The Diagnosis of Primary Hyperparathyroidism. In summary, the diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism is made by looking at a patient's clinical presentation and their labs. NOT their x-rays. Most have a chief complaint of fatigue, but many other symptoms will be present in the vast majority of patients. As long as you understand that patients can have primary hyperparathyroidism with normal calcium levels or normal PTH levels, you will be able to make the diagnosis in almost every case. Remember, it is almost never normal to have high calcium levels, and this should typically be worked up with the presumption that a parathyroid tumor is present. Also remember that calcium AND PTH levels in normal patients are very constant from week to week, measure to measure... while those with primary hyperparathyroidism have calcium and PTH levels that go up and down from day to day, week to week. They are variable. There is no medical reason to "wait 6 months and get more tests". The patient either has a parathyroid tumor or they do not. The key to making the diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism is REPEATED measures of 1) serum calcium, 2) ionized calcium, 3) PTH. Measure them weekly for 2 or 3 weeks and the diagnosis will be clear in almost all cases. Adults over 30 live in the 9's, not the 10's. Teens and young adults in their 20's who are building bone can have calcium levels up to 10.7 on more than one occasion. Generally, this is not true for adults over 30. There is no reason to wait any more than 1 week for repeat lab tests, and there is no reason to get a urine calcium level on the vast majority of patients--its a test with no value. Finally, remember that getting scans is NOT part of the diagnosis of hyperparathyroidism. We published this information:View a PDF of our publication on 10,000 patients: Norman J, Goodman A, Politz D. Calcium, parathyroid hormone, and vitamin D in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism: Normograms developed from 10,000 cases. Endocrine Practice. 2011 May-Jun;17(3):384-94

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Ecosystems and habitats At Kejimkujik National Park and National Historic Site Lakes and Rivers © Parks Canada/P. Hope © Parks Canada/P. Hope Kejimkujik inland contains 46 lakes and ponds and more than 30 streams and rivers, most of which are part of the Mersey River watershed. Originating north of the park, this watershed is the largest in Nova Scotia. Kejimkujik’s lakes and smooth-flowing rivers are largely a result of the last glaciation and make up approximately 15 percent of the park’s area. Park lakes have a natural, low-mineral content and therefore exhibit a high sensitivity to acidity. Most lakes have shallow, dark brown, acidic, seasonally warm water, with intervening rivers, still waters, and streams. Atlantic Coastal Plain flora (which includes the threatened Water-pennywort), the threatened Northern ribbonsnake, and the endangered Blanding’s turtle are found along the shorelines of Kejimkujik inland’s freshwater ecosystems. Warm-water fish species such as Yellow perch, White perch, and Brown bullhead are distributed throughout, while Brook trout, which prefer colder water, seek spring up-wellings and deeper lakes to escape high summer water temperatures. Common loons nest on the shorelines of many of the larger lakes. © Parks Canada/P. Jefferson Hopper Approximately 12 percent of Kejimkujik consists of fresh water. The dark waters of these lakes and rivers have an intriguing story to tell. Most of the water comes from run-off. Kejimkujik’s slate, quartzite and granite rocks are hard and unyielding. This means that the waterways have few natural minerals. With so few nutrients, the productivity, or ability of the waters to support life, is very poor. The Acadian Forest Mix Kejimkujik lies within the Acadian Forest zone, a transition between typically southern deciduous, or hardwood, trees and typically northern evergreen, or softwood, trees. Cutting has changed these forests dramatically over the last 200 years. Farmers cleared hardwoods from hills and loggers cut giant Red spruce, White pine, and harvested wood for pulp. In 1974, the establishment of Kejimkujik National Park protected the forests from commercial cutting. Today, three-quarters of the Park’s woodlands are young, mixed stands of softwoods and hardwoods. Older White pines, which escaped fire and the axe, tower over the younger growth. Red maple, Large-toothed aspen, White birch, and Red oak stand out against a background evergreens. Pockets of old-growth forest still stand tall in Kejimkujik. These stands are special because of their majesty and their rarity. Today, less than one percent of all the woodlands in Nova Scotia are over 100 years old. Since much of the region’s older forests are being lost to intensive harvesting, Kejimkujik is one of very few places where people can experience such woodlands. Old-growth forests are an important habitat that Kejimkujik protects. About one-fifth of Kejimkujik’s forests are softwoods. A fraction of these are towering groves of old-growth Eastern hemlocks. Pure hemlock stands create an open and quiet forest atmosphere. They began to establish themselves hundreds of years before today’s 350-year old trees even took root. Although some foresters consider old trees “overmature,” these old-growth woodlands have important value. © Parks Canada/P. LaLonde Hemlocks have fine feathery needles that create a layered canopy, which allows little sunlight to hit the forest floor. Under this shade, few plants can grow except for thick mosses and liverworts. These cool and shaded forests also favour delicate and uncommon orchids, such as Spotted coral-root and Checkered rattlesnake plantain. The shallow roots of tiny hemlock seedlings are supported by the moist soils. Hemlock seedlings can survive in the shade, and since they are long-lived, they eventually dominate the forest. On the forest floor, mushrooms recycle nutrients from fallen needles, twigs, and branches while bracket fungi grow like shelves on tree trunks. Where huge old trees have blown down, the extra nutrients provide for the new growth of dense patches of hemlock seedlings and ferns. This creates a variety of habitats for wildlife, lichens, and fungi. Even the treetops provide homes for wildlife. The Northern goshawk, a powerful and swift woodland hunting hawk, prefers to nest in these hemlock stands. The thick upper canopy hosts many insects, which provide important feeding and nesting habitat for the Blackbunian warbler, a bird easily identified by its orange throat. A walk among the awe-inspiring giants on the Hemlock and Hardwoods trail allows you to experience the beauty and wonder of these special forests. Old-growth hardwood forests in Kejimkujik are found on top of glacially-formed hills where the soil is deep and well drained. These forests are hundreds of years old. Although they make up less than one percent of Kejimkujik, you can see excellent stands along the Peter Point Trail and the Big Hardwood Carry (Portage E). Impressive Yellow birches, Sugar maples, and Beech trees comprise the upper canopy. The smaller Striped maples, often heavily browsed by deer, survives in the shade below. More light comes through the canopy of a hardwood stand than in a hemlock stand, allowing ground cover such as ferns to grow there. Beech trees, once a healthy part of these forests, have been hard hit by a fungal disease and an insect introduced from Europe over a century ago. Cankered and stunted beeches are widespread in Nova Scotia although occasional smooth-barked giants can be spotted. Old-growth hardwood forests, with their lush growths of lichens, abundant seeds and nuts and many tree cavities, provide good habitat for birds and small mammals such as the Southern flying squirrel. Wetlands have a major influence on the water chemistry, level and colour of freshwater ecosystems, and provide habitat for many of the species at risk in the park, including the Blanding’s turtle, the Northern ribbonsnake, and Atlantic Coastal Plain flora. Bogs are the most common type of wetland in Nova Scotia, and a significant habitat in the park. They grow in areas of poor drainage and fill up old lakes. To discover Kejimujik’s bogs, hike the Snake Lake Trail, paddle Jeremys Bay, Still Brook, or one of the other slow-moving waterways. Bogs take centuries to develop. They are saturated with water and are dominated by mats of spongy sphagnum moss. As the moss grows and dies, the plant material rots very slowly forming layers of dead moss called peat that can become several metres deep. The dark brown waters, so characteristic of Kejimkujik, are stained with tannic acids from this peat. On the drier parts of bogs, waist-high shrubs grow including Leather-leaf, Sheep laurel, and Rhodora. These species can tolerate the acidic conditions. Even the most moisture-tolerant tree species, including Larch, Red maple, and Black spruce, survive mostly on raised hummocks and around the bog’s edge. © Parks Canada/R. Swain Flat wetland areas bordering rivers and other waterways are known as floodplains. In Nova Scotia, floodplains often appear as lush, grassy meadows in summer. In Kejimkujik, the trail crossing Rogers Brook offers one of the best views of a floodplain. © Parks Canada Floodplain lands and adjacent waters form a complex and dynamic ecosystem. When river waters overflow due to seasonally heavy rains or spring runoff, these important riparian areas collect and retain the floodwaters. Not only do floodwaters carry plant material and silt laden with nutrients, wetting of the floodplain surface releases its own nutrients: those left over from the last flood, and those resulting from the rapid breakdown of organic matter that has accumulated since then. The combination of high nutrient-levels, high moisture and periodic physical disturbance creates unique, productive habitat for plants and wildlife, including rare species. As the levels of a floodplain increase, moisture-tolerant trees and other forest vegetation such as maples and alders eventually gain a foothold. Plants found in Kejimkujiks’s floodplains include Blue flag iris, Poison ivy and Meadowsweet. Dragonflies, salamanders, turtles, owls, birds, bats, beavers and White-tailed deer are among the species that depend on the floodplains. The crowns of the trees also support rich insect and bird life. Warblers, vireos and flycatchers are some of the birds sighted in the forest floodplain. Barrens and bogs As you approach the ocean, leaving the shelter of the forest behind, the coastal barrens stretch out before you. This is a zone of vegetation generally about the height of an adult human. Cold and salty winds from the ocean clip the growth of plants, causing them to be stunted and twisted. Barrens form along Nova Scotia’s coast where the rigours of the climate combine with soil conditions. The thin, poor soil left after glaciation also forms an impervious iron-rich hardpan that plant roots find difficult to penetrate. The effects of fire may have removed much of the soil humus. Attempts to farm and graze sheep on this land have also had a major influence. Despite the name, the barrens are a diverse and fascinating habitat. This landscape is actually a miniature Acadian forest. Stunted White pine and Red maple are present. Black spruce, Balsam fir, and Wire birch grow not much taller than the multitude of shrubs such as blueberry, Sheep laurel, Bearberry, Canada holly, and huckleberry. Many of these shrubs are prolific berry producers later in the summer. Birds and sometimes Black bears can be seen feasting on the rich bounty. Beneath the twisted, impenetrable, and dwarfed trunks of tree and shrub, there is a forest floor. A lush growth of Cinnamon ferns, Wintergreen, Bunchberry, and mosses are found here. This is also a haven for many small animals like Snowshoe hare, Red squirrel, and other small rodents who seek the shelter offered by the thick vegetation. Birds like the Common yellow-throat warbler, the Savannah sparrow, and the Palm warbler flit in and out of the branches. These small creatures move easily in the tangle of shrubs and dwarfed trees typical of the barrens. Nearer the ocean, the barrens become more stunted. The shrubs give way to Crowberry, Reindeer moss, and Ground juniper that grow right up to the beach’s edge. The very low barren can harbour toads, snakes, voles, and shrews. The moist conditions also favour the Eastern red-backed salamander. In the past, moose and caribou found ideal living conditions in these low barrens. Mainland moose are now considered an endangered species and the last Woodland caribou disappeared from Nova Scotia around 1905. In some bogs the woody shrubs all but disappear and the vegetation does not pass knee height. Typically damp and mossy places, bogs look quite uniform from a distance. But up close, there is a diverse mixture of plants, colours, and textures. Sphagnum moss dominates the bog and gives it its peaty character, including water saturation and high acidity. Plants that also grow here include Bog laurel, Bog huckleberry, Three-leaved false Solomon’s seal, White-fringed orchids, Rhodora, and Sweet gale. All of these plants thrive in the bog conditions which prevent many other plants from growing. At the Seaside, the bogs are pierced with large boulders. These boulders are called glacial erratics and remind us of the relatively short span of time that has passed since the last Ice Age swept over Nova Scotia. Many of the seaside bogs began as small ponds that formed when the last of the glaciers melted along the coast about 13 000 years ago. Cool and damp, this landscape encouraged the growth of sphagnum. The moss gradually filled in all of the ponds to form bogs. Unusual plants populate the bog. Pitcher plants, Horned bladderwort, and Sundew augment their meagre rations taken from the sterile peaty soil with insects. During June and July, orchids like Rose pogonia, Calopogon, and Arethusa display splendid flowers. Tufted seed heads of Bog cotton float like clouds above the surface of Sphagnum moss. Certain trees do seem to be able to endure: Wire birch, Black spruce, Balsam fir, and sometimes even White pine adapt to the conditions. Bare, branchless trunks face into the predominant winds, while most of the growth is directed downwind on low, lateral branches. Due to the extremely slow rate of growth, trunks of a few centimetres in diameter may contain up to one hundred very fine growth rings. Few animals live in the bog but many inhabit the perimeter and make use of it. Song sparrows and Swamp sparrows are common. White-tailed deer criss-cross the bog with trails, seeking food during calm days, but when North Atlantic storms hit land, they will leave for more dependable shelter in the surrounding forest or in islands of spruce trees. As you look over flat bogs and barrens, islands of trees poke up in the distance. Stunted and twisted, these Balsam fir and White spruce grow close to the ocean’s edge, withstanding even the salt spray. Zones of deeper, more well-drained soil are found here, which is more conducive to tree growth than the sterile, water-logged peat of bogs. Also, where the land slopes down steeply towards sheltered bays, in the lee of the predominant winds, trees grow higher. The Seaside has several small ponds. Many of them are found along the shore or at the ends of headlands. Little more than a pile of gravel and cobbles separates them from the Atlantic Ocean. Fresh water comes only from rain seepage from the boggy basins surrounding each pond. The salinity of the pond water can vary quite a bit from pond to pond and from season to season. Some even dry up during the summer. The water in these shallow ponds is very dark and contains high amounts of dissolved organic compounds such as tannic acids. While no real brooks flow in or out of them, you can often see their dark-stained water seeping through the beach gravel on the seaward side of the cobble berms. The water is very acidic, ranging from 3.9 to 4.9 on the pH scale. These can be difficult places for aquatic life to live. Green maidenhair algae and Burweed may cover the bottoms of the brackish ponds. Fish like Sticklebacks and Mummichogs are well adapted to living in water where the salinity fluctuates. The mud around the edges may show traces of great blue herons who have come fishing. Black ducks use these ponds for raising their broods. Gulls also flock here to rest and look for food or shelter from ocean storms. There are a few inaccessible freshwater ponds inland. Far from the direct influence of the sea, common Nova Scotia amphibians can be found. Green frogs, Northern leopard frogs, and Spring peepers migrate from inland and sometimes live in these dark and acidic waters. Generally, because of these conditions, and the cool nature of the climate, frogs and other amphibians are not abundant in Kejimkujik Seaside. Return to Coastal Habitats menu The capes of the Seaside project directly into the raw energy of the Atlantic Ocean. Smooth rocky ridges jut out into the turmoil of waves. Spray jumps up into the air sometimes giving your lips a salty tingle. If it is low tide, bands of Rockweed are like skirts on the rocks and declare clearly that the ocean claims this territory. If you explore these outcrops, be careful; rogue waves can reach up and carry away anything they find. They have already carried away the soil and forest that once covered these rocks, exposing an ancient geological story below. Most of the coastline is composed of granite cobbles. Ranging in size from 10 to 30 cm, these rocks are round and smooth. The ocean has rolled and worn the granite down into the almost perfectly round and smooth cobbles and then, with brute force, flung them upon the land. Many of the cobble beaches are raised into impressive, steep banks called berms. Rising many metres above the average high tide, only the biggest storms succeed in crashing over the top. Each storm surge will dump tonnes of rock at the crest of the cobble berm, spilling landward, covering barrens and stunted spruce trees, even filling up ponds. Many people admire the symmetrical granite cobbles but should never-the-less refrain from bringing home souvenirs. Leave the beach as you found it for the next visitor! The rising tides leave many things stranded on the cobble beach. A rich and varied strand line seems to contain a complete history of the evolution of the lobster trap – beginning with the older wooden hoop and slat, through the square slat and finally the metal cage. Abundant driftwood contains other relics of the human fishing industry, stumps, and logs. Beyond the reach of wave action, cobbles are more stable and become colonized by encrusting lichens and plants, such as Sea-lungwort, Beach pea, and Common juniper. Sweet gale and cranberries establish themselves eventually and merge with the barrens inland. Many small coastal ponds are separated from the salty ocean by the cobble berm. As these natural dykes are very dynamic and porous barriers, the conditions in these ponds are very challenging. Large boulders can be seen farther out in the water forming handy and secure nesting and roosting sites for birds like gulls, Black guillemots, Petrels, Terns, and Gannets. Look for Cormorants drying out their outstretched wings between dives. Eiders also roost on these islets throughout the year. Bird rocks are typically painted white with excrement, marking that spot as a favourite place. Harbour seals, and the larger Grey seals, tend to prefer those rocks that have easily accessible shelves where they can pull themselves out of the water. The seals spend the entire year in and around these rocks. Even in winter, they will sun themselves but tend to prefer the warmer water. During the spring, females will give birth to their pups in the relative safety of these small islands. During the summer, they divide their time between resting and playing on the rocks and fishing. Whales are seldom seen at Kejimkujik’s Seaside. The open North Atlantic Ocean is sometimes too exposed for many species of wildlife. Boyds Cove, Port Joli, MacLeods Cove, Harbour Rocks, and Port Mouton offer an easier option. Warmer, calmer waters of coves attract fish and shelter more marine plants. Hundreds of seabirds can often be found in large rafts, bobbing up and down in the waves, including Common eiders, Surf scoters, Cormorants, Black ducks, wintering Canada geese, and Green-winged teal. The more protected waters favour the growth of marine plants, particularly kelp. Kelp shelters schools of young fish, provides food for grazers like periwinkles, and make a more hospitable environment for many creatures. Return to Coastal Habitats menu One of the most spectacular views in Nova Scotia awaits the visitor at Kejimkujik’s Seaside. From the Harbour Rocks trail, the sweeping curve of St. Catherine’s River beach is unveiled. The white sand is blinding on a sunny day. When dry, because of the uniform shape of the quartz sand grains, it “talks” as a person walks over it. This is one of the largest protected beaches in Nova Scotia. The beaches are created by the action of current and waves that deposit fine sand in the sheltered coves of the Seaside. The sand is a product of the granite that lines the shoreline. Granite contains large amounts of quartz, a very hard and light coloured mineral. White sand, reflecting sunlight off the ocean floor is responsible for the unbelievable turquoise colour of the water. Darker patches are also present which represent those parts of the ocean floor that are covered in rock. Rocky areas are covered with seaweeds. In some areas, the white sand contains unusual purple bands. This purple sand is actually very fine particles of garnet. This magnesium-rich mineral has been eroded from the surrounding rocks. It is very fine and less dense than the sand particles that make up the rest of the beach. Wave action is therefore able to move it to the highest part of the beach. Wind then collects and deposits it at the base of the dune grass or in other wind-traps. Just inland from the high tide zone on sandy beaches are wind-created dunes. Beaches are constantly being altered by the forces of the wind and the sea and can change dramatically over the course of a season. Winter storms can wash out, breach, or even move dunes around. Marram grass is the dominant plant on the dunes, holding the sand in place with its dense network of roots. The base of the dunes is critical nesting habitat for the endangered Piping plover. Heading inland, older dunes are more stable with their carpet of Marram grass, rose, Bayberry, Poison ivy, and even the occasional white spruce. Beach pea, Starry false-Solomon’s seal, and Seaside goldenrod also grow here. Few animals live permanently on the dunes but deer and raccoons do leave traces of their passage. The most common birds seen on sandy beaches include Spotted sandpipers in the early summer and flocks of Semi-palmated sandpipers, Least sandpipers, Sanderlings, Willets, and Semi-palmated plovers later on. These shorebirds run back and forth between the breaking waves on the beach picking up morsels of food like sandhoppers or sideswimmers. Common terns nest on the tip of St. Catherine’s River Beach. Many of these birds are migratory and make use of the Seaside’s beaches on their way to somewhere else. These beaches are therefore directly connected to coastal areas in the southern United States, the Carribean, and as far away as Antarctica. Greater yellowlegs, Whimbrel and Semi-palmated plover Shells and scattered pebbles help make this beach ideal for Piping plover nests because they use these bits of flotsam to help camouflage their shallow nest depressions in the sand. The presence of the plovers and the importance of the Marram grass, which is sensitive to foot traffic, in holding down the sand, makes these dunes very special places. Avoid walking on dunes and respect beach closures where indicated. Beaches like St. Catherine’s River Beach and Little Port Joli beach create a sheltered body called a lagoon in behind their sandy barrier where fresh and salt water intermingle. Tides rush in through the narrow opening created by the barrier beach, flooding tidal flats and surrounding small islands with an influx of fresh, cold salt water. The lagoons experience high and low tides about every 6 hours. The fine mud which collects here is rich in nutrients and absorbs lots of heat during low tide. Fine algae grows on the mud and it can be baked into a bleached cardboard-like substance by the sun. Many types of insects and crustaceans seeks shelter from the drying sun under these mats. Eel grass provides a rich grazing ground for many shorebirds, ducks, and geese. Eagles, osprey, and herons regularly fish in the lagoon shallows. Lagoons are important nurseries for many types of fish, including the Mummichog and the Stickleback. Large numbers of marine creatures such as Soft shell clams, periwinkles, and Macoma clams are common. Raccoons come down to the lagoon’s edge to feed on these shellfish. Salt marshes, with their cordgrass and rushes fringe the lagoon.

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In Egypt, the initial three-quarters of the 20th century had shaped an era of struggle for enlightenment and the achievement of equality between women and men. Such progress was a strong and swift extenuation to the harbingers of development in the 19th century. Yet starting from the second half of the 1970s, the values of enlightenment collapsed, as former President Anwar El-Sadat resorted to the help of Muslim Brotherhood and Salafi groups in his confrontation with leftists and Nasserists. Such groups regard women as inferior, and are characterised by a backward view on the matter. In addition, due to the mass migration of Egyptian workers to the Gulf, transporting back the conservative values of that region upon their return, and due to the high incomes of the men who traveled to find jobs in the Gulf, there was a decreased need for women to work, rendering a reduced percentage of women's economic participation. In the same vein, the humane and enlightened view of women as human beings and partners was replaced by a backward view, confining women's image to creatures fit only for procreation and pleasure. Egyptian women were given full suffrage rights in 1956, which was early by comparison to the rest of the world. Still, up to the previous parliament, elected following the 2010 general election, and before adoption of a quota allotted to women candidates, women made up a mere two percent of seats in Egyptian parliament, compared to approximately 11 percent in Morocco, 23 percent in Tunisia, 12 percent in Syria, 45 percent in South Africa, 18 percent in Indonesia, 21 percent in Italy, 18 percent in France, and 33 percent in Germany, according to the World Bank. After the adoption of a quota system for women in the 2010 election, 62 women made it into parliament, alongside another woman who was appointed, and two women from the then-ruling National Democratic Party, (Amal Othman as Dokki and Agouza representative for "workers", and Laila El-Refai El-Morsy on the "peasants" list as a representative for Aga in El-Dakahlia governorate). These wholly rigged elections, through which ousted dictator Mubarak sought to nationalise political life in a foolish manner, were a key factor in the escalation of a state of political tension with his regime, which ultimately detonated in the massive revolution leading to his ouster in 2011. There is no doubt that the weakness of citizenship as the basis for social, economic and political relations has greatly impacted access, or a lack thereof, to a fair and equal share of opportunities in education, since all sectarian, familial, ethnic, racial and religious references are generally less equitable to women. A civilisation's inheritance also shapes the development of a society's vision of women, their education and political, economic and social roles. In addition, the nature of the relationship between religion and the state strongly impacts the state's perception of the roles of women, their education, their participation with men on an equal footing in all fields, and its perception of its duty to cultivate, freeze, or confine such roles. The changes in the order of the values of learning, education and justice in the value system of society reflect on the issue of women education also. Any decline in these values is doubly reflected on women, due to the chauvinism pervading conservative societies and the extended opportunities for men in sectors that depend on physical strength rather than skills cultivated through education. Focusing governmental investment on infrastructure projects renders job opportunities biased to the uneducated, and decidedly based against women, since such jobs demand the physical aptitude of men, and hence, an environment that is inhospitable and non-conducive to the education of women is created. And with regression in the economic and educational role of women within the family, her standing in society also takes a tumble, and her image deteriorates. Also, periods of economic crisis and rising unemployment rates, and the associated struggle for limited employment, are characterised with an intensified discrimination against women, particularly with regards to education and the penetration of educated women in the labour market. This is all despite the fact that the significant presence of women breadwinners amplifies the need to educate women, so that they could improve their chances in the labour market, and their potential incomes, and their ability to support their families and provide a decent life for them. Women of the past two centuries: Symbols of struggle and enlightenment The early pioneers of education in Egypt fought a real struggle for the dissemination of education in general, and women's education in particular, in controversial societies, for nearly two centuries. And this struggle has formed a crucial part of the leadership of Egypt in the Arab world and globally in that regard. Egypt was not a precedent merely for Arab states, but it overshadowed the vast majority of developing countries, as well as some countries in Southeast Europe. And it is true that some women from the elite classes were home-schooled for many years, and that education in schools in its modern sense started around 178 years ago. In 1832, a public school was established for midwifery, designed to graduate women with the ability to provide medical services to women. French physician Clot Bey supervised the school. It was followed years later by the "Al-Seyoufeya" school for girls in 1873, which was founded with the financial assistance of the wide of Khedive Ismail. The school's name was later changed to The Saneya School for Girls, and it is the most famous school for girls in Egypt's education history, awarding the primary school education certificate and the teacher's certificate. The school was established shortly after the release of the book The Guide to Educating Girls and Boys by one of the enlightenment pioneers in Egypt, Refaa Rafea El-Tahtawy. Tahtawy had called in his book for the necessity of "exerting effort to educate both girls and boys to improve relationships between married couples, for when girls learn to read and practice maths, this feeds their mind, and renders them more fit for conversation with men and enables the exchange of opinion among them, which elevates them in men's hearts and expands their standing." Tahtawy emphasised that, "Education can empower women to do the work of men, within the scope of her strength and energy." Unlike these two governmental schools, there were schools for foreign communities and missionaries, which were private schools for girls. Yet these were not frequented by Egyptians. And there were religious schools such as the school established by Coptic associations in 1860 to meet the growing role of missionary schools that were contributing to the conversion of some Orthodox Copts to catholicism or protestantism, and the school established by Islamic associations in 1878. And within the convoy of education and culture pioneers in Egypt is Aisha El-Taymoureya, who had Kurdish roots but was by birth, life experience and culture loyal to Egypt. She was one of the pioneers of poetry and literature in the 19th century. Nabaweya Mousa (1951-1886) was a relentless fighter for the rights of girls to education and equality with men in status and pay. And she was the first student to earn a high school certificate like men, and subsequently to earn comparable pay as a teacher in the Abbas Primary School. She wrote excellent books for primary school students, and her most famous book, besides her autobiography, was Women and Work, in which she presented a glorious defence of the right of women to work. And she had a strong and vibrant sense of national pride and patriotism, and she fought for Egyptianising the department of education, which was then controlled by British colonialists. The Ministry of Education punished her for her efforts, yet she did not yield and went on to manage the schools "Banat Al-Ashraf" and to write journalistically. She deserved to be one of the immortal names that were given to Egyptian schools in the enlightenment era until the mid-1970s, before religious and political names and the names of owners showed up on these schools, removing the values of education, enlightenment and patriotism that the names that belonged to the pioneers of education and the stars of enlightenment in Egypt represented. In Egypt's history, there is a long list of education, culture and enlightenment pioneers fighting for the participation of women and their equality with men, including Malak Helmy Nassef. She was the first girl to receive the primary school certificate from the governmental Saneya school in 1903, and the teacher's certificate in 1910. She was a speech-giver and a lecturer with a strong presence, and she died too early at the age of 32. The convoy of pioneers also includes Huda Shaarawi, Ceza Nabrawy, the great thinker and novelist Latifa El-Zayat, and Soheir El-Qalmawy, who was the first to receive a PhD in literature from the Egyptian University (what would later become Cairo University). Also among the list is Fatma Yousef or Roz Al-Yousef, with her strong character and her diverse artistic and journalistic skills, and who established the popular magazine in her name, which still exists. Also prominent is the Islamic thinker Aisha Abdel Rahman, famous as "Daughter of the Shore", and Esther Fahmy Wissa, who fought for Egypt's independence, caring for women in poverty, and equality between women and men. And Palestinian-born writer May Zeyada, who was one of the foremost symbols of culture and enlightenment in Egypt in the first half of the 20th century. And the prominent journalist Ameen El-Saeed, and Doreya Shafik, who was among the first women to earn a doctoral degree, and who was bold in her journalistic work and her views, and fearless of any ramifications in facing an oppressive government, while being very patriotic. Also among the list would be visual artist Injy Efflatoun, unionist Aida Fahmy, the most famous rebel in rural Egypt, Shahenda Maqlad, and prominent unionist Ameena Shafik, and many others across Egypt and the Arab world. In addition to all these, there are the pioneers in the arts, penetrating the field and becoming icons in the art world. In the field of music, Um Kolthoum emerged, as well as Asmahan, Moneera El-Mahdeya, Fatheya Ahmed, Lorda Cash, Laila Murad, followed by Sabah, Shadya, Fayza Ahmed, Nagat El-Sagheera, and the legendary Palestinian-born Lebanese singer Fayrouz, who left Palestine with her family as a refugee because of criminal Zionist gangs and moved to Lebanon. Also prominent was folk music leader Khadra Mohamed Khedr. In theatre and cinema many leading lights emerged, such as Fatma Rushdy, Ameena Rizk, Fardos Mohamed, Rakia Ibrahim, Sameeha Ayoub, Madeeha Yousry, Sanaa Gameel, Taheya Karioka, Zeinat Sedky, and Wedad Hamdy. And the golden generation in the 1950s and 60s featured Shadya, Hend Rostom, Nadya Lotfy, Maryam Fakhr El-Din, Faten Hamama, Magda, Lobna Abdel-Aziz, and the legend Soad Hosny, and Nedal El-Ashkar, Hayat El-Fahd and many others who contributed to the development of cinema and theatre in Egypt and the Arab world. As for Asia and Aziza Amir, they are considered to be the most important film producers in the history of Arab cinema, and they are to be credited with the development of the seventh art in Egypt, which is considered to be the real nucleus of Arab cinema. There are many men and women who took part in the battle for women's right to education, and equality in education, employment and pay, and political participation. And during this struggle for independence and the societal battle for freedom, justice and equality, rebels emerged across the Arab world, from Egypt to Algeria, Iraq, Syria, Palestine and other Arab countries who ventured into this struggle and were repaid with their share of torture and imprisonment. And many were martyred for their national duty, just like men. The Algerian Gameela Bouhreid can be considered one of the fiercest Arab revolutionists against French occupation, and one of the most famous in the Arab world. And with her, a group of rebels and martyrs from Algeria and the Arab world, chronicling the heroism of the Arab woman and her participation with men in defending their nations and in the fight for independence. The struggle for the dissemination of education in general and for women's education in particular are linked to social development in historical countries such as Egypt. It is linked to overriding tribal and clan societies, to forming nation-states in many other Arab countries. It has also been linked to the struggle against Ottoman and European colonialism, which left a shadow over the Arab world. Ahmed Lotfy El-Sayed, who was one of the students of Sheikh Mohamed Abdo, and the thinker Qassem Amin, a pioneer of women liberation and author of the two famous books Liberating Women and The New Woman, was of the opinion that whoever seeks independence should use his tongue, pen, energy and money to develop education, for education is the one and only factor to bring about independence. And this vision stems from a deep-seated belief in education and its impact, although it may seem exaggerated, because without a strong social, patriotic and humanitarian stance, alone education would not lead to achieving independence. Ahmed Lotfy El-Sayed believed that the purpose of education was much higher than merely to graduate employable youth. He believed that the purpose of education is to reduce the disparities that naturally exist among the population of a single nation, and to increase the similarities between them so that their likes and hopes would converge, and they would share a vision of the events that surround them. And Lotfy El-Sayed possessed a just and wise opinion with regards to the enrollment of girls in university education. When the Egyptian University was converted to a public university in 1925, many of the faculty deans who were supportive of women's education called for the university's acceptance of women students with high school diplomas. El-Sayed realised that the issue was a thorny one, and the force of rejection of the enrollment of women would be too massive, so he established an agreement with faculty deans to accept women students without an official announcement on the matter. Still, this agreement did not put an end to the commotion over mixing boys and girls in university. Yet he was unmoved by such grievances, because according to him, he was "certain that social evolution is on our side, and that that evolution cannot be thwarted, and the definition of justice is to equate a brother and his sister in their full rights, and that on our side, above all, is the welfare of the nation, and that can be achieved through the structure of the Egyptian family being of a state that matches our hopes for national development." The truth is that the battle of higher education was not an easy battle. It was a real war between the forces of enlightenment and the forces of backwardness and darkness. Qassem Amin mobilised all his religious and secular arguments to push for the idea of women's education, so that they would become enlightened wives and mothers, able to manage the modern family budget and secure a healthy upbringing for their children. The national university initially accepted 32 female students without officially announcing it. In 1909, a department for women students was established. Yet it was closed in 1912, and after converting the national university into a public university — King Fouad I University, which later became Cairo University — girls were accepted into the university despite opposition from conservative forces. The forgotten heroes of Menoufia, Mansoura, Beheira and Alexandria This struggle, and the heroism of women, was an important factor in confirming the entitlement of Arab women to equality with men in all walks of life, particularly in the field of education. In Egypt, women from Menoufia in the "Ghamreen" and "Tata" villages participated in fierce fighting against French invaders in 1798, prompting one of the officers belonging to the French campaign to describe the incident as a valiant attack by the village women on French soldiers. Yet the army used its modern weapons for mass murder in both villages, and more than 400 men and women were killed by the criminal French invaders. And in Mansoura, women participated with men in the revolt against the French garrison there in August 1798, attacking those garrisons in defence of their homeland and in protest at occupation, before the immoral and inhumane French army responded with an extermination expedition pitched against the valiant people of the city. In Damanhour, which also fought the French army valiantly, the men and women of the city joined forces in a historic battle in which they achieved an influential victory for Egypt's modern history: they fought and defeated the forces of Mohamed Bey El-Alfy, leader of the Mamluks, who the Ottoman state, with British complicity, wanted to use to put a stop to the popularly supported rule of Mohammad Ali, and to regain its backward and diseased control over Egypt. The participation of women in national wars against invaders, the French colonialists and later the British, highlighted the importance of the role of women in the crucial issues of the nation, and thus paved the way for the ideas of gender equality. Women played a significant role in helping men to resist Napoleon's expedition, which was by far the most horrid and dishonorable foreign military campaign in the modern history of Egypt. The French had killed many of those who called for development in Egypt; they killed around about 300,000 Egyptians in three years of barbaric murders and criminal acts against people who proved from the first moment that they are immune to occupation by these European colonists. And women also played a significant role in the people's war against the British in their attack on Rasheed (Rosetta) in 1807. The Fraser expedition was crushed and expelled from Egypt in shame and defeat, thanks to the coming together of men and women in their resistance in Rasheed, which became an exemplary case in popular resistance, not only in Egypt, but the world over. In the British attack on Egypt in 1882, Alexandrian women participated in supporting men and the Egyptian army. Women participated in popular resistance against the British to prevent their progress within Egypt's land. Even upper class women contributed by donating to the army to support its resistance to the criminal British invasion of Egypt. Khedive Ismail's mother donated her carriage's horses to the army. In general, women in Egypt and in many Arab countries have a proven track record in the arena of national struggle, which contributed to the promotion of equality with men in education, employment and their permeation into leadership positions in all fields. Yet, what has already been settled on the issues of education and participation of women in all fields of work in an equal manner to men in both pay and rights is now revisited and threatened by the endless drainage of the Arab mind by conservative groups with religious references. This seems strange in a country such as Egypt, in particular, where the battle for enlightenment and equality between men and women in the modern era started at a very early stage, dating back nearly 180 years. Women in Egypt got suffrage rights in 1956, only 11 years after women in France and Italy were allowed the right to vote. Also, Egypt's long history, which prologues the world's written history, features large roles for women, and a moral inheritance in equality with men on many issues that places Egypt as a frontrunner in the world since the era of the Ancient Egyptians, at which time women had the right to own property and manage it without guardianship, and reached the top of the social and political hierarchy, since there were queens at the head of the state in Egypt in different eras. Many queens have filled important roles in governing the country, and many have performed critical roles in the national struggle against foreign occupation, particularly in the 17th Dynasty that lead to Egypt emoting the occupation of "Haqkhasot", which is translatable from hieroglyphics to "Rulers of the foreign country", which are known as the Hyksos, who occupied Egypt for two centuries before being expelled and erased completely in 1550 BC. This great role for Egyptian women in ancient history deserves to be the subject of an article on its own, to remind current generations of the progress of Egypt thousands of years ago. Any who contemplate the history of struggle of Egyptian women, and survey the progress they have made, and their social, political, educational and practical participation in the struggle for enlightenment, would be overcome with sorrow over the current state of societal perception of women. It is certain that the massive participation of women in the great revolution of 25 January 2011, and its second massive wave on 30 June 2013, and in all political events, will open gates for a new future of enlightenment and gender equality, in reference to the new constitution, which is outstanding in this regard. As for all the remnants of backwardness, bullying, immorality and harassment and moral decay, society and the state must together fight relentlessly to crush them, and to uphold the values of the enlightenment and gender equality, to build a future worthy of the value and stature of Egypt's culture and history.

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A copycat suicide is defined as an emulation of another suicide that the person attempting suicide knows about either from local knowledge or due to accounts or depictions of the original suicide on television and in other media. The publicized suicide serves as a trigger, in the absence of protective factors, for the next suicide by a susceptible or suggestible person. This is referred to as suicide contagion. They occasionally spread through a school system, through a community, or in terms of a celebrity suicide wave, nationally. This is called a suicide cluster. Suicide clusters are caused by the social learning of suicide-related behaviors, or "copycat suicides". Point clusters are clusters of suicides in both time and space, and have been linked to direct social learning from nearby individuals. Mass clusters are clusters of suicides in time but not space, and have been linked to the broadcasting of information concerning celebrity suicides via the mass media. One of the earliest known associations between the media and suicide arose from Goethe's novel Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (The Sorrows of Young Werther). Soon after its publication in 1774, young men began to mimic the main character by dressing in yellow pants and blue jackets. In the novel, Werther shoots himself with a pistol after he is rejected by the woman he loves, and shortly after its publication there were reports of young men using the same method to kill themselves in acts of hopelessness. This resulted in the book being banned in several places. Hence the term "Werther effect", used in the technical literature to designate copycat suicides. The term was coined by researcher David Phillips in 1974. Reports in 1985 and 1989 by Phillips and his colleagues found that suicides and other accidents seem to rise after a well-publicized suicide. These suicidal actions tend to happen in the days and sometimes weeks after a suicide is announced. In exceptional cases, such as a widely discussed suicide by a celebrity, an increased level of thinking about suicide may persist for up to one year. Factors in suicide reportingEdit Copycat suicide is mostly blamed on the media. A study conducted in 2002 found evidence for "the influence of media on suicidal behaviour has been shown for newspaper and television reports of actual suicides, film and television portrayals of suicides, and suicide in literature, especially suicide." "Hearing about a suicide seems to make those who are vulnerable feel they have permission to do it," Phillips said. He cited studies that showed that people were more likely to engage in dangerous deviant behavior, such as drug taking, if someone else had set the example first. The Werther effect not only predicts an increase in suicide, but the majority of the suicides will take place in the same or a similar way as the one publicized. The more similar the person in the publicized suicide is to the people exposed to the information about it, the more likely the age group or demographic is to die by suicide. The increase generally happens only in areas where the suicide story was highly publicized. Upon learning of someone else's suicide, some people decide that action may be appropriate for them as well, especially if the publicized suicide was of someone in a situation similar to their own. Publishing the means of suicides, romanticized and sensationalized reporting—particularly about celebrities, suggestions that there is an epidemic, glorifying the deceased and simplifying the reasons all lead to increases in the suicide rate. People may see suicide as a glamorous ending, with the victim getting attention, sympathy, and concern that they never got in life. A second possible factor is that vulnerable youth may feel, "If they couldn't cut it, neither can I". Increased rate of suicides has been shown to occur up to ten days after a television report. Studies in Japan and Germany have replicated findings of an imitative effect. Etzersdorfer et al. in an Austrian study showed a strong correlation between the number of papers distributed in various areas and the number of subsequent firearm suicides in each area after a related media report. Higher rates of copycat suicides have been found in those with similarities in race, age, and gender to the victim in the original report. Stack analyzed the results from 42 studies and found that those measuring the effect of a celebrity suicide story were 14.3 times more likely to find a copycat effect than studies that did not. Studies based on a real as opposed to a fictional story were 4.03 times more likely to uncover a copycat effect and research based on televised stories was 82% less likely to report a copycat effect than research based on newspapers. Other scholars have been less certain about whether copycat suicides truly happen or are selectively hyped. For instance, fears of a suicide wave following the suicide of Kurt Cobain never materialized in an actual increase in suicides. Coverage of Cobain's suicide in the local Seattle area focused largely on treatment for mental health issues, suicide prevention and the suffering Cobain's death caused to his family. Perhaps as a result, the local suicide rate actually declined in the following months. Furthermore, there is evidence for an indirect Werther effect, i.e. the perception that suicidal media content influences others which, in turn, can concurrently or additionally influence one person's own future thoughts and behaviors. Similarly the researcher Gerard Sullivan has critiqued research on copycat suicides, suggesting that data analyses have been selective and misleading and that the evidence for copycat suicides are much less consistent than suggested by some researchers. Studies show a high incidence of psychiatric disorders in suicide victims at the time of their death with the total figure ranging from 87.3% to 98%, with mood disorders and substance abuse being the two most common. Social proof modelEdit An alternate model to explain copycat suicide, called "social proof" by Cialdini, goes beyond the theories of glorification and simplification of reasons to look at why copycat suicides are so similar, demographically and in actual methods, to the original publicized suicide. In the social proof model, people imitate those who seem similar, despite or even because of societal disapproval. This model is important because it has nearly opposite ramifications for what the media ought to do about the copycat suicide effect than the standard model does. To deal with this problem, Alex Mesoudi of Queen Mary University of London, developed a computer model of a community of 1000 people, to examine how copycat suicides occur. These were divided into 100 groups of 10, in a model designed to represent different levels of social organization, such as schools or hospitals within a town or state. Mesoudi then circulated the simulation through 100 generations. He found the simulated people acted just as sociologists' theory predicted. They were more likely to die by suicide in clusters, either because they had learned this trait from their friends, or because suicidal people are more likely to be like one another. Various countries have national journalism codes which range from one extreme of, "Suicide and attempted suicide should in general never be given any mention" (Norway) to a more moderate, "In cases of suicide, publishing or broadcasting information in an exaggerated way that goes beyond normal dimensions of reporting with the purpose of influencing readers or spectators should not occur." The study's author, University of London psychologist Alex Mesoudi, recommends that reporters follow the sort of guidelines the World Health Organization and others endorse for coverage of any suicide: use extreme restraint in covering these deaths—keep the word "suicide" out of the headline, don't romanticize the death, and limit the number of stories. Photography, pictures, visual images or film depicting such cases should not be made public" (Turkey). While many countries do not have national codes, media outlets still often have in-house guidelines along similar lines. In the United States, there are no industry-wide standards. A survey of in-house guides of 16 US daily newspapers showed that only three mentioned the word suicide, and none gave guidelines about publishing the method of suicide. Craig Branson, online director of the American Society of News Editors (ASNE), has been quoted as saying, "Industry codes are very generic and totally voluntary. Most ethical decisions are left to individual editors at individual papers. The industry would fight any attempt to create more specific rules or standards, and editors would no doubt ignore them." Guidelines on the reporting of suicides in Ireland were introduced recently with attempt to remove any positive connotations the act might have (e.g. using the term "completed" rather than "successful" when describing a suicide attempt which resulted in a death). Australia is one of the few countries where there is a concerted effort to teach journalism students about this subject. The Mindframe national media initiative followed an ambivalent response by the Australian Press Council to an earlier media resource kit issued by Suicide Prevention Australia and the Australian Institute for Suicide Research and Prevention. The UK-based media ethics charity MediaWise provides training for journalists on reporting suicide and related issues. Headline is Ireland's media monitoring programme for suicide and mental health issues, set up by Shine and the Health Service Executives National Office for Suicide Prevention as part of 'Reach Out: National Strategy for action on Suicide Prevention.' Headline works with media professionals and students to find ways to collaborate to ensure that suicide, mental health and mental illness are responsibly covered in the media and provides information on reporting on mental health and suicidal behavior, literature and daily analysis of news stories. Headline also serves as a vehicle for the public to become involved in helping to monitor the Irish media on issues relating to mental health and suicide. Studies suggest that the risk of suicide fell significantly when media outlets began following recommendations for suicide reporting in the late 20th century. The Papageno effect is the effect that mass media can have by presenting non-suicide alternatives to crises. It is named after a lovelorn character, Papageno, from the 18th-century opera The Magic Flute; he was contemplating suicide until other characters showed him a different way to resolve his problems. There is more research into the damage done by "irresponsible media reports" than into the protective effects of positive stories, but when newspapers refuse to publicize suicide events or change the way that they provide information about suicide events, the risk of copycat suicides declines. Examples of celebrities whose suicides have triggered suicide clusters include Ruan Lingyu, the Japanese musicians Yukiko Okada, Miyu Uehara and hide, the South Korean actress Choi Jin-Sil, whose suicide caused suicide rates to rise by 162.3% and Marilyn Monroe, whose death was followed by an increase of 200 more suicides than average for that August month. Another famous case is the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi, a Tunisian street vendor who set himself on fire on December 17, 2010, an act that was a catalyst for the Tunisian Revolution and sparked the Arab Spring, including several men who emulated Bouazizi's act. A 2017 study published in JAMA Internal Medicine found the online series 13 Reasons Why which chronicled a fictional teen's suicide was associated with an increase in suicide related Internet searches, including a 26% increase in searches for "how to commit suicide", an 18% increase for "commit suicide" and 9% increase for "how to kill yourself." On May 29, 2019, research published in JAMA Psychiatry outlined an association of increased suicides in 10- to 19-year-olds in the United States in the 3 months following the release of 13 Reasons Why, consistent with a media contagion of suicide in the show. A striking example occurred in Vienna, Austria where suicide by subway increased dramatically. 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Experts fear a spate of copycat suicides after bullying cases grab national headlines". ABC News. Retrieved April 21, 2011. - Phillips, David P. (May 1982). "The Impact of Fictional Television Stories on U.S. Adult Fatalities: New Evidence on the Effect of the Mass Media on Violence". The American Journal of Sociology. 87 (6): 1340–59. doi:10.1086/227596. - Stack S (1996). "The effect of the media on suicide: evidence from Japan, 1955–1985". Suicide Life Threat Behav. 26 (2): 132–42. PMID 8840417. - Jonas K (1992). "Modelling and suicide: a test of the Werther effect". Br J Soc Psychol. 31 (4): 295–306. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1992.tb00974.x. PMID 1472984. - Etzersdorfer E, Voracek M, Sonneck G (2004). "A dose-response relationship between imitational suicides and newspaper distribution". Arch Suicide Res. 8 (2): 137–45. doi:10.1080/13811110490270985. PMID 16006399. - Stack S (2002). "Media coverage as a risk factor in suicide". Inj. Prev. 8 Suppl 4: IV30–2. PMC 1765497. PMID 12460954. - Jobes D.; Berman A.; O'Carroll P.; Eastgard S. (1996). "The Kurt Cobain suicide crisis: Perspectives from research, public health and the news media". Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 26 (3): 260–271. - Scherr, S.; Reinemann, C. (2011). "Belief in a Werther effect. Third-Person effects in the perceptions of suicide risk for others and the moderating role of depression". Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 41 (6): 624–634. doi:10.1111/j.1943-278X.2011.00059.x. - Sullivan, G. (2007). Should Suicide Be Reported in the Media? A Critique of Research. Remember me: Constructing immortality—Beliefs on immortality, life and death (pp. 149–158). New York, NY US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. - Arsenault-Lapierre G, Kim C, Turecki G (2004). "Psychiatric diagnoses in 3275 suicides: a meta-analysis". BMC Psychiatry. 4: 37. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-4-37. PMC 534107. PMID 15527502. - Bertolote JM, Fleischmann A, De Leo D, Wasserman D (2004). "Psychiatric diagnoses and suicide: revisiting the evidence". Crisis. 25 (4): 147–55. doi:10.1027/0227-5910.25.4.147. PMID 15580849. - Robert B. Cialdini (1993). Influence: the psychology of persuasion. New York: Morrow. p. 336. ISBN 0-688-12816-5. - Hamzelou, J (2009). "Copycat suicides fuelled by media reports". Newscientist. Retrieved April 21, 2011. - Franklin, D (2009). "Copycat Suicides: What's The Media's Role?". NPR. Retrieved August 1, 2015. - Norris, Bill; Mike Jempson; Lesley Bygrave (September 2001). "Covering suicide worldwide: media responsibilities" (PDF). The MediaWise Trust. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2007-06-09. - "Suicide". Journalistic standards and practices. CBC/Radio-Canada. Retrieved 2014-02-05. - "Reporting Suicide: Guidance for journalists". The MediaWise Trust, Spanish, French. Archived from the original on 2005-03-11. Retrieved 2007-06-09. - "Suicide". 5 March 2011. - Kim, Jae-Hyun; Park, Eun-Cheol; Nam, Jung-Mo; Park, SoHee; Cho, Jaelim; Kim, Sun-Jung; Choi, Jae-Woo; Cho, Eun (2013-12-26). "The Werther Effect of Two Celebrity Suicides: an Entertainer and a Politician". PLoS ONE. 8 (12): e84876. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...884876K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084876. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3873447. PMID 24386428. - Ayers, John W.; Althouse, Benjamin M.; Leas, Eric C.; Dredze, Mark; Allem, Jon-Patrick (1 October 2017). "Internet Searches for Suicide Following the Release of 13 Reasons Why". JAMA Internal Medicine. 177 (10): 1527. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.3333. PMC 5820689. PMID 28759671. - International Association for Suicide Prevention (IASP) – Special Interest Group – Clusters and Contagion in Suicidal Behaviour (Aim of the IASP Special Interest Group (SIG) on Clusters and Contagion in Suicidal Behaviour is to bring together interested people in research, prevention and policy, who can share information and expertise in clusters and contagion effects in suicidal behaviour worldwide). - Copycat Effect (Article that discusses the how the sensational coverage of violent events tends to provoke similar events and the journalistic ethics involved). - Suicide Contagion and the Reporting of Suicide: Recommendations from a National Workshop – Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - Reporting on Suicide: Recommendations for the Media – American Foundation for Suicide Prevention - Suicide and the media Links, resources and articles from The MediaWise Trust - Gregor S, Copycat suicide: The influence of the media 2004, Australian Psychological Society - Stack S (2003). "Media coverage as a risk factor in suicide". Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 57 (4): 238–240. doi:10.1136/jech.57.4.238. PMC 1765497. - Herman J, Reporting on suicide Australian Press Council news, February 1998 - Suicide and the media New Zealand youth suicide prevention strategy - "Suicide and the Media: Recommendations on Suicide Reporting for Media Professionals (in Chinese)", The Hong Kong Jockey Club Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, The University of Hong Kong

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|States:||Kenya, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Bajuni Islands, Mozambique (mostly Mwani), Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Comoros, Mayotte, Zambia, Malawi, and Madagascar| |Speakers:||Estimates range from 2 million (2003) to 15 million| |Speakers2:||L2 speakers: 90 million (1991–2015)| |Fam6:||Northeast Coast Bantu| |Map:||Maeneo penye wasemaji wa Kiswahili.png| Swahili, also known as Swahili: Kiswahili (translation: language of the Swahili people), is a Bantu language and the first language of the Swahili people. It is a lingua franca of the African Great Lakes region and other parts of eastern and south-eastern Africa, including Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, some parts of Malawi and Zambia, Mozambique and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Comorian, spoken in the Comoros Islands, is sometimes considered to be a dialect of Swahili, though other authorities consider it a distinct language. The exact number of Swahili speakers, be it native or second-language speakers, is unknown and a matter of debate. Various estimates have been put forward and they vary widely, ranging from 15 million to 50 million. Swahili serves as a national language of the DRC, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Shikomor, the official language in Comoros and also spoken in Mayotte ([[Shimaore]]), is related to Swahili. Swahili is also one of the working languages of the African Union and officially recognised as a lingua franca of the East African Community. In 2018 South Africa legalized the teaching of Swahili in South African schools as an optional subject to begin in 2020. A significant fraction of Swahili vocabulary derives from Arabic, in part conveyed by Arabic-speaking Muslim inhabitants. For example, the Swahili word for "book" is Swahili: kitabu, traceable back to the Arabic word Arabic: كتاب Arabic: kitāb (from the root K-T-B "write"). However, the Swahili plural form of this word ("books") is Swahili: vitabu, rather than the Arabic plural form Arabic: كتب Arabic: kutub, following the Bantu grammar in which Swahili: ki- is reanalysed as a nominal class prefix, whose plural is Swahili: vi-. Swahili is a Bantu language of the Sabaki branch. In Guthrie's geographic classification, Swahili is in Bantu zone G, whereas the other Sabaki languages are in zone E70, commonly under the name Nyika. Local folk-theories of the language have often considered Swahili to be a mixed language because of its many loan words from Arabic, and the fact that Swahili people have historically been Muslims. However, historical linguists do not consider the Arabic influence on Swahili to be significant enough to classify it as a mixed language, since Arabic influence is limited to lexical items, most of which have only been borrowed after 1500, while the grammatical and syntactic structure of the language is typically Bantu. The earliest known documents written in Swahili are letters written in Kilwa in 1711 in the Arabic script that were sent to the Portuguese of Mozambique and their local allies. The original letters are preserved in the Historical Archives of Goa, India. Its name comes from Arabic: سَاحِل sāħil = "coast", broken plural سَوَاحِل sawāħil = "coasts", سَوَاحِلِىّ sawāħilï = "of coasts". Since Swahili was the language of commerce in East Africa, the colonial administrators wanted to standardize it. In June 1928, an interterritorial conference attended by representatives of Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, and Zanzibar took place in Mombasa. The Zanzibar dialect was chosen as standard Swahili for those areas, and the standard orthography for Swahili was adopted. Swahili has become a second language spoken by tens of millions in three African Great Lakes countries (Kenya, Tanzania, and the DRC) where it is an official or national language. In 1985, with the 8–4–4 system of education, Swahili was made a compulsory subject in all Kenyan schools. Swahili and closely related languages are spoken by relatively small numbers of people in Burundi, Comoros, Malawi, Mozambique, Uganda, Zambia and Rwanda. The language was still understood in the southern ports of the Red Sea in the 20th century. Some 80 percent of approximately 62 million Tanzanians speak Swahili in addition to their first languages. The five eastern provinces of the DRC are Swahili-speaking. Nearly half the 81 million Congolese reportedly speak it. Swahili speakers may number 120 to 150 million in total. Swahili is among the first languages in Africa for which language technology applications have been developed. Arvi Hurskainen is one of the early developers. The applications include a spelling checker, part-of-speech tagging, a language learning software, an analysed Swahili text corpus of 25 million words, an electronic dictionary, and machine translation between Swahili and English. The development of language technology also strengthens the position of Swahili as a modern medium of communication. Unlike the majority of Niger-Congo languages, Swahili lacks contrastive tone (pitch contour). As a result of that and the language's shallow orthography, Swahili is said to be the easiest African language for an English speaker to learn. Standard Swahili has five vowel phonemes: pronounced as //ɑ//, pronounced as //ɛ//, pronounced as //i//, pronounced as //ɔ//, and pronounced as //u//. Vowels are never reduced, regardless of stress, but they are pronounced in full as follows: |Nasal||pronounced as /link/ (m)||pronounced as /link/ (n)||pronounced as /link/ (ny)||pronounced as /link/ (ng')| |Stop||prenasalized||pronounced as /ᵐb/ (mb)||pronounced as /ⁿd/ (nd)||pronounced as /ⁿdʒ/ (nj)||pronounced as /ᵑɡ/ (ng)| |pronounced as /link/ ~ pronounced as /link/ (b)||pronounced as /link/ ~ pronounced as /link/ (d)||pronounced as /link/ ~ pronounced as /link/ (j)||pronounced as /link/ ~ pronounced as /link/ (g)| |voiceless||pronounced as /link/ (p)||pronounced as /link/ (t)||pronounced as /link/ (ch)||pronounced as /link/ (k)| |Fricative||prenasalized||pronounced as /ᶬv/ (mv)||pronounced as /ⁿz/ (nz)| |voiced||pronounced as /link/ (v)||(pronounced as /link/ (dh))||pronounced as /link/ (z)||(pronounced as /link/ (gh))| |voiceless||pronounced as /link/ (f)||(pronounced as /link/ (th))||pronounced as /link/ (s)||pronounced as /link/ (sh)||(pronounced as /link/ (kh))||pronounced as /link/ (h)| |Approximant||pronounced as /link/ (l)||pronounced as /link/ (y)||pronounced as /link/ (w)| |Trill||pronounced as /link/ (r)| Some dialects of Swahili may also have the aspirated phonemes pronounced as //pʰ tʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʰ dʰ dʒʰ ɡʰ// though they are unmarked in Swahili's Orthography. "[I]n some Arabic loans (nouns, verbs, adjectives) emphasis or intensity is expressed by reproducing the original emphatic consonants pronounced as //dˤ, sˤ, tˤ, zˤ// and the uvular pronounced as //q//, or lengthening a vowel, where aspiration would be used in inherited Bantu words." Swahili is currently written in an alphabet close to English, except it does not use the letters Q and X. There are two digraphs for native sounds, ch and sh; c is not used apart from unassimilated English loans and, occasionally, as a substitute for k in advertisements. There are also several digraphs for Arabic sounds not distinguished in pronunciation outside of traditional Swahili areas. The language used to be written in the Arabic script. Unlike adaptations of the Arabic script for other languages, relatively little accommodation was made for Swahili. There were also differences in orthographic conventions between cities and authors and over the centuries, some quite precise but others different enough to cause difficulties with intelligibility. pronounced as //e// and pronounced as //i//, pronounced as //o// and pronounced as //u// were often conflated, but in some spellings, pronounced as //e// was distinguished from pronounced as //i// by rotating the kasra 90° and pronounced as //o// was distinguished from pronounced as //u// by writing the damma backwards. Several Swahili consonants do not have equivalents in Arabic, and for them, often no special letters were created unlike, for example, Urdu script. Instead, the closest Arabic sound is substituted. Not only did that mean that one letter often stands for more than one sound, but also writers made different choices of which consonant to substitute. Here are some of the equivalents between Arabic Swahili and Roman Swahili: |Swahili in Arabic Script||Swahili in Latin Alphabet| |b p mb mp bw pw mbw mpw| |j nj ng ng' ny| |r d nd| |t tw chw| |z th dh dhw| |gh g ng ng'| |f fy v vy mv p| |k g ng ch sh ny| That was the general situation, but conventions from Urdu were adopted by some authors so as to distinguish aspiration and pronounced as //p// from pronounced as //b//: Swahili: پھا pronounced as //pʰaa// 'gazelle', Swahili: پا pronounced as //paa// 'roof'. Although it is not found in Standard Swahili today, there is a distinction between dental and alveolar consonants in some dialects, which is reflected in some orthographies, for example in Swahili: كُٹَ Swahili: -kuta 'to meet' vs. Swahili: كُتَ Swahili: -kut̠a 'to be satisfied'. A k with the dots of y,, was used for ch in some conventions; ky being historically and even contemporaneously a more accurate transcription than Roman ch. In Mombasa, it was common to use the Arabic emphatics for Cw, for example in Swahili: صِصِ Swahili: swiswi (standard Swahili: sisi) 'we' and Swahili: كِطَ Swahili: kit̠wa (standard Swahili: kichwa) 'head'. Particles such as Swahili: ya, na, si, kwa, ni are joined to the following noun, and possessives such as Swahili: yangu and Swahili: yako are joined to the preceding noun, but verbs are written as two words, with the subject and tense–aspect–mood morphemes separated from the object and root, as in Swahili: aliyeniambia "he who told me". See also: Swahili grammar. The ki-/vi- class historically consisted of two separate genders, artefacts (Bantu class 7/8, utensils and hand tools mostly) and diminutives (Bantu class 12), which were conflated at a stage ancestral to Swahili. Examples of the former are kisu "knife", kiti "chair" (from mti "tree, wood"), chombo "vessel" (a contraction of ki-ombo). Examples of the latter are kitoto "infant", from mtoto "child"; kitawi "frond", from tawi "branch"; and chumba (ki-umba) "room", from nyumba "house". It is the diminutive sense that has been furthest extended. An extension common to diminutives in many languages is approximation and resemblance (having a 'little bit' of some characteristic, like -y or -ish in English). For example, there is kijani "green", from jani "leaf" (compare English 'leafy'), kichaka "bush" from chaka "clump", and kivuli "shadow" from uvuli "shade". A 'little bit' of a verb would be an instance of an action, and such instantiations (usually not very active ones) are found: kifo "death", from the verb -fa "to die"; kiota "nest" from -ota "to brood"; chakula "food" from kula "to eat"; kivuko "a ford, a pass" from -vuka "to cross"; and kilimia "the Pleiades", from -limia "to farm with", from its role in guiding planting. A resemblance, or being a bit like something, implies marginal status in a category, so things that are marginal examples of their class may take the ki-/vi- prefixes. One example is chura (ki-ura) "frog", which is only half terrestrial and therefore is marginal as an animal. This extension may account for disabilities as well: kilema "a cripple", kipofu "a blind person", kiziwi "a deaf person". Finally, diminutives often denote contempt, and contempt is sometimes expressed against things that are dangerous. This might be the historical explanation for kifaru "rhinoceros", kingugwa "spotted hyena", and kiboko "hippopotamus" (perhaps originally meaning "stubby legs"). Another class with broad semantic extension is the m-/mi- class (Bantu classes 3/4). This is often called the 'tree' class, because mti, miti "tree(s)" is the prototypical example. However, it seems to cover vital entities neither human nor typical animals: trees and other plants, such as mwitu 'forest' and mtama 'millet' (and from there, things made from plants, like mkeka 'mat'); supernatural and natural forces, such as mwezi 'moon', mlima 'mountain', mto 'river'; active things, such as moto 'fire', including active body parts (moyo 'heart', mkono 'hand, arm'); and human groups, which are vital but not themselves human, such as mji 'village', and, by analogy, mzinga 'beehive/cannon'. From the central idea of tree, which is thin, tall, and spreading, comes an extension to other long or extended things or parts of things, such as mwavuli 'umbrella', moshi 'smoke', msumari 'nail'; and from activity there even come active instantiations of verbs, such as mfuo "metal forging", from -fua "to forge", or mlio "a sound", from -lia "to make a sound". Words may be connected to their class by more than one metaphor. For example, mkono is an active body part, and mto is an active natural force, but they are also both long and thin. Things with a trajectory, such as mpaka 'border' and mwendo 'journey', are classified with long thin things, as in many other languages with noun classes. This may be further extended to anything dealing with time, such as mwaka 'year' and perhaps mshahara 'wages'. Animals exceptional in some way and so not easily fitting in the other classes may be placed in this class. The other classes have foundations that may at first seem similarly counterintuitive. In short, Swahili phrases agree with nouns in a system of concord, but if the noun refers to a human, they accord with noun classes 1–2 regardless of their noun class. Verbs agree with the noun class of their subjects and objects; adjectives, prepositions and demonstratives agree with the noun class of their nouns. In Standard Swahili (Kiswahili sanifu), based on the dialect spoken in Zanzibar, the system is rather complex; however, it is drastically simplified in many local variants where Swahili is not a native language, such as in Nairobi. In non-native Swahili, concord reflects only animacy: human subjects and objects trigger a-, wa- and m-, wa- in verbal concord, while non-human subjects and objects of whatever class trigger i-, zi-. Infinitives vary between standard ku- and reduced i-. ("Of" is animate wa and inanimate ya, za.) In Standard Swahili, human subjects and objects of whatever class trigger animacy concord in a-, wa- and m-, wa-, and non-human subjects and objects trigger a variety of gender-concord prefixes. -C, -i, -e |1||person||m-, mw-||a-||m-||wa||m-, mwi-, mwe-| |2||people||wa-, w-||wa-||wa||wa-, we-, we-| |3||tree||m-||u-||wa||m-, mwi-, mwe-| |4||trees||mi-||i-||ya||mi-, mi-, mye-| |5||group,||ji-/Ø, j-||li-||la||ji-/Ø, ji-, je-| |6||groups,||ma-||ya-||ya||ma-, me-, me-| |7||tool,||ki-, ch-||ki-||cha||ki-, ki-, che-| |8||tools,||vi-, vy-||vi-||vya||vi-, vi-, vye-| |9||animals, 'other', | |N-||i-||ya||N-, nyi-, nye-| |11||extension||u-, w-/uw-||u-||wa||m-, mwi-, mwe-| |10||(plural of 11)||N-||zi-||za||N-, nyi-, nye-| |14||abstraction||u-, w-/uw-||u-||wa||m-, mwi-, mwe-| or u-, wi-, we- |15||infinitives||ku-, kw-||ku-||kwa-||ku-, kwi-, kwe-| |16||position||-ni, mahali||pa-||pa||pa-, pe-, pe-| |17||direction, around||-ni||ku-||kwa||ku-, kwi-, kwe-| |18||within, along||-ni||mu-||(NA)||mwa||mu-, mwi-, mwe-| This list is based on Swahili and Sabaki: a linguistic history. Maho (2009) considers these to be distinct languages: The rest of the dialects are divided by him into two groups: In Somalia, where the Afroasiatic Somali language predominates, a variant of Swahili referred to as Chimwiini (also known as Chimbalazi) is spoken along the Benadir coast by the Bravanese people. Another Swahili dialect known as Kibajuni also serves as the mother tongue of the Bajuni minority ethnic group, which lives in the tiny Bajuni Islands as well as the southern Kismayo region.

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Enforcement of foreign judgments |Conflict of laws and | private international law |Substantive legal areas| In law, the enforcement of foreign judgments is the recognition and enforcement in one jurisdiction of judgments rendered in another ("foreign") jurisdiction. Foreign judgments may be recognized based on bilateral or multilateral treaties or understandings, or unilaterally without an express international agreement. - 1 Definition of terms - 2 Exercise of jurisdiction in recognition cases - 3 Enforcement of foreign arbitration awards in the U.S. - 4 References - 5 External links Definition of terms The "recognition" of a foreign judgment occurs when the court of one country or jurisdiction accepts a judicial decision made by the courts of another "foreign" country or jurisdiction, and issues a judgment in substantially identical terms without rehearing the substance of the original lawsuit. In English law, there is a clear distinction between Recognition of foreign judgments, and enforcement of foreign judgments. Recognition means treating the claim as having been determined in favour of one of the litigating parties; this is an acknowledgment of foreign competence and of the settling of a dispute, known as res judicata. Enforcement, by contrast, is the implementation of the judgment. In American legal terminology, a "foreign" judgment means a judgment from another state in the United States or from a foreign country. To differentiate between the two, more precise terminology used is "foreign-country judgment" (for judgments from another country) and "foreign sister-state judgment" (from a different state within the United States). Once a foreign judgment is recognized, the party who was successful in the original case can then seek its "enforcement" in the recognizing country. If the foreign judgment is a money judgment and the debtor has assets in the recognizing jurisdiction, the judgment creditor has access to all the enforcement remedies as if the case had originated in the recognizing country, e.g. garnishment, judicial sale, etc. If some other form of judgment was obtained, e.g. affecting status, granting injunctive relief, etc., the recognizing court will make whatever orders are appropriate to make the original judgment effective. Foreign judgments may be recognized either unilaterally or based on principles of comity, i.e. mutual deference between courts in different countries. In English courts, the bases of the enforcement of foreign judgments are not comity, but the doctrine of obligation. Between two different States in the United States, enforcement is generally required under the "Full Faith and Credit Clause" (Article IV, Section 1) of the U.S. Constitution, which compels a State to give another State's Judgment an effect as if it were local; this usually requires some sort of an abbreviated application on notice, or docketing. Between one State in the United States, and a foreign country, Canada, for example, the prevailing concept is comity; the Court in the United States, in most cases, will unilaterally enforce the foreign judgment, without proof of diplomatic reciprocity, either under judge-made law or under specific statutes. Recognition will be generally denied if the judgment is substantively incompatible with basic legal principles in the recognizing country. For example, U.S. courts, in accordance with the Securing the Protection of our Enduring and Established Constitutional Heritage Act, are prohibited from recognizing or enforcing foreign libel judgments against any United States person unless the foreign country in which the judgement was made protects freedom of speech to at least the same degree as the United States and the foreign court's conduct of the case in which the judgement was reached respected the due process guarantees of the U.S. Constitution to the same extent as a U.S. court would've. Exercise of jurisdiction in recognition cases If the country that issued the judgment and the country where recognition is sought are not parties to the Hague Convention on Foreign Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (as of December 2017, only ratified by Albania, Cyprus, Kuwait, the Netherlands and Portugal ), the Brussels regime (all European Union countries, as well as Iceland, Norway and Switzerland) or a similar treaty or convention providing for the routine of registration and enforcement between states, the courts of most states will accept jurisdiction to hear cases for the recognition and enforcement of judgments awarded by the courts of another state if the defendant or relevant assets are physically located within their territorial boundaries. Whether recognition will be given is determined by the lex fori, i.e. the domestic law of the court where recognition is sought, and the principles of comity. The following issues are considered: - Whether the foreign court properly accepted personal jurisdiction over the defendant; - Whether the defendant was properly served with notice of the proceedings and given a reasonable opportunity to be heard which raises general principles of natural justice and will frequently be judged by international standards (hence, the rules for service on a non-resident defendant outside the jurisdiction must match general standards and the fact that the first instance court's rules were followed will be irrelevant if the international view is that the local system is unjust); - Whether the proceedings were tainted with fraud; and - Whether the judgment offends the public policy of the local state. There is a general reluctance to enforce foreign judgments which involve multiple or punitive damages. In this context, it is noted that the U.S. is not a signatory to any treaty or convention and there are no proposals for this position to change. When it comes to seeking the enforcement of U.S. judgments in foreign courts, many states are uncomfortable with the amount of money damages awarded by U.S. courts which consistently exceed the compensation available in those states. Further, the fact that the U.S. courts sometimes claim extraterritorial jurisdiction offends other states' conceptions of sovereignty. Consequently, it can be difficult to persuade some courts to enforce some U.S. judgments. The Hague choice of court convention provides for the recognition of judgement given by the court chosen by the parties in civil and commercial cases in all other parties to the convention; the convention has as of 2013 not entered into force. Regarding maintenance obligations, the Hague Maintenance Convention (in force between Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Norway), provides for recognition of all kinds of maintenance related judgements (including child support). Enforcement of foreign judgments in the U.S. If the time to appeal in the court of origin has lapsed, and the judgment has become final, the holder of a foreign judgment, decree or order may file suit before a competent court in the U.S. which will determine whether to give effect to the foreign judgment. A local version of the Uniform Foreign Money Judgments Recognition Act applies in most states, for example in California. 13 U.L.A. 149 (1986). A judgment rendered in a "sister" state or a territory of the U.S. is also referred to as a "foreign judgment." 47 states, the District of Columbia, Northern Mariana Islands and the Virgin Islands have adopted the Uniform Enforcement of Foreign Judgments Act, 13 U.L.A. 261 (1986), which requires the states and the territories to give effect to the judgments of other states and territories, if an exemplified copy of the foreign judgment is registered with the clerk of a court of competent jurisdiction along with an affidavit stating certain things. The only U.S. states which have not adopted the Uniform Enforcement of Foreign Judgments Act are California, Massachusetts and Vermont. Legislation was introduced in Massachusetts in 2012 (Bill H.4268) to adopt the Uniform Enforcement of Foreign Judgments Act. New York State and Connecticut are two of a small minority of U.S. jurisdictions that does not simply allow a judgment creditor to file a foreign judgment from a sister state if the judgment was obtained by default (meaning the other side never showed up for to contest its entry in the other state by, for example, defending himself at trial) or the judgment was obtained by confession (meaning the other side signed paperwork allowing a judgment to be entered against him). Instead, a party wishing to domesticate the foreign default judgment or foreign judgment obtained by confession must bring another action in New York State "on the judgment" where the relief sought is to have the foreign judgment domesticated in New York State. Moreover, a quicker "motion-action" procedure is available in New York where the owner of the foreign default judgment/judgment by confession files a summons and notice of motion for summary judgment in lieu of complaint. When seeking to enforce a judgment in or from a state that has not adopted the Uniform Act, the holder of the judgment files a suit known as a "domestication" action. Since the full faith and credit clause of the U.S. constitution requires that states honor the judgments of other states, the domestication of a judgment from another state is generally a formality, even in the absence of the expedited procedure under the UEFJA. To solve the problem of libel tourism, the SPEECH Act makes foreign libel judgments unenforceable in U.S. courts, unless those judgments are compliant with the U.S. First Amendment. The act was passed by the 111th United States Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama. A state may not enforce a foreign-country judgment in the following cases: - The judgment was not rendered by an impartial tribunal under procedures compatible with the requirements of due process of law; - The foreign court did not have personal jurisdiction over the defendant; - The foreign court did not have jurisdiction over the subject matter; - The defendant did not receive notice of the proceedings in sufficient time to enable him to defend; - The judgment was obtained by fraud; - The judgment is repugnant to the public policy of the state where enforcement is sought; - The judgment conflicts with another final and conclusive judgment; - The proceeding in the foreign court was contrary to an agreement between the parties under which the dispute was to be settled; - In the case of jurisdiction based only on personal service, the foreign court was an inconvenient forum for the trial; or - The judgment seeks to enforce the revenue and taxation laws of a foreign jurisdiction. - If the judgement was obtained through an illegal transaction. - If the judgement is not conclusive Recognition and Enforcement in England and Wales In England, three avenues of enforcement methods and recognition rules exist: - Statutory registration of foreign judgments regarding European Union Member States through Brussels Recast Regulation. - Statutory application of foreign states which are party to bilateral treaties. - Common law rules for foreign states which do not fall into the above categories. Judgments operating in personam, such as those not relating to in rem property rights, are only recognised as effective against particular parties, the material question becomes whether the judgment debtor is bound to abide to the judgment, it is recognised as binding on and against the party against whom it was given only if it was delivered by a court which, according to English law, was competent to deliver a judgment. Jurisdictional, with regard to the foreign court rules) rules are irrelevant, it is thus crucial for the court to determine whether the adjudicating court's own standards for recognition are satisfied by the facts, the adjudicating court must be satisfied not that the foreign court bears jurisdiction under its own rules, but whether, in the Eyes of the English court that the foreign court has a 'international jurisdiction' competence. Once the court has been satisfied that it is right to recognise a foreign judgment as settled, known as "Res Judicata", the party may then seek to enforce the foreign judgment. In order for a judgment to be considered Res Judicata, it must be Final and conclusive in the court which pronounced it. Enforcement, as will be seen, is about collecting a debt. To be enforceable, a judgment must be recognised and must be a judgment for a fixed sum of money. In England & Wales, only money judgments with settled amounts are capable of being enforceable. English courts do not enforce foreign judgments, and a judgment creditor must bring a cause of action under English law and use the recognised foreign judgment to serve as conclusive evidence of an outstanding debt. On the merits, as held in The Sennar No 2 1 WLR 490. There are two purposes for effecting recognition of a foreign judgment. Firstly, if a party defeats a foreign case, he may seek recognition of that decision to estopp a party from bringing another action against him in England. By contrast, should a party succeed in a foreign action, he may seek to enforce the action in England; the judgment creditor need not have to succeed at every point within the foreign action. It had previously been the case that if the foreign claimant had been partially successful, he was entitled to sue on the cause in action again within England. Section 34 of the Civil Jurisdiction Judgment Act 1982 was subsequently passed by parliament to remove the right to sue a second time. A court's judgment is an exercise of sovereign power, it is this principle that underpins the English position that no foreign judgment will have an effect in England and, conversely, that the English courts cannot expect an English judgment to have any effect abroad. Exceptions to the limitation on foreign judgments are set out through parliament; the Brussels Recast Regulation operates as the primary procedural scheme relating to foreign judgments, their recognition and enforcement. Recognition is automatic between member states, barring exceptions set out in Chapter III of the regulation; this is consistent with the EU principles of a single economic market where courts and government departments can be trusted to get things right. Under the Common law, recognition is limited to a certain set of criteria. As adjudication is considered a sovereign act, the common law has developed the concept of comity to determine circumstances where recognition and enforcement acknowledged and respected the foreign sovereign act sufficiently to enforce it domestically; this was pioneered in Hilton v Guyot. A judgment may therefore be reduced to four components - The foreign judgment has no force, as a judgment, outside the place it was given because adjudication is an act of sovereign power; - Comity favours giving effect to foreign judgments and the question then is as to which foreign judgments ought to be recognised; - If the parties have had a full and proper trial before a reasonable court, the judgment is accepted at face value as res judicata - If the law of the court which has adjudicated would not accept an equivalent judgment at face value, it will not enjoy reciprocity. Reciprocity is not the central tenant of recognition, but rather it is suggested that it is the doctrine of obligation; this sits at the apex of an interplay between sovereignty, comity, consent, and reciprocity. Accepting reciprocity would allow foreign judgments to shape the English common law. By contrast, Adams v Cape Industries plc specifically rejected comity as the basis for recognition or non-recognition of judgments because it was insufficiently hard-edged for the demands. However, comity remains valuable for examining the doctrine of recognition insofar as it underpins the principle that a domestic court cannot examine the substantive validity of the foreign court's action - as it cannot claim to hold more competence - nor does it pretend that it must enforce the foreign court's decision. Comity for the sovereignty of courts is insufficient for enforcing recognition because does not consistently determine a stringent enough rule for when sovereignty is to be accepted as a proper application onto the parties and when it is not recognised on the grounds that the parties ought not to be bound; the Canadian approach, set forth in Beals v Saldanha was one of a more open enforcement of foreign judgments by enforcing the foreign judgment if the foreign jurisdiction can be determined (by the Canadian Court) as being the natural forum for the resolution of the dispute; or that there was a real and substantial connection between the foreign jurisdiction and the dispute. This is a substantial deviation from the English approach, and one that, in the English context, would bring forth more problems than it would solve. By contrast, the doctrine of obligation, engaged between the two adjudicating parties, underpins the English approach, it focuses on the action of the defendant whereas the Canadian approach does not focus on the defendant's action. Common Law Recognition Rules The first of two broad bases for recognition within the Common law rules in England & Wales is set forth in Adams v Cape Industries plc. Where a party was present within the territory of the adjudicating court when proceedings instituted, the court will bind the party to the decision of the court so long as the adjudications are recognised as conclusive; the question of whether the judgment will be enforced will be a separate matter. Secondly, if a party is shown to have agreed with his opponent, by word or action, to abide by the judgment of the court, private agreement is sufficient for recognising the substance of the judgment as res judicata. Only English judgments are recognised in England, if the foreign court is competent, under English rules, and there is no defence to recognition, then the foreign judgment will be recognised and enforced. If a wants to use the foreign judgment as a sword, then he will need to bring new proceedings in English common law using the foreign judgment as evidence to his claim. The rules cannot and do not distinguish foreign courts with a reputation for excellence and foreign courts with less rigorous standards. Under the common law rules, the English court will not recognise judgments unless they are held to be final in their court of origin. Meaning that the matter cannot be reopened by the court which made the ruling; the matter may be subject to an ordinary appeal, but that will not be determined as a court reopening a matter. An interlocutory matter may be recognised if it represents the final word of the court on the point in issue. A difficulty arises in relation to default judgments which will often be liable to re-opening in the court in which they were entered. English courts form the basis of recognition on: - Presence; meaning that the defendant was present in the foreign jurisdiction when proceedings began; OR - Submission; that the defendant to a foreign adjudication submitted to accept the foreign court's adjudication. Nationality is no longer credible reasoning for recognition of foreign judgments. Present when proceedings were begun The first category of recognition is where the defendant was present when proceedings began. Two primary definitions exist, one relating to individuals, the second relates to corporations. Academic criticism has extended from the use of presence rather than residence, however, residence on the date of when proceedings were begun creates uncertainty, it is difficult to determine whether a party who spends two years aboard is resident there. However, authority suggests that residence without presence at the material time would still suffice if the relevant time was at the service of process representing the start of legal proceedings; the leading authority within is Adams v Cape Industries, setting out that presence, as distinct from residence is necessary. With regard to individuals, the court has held that it will mean that the defendant must be within the jurisdiction of a court when the proceedings were instituted, meaning service or notice that proceedings had begun. Presence at the time of the trial is not used as a defendant could simply leave the jurisdiciton upon becoming aware. By contrast, in Adams v Cape the question of whether a company was present was to analogise from the reasoning of human beings; the court must be either able to determine presence as (a) servants of the corporation carrying on its business from a fixed place maintained by the corporation or (b) a representative of the corporation carrying on the business of the corporate from a fixed place. Either of these criteria will determine the company is presence; this is designed to prevent the argument that the company is present where-ever a company officer or director is present. If the representative/servant have the power to bind the corporation into a contract without seeking approval from other entities abroad, presence will be determined; the difficulty of determining presence of a company derives primarily because it is difficult to apply to the margins. Travelling salesman certainly operate in jurisdictions on behalf of companies, enjoying benefit of economic markets and under the current criteria would not be considered "present"; the U.S. model operates on the assumption that the conclusion of any contract will bind the corporation in that jurisdiction. Further, the common law's ignorance as to the content of the judgment itself; this was seen notably in Adams v Cape itself. The effect of corporate presence is that any claim relating whatsoever can be brought against the corporation, regardless of the work the corporation conducts within the jurisdiction. Not present but agreed to accept the adjudication of the foreign court The second criteria where a party may be subject to a foreign judgment recognised in England is where the defendant has accepted the foreign court. This is consistent with the English court's approach to a choice of jurisdiction clause, a judgment will be denied recognition at common law if the adjudicating court failed to give effect to a choice of court clause or arbitration agreement. A party will not sufficiently submit to a jurisdiction by simply agreed to a contract in a foreign jurisdiction. If, for example parties 'A' and 'B' agreed to be bound to a contract which included the terms "this contract shall be governed by the law of England & Wales and the English courts shall have exclusive jurisdiction to decide matters arising from the contract" both parties will be unable to commence proceedings in New York, even if the New York court considers the exclusive jurisdiction clause to be invalid. If 'A' brings proceedings, the English court will not recognise the judgment of a New York court regardless of whether 'B' attends the foreign jurisdiction to contest the jurisdiction of the New York court. Section 33 of the Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982 altered the previous common law approach, It provided a defence to attending a foreign court for the purposes of challenging the jurisdiction of the court. There is considerable academic debate as to whether, after the foreign court determines jurisdiction, party 'B' can continue to forward a defence so long as he contests jurisdiction at every opportunity. In doing so, the defendant may well have the opportunity to enjoy two attempts at defending the action, first seeking to defend the action abroad and secondly operating with the confidence that they will be protected by Section 33 of the 1982 Act. Defences to English recognition Should a defendant seek to defend against recognition of a foreign judgment, several defences exist which might prevent the English court from recognising the action; the primary gateway for defending recognition in the English courts is that of Fraud, which is said to unravels all foreign judgments. A judgment will be denied recognition as res judicata and there can therefore be no question of its enforcement if any of the defences allowed by English international private law are made out; the English court does not review the merits of the foreign judgment. One cannot claim that the foreign court failed to consider facts, it is also not possible to argue that the foreign court reached the wrong decision on the facts. The court is further not concerned with the competence of the issuing court. Six possible defences exist: - Disregard of arbitration or choice of court agreements - lack of local jurisdiction - Breach of procedural fairness - Public Policy - Prior English Judgment Common Law Enforcement The only foreign judgment which can be enforced in England is a money judgment for which a party will sue on the debt. Should a foreign court apply specific performance, a party may sue in England on the same cause of action as the foreign judgment and use the foreign judgment on the merits to seek a similar order from the English courts, it is the obligation, not the judgment that is enforced. Only final judgments for fixed sums of money can be enforced. A foreign country court has jurisdiction to give a judgment in personam in four case. Murthy v Sivajothi 1 WLR 467 held the recognition of resjudicata. - The English court only had jurisdiction to enforce the judgment if the defendant had submitted to the jurisdiction of the foreign court by voluntarily appearing in those proceedings. It was necessary, for the plaintiff to establish under English law that the defendant had expressly authorised the acceptance of the service of proceedings. On the evidence it was possible that the defendant might not have realised that the proceedings were against him personally as guarantor. - Issue estoppel could in principle arise from an interlocutory judgment of a foreign court on a procedural or non-substantive issue where certain conditions were fulfilled. Express submission of the procedural or jurisdictional issue to the foreign court was required; the specific issue of fact must have been raised before and decided by the foreign court. Caution was to be exercised before any issue estoppel could in practice be found to arise - No issue estoppel in fact arose because it was not sufficiently clear that the specific issue which arose for consideration in the UK was same as that identified and decided in the foreign court. In the Arizona courts the plaintiff had relied upon a rule of Arizona procedural law which had no counterpart in the UK. Further the Arizona Court of Appeal had considered whether or not the defendant had given the necessary authority in a wider context that was relevant for those purposes under English law. - The defendant had been initially less than frank in relation to the narrow issue on which his defence turned. In the circumstances it was therefore appropriate to grant leave to defend conditional upon the payment of $100,000 into court within 28 days. Two parliamentary acts enforce jurisdictional rules. In particular, these apply to Commonwealth matters and operate close to the current common law; the first is the Administration of Justice Act 1920 where Part II applies colonial jurisdictions such as New Zealand, Nigeria, and Singapore. If the judgment is still subject to an appeal in the ordinary, it cannot be registered; the second parliamentary statute which allows for enforcement and recognition is the Foreign Judgments (Reciprocal Enforcement Act) 1933, which enforces civil and commercial matters from designated courts in countries with bilateral agreements, such as Canada. Instead of it being necessary to commence original proceedings by service, the statutes allow the judgement creditor, the party seeking to enforce a foreign jurisdiction, to merely register the judgment for direct enforcement; this produces the same effect as if the foreign action had been an English judgment. Respondents may apply to set aside the registration as specified by the statutory instruments. Brussels Recast Regulation Succeeding the Brussels I Regulation, the Recast regulation allocates jurisdiction between member states using Chapters I and II of the regime. Chapter III of the Recast regulation implements articles relating to the automatic recognition and enforcement of Member State judgments. Except in very limited circumstances, it is not possible to claim that the court should not have adjudicated because it misinterpreted the rules on jurisdiction within Brussels; this is because jurisdiction rules are the same in all member states under the regulation. If the defendant thought that the foreign court was wrong, it should have and could have, challenged jurisdiction at the first instance. Enforcement of foreign arbitration awards in the U.S. Arbitration awards enjoy the protection of special treaties; the U.S. is a signatory to international conventions regulating the enforcement of arbitration awards, including the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (often referred to as the "New York Convention"), and the Inter-American Convention on International Commercial Arbitration, 14 I.L.M. 336 (1975). Ratified treaties in the U.S. are considered "supreme law of the land". - Hilton v Guyot 159 U.S. 113; see [[Adams v Cape Industries plc Ch 433]] - Dicey, Morris & Collins, The Conflict of Laws, 2012, 14-007. - "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-03-17. Retrieved 2010-11-10.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) - "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-07-24. Retrieved 2009-10-21.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) - "CA Codes (ccp:1713-1724)". Leginfo.ca.gov. 2010-01-01. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2016-09-24. - 4 N. Mar. I. Code 4401-08 (2010) - "Legislative Fact Sheet - Enforcement of Foreign Judgments Act". Uniformlaws.org. Retrieved 2016-09-24. - "Bill H.4268". Malegislature.gov. Archived from the original on 2012-12-13. Retrieved 2016-09-24. - Steve Cohen. "Securing the Protection of our Enduring and Established Constitutional Heritage Act (2010; 111th Congress H.R. 2765)". GovTrack.us. Retrieved 2016-09-24. - Foreign Judgments (Reciprocal Enforcement) Act 1933 - Adrian Briggs 'Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments' Sixth Edition, Oxford University Press, 692 - Midtown Acquisitions LP v Essar Global Fund Ltd EWHC 519 (Comm) - Adrian Briggs Conflict of Laws, Clarendon Law Series Oxford University Press, Third Edition - Adrian Briggs, The Principle of Comity in Private International Law, 'Chapter IV: Comity in the Enforcement of judgments', Volume 354, Brill, 145-156 - Adrian Briggs, The Principle of Comity in Private International Law, 'Chapter IV: Comity in the Enforcement of judgments', Volume 354, Brill, 149 - Adrian Briggs, 'Recognition of Foreign Judgments: a Matter of Obligation,' (2013) LQR 129:1, 87 - Morguard Investments (1990); Beals v Saldanha (2003) - Briggs, Conflict of Laws - Penn v Lord Baltimore - Briggs Conflict of Laws, 145 - Ust-Kamenogorsk Hydropower Plant JSC v AES Ust-Kamenogorsk Hydropower Plant LLP UKSC 35 - Ainslie v Ainslie (1927) 39 CLR 318 - See the cases extending from Desert Sun Loan Corporation v Hill 2 All ER 847 - Emanuel v Symon 1 KB 302 - State Bank of India v Moriani Marketing Group (Unreported 27 March 1991) - Briggs Conflict of Laws, 210 - Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982 s.32 - Vizcaya Partners v Picard UKPC 5 - Henry v Geoprosco (1976) - Cf the debate between Briggs and Andrew Dickinson seen in Briggs, Conflict of Laws - Godard v Gray (1870) and Schibsby v Westenhols (1870) - Pemberton v Hughes 1 Ch 781 - The Sennar (No 2) - Owens Bank v Bracco (No 2) 2 WLR 621 - Pellegrini v Italy (2002) - Dicey & Morris 'The Conflict of Laws' 12th Ed (1993) Vol 1, 472 Rule 36 (subject to rule 37-39) - Section 9(2)(e) - SI-1987/468 Excluding Quebec - Brussels Recast Regulation - Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, 21 UST 2517; TIAS 6997; 330 UNTS 3 - "CONVENTION ON THE RECOGNITION AND ENFORCEMENT OF FOREIGN ARBITRAL AWARDS" (PDF). Uncitral.org. Retrieved 2016-09-24.

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The Book of Acts records the events that made the gospel burst out of its confines in Judaism and the city of Jerusalem to reach out to the limits of the then-known world -- all in just one generation's time. Acts: An Unfinished Story Overview from Adventuring Through the Bible Acts is the book that reveals the power of the church. Therefore, when a church begins to dwindle, lose its power, and turn dull and drab in its witness, it needs desperately to get back into the spirit, expectation, knowledge and teaching of the book of Acts. In this book, the principles of the exchanged life -- "Not I, but Christ" -- is dramatically unfolded. If the book of Acts were taken out of our New Testament, we would never understand the rest of it. It would be like a child with his front tooth missing. When you close the record of the gospels, you see nothing but a handful of Jews in the city of Jerusalem, the center of Jewish life, talking together about a kingdom for Israel. When you open the book of Romans, on the other side of Acts, you discover that a man whose name is never mentioned in the gospels is writing to a group of Christians in Rome -- of all places, the center of Gentile culture -- and he is talking about pushing out to the very ends of the earth. Obviously, something has happened in between. How did this tremendous change take place? What happened to make the gospel burst out of its confines in Judaism and the city of Jerusalem and reach out in one generation's time to all the limits of the then-known world? This book was written by Luke, Paul's beloved companion, the same man who wrote the Gospel of Luke. Unfortunately, it bears the wrong title. In almost all the editions of Scripture it is called "The Acts of the Apostles." But as you read the book through, the only ones whose acts are referred to are Peter and Paul. All the others are left almost entirely unnoticed, so the title is hardly fitting. It really should be titled, "The Acts of the Holy Spirit." or even perhaps, "The Continuing Acts of the Lord Jesus Christ." You find this suggestion in the introduction of the book. As Luke is writing again to the friend to whom he addressed his first book, he says, In the first book, O Theophilus, I have dealt with all that Jesus began to do and teach... (Acts 1:1 RSV) Obviously, then, Luke was "Volume One" and Acts is "Volume Two." Acts is a continued story of what Jesus began both to do and to teach. Luke goes on to say, ...until the day when he was taken up, after he had given commandment through the Holy Spirit to the apostles whom he had chosen. To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God. And while staying with them he charged them not to depart from Jerusalem, but to wait for the promise of the Father, which, he said, "you heard from me, for John baptized with water, but before many days you shall be baptized with the Holy Spirit." (Acts 1:2-5 RSV) That is what the book of Acts is all about. It is the account of the way the Holy Spirit, coming into the church, continued what Jesus began to do, that is, carried on the work which was initiated during the days of his incarnation. Thus, the record of the gospels is the story of only the beginning of the work of the Lord Jesus Christ. When you come to the end of the gospels, you have come not to the end, nor even to the beginning of the end, but to the end of the beginning. In the book of Acts, the Holy Spirit now begins to fulfill the designed program of God. He begins to carry on his work through the reincarnated body of Jesus Christ -- the church -- the body by which the Lord intends to reach out to the uttermost parts of the earth. That work began 1900 years ago, and as you can see, he is still at it today. We are living now in the age of the Spirit which was inaugurated by the day of Pentecost, the first major event of the book of Acts. The church has suffered for many centuries from a very wrong idea. Much of the weakness of the church is due to the fact that somehow, over the years, through the traditions of men, a wrong concept has developed within the body of Christ. Christians have met together and have recited the Great Commission of Jesus Christ to take the gospel out to the farthest corners of the earth, Go therefore and make disciples of all nations... (Matthew 28:19a RSV) And that is unquestionably the will of God. It is one of the favorite tricks of the devil, however, to hold up before Christian people the end that God has in view, and then suggest to them that they go about doing it their own way -- trying to fulfill God's will in man's way. Now that is exactly what the church has been doing. It has gathered itself together, recited the Great Commission, and said, "Now we must mobilize all our human resources to plan the strategy to carry this out." Christ is often pictured as waiting up in heaven, earnestly watching to see what is taking place down here, hoping somebody will get with it and carry out his program. The idea is that the church must somehow plan all the strategy, and figure out how best to reach out to the far corners of the earth, so as to fulfill this expectation of God. But that is because we have listened to only one part of the Great Commission. We have heard the first word, "Go!" but our Lord spoke another little two-letter word that we have almost completely forgotten -- "Lo." Lo, I am with you always, to the close of the age. (Matthew. 28:20b RSV) It was never the intention of the Lord that the whole job of planning the strategy of reaching out to the ends of the earth and of mobilizing the resources should fall upon the Christian. When the church attempts the work on this basis, the Lord simply folds his arms and lets us go about our busy ways. He watches us try to fulfill this Great Commission in our own strength, while he stands by and quietly waits until we get over it. When exhausted and utterly beaten and discouraged, as we inevitably will be in this process, we come back to him and cry out, "Oh, Lord, we can never get this job done. We can never accomplish this." Then he quietly reminds us that his program was for the Holy Spirit to accomplish this task through the church, that he is perfectly capable of doing it, and that the book of Acts is the complete testimony to his ability and adequacy to carry out the program he had in mind. "He who calls you is faithful, and he will do it" (1 Thessalonians 5:24 RSV). It was always God's intention not only to lay the program before us, but to fulfill it in his own strength. As you read through this book, you see various aspects of the ministry of the Holy Spirit. First of all, he is visible in directing the activities of the church. It is the Spirit of God who takes the initiative and launches new movements in carrying out the program of God. For example, when Philip was in Samaria preaching the gospel, a great city-wide revival was in progress as a result of his preaching. The whole city was stirred. But the spirit of God said to him, "Rise and go down to a man in the desert" Acts 8:26). Now, what kind of strategy is that, to leave a city-wide campaign where the Spirit of God is moving in power, where multitudes are coming to Christ, to go down into the desert to talk to one man? But what one man was it? It was the Ethiopian eunuch, a man who was the treasurer of the Ethiopians (Acts 8:27). Remember the story of how he was prepared by the Holy Spirit (Acts 8:38). As Philip ran along beside the carriage, he heard him reading Isaiah and asked him if he understood it (Acts 8:39). The eunuch answered, How can I if someone doesn't explain it to me? (Acts 8:31b RSV) When Philip came up to sit beside him, he found he was reading exactly the right place, Isaiah 53. Beginning at that spot, Philip began to preach to him about Jesus. And he was won to Christ. That is always what Spirit-led witnessing is -- the right man in the right place at the right time saying the right thing to the right person. This is one of the first evidences in this book of the overall directing activity of the Holy Spirit. In chapter nine, the Holy Spirit calls a man on the Damascus road and sends another man to pray with him -- Ananias, who was absolutely astounded by this commission. "Lord," he said, "you don't know what you are asking." God said, "I know whom I have called. He's a chosen instrument of mine." In chapter 13 the Holy Spirit is recorded as saying to the church at Antioch, Set apart for me Barnabas and Saul for the work to which I have called them. (Acts 13:2b RSV) Later on in the book, Paul says, "We tried to go into Bithynia, but the Spirit said 'No.' And we started to preach the gospel in Asia, but were forbidden by the Holy Spirit." ( Acts 16:6-7). All through this book you find that the strategy has all been worked out in advance by the Holy Spirit. As Christians are available to him, he unfolds the strategy step by step. Nobody can plan this kind of a program. We can only be willing to follow the overall directive activity of the Spirit of God at work in his church. That is the divine strategy. Further on in Acts you find the Holy Spirit in another aspect of his ministry doing what no man can do -- communicating life to those who believe. Wherever the gospel is preached, wherever the Word of God is upheld, wherever the good news of the work of the Lord Jesus is preached to men, the Holy Spirit is there to communicate life. Have you ever noticed who gives the altar call in the book of Acts? It is almost invariably the ones being preached to. On the day of Pentecost it was. As the Spirit of God preached through Peter to those thousands who had been brought in by that tremendous miracle of the tongues after the Holy Spirit descended upon them, Peter got only halfway through his message. He had only reached his second point. What happened? They were convicted in their hearts. They broke in on him and said, "Preacher, what must we do to be saved?" (Acts 2:37). Now, who gave the altar call there? Well, they did. When the Philippian jailer is impressed by the singing of Paul and Silas at midnight, and the earthquake comes and shakes down the prison walls, who gives the altar call? Why he does. He comes running and says to them, "Sirs, what must I do to be saved?" (Acts 16:25-27). It is the Holy Spirit communicating to them, imparting life to them when they believe. A most helpful verse in this regard is in the Gospel of John. I have read this many, many times to remind myself that it is not the invitation that makes people come to Christ; it is the truth as it is being proclaimed by the Holy Spirit. In chapter eight of John, Christ is explaining his message to his followers. He is the light of the world. He reveals himself to men. Verse 30 says, "As he spoke thus, many believed in him" (John 8:30 RSV). While the word was going out. Not only does the Holy Spirit communicate life, as he did in the home of Cornelius (while the message was going on the Holy Spirit fell upon the people gathered there), but he is also at work preserving the purity of the church. Today there are groups of people whose sole occupation seems to be to defend the faith; to preserve, if they can, the purity of the church. Many of these people go so far as to corner unsuspecting pastors, nail them to the wall over this whole matter of defending the faith, and try to convince them to drive out those who disagree, or who have heretical ideas, within the church. Their perfectly proper intention is to try to preserve the purity of the church. But throughout the book of Acts you will discover that the Holy Spirit himself is in charge of this task. As the church fulfills its commission to be available, to be willing instruments of the activity and life of the Holy Spirit, he is at work to preserve the purity of the church. For example, there is an amazing incident that occurs early in the book. Ananias and Sapphira's hypocrisy was revealed when they tried to attach to themselves a holiness which they did not actually possess (Acts 5:1-11). They tried to appear more committed or dedicated than they really were. They tried to gain a reputation for sanctity among the Christians by appearance only. The judgment of the Holy Spirit came immediately in the form of their physical death. Now, he does not judge that way today (at least not to that extent). This is a pattern to indicate what the Spirit of God does on the spiritual level. But at the beginning, he judges on the physical level, in order that we might see this principle at work. But whether spiritual or physical, the result is exactly the same. Let somebody begin to use his religious standing, his Christian opportunities in order to advance his own sanctity in the eyes of people -- to pretend to a holiness he does not possess -- and what happens? The Spirit of God cuts him off from the manifestation of the life of Christ. Instantly that life is as powerless, as weak and fruitless, as dead as far as its effect upon those around, as Ananias and Sapphira were as they lay dead on the floor at Peter's feet. Finally, the major emphasis of this book and the amazing thing about these Christians -- the quality that made them a constant wonder to those who heard them preach -- is that the Spirit of God is always at work imparting boldness to Christians. Did you notice how bold these Christians were? At one moment you see Peter and John hiding behind locked doors, afraid to go out into the streets of Jerusalem because of the enmity of the Jews against the Lord Jesus. Now, after the Spirit of God comes upon them, they are out in the streets and temple courts boldly proclaiming the truth of Jesus Christ. When they are locked up in prison, the angel releases them and they go right back into the temple courts to pray and preach again. Once again they are arrested, and the church makes prayer for them, asking God that they might go out again and preach the gospel in the very same place. In other words, they are saying, "Lord, do it again. We got into trouble the last time, but Lord, do it again!" Their boldness was simply irresistible. Even those who were bitter enemies of the gospel could not resist the boldness with which they proclaimed the truth. That is God's program -- the Holy Spirit doing the whole thing -- energizing, guiding, directing, programming, empowering and communicating life. He does it all. It is not up to us to do anything except be available, to be his instruments, to go where he wills, to open our mouths, to be ready to take advantage of whatever situation he places us in. It is the job of the Spirit, which he never fails to fulfill, to carry out that ministry. That is what the church has lacked, is it not? That is what you see so much here in the book of Acts. The extent of this program is revealed to us both geographically and chronologically in this book. In chapter one you have the geographic dimension (verse 8): "But you shall receive power when the Holy Spirit is come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the end of the earth." (Acts 1:8 RSV) You can divide the book on that basis; this is a divinely given table of contents. The first seven chapters gather around being a witness to Christ in Jerusalem. In chapter eight you find a break, and the disciples are driven out of Jerusalem into Judea and Samaria. Beginning with chapter 13 you have the call of Paul and Barnabas to go out to the Gentile world. That begins the story of the outreach to the uttermost parts of the earth. That is God's program for the geographical carrying out of the gospel, and it is only in our own generation that we begin to see this completely fulfilled. In chapter two you see the same program fulfilled chronologically (in point of time). Here, as the people are stunned by the pouring out of the Holy Spirit, and are asking what they must do to be saved, Peter says (verses 38, 39): "Repent[that is, change your mind] and identify yourselves in baptism with the Lord Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of yours sins, and you shall receive Christ. Believe in him, for this promise is to you." Acts 2:38-39) It was to the very generation to which he was preaching, "to you and to your children [the next generation] and to all those that are far off" (Acts 2:39b RSV) -- down the corridors of time. No matter how many generations may come in this far-reaching age of grace, the promise is to you as it was to them, that to everyone who receives the Lord Jesus Christ, the promise of the Holy Spirit will be given, "to all that are far off, everyone whom the Lord our God calls to him" (Acts 2:39c RSV). That is the program of God in the dimension of time. It began, in the first act after the ascension of Christ, with the completion of the twelve apostles once again. Here, I must take issue with those of my colleagues who suggest that Matthias was chosen as one of the disciples in the energy of the flesh, and that it was a mistake on the part of men; that God chose Paul rather than Matthias. I believe that this account makes very clear that Matthias was chosen under the superintendency of the Holy Spirit and that he was put in the right place at the right time. In this account, Peter stood up and quoted the Scriptures, saying that it had been predicted that one should be chosen to take Judas' place. "His office," he quoted, "let another take" (Acts 1:20b RSV). His conclusion is, "So one of the men who have accompanied us during all the time that the Lord Jesus went in and out among us, beginning from the baptism of John until the day when he was taken up from us -- one of these men must become with us a witness to his resurrection." (Acts 1:21-22 RSV) Then, as you know, they put forward two men, Joseph (called Barsabbas) and Matthias. Then through the exercise of a perfectly appropriate method, one which was used in Old Testament time again and again to determine the mind of God (the casting of lots) Matthias is chosen. Further indication that this choice is indeed under the leadership and superintendency of the Holy Spirit is found in chapter two, where it says that on the day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit was poured out, Peter stood up with the eleven. Peter (one) with the eleven (twelve altogether) goes on, lifts up his voice, and addresses the assembled multitude (Acts 2:14). Then in chapter six, long before Paul is called as the apostle to the Gentiles, we read (verses 1, 2): In these days when the disciples were increasing in number, the Helenists[that is, the Grecian Jews] murmured against the Hebrewsbecause their widows were neglected in the daily distribution. And the twelve summoned the body of the disciples... (Acts 6:1-2 RSV) What twelve? Why, the eleven with Matthias, who was chosen to take Judas' place, completing the number of witnesses. It is upon this twelve, the complete number of the apostles, that the Holy Spirit was poured out on the day of Pentecost. You remember in the book of Revelation that the names of the twelve apostles formed the foundations of the city that John saw coming down from heaven -- the twelve, with Matthias (Revelation 21:12-14). There were twelve apostles to Israel. There had to be twelve. Judas fell, but God chose Matthias to take his place as a witness to Israel, but it is Paul who is the special apostle, called to be the apostle to the Gentiles. Now, this does not mean that the other apostles do not have a ministry to us; they do. But it was agreed among them that God had chosen that Peter should go to Israel, while Paul went to the Gentiles. The same message was given to each, but the twelve were especially designed to be a complete, divinely chosen witness to Israel, and they fulfilled that ministry completely. After the full number of the apostles was restored, the great mark of the book of Acts, the pouring out of the Holy Spirit, took place. Everything else flows from this event. The interesting thing is to see how Christians, reading about this amazing occurrence, have focused their attention on the incidentals and neglected the essentials: What are the incidentals here? The rushing wind, the fire that danced on the heads of the disciples, and the many tongues or languages by which they spoke. These are the incidentals of the story. These are simply the peripheral events that took place, the signs that showed that something important was happening. What was the essential, then, the important thing? It was the forming of a new people -- the church. One hundred and twenty individuals met in the temple courts. They were as unrelated to each other as any people born in widely scattered parts of the earth might be to each other today. They were individually related to the Lord, but they had no blood ties. When the Holy Spirit was poured out on them, he baptized them into one body. They became a living unit; they were no longer related only to the Lord; they were related also to each other. They became a living organism, which was from then on, and still is, to be the body of Christ, the means by which he speaks to the world, by which he is given a flesh and blood existence in our day. They were made a new people, by means of a new power -- the Holy Spirit, indwelling them and tying them to one another -- and given a new program. As we have already seen, this was to reach out to Jerusalem, to Judea, Samaria and the uttermost parts of the earth, through time, from one generation to the next, until the coming of Jesus Christ. Those are the essentials. Isn't it strange how we focus on these tiny little incidentals, neglecting the tremendous matters that the Holy Spirit would impart to us? The rest of the book deals with the calling of Paul, the wise master builder, the one whom the Holy Spirit selected to be the pattern for Gentile Christians. This is why Paul was put through a very intensive training period by the Holy Spirit, during which he was subjected to one of the most rigorous trials that any human being could undergo. He was sent home to his own home town to live in obscurity for seven years, until he learned the great lesson that the Holy Spirit seeks to teach every Christian, and without which no one of us can ever be effective for him. In the words of our Lord, "... unless a grain of wheat falls into the earth and dies, it remains alone" (John 12:24b RSV). As you trace the career of the Apostle Paul, you discover that, like every one of us, when he first came to Christ he did not understand this. As we would have reasoned in his place, he thought that he had all it took; he was especially prepared to be the kind of instrument that could be mightily used of God to win Israel to Christ. Undoubtedly he said to himself, as he reveals in the letter to the Philippians, he had the background; he had the training. He was by birth a Hebrew; he was educated in all the law and the understanding of the Hebrews he had the position; he was the favorite pupil of the greatest teacher of Israel, Gamaliel; he was a Pharisee of the Pharisees; he understood everything of the Hebrew background. Out of this consciousness of his own background and training arose in his heart that pulse beat that you find constantly breaking through from time to time in the writings of this mighty man. This hungering to be an instrument to reach Israel for Christ. In the ninth chapter of Romans he said, "... I could wish that I myself were accursed and cut off from Christ for the sake of my brethren, my kinsmen by race" (Romans 9:3 RSV). But God had said to this man, "I don't want you to reach Israel. I'm calling you to be the apostle to the Gentiles, to bear my name before kings and to preach unto the Gentiles Acts 9:15) the unsearchable riches of Christ." Do you remember how he went out into the desert, and there God taught him? Then he sent him back home to Tarsus. After he tried in Damascus to preach Christ out of the energy of his own flesh and found it failing, he was driven out of the city and let down like a criminal over the wall in a basket. Broken-hearted and defeated, he found his way to Jerusalem and thought the apostles at least would take him in, but they turned him aside. It was only as Barnabas finally interceded for him that he was given any acceptance in the eyes of the apostles at all. Then, going into the temple, he met the Lord, who said to him, "Go back home. Get out of the city. They won't receive your testimony here. You don't belong here. This isn't the place I've called you to..." (Acts 22:17-21). In Tarsus he faced up at last to what God was saying to him all the time, that unless he was willing to die to his own ambition to be the apostle to Israel, he could never be the servant of Christ. And when at last he received that commission and took it to heart, and said, "Lord, anywhere you want. Anything you want. Anywhere you want to send me. I'm ready to go." God sent Barnabas to him, and he took him by the hand and led him down to Antioch, a Gentile church, and there the Apostle Paul began his ministry. The book ends with Paul in Rome, preaching in his own hired house, chained day and night to a Roman guard, unable to get out, unable to pursue the evangelizing of the ends of the earth as his heart longed to do -- limited, fettered, bound -- and yet, as he writes to the Philippians, his heart overflowing with the consciousness that though he was bound, the word of God was not. One of the most amazing words in all of Scripture is given there, as he writes to his friends in Philippi and says, "All these things which have happened to me, have happened to advance the gospel..." (Philippians 1:12b RSV). They have not limited anything. They have not held anything back. These obstacles, and these apparent disappointments have not stopped a thing; they have only advanced the gospel. And then he gives two specific ways in which this was happening. One was that the cream of the crop in the Roman army who formed the special palace guard of the emperor were being brought to Christ one by one. The praetorium guard was being reached, and, of course, you know how it was happening. They were being brought in by the emperor's command and chained to the Apostle Paul for six hours . Talk about a captive audience! God was using the emperor to bring his best boys in and chain them to the apostle for six hours of instruction in the Christian gospel. No wonder Paul writes at the end of the letter, "All the saints greet you, especially those of Caesar's household" (Philippians 4:22 RSV). The second thing is that because Paul had been arrested, all the other brethren in the city were busy preaching the gospel, so there was more of the gospel going out in Rome because he was in prison than there would have been if he were loose. He said, "I rejoice in that." That always suggests to me that one of the finest ways to evangelize a community might be to lock all the preachers up in jail! But there is a third advantage the apostle could not see, a thing he never dreamed was taking place. We can see now, looking back, that the greatest thing that Paul ever did in his lifetime was not to go about preaching the gospel and planting churches, as he would have thought. But the greatest accomplishment was the letters which he never would have written if he had not been in prison. Because of those letters, the church has been ministered to and fed and strengthened through 20 centuries of Christian life. Now, as you know, the book of Acts is an unfinished book. It has never been completed -- it suddenly ends. Luke does not even write finis at the end, he leaves it there. He never gets back to it, because, of course, the Holy Spirit intended it to be unfinished; it is still being written. The book of Acts is the book of the record of the things which Jesus began both to do and to teach. Is he through yet? No. He is still working, isn't he? Volume 20 is now being written. When this great book is fully completed and, in glory, you get to read it -- what will be your part in it? Father, we thank you for this wonderful book that challenges us, blesses us, encourages and delights us, and makes us want to cast ourselves anew upon your grace, forgetting all the traditions of men, and to turn once again to the program and the strategy of God. How we thank you, Lord, that every bit of it is still as vibrantly true as it ever was, and that in this twentieth century day, we can discover again for ourselves all that this book contains. Thank you, in Christ's name, Amen. Message transcript and recording © 1966 by Ray Stedman Ministries, owner of sole copyright by assignment from the author. For permission to use this content, please review RayStedman.org/permissions. Subject to permissions policy, all rights reserved. God's Unfinished Book The New Testament book of Acts tells of thrilling escapes, people in peril, conflict and intrigue, travel through the ancient world, storms and shipwrecks, and steadfast faith amidst overwhelming obstacles. Join Ray as he brings the history, adventure, and profound but practical meaning of this book to life.

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High tech hits the high seas in a windblown battle between Craig McCaw and Larry Ellison. Carl Hoffman sets sail with Team OneWorld in the race to take back the America's Cup. There are few pieces of technology simpler than a sailboat. It is, after all, among the slowest vehicles on earth, and its basic design has changed little in thousands of years. Hand Christopher Columbus the tiller of today's hottest racer and he'd sail off to America, no problem. Sharon Green. Two Team OneWorld racers, dubbed USA-65 and USA-67 for the America's Cup, sail in the Hauraki Gulf off the coast of Auckland, New Zealand. It took Columbus 10 weeks to reach the New World. By 1905, thanks to better maps and streamlined hulls, the record for crossing the Atlantic stood at 12 days and 4 hours, for an average speed of 10 mph. Over the next 75 years, skippers carved just 2 days off that record. Then something remarkable happened. As the 20th century ended, a surge in data-processing muscle and the advent of carbon fiber gave naval architects the power to craft dramatically lighter hulls with less drag and more efficient sails. At the same time, more accurate weather models told sailors how to exploit optimum wind currents. In October 2001, millionaire adventurer Steve Fossett's PlayStation put it all together, racing from New York to England in 4 days and 17 hours, shattering the decade-old record by 44 hours. Fossett sailed at an average speed of nearly 26 mph, a pace even most blue-water powerboats can't match. Fossett's secret: He waited for weeks on his 125-foot carbon-fiber catamaran until his weather guru said go, then surfed across the pond on the curl of three powerful low-pressure systems. The forecast was so accurate that, in 2,900 miles, he never tacked once. Sailing, so long an intuitive art, has become a contest of technology. It's a sport where a slight tech edge can truly make a difference — sailboat races are routinely won by seconds. Yet the transition from art to science is proving almost as hard as predicting the stock market. A yacht remains one of the most difficult crafts to model. Its only source of power is the fickle wind. Its sails flex and flap. The boat heels and bounces. The water itself is always moving. It's hard even to take an accurate measurement of the wind or currents. Nowhere is the science of sailing more extreme than in the quest to win the oldest trophy in international sports, the America's Cup. Beginning October 1, nine teams — from Britain, France, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, and the US — will race in the qualifying Louis Vuitton Cup in Auckland for the chance to beat defender Team New Zealand in the main event, which starts in February. Held roughly every three years, the Cup is, as eight-time competitor Dennis Conner once said, "a war game, a space race," where history's richest men and biggest egos deploy armies of engineers, mathematicians, physicists, programmers, and weather experts to create a sailboat a hair faster than the rest. This year, the defender and nine challengers will drop a total of about $700 million, with each team spending almost seven times what Conner's spent 15 years ago. For some teams, R&D alone will cost $30 million to $40 million, ten times what it takes to build the boats themselves, and will call on the biggest names in technology, from Compaq to Ford, BMW to Xerox. The red-hot center of the tech battle is the fight between two American teams, OneWorld Challenge and Oracle BMW Racing. It's Craig McCaw versus Larry Ellison; billionaire versus billionaire; the Seattle Yacht Club versus the Golden Gate Yacht Club. The two CEOs are reaching deep into their technological holds. Oracle touts its "sophisticated design tracking system" that uses database software to retrieve detailed reports about the performance benefits of subtle design changes, which is then shared with engineers and designers all over the world: in California, New Zealand, and Annapolis, Maryland. For his part, McCaw, the pioneer in wireless communications, outmaneuvered the competition early on by buying up the high-capacity wireless LAN spectrum that covers Auckland and its waters, leaving Ellison and the other teams with the indignity of communicating by much slower radio and cell phone. McCaw then raided Team New Zealand, hiring six of its best sailors, along with designer Laurie Davidson, a national hero to fellow Kiwis for creating boats so fast they humiliated the US in 1995 and Italy in 2000. Says McCaw: "We did things so stealthily that Larry thought the Seattle challenge had to be coming from Bill Gates and the Microsoft guys." The Cup is a war game, a space race — and a tiny tech edge decides the outcome. Sharon Green. OneWorld Challenge under full sail. It's a rainy 50 degrees, the beginning of the austral winter on the blustery waters of New Zealand's Hauraki Gulf. The qualifying rounds won't start for another five months, but OneWorld is testing two of its yachts, designated USA-67 and USA-65 by the America's Cup technical director. While they look roughly like any other sailboat, everything about them is calculated to precisely capture the wind's capricious power. Eighty-five feet long, their one-piece carbon-fiber hulls weigh less than a Volkswagen Beetle yet support a 110-foot mast and a narrow, 14-foot-deep keel dangling a 20-ton lead bulb. Sleekly gliding over the water, they accelerate rapidly when the slightest breeze hits their 6,500 square feet of sail, and they turn as fast as bobsleds. Sensors and digital cameras feed real-time performance data and GPS coordinates across the wireless network to the crew and to OneWorld's land-bound designers and engineers. A second computer network sucks in meteorological data from five weather boats, dozens of weather stations, and OneWorld's proprietary neural net. The goal: to predict the tiniest wind shifts. Custom software aboard the yacht calculates everything from the fastest sailing course to the average speed and angle of the wind up and down the mast. The 65, which flies an oddly shaped new mainsail so secret that I'm forbidden to describe it, is going head-to-head with 67 to determine which boat's mainsail is faster. I'm following close behind in a 60-foot chase boat with OneWorld designer Phil Kaiko and engineers Masanobu Katori and Richard Whitaker. The mainsail's shape is so secret that I'm forbidden to describe it. Suddenly Kaiko, 42, grabs binoculars and scans the horizon. Wearing blue shorts and a gray sweatshirt, with a boyish face and shaggy hair, he could pass for a college student. "Anybody know who that is?" he asks, as an inflatable orange Zodiac speeds within range. When the Kiwis beat the US to win the Cup in 1995, they vowed to clean up what had become a game of relentless espionage among teams. Now "persistent observation" of another team's boats is explicitly forbidden until two months before the first races. The team bases in Auckland are patrolled by security guards and closed-circuit cameras; photographs anywhere within a team's compound are verboten; and when 65 and 67 are withdrawn from the water each night, their hulls and keels are shrouded by gray skirts. "Every team is curious about what the other is doing," Kaiko says. "You try to psych them out, to make them feel like they can never do anything without being watched." Sharon Green. The brains of the OneWorld operation (from left: Kaiko, Whitaker, and Katori) crunch performance numbers aboard a chase boat. Eventually, attention on the boat returns to 65 and 67, whose sensors and strain gauges are tracking 200 different parameters every second and sending the information across OneWorld's LAN to its chase boats and offices. Then the info gets dumped into a Microsoft SQL database, where it's sifted to pinpoint the effects of sail and hardware experiments. Unraveling all the input is, in the words of OneWorld engineer Richard Karn, "nearly impossible." Take the keel's trim tab, an adjustable surface that's analogous to the flap on an airplane wing. Simply finding the optimum trim settings for each wind speed requires comparing each flap setting against all others, using one boat as a control. The combination of settings and wind speeds is mind-boggling. Making a sailboat fast is unlike making any other kind of vehicle fast. Cars and airplanes, for instance, operate within a single medium, but a boat plows through air and water, creating what's known as "free surface" between the two that dramatically raises drag. Every parameter of a Formula One car can be targeted and modeled, including the track on which it's racing. Airplanes can be so well modeled that some engineers even argue against building prototypes. And cars and planes are all powered by engines with precisely known and controllable horsepower. "Our power comes from the wind," says Kaiko, settling down once again at his laptop, as we roll gently in the swell. "It's variable in height, speed, direction, and density, and it's totally erratic and random." Ditto the track on which they race — waves and currents. And the yachts require not one pilot but 16 crewmen, each of whom is an independent variable. OneWorld's designers began hammering out hulls almost immediately after the 2000 Cup. Unlike yachts in races between identical sailboats, the International America's Cup Class yachts are created around a complex formula that lets designers trade off sail area for length and weight. The formula has been the same since 1992, so making a boat faster than your competitors takes ever more powerful technology for even the smallest improvement. "Yet, if you can make your boat even a fraction of a second faster," says OneWorld designer Bruce Nelson, "that'll give your team the edge it needs. So the question is, How do you find that?" He answers himself: "If you really want to explore a boat, you need to run a 200-point matrix, and each point has to go through up to 100 iterations, so running one hull might take a day or two." OneWorld worked through hundreds of possible hulls to find this year's shape, a design as closely guarded as the curves on the Pentagon's stealth aircraft. "In '92, we looked at dozens of hulls, but none had this one's accuracy and sophistication," Nelson says. "Much more physics has been added: Now you can predict the performance down to a hundredth of a knot." Oracle, for its part, riffled through thousands of hull configurations on a Compaq AlphaServer SC supercomputer. Sharon Green. A OneWorld crewman checks weather data via a wireless touchpad. But tactical decisions intrude on what otherwise might seem a straightforward analysis: Do you want a hull that functions better upwind or downwind? Primed for 15 knots or 8? Less drag or more stability? "There are so many trade-offs that you have to be really smart," Kaiko says. The penalties for erring are high, only the least of which is ending up with a slow boat. "The wind loads on the rigging and hull are huge," says Kaiko, "and they're predicted, not known, so equipment breaks and people get hurt." In the 2000 race, the Australian yacht (designed by Kaiko) broke in half midrace. So far this year, two of Oracle's training boats have lost keels, and OneWorld lost a mast. Dennis Conner's boat, Stars & Stripes, sank. After 10 minutes of straight-line sailing, 65 is two lengths ahead of 67. A decisive victory for the radically new rag, I suggest. "Maybe," Kaiko says, checking the numbers flowing in. "The winds are really too light and shifty, the data too inconsistent." Suddenly there's the Zodiac again. The radio crackles, and in seconds the sail comes down and a more conventional one goes up; then another test begins. So it goes for the next eight hours, as the 65 and 67 race each other using various combinations of sails, and the data pours in. Every few minutes a crew member snaps photos of the sail from digital cameras mounted on the deck, to be scrutinized later. Periodically, sailors swap boats, to better distinguish between a yacht's performance and that of its crew. Ideally, over the course of the day, speed advantages can be traced to one particular sail, which can be tweaked yet again. Over months, the fastest permutations of sails and trim will be studied. Conclusive data is hard to come by, however. During any given moment of any particular test, the vessels weren't even sailing in the same wind despite being a mere hundred yards apart. "It's a statistical process," says Katori, the team's lead programmer, as we take the boats in tow and head back to shore at the end of the day. "You have to build a lot of very subjective data before it begins to mean anything, and that's especially true in light wind. But over time you do build real numbers." On race day, those numbers become a tactical weapon. In 2000, the yachts were so closely matched that 80 percent of the time the first boat to cross the starting line sailed to victory. Devising a plan for getting across the line first falls to navigators like Kevin Hall and Mark Chisnell, for whom turning the vagaries of wind and sail into hard data is a relentless puzzle. That's because the start of a sailing match is unlike the start of any other kind of race. You can't, after all, just poise on the edge of the line and press the accelerator when the gun fires. Instead, in what's known as the prestart, boats duel during a wild five-minute process of jockeying for the best wind relative to the starting line, while denying that same advantage to opponents — who are trying to do the same — all while circling and tacking and jibing in constant motion amid variable winds in a finite space aboard an engineless vehicle. And all that technology? Forget it. America's Cup racing is ruled by the Corinthian notion that a yacht at sea should be on its own, so at prestart every craft must sever its connection to the outside world. Cell phones, two-way radios, and the wide-area network hardware are sealed in a special bag and tossed overboard. Transmission of those all-important weather and wind forecasts ceases. What's left is the onboard network that links two Panasonic Toughbooks tucked under the deck; one holds predicted weather data, another keeps performance parameters for various wind speeds and directions. The computers feed select pieces of data to small monitors at the base of the mast and at every sailor's station on the boat. The neural net sucks in data right up to the prestart. Then the umbilical is cut. Hall, an intense red-haired 33-year-old from Ventura, California, graduated with degrees in math and French literature from Brown University, and twice failed to make the US Olympic sailing team by a whisker. Chisnell, 40, was a member of Britain's 1987 America's Cup team. Known as Chizzy, he has degrees in physics and philosophy, and, between yacht races around the world, has written seven books on sailing and a novel for Random House. The morning after the long day of sail tests, I find Chizzy and Hall at OneWorld headquarters, in an office littered with two-way radios and foul-weather gear, brainstorming with Katori over how to write a piece of software that can more accurately advise the skipper and tactician as they maneuver during the prestart. In a perfect prestart, you fight for position, sail away from the starting line, turn, and then sail back under full power, crossing the line just as the gun fires. "It all comes down to time and distance," says Hall. "The boat's computer can tell us where we are in relation to the line, and it can guess how fast we'll sail to it based on boat speed, but there are a lot of assumptions that you need to make that may or may not be correct." Assumptions, in fact, about nearly every aspect of the boat's performance. During the wild prestart gyrations, "you may never go in a straight line," says Chisnell. "Boat speed is measured by a little paddle wheel in the water, but you might be going sideways and so it won't work at all. Same with the compass heading. You might be pointing 180 degrees but actually going backward. You're tacking and jibing constantly, swinging through all the points of the compass. And all these instruments deliver data at different rates and cope with the violent motions of the yacht differently, so the inputs get out of whack and you get spikes in your data." Sharon Green. OneWorld navigator Chisnell aboveboard with a laser range finder. Hall leaps up, excited. "And when you're heading away from the starting line," he says, "every second the question is, Should we turn around?" "But how long does it take to turn around?" interjects Chisnell, using his hands like two boats fighting for position. "Is it better to make, say, a tight 10-meter-diameter turn that takes less time and burns off boat speed, or a wide 50-meter turn that takes longer and keeps your speed up?" "Ideally," says Hall, "at any point in the prestart you'd be able to tell the tactician exactly how long it'll take to turn around." They lead me over to the shed for a tour of the yachts. As we walk past the gray-skirted boats, Chisnell warns against peering under the occasional opening and talks about the vexing dilemma of simply measuring true wind speed and direction, the two most important pieces of information in a race. "The navigator is trying to give the most accurate wind information he can to the tactician, who's using shifts in the wind to get the boat to the next mark. We've got this huge mainsail, which distorts the wind as it flows over the sail. The actual angle of the breeze might be 15 degrees different from what it registers at the top of the mast. We've got this 110-foot-high column in which wind direction and wind speed may vary, so the power the wind gives to the rig varies enormously." We climb a set of stairs and step onto a carbon-fiber deck, a small pit crowded with lines. "Should you accept the number at the top of the mast?" he says, squatting by a pedestal that serves as his navigator's station. "The smallest bit of wind makes a huge difference. It's an anal problem, but it's central to winning, and it's been occupying me for two years." To solve it, Chisnell has been experimenting with mechanical and sonic anemometers placed up and down the mast, and even on an adjustable 25-foot pole at the stern. Katori is writing a program that crunches the measurements and creates a "wind profile number — an implied wind," in the words of Chisnell, that the navigator can base his calculations on. "You've got so much information, and so little of it is precise, and you've got 16 guys trying to sail a powerful boat that you can barely control, all in, say, 20 knots of wind that is trying to tear the rigging out of the boat. If you can nail down some of those numbers, you can gain a huge advantage." If there's any area where the sailor's art has long prevailed, it's anticipating the weather. An experienced eye can spot gusts blowing across the water, and even predict how wind will rise, drop, or change direction when a cloud passes over the sun. That's extra valuable in the Hauraki Gulf, where the winds are especially strong and shifty. Sharon Green. A shroud conceals the hull design from spies when out of the water. While intuition remains critical, there's been big progress in the area of weather analysis over the past 10 years. "The percentage of the budget being spent on weather has increased more than any other item," says weather padrone Hamish Willcox, surrounded by computer monitors and maps of the Gulf covered with little red dots. Willcox, 40, tall and tan with sleepy green eyes, might be OneWorld's Willard Scott, but like each member of the team, he's an elite sailor who started young. At 17, he won the first of three world championships in Olympic 470-class small boats. He raced in the 1996 Summer Olympics, and then coached the New Zealand national team for five years. Just as important, he's an Auckland native, bottle-fed on the Gulf's erratic winds, and a veteran of Team Prada's 2000 Louis Vuitton Cup victory. Willcox points at a map on the wall, then hits a few keys. Up on the monitor pops a chart of the Gulf and the surrounding land, covered with small markers in a rainbow of colors. All told, 57 weather stations and buoys surround the Gulf (most are exclusive to OneWorld, but some are shared with other teams), continuously milking wind direction and velocity, temperature, barometric pressure, and humidity, and other variables Willcox refuses to mention — a dizzying wealth of information pouring into OneWorld's weather database. That's not all: Every day for the past two years, five OneWorld weather boats have headed out into the Gulf to harvest data. On race days, they are stationed around the course — one at the upwind mark, one at the start, one on each side, and another deployed as needed. The key to the forecast is a proprietary neural network developed by the Ford Research Laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan. "The basic idea," says Lee Feldkamp, a Ford scientist, "is to take the information measured upwind and predict what will propagate down the course." Every day, the mountain of weather data collected is fed into the program. "If you have, say, 12 knots of wind moving in a certain direction and you go downwind from that point 300 feet, what happens?" asks Willcox, peering over his office dividers at the weather outside. "Does the air rise? Fall? Dissipate to the left or right? That's the mystery we sailors are forever trying to solve." And that's where the neural net can help, says Feldkamp: "We're trying to find patterns, to see that one set of conditions tends to result in something else. We don't know why, and we don't need to, because the answer is in the data." The program runs continuously, sucking in information from all the stations and buoys and weather boats, interrogating it right up to the prestart; and then, the moment the umbilical is cut, the computer spits out how the wind is expected to shift over the next seven minutes. The wind, which today has been blowing too hard, improves enough so we can set sail. Peter Gilmour, OneWorld's skipper, herds us out to the boats. As we're towed out to the Gulf behind the chase boat, Gilmour, a 42-year-old native of Perth, Australia, and a five-time America's Cup veteran, perches on the gunwales, the occasional cold drop of rain smacking his ruddy face. "Sailing is a strange sport," he says, bracing himself against a wave. "At one end you need physical stamina, and at the other mathematical ability. Technology is extremely important. It helps you find that sweet spot and builds confidence. But on the racecourse, it all comes down to a feel thing, from the experiences you've been able to build up." Which is evident the moment we drop the towline and start sailing in gusty 15-knot winds. There are two boats to test and two teams of 16 sailors to hone into machinelike crews. Every moment on the water counts; even if conditions are marginal, the yachts go out. Cup boats are so high-strung, however, that even in relatively light winds they are on the edge of chaos. Gilmour calls out the gusts he spots coming our way, shouting over the eerie wail of carbon fiber under tension. Each tack is a sudden and violent change of direction that leaves the squad of finely tuned athletes frantically hauling lines, grinding winches, and clinging for their lives. Over on the comfortable chase boat, Kaiko and the engineers are gently rocking on the waves, watching raw data pour in. Aboard 67 it's all unbound energy; art and nature challenging science, a foot of water surging over the transom. Then a carbon-fiber batten — a slat used to stiffen the mainsail — breaks. The winds rise and great rivers of cold sweep across jade-colored waves. The skies open up, a frigid winter rain that even custom Gore-Tex can't keep out. There's nothing to do except give up for the day and head home. As we're towed back to the dock against the current, waves of ice-cold spray pour into the boat. One by one, the crew drops through hatches fore and aft. Finally, I join them belowdecks, leaving only Gilmour and James Spithill, the two helmsmen, at the wheel. An America's Cup yacht is no pleasure cruiser. Below, it's pitch dark, with no place to sit — nothing but raw carbon fiber, ropes, wires, a slanting tub — barely an inch and a quarter thick — banging on the waves. Fourteen sailors, the lowest-paid earning close to $80,000 a year, huddle together with me like wet rats in a barrel as seawater runs down our backs. The rain and wind have won. This is sailing, after all, and all the technology in the world will never change that.

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In Henry V, the culmination of his Henriad, Shakespeare presents a king who exemplifies the perfect combination of the Trinitarian elements within man. Importantly, he does so within the context of a play that, as Shakespeare admits several times throughout, is itself lacking in its ability to bring the three into harmony. He is a man, aware of the source and nature of his existence in the image of God, placed into a world that, while not entirely disordered, falls short of the ideal. Working within the limitations imposed by time, place, and circumstance, Henry works to redeem this macrocosm through the perfecting of himself as microcosm. In his examination of Shakespeare from “the perspective of value,” Robert E. Fitch concludes that “King Henry is Shakespeare’s portrait of the ideal leader of men at any time in any place.” Though Fitch rightly hesitates to agree with Georg Gottfried Gervinus’s assessment “that Henry is essentially Shakespeare himself,” Fitch perhaps does not go far enough in his own assessment. King Henry is not only Shakespeare’s portrait of the ideal leader; he is Shakespeare’s portrait of the ideal man. While he may not be Shakespeare himself, he is undoubtedly the sort of person whom Shakespeare desired to be. He is, in fact, the sort of man any man of Shakespeare’s time would have desired to be. The ideal embodied in Henry V, says Theodore Spencer, “is the ideal of the whole Hellenistic tradition of the nature of man, whose specific function, reason, should govern the passions which spring from the senses he shares with the animals.” Moreover, according to E.M.W. Tillyard, due to the religious conflicts of the age “the battle between Reason and Passion … was peculiarly vehement in the age of Elizabeth.” In Trinitarian terminology, Henry is perhaps the only personality in Western literature who brings the Father, the Son, and the Spirit into perfect relation. Henry’s will and passions operate in perfect obedience to his reason. This harmony of the Trinitarian nature of the human being is accomplished by Henry through his pursuit of “knowledge and wisdom,” a pursuit which, says Tillyard, “marks man from angel and beast” in Elizabethan thought. This is the central significance of the dialogue among the three churchmen in the opening scene of Henry V. While the exchange acts as a literary device which explains to the audience why the Henry V presented in this play will be so different from the Prince Hal encountered earlier in the Henriad, the explanation given is one that appeals explicitly to the Elizabethan understanding of the importance of wisdom and knowledge to the fullness of humanity. The Archbishop of Canterbury’s description of Henry hymns his wisdom and knowledge (1.1.39-53): Hear him but reason in divinity, And all-admiring with an inward wish You would desire the king were made a prelate: Hear him debate of commonwealth affairs, You would say it hath been all in all his study: List his discourse of war, and you shall hear A fearful battle render’d you in music: Turn him to any cause of policy, The Gordian knot of it he will unloose, Familiar as his garter: that, when he speaks, The air, a charter’d libertine, is still, And the mute wonder lurketh in men’s ears, To steal his sweet and honey’d sentences; So that the art and practic part of life Must be the mistress to this theoric … Henry’s “theoric,” as Shakespeare demonstrates it, consists of a fervent love for his nation not only in the abstract but in each of the particular persons over whom he reigns as king. Henry’s own description of the burdens of kings in 4.1 provides an insight into his philosophy of kingship. He begins (4.1.228-231): Upon the King! Let us our lives, our souls, Our debts, our careful wives, Our children, and our sins lay on the King! We must bear it all. Henry’s love for his people is surpassed only by his love for God. Henry in fact mentions God more often than any other character in all of Shakespeare’s works. His utter reliance upon God’s judgment and mercy is evident throughout the play, but nowhere more than in his famous St. Crispin’s Day speech in 4.3, in which Henry adjures his men, who have expressed their concern at the overwhelming numbers of the French in comparison with their own English forces, “God’s will, I pray thee, wish not one man more” (4.3.23). “Rather proclaim it … through my host,” he continues, “That he which hath no stomach to this fight, / Let him depart” (4.3.34-36). Henry has taken upon himself the burdens of a king in his self-sacrificing love for his people and, in turn, placed his faith and hope in God whom he loves above all else. This “theoric” of Henry is exhibited through his “art and practic” in his balance of justice and mercy. Fitch describes this balance as it appears in Henry’s actions; he exhibits “justice in dismissing Falstaff, mercy in giving him a pension; justice in the death penalty for the three traitors against the crown, but mercy for the man who railed against his person.” Even in his application of justice in the extreme case of the three traitors, Henry finds a balance with mercy (2.2.142-143): Arrest them to the answer of the law; And God acquit them of their practices! He finds them guilty and orders them justly punished in accordance with the law. With the next breath, however, he offers a pray on their behalf that God might forgive their crime. In short, as Fitch notes, Henry embodies all 12 of the virtues necessary to a good king as described by Malcolm in Macbeth (4.3.92-94): As justice, verity, temp’rance, stableness, Bounty, perseverance, mercy, lowliness, Devotion, patience, courage, fortitude. Even Henry’s enemy, the King of France, describes him as possessing “native mightiness and fate” (2.4.64). In possessing fate, or the element of the Father, as well as “native mightiness,” a combination of the Son and Spirit, Henry V is an exhibition of the Trinitarian nature of man in perfect harmony. Henry does have his detractors, however. War-weariness and suspicion of strong political figures are two facets of the predominant mode of the West following the failures and atrocities of the strong centralized state systems of fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, and the communist Soviet Union. This has led some modern interpreters of Shakespeare’s plays to espouse negative views of the strong leaders presented therein. Orson Welles’s famous 1937 depiction of Julius Caesar as a figure much like Benito Mussolini is an analogy which falls far short if the character of Caesar is considered in all its complexity, but which is representative of this modern approach to certain characters. As he is by far the strongest leader presented in Shakespeare’s canon, Henry V has, of course, been the object of much of this derision of leadership. Henry V’s treatment by Harold Bloom in his popular Shakespeare and the Invention of the Human provides one representative example. Bloom’s central complaint against Henry, the complaint from which all others flow, is what he sees as the injustice of Henry’s dismissal of Falstaff. According to Bloom, Falstaff is Henry’s “endlessly gifted teacher” who “prepares his own destruction not only by teaching too well but by loving much too well.” Henry, on the other hand, is the ungrateful and nearly sociopathic child who “loves no one.” He merely uses Falstaff to advance his own power and discards Falstaff when he is no longer useful. Bloom has turned the dismissal and pensioning of Falstaff by Henry, which Fitch uses as an example of Henry’s balance of justice and mercy, on its head. For Bloom, Falstaff dismissal is a demonstration of Henry’s lack of both justice and mercy. There is, however, an additional consideration which is noted by neither Bloom nor Fitch. As the clergymen of the opening scene of Henry V discuss, Henry has matured a great deal since his time in the company of Falstaff. He has become a mature man as well as the King of England. Bloom is quite insightful in his characterization of Falstaff as “neither immoral nor amoral but of another realm, the order of play.” However, Bloom fails to appreciate the implications here for Henry. Henry has not cast off an old friend in the ruthless pursuit of personal power. He has, rather, grown up. The words of St. Paul in 1 Corinthians 13:11 would fit well on the lips of Henry V: “When I was a child, I spoke like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I gave up childish ways.” Falstaff as “play in its sweetest and purest sense” is essentially childish. In order to become a man, Henry had to put him away. As a further example of Henry’s supposed hypocrisy, Bloom turns Henry’s words in his St. Crispin’s Day Speech against him. Where Henry tells those gathered with him that “he to-day that sheds his blood with me / Shall be my brother” (4.3.-61-62), Bloom rather assures that “neither we nor he believes a word he says.” On the contrary, Bloom continues, “the common soldiers fighting with their monarch are not going to become gentlemen, let alone nobles.” Even before Henry speaks these words, however, the play has already offered a rebuttal to Bloom’s dubious interpretation of them. Henry V, to be perfectly Trinitarian, must also be perfectly Incarnational, and so he is. In the first scene of the same act (the fourth), Henry temporarily divests himself of the “ceremony” (4.1.237) which separates kings from their people. He descends among his men and becomes one of them. Henry imitates the Incarnation of Christ, as described in Philippians 2:6-7: “Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, by taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men.” Henry so fully identifies with his men that, while speaking to one of them in his disguise, he assures him “the King is but a man, as I am” (4.1.103). Henry’s words about brotherhood in his St. Crispin’s Day Speech, which is delivered nearly on the heels of his incarnation, are far from empty. Indeed, they have already been fulfilled. Certainly, none of these men are “going to become gentlemen, let alone nobles,” as Bloom reminds us. No society can function without differentiation in social class and no organization can continue to operate without delineation of rank. The desire for an absolute social equality within the English military or within the whole of English society is absurd and to condemn the reasonable for rejecting absurdity only compounds the absurdity. The Elizabethans knew this better than most societies since. Henry V itself contains arguably the most eloquent description of the Elizabethan perspective of the cooperation of the various social classes within an orderly and peaceful society of any literature of the era or any other (1.2.183-204): Therefore doth heaven divide The state of man in divers functions, Setting endeavour in continual motion; To which is fixed, as an aim or butt, Obedience: for so work the honey-bees, Creatures that by a rule in nature teach The act of order to a peopled kingdom. They have a king and officers of sorts; Where some, like magistrates, correct at home, Others, like merchants, venture trade abroad, Others, like soldiers, armed in their stings, Make boot upon the summer’s velvet buds, Which pillage they with merry march bring home To the tent-royal of their emperor; Who, busied in his majesty, surveys The singing masons building roofs of gold, The civil citizens kneading up the honey, The poor mechanic porters crowding in Their heavy burdens at his narrow gate, The sad-eyed justice, with his surly hum, Delivering o’er to executors pale The lazy yawning drone. While those who hold to the unhealthily bloated modern notion of equality might scoff at such a perspective on society and the cosmos, it is a more complete picture than that offered by the current equality-via-enforced-homogeneity. In the Elizabethan understanding of world and society, “no part was superfluous,” says Tillyard; “it enhanced the dignity of all creation, even of the meanest part of it.” Henry V would have failed terribly in his duties as king had he destroyed the social order in the adoption of some preposterously misguided ideal of equality. “There will never cease to be poor in the land” (Deut. 15:11); there will always be leaders and followers. The problem is not with kings and kingship. The problem is with tyrants. Christ’s description of leadership provides the formula by which the two may be distinguished: “You know that those who are considered rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their great ones exercise authority over them. But it shall not be so among you. But whoever would be great among you must be your servant” (Mark 10:42-43). The king is the one who leads to serve; the tyrant leads to be served. Henry, in his incarnation, has proven the truth of his own words: “We are no tyrant, but a Christian king” (1.2.241). The most frequent criticism of Henry V, and the only of the common criticisms which finds its mark, concerns his decision to slay the French prisoners in 4.6.36-38: The French have reinforced their scattered men. Then every soldier kill his prisoners! Give the word through. Alarmed at an apparent second wave of attack by the French, Henry orders the French prisoners of war held by his men killed as a precaution. The decision is an impulsive misjudgment for which Henry deserves all the criticism he receives. As Fluellen notes at the beginning of the following scene (4.7.1-4), which commences immediately following Henry’s loathsome order, “Kill the poys and the luggage? ‘Tis expressly against the laws of arms. ‘Tis as arrant a piece of knavery, mark you now, as can be offert;” though speaking to Gower within the context of the play, he seems at this point to turn to the audience with his question: “in your conscience, now, cos it not?” Gower turns Fluellen’s criticism on its head with his response, but the honest answer is that this slaughter of French prisoners is a violation of the conscience and the laws of war and a singularly terrible stain on the character of Henry. The next words that Henry speaks after the order to kill the prisoners grant an insight into the reason for Henry’s order: “I was not angry since I came to France / Until this instant” (4.7.54-55), he says. If even only for a short moment, Henry lost his Trinitarian balance. It is with good reason that Henry V has been compared to King David by some scholars. Reverend James Bell’s Biblical and Shakespearian Characters Compared, as Fitch notes in his comments on the relationship between these particular Shakespearean and biblical characters, accesses the essence of each personality through analogy between them. “King Henry, like King David,” says Fitch, “blends in one person the two achievements that have always captured the imagination of men: he is a great fighter [in the Battle of Agincourt]; he is a great lover [of Katharine].” It might suitably be added: he is a great sinner. Both David and Henry are guilty of the greatest sin a man can commit against his fellow man; both are guilty of murder. In a comparison between the two, however, Henry emerges as the ethical superior even of David, the archetypical biblical king. David’s murder was prompted by his adulterous relationship with Bathsheba, inspired by his lust for her. Henry’s murders, however, are the result of a love his country. Whereas David murdered for personal gain, Henry murdered out of concern for his men. While Henry’s motivations by no means excuse the slaughter of the French prisoners, they do present a contrast with David’s addition of sin to sin. Henry’s status as a “great lover” presents a similar contrast with David. Whereas David takes Bathsheba to satiate his lust, Henry woos Katharine because he loves her and wishes to be loved by her in return (5.2.128-130): “I know no ways to mince it in love, but directly to say, ‘I love you.’ Then if you urge me farther than to say, ‘Do you, in faith?’” While David chooses a married woman, Henry chooses a woman who is so chaste she initially refuses to kiss Henry before their marriage (5.2.260-261). Whereas David uses his power as king to take Bathsheba from her husband and to have her husband murdered, Henry actively avoids the use of his power in his courtship of Katharine. Henry’s wooing of Katharine is the only scene in Henry V in which Henry does not call upon God to assist him. It is also the only scene in which Henry speaks almost entirely in prose, consciously communicating in a way that “is fit for thy [Katharine’s] understanding” (5.2.124). He wishes Katharine to freely choose to love him because his love for her is authentic. This authentic, freely chosen love between Henry and Katharine leads to the final Trinitarian reconciliation at the end of Henry V. Whereas David’s first son by Bathsheba died in infancy as a result of David’s sin, the son of Henry V and Katharine will grow to be the next king, Henry VI. In the love between Henry V and Katharine which produces Henry VI, there is an analogy to the love of the primordial man and woman, Adam and Eve, which produced Seth (Genesis 4:25). St. John of Damascus saw in this family of Adam, Eve, and Seth an analogy with the Trinity. The love of Adam and Eve and the concomitant birth of Seth is a biblical moment of Trinitarian reconciliation following the fall of man in Genesis 3 and the first murder in Genesis 4; the love of Henry and Katharine and the concomitant birth of Henry VI is Henry V’s moment of reconciliation in the wake of the “fall of man” in 2.2.141 and the murder of the prisoners in 4.6.37. That England will flounder under Henry VI, as lines 11-12 of the short epilogue already presage, is immaterial to this moment, however passing, of perfect Trinitarian reconciliation, just as the eventual sinking of man into wickedness and the coming deluge are immaterial to the moment of Trinitarian reconciliation in the world’s first family. For a moment, Edenic paradise, “the world’s best garden” (Ep.7), has been restored. Henry V, the perfect man, has been placed into an imperfect world. Shakespeare reminds us of the imperfection of this world in the prologues which precede each act of the play, prologues which Shakespeare himself more than likely read in the earliest performances of the play. The prologue with which the play begins is demonstrative. There, Shakespeare begs the audience’s “pardon” for “the flat unraisèd spirits that hath dared / On this unworthy scaffold to bring forth / So great an object” (1.0.9-11). The author, the actors, and the set are unable to provide the Spirit of the play. He therefore asks the audience to complete what is lacking through the use of their own imaginations. In spite of the significant shortcomings of Henry’s world and despite his own sin, he is nonetheless able to bring about a momentary reconciliation and perfection within it. Theodore Spencer notes that “though to modern readers his behavior as Henry V by no means makes him a perfect individual, there can be no doubt that Shakespeare intended him to embody all that a king should be.” It is Henry’s Trinitarian composition and Incarnational activity which make him “all that a king should be,” the perfect man by Elizabethan standards, even by the perennial Christian standards which stand above those of any particular era, even if not by the degenerate standards of modernity.

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Making assessment as visual as possible for the younger students Striving to make assessment as visual as possible has always been one of the keys to success in my program. I use images to capture the students' attention and to ensure that these images relate specifically to important conceptual understanding in a unit. As we move toward our summative assessment task in Health Related Fitness in grade 1, I have used ideas from the students to create 3 different visuals that represent the work of the circulatory, respiratory, and muscular systems. Using the idea of moving wind for the respiratory system, the students will be challenged to compare their rate of breathing to how fast the wind blows. For the muscular system, they will identify a color that represents how their muscles feel when engaged in different levels of exercise. Finally, the students will choose images of the working heart to compare how their heart feels when engaged in activity. They will be designing their own exercises and referring back to these visuals over the next few classes. I'll be blogging about how it goes. Wish me luck!! If you haven't read the above article, you are going to want to, especially if inquiry-based teaching is a passion of yours or if you are an educator that simply wants to know more about the inquiry approach to education. The article asserts that although curriculum, skills, strategies and adaptations to teaching methods are important considerations in moving students' learning forward, the bigger question is how do we identify, attract, nurture, and train teachers who have an 'inquiry friendly' personality? Without a doubt, coaching plays a fundamental role in developing a teacher's capacity to deliver a curriculum in an inquiry-based way, however, the relationships that they build and the emotional connections made to students play even a larger role. The article asserts that teachers must reflect on the following 5 questions. Are you optimistic? Are you open? Are you appreciative? Are you flexible? Are you purposeful? "When a teacher comes out from behind the lectern, leaves the front of the room, kneels beside a student to coach them through a problem, offers feedback designed to promote confidence and perseverance, and becomes a true partner in the learning process, the relationship between teacher and student automatically shifts. It’s no longer about telling; it’s about listening, observing, and creating the channel of trust that opens up a personal connection between two individuals." For me, reading the article was an important reminder to take every opportunity possible to connect with our students. It's not always easy, especially on days when motivation is low, but it's worth the time and effort. To read the article, please click on the link below. Thanks to Thom Markham, the author of "Do you have the personality to be an inquiry-based teacher?" for his insight and wisdom on the topic of inquiry. You can find Thom on Twitter at https://twitter.com/welcoming2012. Thanks for reading and hope you enjoy the article. Keep them thinking, identifying, solving, generating, creating, reflecting etc. Our natural tendency at times can lean heavily toward giving the students answers to the big questions that we ask. At least in my case it does. There are times when I give the answers away too easily, so I am working hard to make them dig and to figure out more on their own. Not all questions need to be answered on the spot and appropriate time can and should be given to allow students to find important answers out on their own through the various learning experiences we have them engage in. In my PE classes this week we are working on answering the following question-- How does feedback help us to improve in movement composition? I am trying to get my students tuned into the importance of giving specific feedback and to steer away from making general statements when providing feedback to their peers. I noticed that a lot of the feedback students were giving to one another was very general and not really that helpful in identifying what exactly needs to be improved upon. Giving authentic feedback is a skill that needs to be worked on and practiced. If the students were given feedback that was not helpful in identifying what specifically needed to be done to improve performance, I encouraged them to ask for clarification from their peers. For example, simply saying that "your timing needs to be better" is not good enough. The students were required to be as specific as possible when giving feedback. The visual that you see above was created to serve as a visual reminder of how feedback can help us improve in movement composition. For a number of classes, this poster remained mostly blank with only the question on it. I kept asking the students the question and when they had answers I would record them in my journal. I then created the visual with the main ideas that they had come up with in regards to how feedback can help. Using this visual as a springboard, I created a second visual that contained key questions related to the ideas that the students had generated for improving feedback in the above visual. I now have a list of guiding questions in place that can be used for the rest of the unit to help stimulate discussion about giving good feedback and to remind the students of what they need to do when providing authentic feedback to their peers. I believe that this is making thinking visible and helps to focus the students' learning as we progress through a unit. You can see the list of key teachers questions that will help to guide the students over the last few weeks of our movement composition unit. To summarize, I believe it is better that the students come up with big ideas and that we shouldn't give away important answers so easily hence the Better Them Than Us title to this blog post. Make them work to find out! Thanks for reading. Hope my ideas help you out! Is our teaching keeping pace with the changing world around us? One of the teachers with whom I regularly collaborate, Ross Halliday, turned me on to a very thought-provoking You Tube video yesterday titled 'What is 21st Century Learning?'. Whether we like it or not, as the times change around us, we are being bombarded by all of the reminders about where education in the 21st century is headed. We can choose to tune out and carry on with what we do OR we can pay close attention to the statistics and facts related to 21st century learning. It is purely our choice in regards to what we choose to believe, but the evidence seems overwhelming to me that as times change, so must our teaching practices and doing so will require a high degree of reflection on our parts as educators. Regardless of subject areas taught, the students of today need more from us. They need us to better prepare them for the world that they will be thrown into in a decade's time as they leave school. Many of us do the best we can by methodically planning and delivering what we feel to be pedagogically sound lessons that hopefully enhance the learning of our students. Although our lessons are well thought out and our students busily engaged in the work that we give them; is this enough? Are we doing them a service or disservice in preparing them for the ever changing world that is bearing down upon them? Are we going through the motions of what has always been familiar to us with our teaching practice or are we endeavoring to change for the better? Read the words below. They are taken directly from the You Tube Video. Ruminate over the facts, the numbers, the stats and the reality of what our students face. I think that I do a good job in teaching physical education to my students. I work to constantly challenge them to critically think, problem solve, collaborate, and explore while ensuring they are participating in maximum levels of rigorous physical activity. But am I doing enough? The answer to me is clearly a big fat NO. I can do more and I will do more. I can choose to let the video below intimidate me as an educator or I can reflect and make the necessary changes needed to my teaching practice. I must be sure that my teaching keeps up with the pace of change that my students experience on an ongoing basis. Please read the words below before watching the video and take the time to watch the video afterwards. Ask yourself this question, 'Am I doing enough for my students?' Thanks Ross for turning me on to this video! This is 21st Century Learning The number of people learning English in China nearly equals the US population. By 2025, the most populous country in the world will be INDIA In the next 2 years, 1 in 4 of the world’s workers will be Indian. These are exponential times. In the past 5 years, the digital universe has grown by 1000%. 46% of teachers say that their homework requires technology. 94% of students say that they use technology to do their homework. GOOGLE handles 1 billion queries every single day OR about 115740- the time it took you to read this. Today there are more than 450,000 words in the English language. That’s 7 times what Shakespeare could have used. Many of the top jobs in 2012 did not exist in 2002 Social Media Strategist User Experience Specialist Elder Care Coordinator Many of the jobs students will have don’t exist yet AND they will use technologies that haven’t been invented to find solutions to problems that haven’t emerged. The world keeps changing. This is not your classroom You are not this teacher. Today's teachers must be: Because, preparing students for the 21st century isn't just about technology or skills for the global economy. 21st Century Education is about: AND making your classroom as DYNAMIC as the world around us. EF Explore America Breaking down the big ideas (expectations) into smaller components For those of you who have read my blog in the past, you know that I am a firm believer in the necessity of making learning outcomes explicit in the initial phase of the units I teach in PE. Getting our students to know and understand learning outcomes gives them the guidance and direction that they need to move forward with their learning journey. It provides them with a sense of purpose, but is this enough? I believe that there should be much more involved in the process of making learning outcomes explicit if we are to truly have a greater impact our our students' learning. I like to try and vary up the ways in which I making learning outcomes explicit at the start of each unit. In my opinion, it doesn't have to happen on the very first class of a unit. We can allow some time to have important discussions related to the big ideas of a unit before moving into what it is that the students need to be specifically working on. The key is that we ask the right questions and always record the students ideas and thoughts as we go. In the first couple of weeks of my current movement composition unit, my students and I had a number of important discussions related to the big ideas regarding how we can be successful in this unit. I took the time to record their thoughts, making these ideas visual by creating posters. You can see an example below. As we move into the second half of this unit, the students are going to be able to design their own learning and explore a specific path of their choice. They will need to take the big ideas that we have discussed and to create a final routine focusing on an area of movement composition that interests them the most. At this point of the unit, it was essential for me to ensure that they really do understand the student learning outcomes for the unit. I pushed them to breakdown the big ideas and to describe what success looks like in each of these areas. Through purposely planned questioning, I challenged the students to be clear and concise about what makes for success in movement composition. Whenever I take this approach, I can say with full certainty that the students are able to identify what the actual learning outcomes are in a unit. If they don't nail one of the big ideas, my questioning pushes them to think about other areas of movement composition which are important to consider. I ask them to describe 'observable' features of success. Through our discussions this week, my grade 4/5 students were able to identify a number of criteria that are important for success in movement composition. Teamwork, Planning, Body Control, Safety, Routines Looking Good, and the Importance of Practice Identifying these outcomes was still not enough as we needed to breakdown considerations for success in these areas. As the students worked on partner balances, we took time every now and then to discuss what good teamwork looks like, why safety is important, how routines look good etc. I was able to use examples from their own routines to model important features of success such a the importance of good flow and rhythm. I didn't expect them to be able to breakdown these learning outcomes completely on their own, but was there the entire time to help guide them through this process. Inquiry in Action I believe that the questions that we ask and the learning environment that we set in our classes has great impact on whether or not our students can genuinely put inquiry into action. Allowing them ample opportunity to tune into the important learning outcomes can trigger the inquiry process and is worth a try if you haven't done so. You'll be surprised with the great ideas that they can come up with on their own. Check out our grade 4/5 student learning outcomes in movement composition. Thanks for reading and happy teaching! Letting student choose assessment criteria they feel is most important We are now into our 3rd week of movement composition and it was extremely important for me to gauge if my students are grasping on to the big ideas of our unit. I am allowing the students to explore a multitude of movement composition activities to help open their minds to all of the possibilities that exist. Simply put, I don't believe that movement composition should only be about dance, there are so many other avenues that can be explored. I had my students focus on partner balances in today's PE class, in particular the 9 balances that you can see on the assessment sheet to the left. After having an initial discussion about what partner balances were, we discussed safety then moved into the activity. My first goal of the lesson was to have my students, in pairs, practice doing each of the partner balance activities and to self-assess themselves. They did this by circling one of the following three choices; EASY (to do) SO-SO (to do), or NOT SO EASY (to do). My second goal was to have them design their own mini partner balance routine by selecting 4 different partner balances. They had the option to copy any 4 from the assessment sheet or they could create their own. They had to record the balances they had selected in the 4 blank boxes that you can see above on the assessment sheet. Once they had selected and recorded their balances, they practiced for their routine which they ended up performing to a 40-second piece of music. The final goal which was by far the biggest one to me was to have each team discuss which assessment criteria that they felt was most important to remember when doing their mini routines. We have had ongoing discussions since the start of the unit about the big ideas in movement composition. These big ideas relate to how they can be successful when taking part in any of the movement composition activities that we have done to date. Keeping in mind that assessment for learning is about teachers adjusting their plans based on formative assessment tasks, I was very keen to see what assessment criteria they had selected. Over 90% of the class identified assessment criteria that was critical to success in movement composition. To help those who didn't, I can spend extra time with them to have important discussions in order to ensure that they get on track with their learning. Assessment tasks such as this are excellent for helping to guide are teaching and to plan accordingly based on what our students know. Have a look at some example student assessment below as well as a slide show of the fun that took place. Thanks for reading. The focus of my grade 3, 4, and 5 PE classes today was to get the students focused in on the big ideas of movement composition. I had planned a few activities related to body control and spatial awareness at the start of class before moving on to some Just Dance videos. I had posted the question, the one you see in the photo below, at the start of class and asked the students to share their ideas as we progressed through today's lesson. I then recorded their ideas down on the poster. Most of the ideas generated tie into the student learning outcomes of the unit. I will keep the poster up for the rest of the unit and refer back to it when I see the need arise to have discussions related to their learning in the movement composition unit. A great inquiry strategy to open up movement composition unit Tapping into our students' natural curiosities is a huge part of the inquiry cycle. I am always on the look out for new strategies to try out in PE and I first learned about the 'I See, I Think, I Wonder' strategy in a Visible Thinking professional development session run by well-known consultant, Ron Richhart, a few weeks back at our Feedback for Effective Thinking conference at Nanjing International School. I know that several of my colleagues used the strategy with great success after they had learned about it in the conference. Since that time I have researched how it is done and decided that I would give it a go when introducing my movement composition unit in grades 3, 4, and 5. I started off my showing the students a number of different movement composition type videos from You Tube. These videos were not focused exclusively on dance as I wanted to open their minds to the endless possibilities that exist in terms of movement composition. I showed Kung Fu Panda fight sequences, a Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon Sword fighting scene, Stomp, a gymnastics routine, a martial arts sequence using a staff, and a juggling act. Regardless of the type of movement, all the videos showed great creativity and emphasized the fact that movement composition can come in a variety of forms. Here are links to the You Tube videos that were shown: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFH6lXJ6c4k Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zehZo-hObys Kung Fu Panda I See, I Think, I Wonder in Action Before watching the videos, I gave my students a number of yellow stick it notes and a pencil each. As they had all been exposed the the 'I See, I Think, I Wonder' strategy back in their classrooms, it didn't take a lot of explaining. I asked them to explain to me what this strategy means and we began the activity. While watching the videos, the students had to write down their thoughts. What was it that they were seeing in the videos? What caught their eye? What were they thinking as they watched these videos? And most importantly, what did they wonder about? What captured their attention and caused them to really wonder? I can say that they were fully engaged in this task and the ideas that they generated about movement composition, in general, worked to really set a great tone for this unit. After the last video, I gave them a few minutes to have a discussion with their elbow buddy before posting their ideas up on the 'I See, I Think, I Wonder' posters on the wall of our movement composition room. We had a group sharing session before moving on to the next activity. The 'I See, I Think, I Wonder' session lasted about 15-20 minutes. Some PE teachers would be completely opposed to this type of activity as it requires kids to sit and to essentially not not be active. I would strongly argue that great thinking occurs when using strategies such as this. In my opinion, there is absolute pedagogical justification in taking time to tap into their curiosities, to address conceptual learning, and to create a learning rich environment by having important conversations in our classes. Once we were done this activity, I had the students gather around the smart board to do a Kung Fu Fighter Just Dance video. It was a great way to transition into the dancing part of the class and the students really loved it. They go crazy for Just Dance and it is one of my essential instructional tools in my movement composition unit. In the video below, you can see my grade 3 class rocking it out. I recommend that you look into the 'I See, I Think, I Wonder' strategy if you have not used it. Thanks for reading! Introducing the Central Idea in Grade 1 Health Related Fitness Unit Although we are into our second week of the health related fitness unit in grade 1 PE, I have held back on introducing the central idea for this unit. For those teachers who may not work in the Primary Years Program (the PYP), the central idea is essentially the driving theme behind the unit. We want the students to progressively build upon their understanding of the central idea as they work their way through the units in PE. Through a number of learning engagements very much inquiry-based in nature, the students continually develop their understanding of the central idea and share their knowledge on a regular basis. The main reason why I do not introduce the central idea straight away in a unit relates to my pedagogical belief that great value lies in allowing young people time for exploratory activity at the start of a unit. Regardless of the unit, I try to provide as many opportunities as possible for the students to explore and to develop curiosities related to the unit. These curiosities are recorded in the form of student questions. As well, the exploratory time gives them a chance to think about what might be important to learn. When I record their ideas about what is important to learn, this is a great chance to make the learning outcomes explicit at the start of a unit. I think that it is critical for the students to be aware of the learning outcomes at the beginning of the unit as it often times leads to greater success. In yesterday's class I introduced the central idea for the health related fitness unit by writing it down on a large piece of chart paper. As you see above, the central idea for this unit is "Our heart, lungs, and muscles work together when we exercise." Although this statement might seem simplistic in nature, the real challenge of understanding this central idea lies in the students making connections between these body systems. As they progress through the unit, the students develop a greater understanding of these connections and are challenged to demonstrate this understanding in a variety of forms. Making Learning Visual As I introduce the central idea in a unit, I collect a bunch of visuals related to the topic. As this is a health related fitness unit, all of the images I gathered connect to sport, health, and exercise. As we unwrap the central idea, I add these visuals to the central idea poster. The poster remains up on the wall for the entirety of the unit and is constantly referred back to when having important discussions related to the big ideas. In yesterday's class the students were able to identify the 3 systems that they felt were working the most in the unit which were the heart, the lungs, and the muscles. Now that we have identified these 3 systems, I have introduced the proper name for these systems (circulatory, respiratory, and muscular). Both my grade 1 classes had a go at contributing their thoughts to the central idea poster. The first class, as you can see by the photo below identified the three systems at work when exercising and the second class was able to identify different types of exercise and what was needed to keep our bodies healthy. The visual that was created will definitely help to stimulate further discussion. Any new ideas will be added to the visual as we progress through the unit. Have a look at the photos below to see how the second class added to the ideas of the first class. A glimpse into how I use 'No Opt Out' questioning strategy in PE A few weeks back I wrote a blog post about my goal to work on using better questioning techniques in PE. You can see the blog post here. I have been working on the 'No Opt Out' strategy which is an excellent way to keep students engaged in the discussions taking place in our classes. I have also been working to establish a no hands up policy during my lessons which has definitely resulted in better student engagement as well. It is so easy to chose students with their hands up to answer our questions and is often times so habitual in nature, so breaking this habit requires consistency and a lot of practice. There will always be those students who like to answer all of the questions and get most of the chances to do so in our classes. By moving to a no hands up policy, the onus of answering questions becomes much more spread out and gives everyone a crack at the plate so to speak when answering these questions. The 'No Opt Out' strategy does not allow students to remain silent or say 'I don't know' to our questions. If a student cannot answer our question, the idea is that we let them know we will be coming back to them. It is OK to move on and ask another student the same question, but we now have more options when moving back to the original student. When moving back to the original student, we now have different options. We can ask whether or not they agree with the answer just given and to explain why or why not. We can ask them to extend upon the answer giving us more information or we can ask them to summarize what the previous person had just said. These are only a few examples, but the strategies that I have been working on. Below is a very short video of a health related fitness discussion with my grade 1 class. I am always reminding the students that I will not answer them if their hand is up as I am still working to establish this routine, to make it a habit. The video cuts off a bit early, but I go back and ask a student to summarize any of the answers that were given. You'll notice at the very end of this short video that one student puts his hand up to answer but immediately drops it back down as he remembers the no hands up policy. It must be working!!

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In “The Little Mermaid,” the youngest of six mermaid princesses falls in love with a human and longs to live an ordinary life. “Great Claus and Little Claus” tells of a clever young man who turns a series of misfortunes into a windfall. Andersen’s masterpiece of self-discovery, “The Ugly Duckling,” is accompanied by the magical “Red Shoes,” “Thumbelina,” “The Emperor’s New Clothes,” “The Princess and the Pea,” “The Little Match Girl,” “The Snow Queen,” and four others. Among the most frequently translated works in literary history, these children’s classics invite readers of all ages to enjoy and rediscover the pleasures of time-honored tales. About the Author Hans Christian Andersen was a Danish author and poet best remembered for his fairy tales, both original and retold, including the beloved classics "Thumbelina," "The Emperor's New Clothes," "The Fir Tree," "The Steadfast Tin Soldier," "The Princess and the Pea," "The Red Shoes," "The Ugly Duckling," and "The Snow Queen." Date of Birth:April 2, 1805 Date of Death:August 4, 1875 Place of Birth:Odense, Denmark Place of Death:Copenhagen, Denmark Read an Excerpt The Little Mermaid FAR out at sea the water is as blue as the bluest cornflower, and as clear as the clearest crystal, but it is very deep, and if many steeples were piled on the top of one another they would not reach from the bed of the sea to the surface of the water. It is down there that the Mermen live. The most wonderful trees and plants grow there, and such flexible stalks and leaves, that at the slightest motion of the water they move as if they were alive. All the fish, big and little, glide among the branches just as, up here, birds glide through the air. The palace of the Merman King lies in the very deepest part; its walls are of coral and the long pointed windows of clearest amber, but the roof is made of mussel shells which open and shut with the lapping of the water. The Merman King had been for many years a widower, but his old mother kept house for him; she was a clever woman, but so proud of her noble birth that she wore twelve oysters on her tail, while the other grandees were only allowed six. Otherwise she was worthy of all praise, especially because she was so fond of the little mermaid princesses, her grandchildren. They were six beautiful children, but the youngest was the prettiest of all, her skin was as soft and delicate as a roseleaf, her eyes as blue as the deepest sea, but like all the others she had no feet, and instead of legs she had a fish's tail. All the livelong day they used to play in the palace in the great halls, where living flowers grew out of the walls. When the great amber windows were thrown open the fish swam in, just as the swallows fly into our rooms when we open the windows, but the fish swam right up to the little princesses, ate out of their hands, and allowed themselves to be patted. Outside the palace was a large garden, with fiery red and deep blue trees, the fruit of which shone like gold, while the flowers glowed like fire on their ceaselessly waving stalks. The ground was of the finest sand, but it was of a blue phosphorescent tint. There was a wondrous blue light down there; you might suppose yourself high up in the air, with only the sky above and below you. In a dead calm you could just catch a glimpse of the sun like a purple flower with a stream of light radiating from its calyx. Each little princess had her own little plot of garden, where she could dig and plant whatever she liked. One made her flower-bed in the shape of a whale, another thought it nice to have hers like a little mermaid; but the youngest made hers quite round like the sun, and she would only have flowers of a rosy hue like its beams. She was a curious child, quiet and thoughtful, and while the other sisters decked out their gardens with all kinds of extraordinary objects which they got from wrecks, she would have nothing but the rosy flowers like the sun up above, except a statue of a beautiful boy. It was hewn out of the purest white marble and had gone to the bottom from some wreck. Nothing gave her greater pleasure than to hear about the world of human beings up above; she made her old grandmother tell her all that she knew about ships and towns, people and animals. But above all it seemed strangely beautiful to her that up on the earth the flowers were scented, and that the woods were green, and that the fish which were to be seen among the branches could sing so loudly and sweetly that it was a delight to listen to them. You see, the grandmother called little birds fish, or the mermaids would not have understood her, as they had never seen a bird. "When you are fifteen," said the grandmother, "you will be allowed to rise up from the sea and sit on the rocks in the moonlight, and look at the big ships sailing by, and you will also see woods and towns." One of the sisters would be fifteen in the following year, but the others, — well, they were each one year younger than the other, so that the youngest had five whole years to wait before she would be allowed to come up from the bottom, to see what things were like on earth. But each one promised the others to give a full account of all that she had seen, and found most wonderful on the first day. Their grandmother could never tell them enough, for there were so many things about which they wanted information. None of them was so full of longings as the youngest, the very one who had the longest time to wait, and who was so quiet and dreamy. Many a night she stood by the open windows and looked up through the dark blue water which the fish were lashing with their tails and fins. She could see the moon and the stars; it is true, their light was pale but they looked much bigger through the water than they do to our eyes. When she saw a dark shadow glide between her and them, she knew that it was either a whale swimming above her, or else a ship laden with human beings. I am certain they never dreamed that a lovely little mermaid was standing down below, stretching up her white hands towards the keel. The eldest princess had now reached her fifteenth birthday, and was to venture above the water. When she came back she had hundreds of things to tell them, but the most delightful of all, she said, was to lie in the moonlight on a sandbank in a calm sea, and to gaze at the large town close to the shore, where the lights twinkled like hundreds of stars; to listen to music and the noise and bustle of carriages and people, to see the many church towers and spires, and to hear the bells ringing; and just because she could not go on shore she longed for that most of all. Oh! how eagerly the youngest sister listened, and when later in the evening she stood at the open window and looked up through the dark blue water, she thought of the big town with all its noise and bustle, and fancied that she could even hear the church bells ringing. The year after, the second sister was allowed to mount up through the water and swim about wherever she liked. The sun was just going down when she reached the surface, the most beautiful sight, she thought, that she had ever seen. The whole sky had looked like gold, she said, and as for the clouds! well, their beauty was beyond description, they floated in red and violet splendor over her head, and, far faster than they went, a flock of wild swans flew like a long white veil over the water towards the setting sun; she swam towards it, but it sank and all the rosy light on the clouds and water faded away. The year after that the third sister went up, and being much the most venturesome of them all, swam up a broad river which ran into the sea. She saw beautiful green, vineclad hills; palaces and country seats peeping through splendid woods. She heard the birds singing, and the sun was so hot that she was often obliged to dive to cool her burning face. In a tiny bay she found a troop of little children running about naked and paddling in the water; she wanted to play with them, but they were frightened and ran away. Then a little black animal came up, it was a dog, but she had never seen one before; it barked so furiously at her that she was frightened and made for the open sea. She could never forget the beautiful woods, the green hills and the lovely children who could swim in the water although they had no fishes' tails. The fourth sister was not so brave, she stayed in the remotest part of the ocean, and, according to her account, that was the most beautiful spot. You could see for miles and miles around you, and the sky above was like a great glass dome. She had seen ships, but only far away, so that they looked like seagulls. There were grotesque dolphins turning somersaults, and gigantic whales squirting water through their nostrils like hundreds of fountains on every side. Now the fifth sister's turn came. Her birthday fell in the winter, so that she saw sights that the others had not seen on their first trips. The sea looked quite green, and large icebergs were floating about, each one of which looked like a pearl, she said, but was much bigger than the church towers built by men. They took the most wonderful shapes, and sparkled like diamonds. She had seated herself on one of the largest, and all the passing ships sheered off in alarm when they saw her sitting there with her long hair streaming loose in the wind. In the evening the sky became overcast with dark clouds; it thundered and lightened, and the huge icebergs, glittering in the bright lightning, were lifted high into the air by the black waves. All the ships shortened sail, and there was fear and trembling on every side, but she sat quietly on her floating iceberg watching the blue lightning flash in zigzags down on to the shining sea. The first time any of the sisters rose above the water she was delighted by the novelties and beauties she saw; but once grown up, and at liberty to go where she liked, she became indifferent and longed for her home; in the course of a month or so they all said that after all their own home in the deep was best, it was so cozy there. Many an evening the five sisters interlacing their arms would rise above the water together. They had lovely voices, much clearer than any mortal, and when a storm was rising, and they expected ships to be wrecked, they would sing in the most seductive strains of the wonders of the deep, bidding the seafarers have no fear of them. But the sailors could not understand the words, they thought it was the voice of the storm; nor could it be theirs to see this Elysium of the deep, for when the ship sank they were drowned, and only reached the Merman's palace in death. When the elder sisters rose up in this manner, arm-in-arm, in the evening, the youngest remained behind quite alone, looking after them as if she must weep, but mermaids have no tears and so they suffer all the more. "Oh! if I were only fifteen!" she said, "I know how fond I shall be of the world above, and of the mortals who dwell there." At last her fifteenth birthday came. "Now we shall have you off our hands," said her grandmother, the old queen dowager. "Come now, let me adorn you like your other sisters!" and she put a wreath of white lilies round her hair, but every petal of the flowers was half a pearl; then the old queen had eight oysters fixed on to the princess's tail to show her high rank. "But it hurts so!" said the little mermaid. "You must endure the pain for the sake of the finery!" said her grandmother. But oh! how gladly would she have shaken off all this splendor, and laid aside the heavy wreath. Her red flowers in her garden suited her much better, but she did not dare to make any alteration. "Good-by," she said, and mounted as lightly and airily as a bubble through the water. The sun had just set when her head rose above the water, but the clouds were still lighted up with a rosy and golden splendor, and the evening star sparkled in the soft pink sky, the air was mild and fresh, and the sea as calm as a millpond. A big three-masted ship lay close by with only a single sail set, for there was not a breath of wind, and the sailors were sitting about the rigging, on the crosstrees, and at the mastheads. There was music and singing on board, and as the evening closed in, hundreds of gaily colored lanterns were lighted — they looked like the flags of all nations waving in the air. The little mermaid swam right up to the cabin windows, and every time she was lifted by the swell she could see through the transparent panes crowds of gaily dressed people. The handsomest of them all was a young prince with large dark eyes; he could not be much more than sixteen, and all these festivities were in honor of his birthday. The sailors danced on deck, and when the prince appeared among them hundreds of rockets were let off making it as light as day, and frightening the little mermaid so much that she had to dive under the water. She soon ventured up again, and it was just as if all the stars of heaven were falling in showers round about her. She had never seen such magic fires. Great suns whirled round, gorgeous fire-fish hung in the blue air, and all was reflected in the calm and glassy sea. It was so light on board the ship that every little rope could be seen, and the people still better. Oh! how handsome the prince was, how he laughed and smiled as he greeted his guests, while the music rang out in the quiet night. It got quite late, but the little mermaid could not take her eyes off the ship and the beautiful prince. The colored lanterns were put out, no more rockets were sent up, and the cannon had ceased its thunder, but deep down in the sea there was a dull murmuring and moaning sound. Meanwhile she was rocked up and down on the waves, so that she could look into the cabin; but the ship got more and more way on, sail after sail was filled by the wind, the waves grew stronger, great clouds gathered, and it lightened in the distance. Oh, there was going to be a fearful storm! and soon the sailors had to shorten sail. The great ship rocked and rolled as she dashed over the angry sea, the black waves rose like mountains, high enough to overwhelm her, but she dived like a swan through them and rose again and again on their towering crests. The little mermaid thought it a most amusing race, but not so the sailors. The ship creaked and groaned, the mighty timbers bulged and bent under the heavy blows, the water broke over the decks, snapping the mainmast like a reed; she heeled over on her side and the water rushed into the hold. Now the little mermaid saw that they were in danger and she had for her own sake to beware of the floating beams and wreckage. One moment it was so pitch dark that she could not see at all, but when the lightning flashed it became so light that she could see all on board. Every man was looking out for his own safety as best he could, but she more particularly followed the young prince with her eyes, and when the ship went down she saw him sink in the deep sea. At first she was quite delighted, for now he was coming to be with her, but then she remembered that human beings could not live under water, and that only if he were dead could he go to her father's palace. No! he must not die; so she swam towards him all among the drifting beams and planks, quite forgetting that they might crush her. She dived deep down under the water, and came up again through the waves, and at last reached the young prince just as he was becoming unable to swim any further in the stormy sea. His limbs were numbed, his beautiful eyes were closing, and he must have died if the little mermaid had not come to the rescue. She held his head above the water and let the waves drive them whithersoever they would. By daybreak all the storm was over, of the ship not a trace was to be seen; the sun rose from the water in radiant brilliance and his rosy beams seemed to cast a glow of life into the prince's cheeks, but his eyes remained closed. The mermaid kissed his fair brow, and stroked back the dripping hair; it seemed to her that he was like the marble statue in her little garden, she kissed him again and longed that he might live. At last she saw dry land before her, high blue mountains on whose summits the white snow glistened as if a flock of swans had settled there; down by the shore were beautiful green woods, and in the foreground a church or temple, she did not quite know which, but it was a building of some sort. Lemon and orange trees grew in the garden and lofty palms stood by the gate. At this point the sea formed a little bay where the water was quite calm, but very deep, right up to the cliffs; at their foot was a strip of fine white sand to which she swam with the beautiful prince, and laid him down on it, taking great care that his head should rest high up in the warm sunshine. The bells now began to ring in the great white building and a number of young maidens came into the garden. Then the little mermaid swam further off behind some high rocks and covered her hair and breast with foam, so that no one should see her little face, and then she watched to see who would discover the poor prince. It was not long before one of the maidens came up to him; at first she seemed quite frightened, but only for a moment, and then she fetched several others, and the mermaid saw that the prince was coming to life, and that he smiled at all those around him, but he never smiled at her; you see he did not know that she had saved him; she felt so sad that when he was led away into the great building she dived sorrowfully into the water and made her way home to her father's palace. Always silent and thoughtful, she became more so now than ever. Her sisters often asked her what she had seen on her first visit to the surface, but she never would tell them anything. Many an evening and many a morning she would rise to the place where she had left the prince. She saw the fruit in the garden ripen, and then gathered, she saw the snow melt on the mountain-tops, but she never saw the prince, so she always went home still sadder than before. At home her only consolation was to sit in her little garden with her arms twined round the handsome marble statue which reminded her of the prince. It was all in gloomy shade now, as she had ceased to tend her flowers and the garden had become a neglected wilderness of long stalks and leaves entangled with the branches of the tree.(Continues…) Excerpted from "The Little Mermaid and Other Fairy Tales" Copyright © 2002 Hans Christian Andersen. Excerpted by permission of Dover Publications, Inc.. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher. Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site. Table of Contents The Little Mermaid The Tinder Box Great Claus and Little Claus

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World Wide Views Citizen Participation Project on Global Warming - Specific Topics - Climate Change - Regional & Global Governance - Scope of Influence - Start Date - End Date - Time Limited or Repeated? - A single, defined period of time - Informal engagement by intermediaries with nongovernmental authorities - Spectrum of Public Participation - Open to All or Limited to Some? - Limited to Only Some Groups or Individuals - General Types of Tools/Techniques - Facilitate dialogue, discussion, and/or deliberation - Facilitate decision-making - Recruit or select participants - Specific Methods, Tools & Techniques - Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) - Audience Response Systems (ARS) - Citizens' Summit - Deliberative Polling - Facilitator Training - Trained, Nonprofessional Facilitators - Face-to-Face, Online, or Both - Types of Interaction Among Participants - Discussion, Dialogue, or Deliberation - Express Opinions/Preferences Only - Information & Learning Resources - Written Briefing Materials - Video Presentations - Expert Presentations - Decision Methods - Opinion Survey - General Agreement/Consensus - Communication of Insights & Outcomes - Public Report - Public Hearings/Meetings - New Media - Type of Organizer/Manager - International Organization The first of three international public consultation and opinion gathering initiatives lead by the World Wide Views Alliance. It involved the first use of the World Wide Views methodology. Problems and Purpose The World Wide Views launched its Global Warming project to ensure the views and opinions of all affected parties are heard and considered in the international fight against climate change. As 'global citizens', everyone is affected by the consequences of global warming and should therefore have a hand in shaping the policies and actions taken to mitigate, end, and/or reverse climate change. Before this initiative, however, a systematic and comprehensive global citizen consultancy on climate change had yet to surface. Thus, WWViews’ mission is to change that and create an example for citizen’s inclusion in policymaking on the topic of climate change. Citizen Participation is a crucial factor in this project. Citizen Participation is vital because it permits WWViews to have a multiplicity of viewpoints on different political issues that allows for well-rounded decisions. They hold a strong belief in deliberation and believe that when done right, it leads to more successful decisions. They say that deliberation is now a factor that is seen in many countries’ democratic models, but they also mention that deliberation among citizens in this format is new, which means that it solely happens at a grass-roots level. Citizen participation is seen in the national meetings held around the world with around 100 citizens participating in each meeting. The strength of this idea not only exists on a national level, but also a trans-national level. This project is carefully created in grasping the way in which deliberation, if done the right way, can bring many initiative ideas to the table to find ways in resolving complicated issues revolving around climate change and global warming. Background History and Context The Danish Board of Technology, which is an independent council overseen by the Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Development, initiated the project in Late 2007. The reason for the idea of this project stemmed from the democratic gap that the board viewed between the citizens and policy makers. The debate on climate change has a history of being controlled by politicians, scientists, and powerful interest groups, which lacked the average person’s input. The board believed that if climate change were going to be globally addressed, citizens would need to be included in the deliberation because these citizens would be the individuals implementing the decisions made. Organizing, Supporting, and Funding Entities The Danish Board of Technology recruited a number of public and private partner entities interested in the measurement and reporting of public opinion on global warming during the international COP15 Summit. The resulting World Wide Views Alliance oversaw the execution of the Citizen Participation Project on Global Warming. After the Project, the Alliance began work on a second project (on Biodiversity) under an umbrella World Wide Views initiative with the broad aim of increasing the use of public opinion in global governance and policy making. Participant Recruitment and Selection First, WWView national partners were selected. These partners were responsible for organizing the meetings in their specific country or region. There were four guidelines that a national partner needed to meet in order to be approved. First, they had to have some type of knowledge and experience in citizen participation methods. Second, they could hold any bias either way for their opinion of climate change. Third, they must agree to follow a common guideline that all national partners would follow in the meetings. Fourth, for monetary sake, they would need to self-finance their own participation in WWViews. Next, participants for the meetings were chosen. To guarantee that the results were trustworthy, guidelines for how participants were selected were set. First of all, the citizens chosen from each country would reflect the demographics of the specific country. These demographics included aspects such as age, gender, occupation, educational level, and geographical region of residency. If national partners of WWViews believed it was appropriate to add more demographic criteria, then further guidelines, such as race or ethnic groups, would also be a factor in the selection process. In addition, participants who were selected could not be experts on climate change or be scientists in that field. This allowed for the average person to be able to give their input, without contribution for those with scientific expertise. According to reports from the partners of WWViews, the participating countries have followed these guidelines for selecting participants. However, there is a lack of representation for individuals who fit the criteria of having a lower education. Another problem that some countries have faced in the selection process is that while some countries recruit from the entire population of citizens, other countries choose to solely recruit from a select geographic area of citizens, which helps them cut the expenses of the selection process. Methods and Tools Used The deliberative, portion of the process used the World Wide Views methodology which was specifically designed by the Alliance partners for the event's purpose. The WWV methodology is based on Deliberative Polling (developed by James Fishkin), Citizens Summit (developed by AmericaSpeaks), and Voting Conference (developed by the Danish Board of Technology). The process allows for the execution of multiple, simultaneous consultations in different locations. What Went On: Process, Interaction, and Participation The main theme of the World Wide Views on Global Warming organization is to bring citizens across borders discuss an issue that does not respect borders. The deliberation process entails many details in order for it to have an effective outcome that can have potential in resolving the issues on global warming. Individuals and institutions such as government agencies, NGOs and universities host the deliberations around the world. What makes the deliberation process so detailed focus is the international dimension of the project. Lead Up to the Global Citizen Consultation During their first workshop in early 2008, the cornerstones of the WWViews method were decided with the help of the initial WWViews partners. These cornerstones included: Cheap and easy (viable for all countries to participate, no matter an individual's income), Clear link to policy-making (including pertinent issues to policy-makers), Both global and national (allowing for relevant to global and national decisions), Clear and comparable results (easily communicated across different countries), Informed citizens (balancing the understanding of information), Deliberation (discussing all view points), and Qualitative and quantitative (allowing for a multitude of various questions to be answered). With this as their foundation, the board planned to set up deliberations with approximately one hundred citizens in each of the 38 countries to meet with each other. In these deliberations, the citizens at each forum would be asked the same set of question, no matter the country, and would be put in equal meeting designs. The deliberations would last one full day, allowing for thorough and detailed responses. To allow for uniform communication, the board decided on a set of twelve questions, which allowed for cross-national comparisons and differences to be gathered. These twelve questions were bunched into four themes: “Climate change and its consequences”, “Long-term climate goal and urgency”, “Dealing with greenhouse gas emissions”, and “The economy of technology and adaptation”. Because the questions were predetermined, the board also allowed for citizens at the meetings to also devise additional questions, which would be voted on between the people attending the deliberation. Focus groups and an international scientific advisory board verified that the twelve questions chosen were appropriate for the deliberation meetings. In order to help educate citizens that were present at each deliberation, a forty-page information booklet and informational videos were produced, so that the most pressing and essential information was given to each individual. These booklets and videos were translated into the country’s local language. Also, project managers and WWViews national partners all gathered in Copenhagen in March 2009 to be trained for a better understanding of the project. In addition, a web tool was created so that results from WWViews meetings could be compared and presented to people all across the world. The World Wide Views One-Day Citizen Consultation For the deliberation process to run smoothly and accordingly to reach their ultimate goal to make a global climate action plan, participants must be well knowledge on what “Citizen Participation” is and the role it plays on such a wide scale conference. Citizen participation "nourishes the plurality of perspectives on political issues, which makes for more thorough and well-grounded decisions."Citizen participation and deliberation is the main foundation for the deliberation process across borders to garner successful results. It is not enough for citizens to attend the conferences and pay close attention to what goes on but it is a crucial aspect for each citizen to input their own views and opinions for the wheels of the project to move in the right direction. Also, citizens will have the chance to learn what politicians and experts on the issue of global climate think and to hear what opposing views have to say about the issue. With all this in regard, the citizens will come to a conclusion that integrates their own views and knowledge, life experiences, and all the new information that they have come to learn. Approximately 100 citizens attended each conference in different countries on the same day: September 26th, 2009. With having a background on the issues that were discussed during the meetings and given more information at the meetings this ensure that the citizens could have an intellectual and thorough discussion. This also allowed to compare if politicians and stakeholder truly have the public’s best interest by comparing what they think should be done about global warming and what the citizens really think the plan of action should be. We all live under this planet and climate change will affect us all, no matter what position you hold in society, so without a doubt the voices of the citizens needed to be heard instead of just the few politicians who might know or not know what is truly the best path to take concerning this issue. The discussion phase of the conference sets a more intimate setting as the participants are divided into smaller groups with a well knowledgeable and neutral moderator. This ensures better discussion since opinions will be heard more and more thoroughly. This is where the method of citizen participation is more crucial. Their knowledge, respect of other views, and opinions should all shine in these small group discussions in order for the collective decisions to be more accurate and rounded. The discussion is divided into four consecutives sessions of deliberation and voting on the issues presented. Also at the end of each discussion, each participant in each group had to fill a questionnaire that would ask them questions regarding the theme of the discussion that they just had. The four discussion themes were: 1.“Climate change and its consequences” 2.“Long-term climate goal and urgency” 3. “Dealing with greenhouse gas emissions” 4.“The economy of technology and adaptation” The decision process is quite simple since the groups are small. The decisions process is based on the issues related to those of the COP15, which at the end were curated into recommendations for negotiation. The voting process also had its own thematic areas. The thematic areas in which the participants voted on were: Climate Policy Goals, Burden Sharing, and Climate Policy Mechanisms. These recommendations based on the thematic areas where then formulated into a list of prioritization based on their prominence. This then was to be presented at COP 15 with the hope that representatives and politicians will note the public’s thoughts on global climate issues and consider it when creating a plan of action. Influence, Outcomes, and Effects One of the main goals for the directors and creators of these conferences around the world was to introduce the well-functioning citizen participation in deliberation. As the official website of the organization states, “The idea was to introduce citizen participation, which is normally used only as a national tool, on a global level.” Of course the main purpose for the meetings was to influence the COP15 negotiations and to see a future plan of action for resolving the issues on global climate. But also to demonstrate that decision-making regarding politics or any other national or global topics and issues can see great influential results by involving the participation of citizens from society. Without a doubt a great influence was seen after the conferences came to an end. Not only did it help to bring great and vital awareness to climate change in a global to individual state but also it set the frameworks for wide scale global deliberations and how it can be achieved with great and successful outcomes. For the actual outcomes of what to do regarding climate change and to COP15, the results for each conference all agree with what should be done. The creators of this organization were surprised as to how consistent the results were across national income groups and geographical regions. The main and most clear message that citizens send to their politicians is for them to take fast and strong action at COP15. Citizens had their voices heard but they also want their voices to have a purpose. The citizens at the meetings all agreed on these results: They call for long-term global average temperature targets of less than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels Higher reduction targets than what their politicians at COP15 have proposed They call for fair and proportionate burden sharing so bigger advance nations would carry the heaviest load and so on Countries who do no meet with their required commitment will face punishment The need for technological development and distribution is a requirement for results to happen The need for international institutions to advance the objectives of a new climate deal. The Danish Board of Technology divided the impact of the conferences into two categories. There is the Climate Category and the Democracy Category. The Danish Board of Technology states that the results of the global conference were publicized visually in the cityscape of Copenhagen. The main reasoning behind this was for the COP15 delegates to have heard the main conclusions that came out of the deliberations. Luckily for the WWViews they had a strong supporter behind them, Ms. Connie Hedegaard, who is the Danish Minister of Climate and the COP15 host. One of the main results that came out of the conferences was the large media coverage that it received. As the Danish Board of Technology states that the coverage included that of international newspapers, televisions, and the Internet, which in return would reach the ears and eyes of the decision makers, stake-holders, and politicians and bring even more awareness to climate issues. One of the main and more valuable outcomes that came from this project is the data set that was created. This will allow for better understanding of what a wide variety of citizens around the globe think of climate change and how it should be dealt with. There is also the Democracy Category, which praises what this project has done for the future of citizen participation and deliberation. The Danish Board of Technology states that this has demonstrated and established “public participation in nations around the world.” It has created “an enduring network of institutions and trained project managers able to conduct future WWViews projects on other issues.” It has also conducted “a cross-cultural experiment in complex, Internet-mediated cooperative relations between institutions.” Analysis and Lessons Learned A project of such global scale has gotten much praised for its great strides in getting normal citizens participating on issues that affects them all and having their voices heard by politicians around the world. But with great success also came criticism. In the article “Facing the micro/macro dilemma: The World Wide Views on Global Warming as a transnational mini-public,” by Julien Talpin states that even though the project and the meeting did a good job in uniting individual voices, the voices were not able to pass that of the micro level. Talpin also states that just as many other citizens driven deliberation projects face, the results were “only marginally taken into consideration by elected officials.” Thus at the end, he analyses that unfortunately the gap between the public’s opinions and that of the elected representatives was not overcome as it was expected. He states that the reasoning behind this might have been that some proposals were accepted and other rejected mainly because they were inconsistent with what elected officials stand for. Talpin sees this experiment as a wake up call for future deliberations made by citizens. He states “micro and macro deliberation appears in any case as one of the greatest challenge it faces nowadays. If it fails to answer it, deliberative democracy might remain a marginal phenomenon, or worst delude citizens as having no significant impact on their lives.” We should view the analysis and criticism of this experimental project as both a failure and success. As this project being the first of its kind, we should not be surprised that the end results may have not been what expected. It is a project of grand scale that could not have gone without some sort of failure. Also the end results had to reach aggressive politicians from around the world who may or may not share the views of what came out of the conferences. “Yes!” Magazine, which focuses on powerful ideas becoming practical actions, praises the project. They are astounded by the results that came out of the conferences. In the article “World’s Citizens to Politicians: Get Serious on Global Warming Now!” they praise the project for getting citizens who come from low income society to take a stand and let their voice be heard since they are most likely to suffer some of the worst consequences regarding global climate change. Connie Hedegaard is quoted in the article stating, “World Wide Views has given us politicians a unique insight into the views of ordinary citizens from all corners of the world on the climate crisis.... It is a powerful signal to the politicians when citizens all over the world agree that actions is urgent.” Yet the article still points out contradictory actions from politicians after the meetings. After the conferences a new Pew poll found that Americans were still not that concern with global warming. Also the New York Times states that the chance for producing a new climate change treaty at the UN summit in Copenhagen is less likely to occur. Yet the article still praises the conferences for many reasons. They praise the project because they believe that instead of just getting opinions we received “carefully considered judgment.” They believe that the results that came from the conferences is more of a prototype of what is be the judgment of people around the world on climate change as this topic garners a more prominent stand on global issues. Yes! Magazine states that “humanity as begun to find its voice. The next step is for all of us to pitch in and amplify that voice” so that we can ensure that politicians and negotiators that the voices from the public are informed and reflect what is best for humanity and what we want our leaders to do. What this project has done is created the foundations and frameworks for possible democratic procedures to be conducted on a global scale in the future. It has been established that deliberation such as this is possible. It is only the beginning of what will surely be a future of democratic meetings around the world, allowing for well-informed citizens to take tremendous care for the path that our globe will take. World Wide Views Global Consultation on Biodiversity Facing the micro/macro dilemma: The World Wide Views on Global Warming as a transnational mini-public Policy Report on the World Wide Views on Global Warming: From the World’s Citizens to the Climate Policy-Makers. Facing the micro/macro dilemma: The World Wide Views on Global Warming as a transnational mini public. Julien Talpin Julien Talpin "The Method," World Wide Views on Global Warming, http://globalwarming.wwviews.org/node/10.html World Wide Views on Global Warming The Australian Experience of World Wide Views on Global Warming: The First Global Deliberation Process The Danish Board of Technology World’s Citizens to Politicians: Get Serious on Global Warming Now! School of Public Policy Radio National (recording) Research and Debate on Science and Technology. Policy Maker Versus People Another version of this case study can be found as a file attachment with the prefix "VD" by clicking on "Media" within the Edit function . This alternate version was originally submitted to Vitalizing Democracy as a contestant for the 2011 Reinhard Mohn Prize. All images are from the Final Report: https://goo.gl/tUDF2G

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A postsecondary degree is often held up as the one sure path to financial success. But is that true regardless of institutional quality, discipline studied, or individual characteristics? Is a college degree always worth the cost? Students deciding whether to invest in college and what field to study may be making the most important financial decision of their lives. The return to education varies greatly by institutional quality, discipline, and individual characteristics. Estimating the returns for as many options as possible, and making that information as transparent as possible, are paramount in helping prospective students make the best decision. College is worth the investment for most people, most degrees, and most levels of debt. Money does not capture the full value of a postsecondary education. Rising college costs underscore the need for increased transparency in the economic value of a degree to students. Estimates from the literature can be used to inform policies such as differential tuition and student loans. Returns across different fields of study differ substantially. Evidence is mixed on the differences in returns across institution types. Students are increasingly pursuing degrees with less public benefit and greater financial benefit due to increased tuition debt. Estimating the return to education is difficult due to unmeasured ability. The decision to attend college and what field to study are far from random: smarter people are more likely to attend college and to attend more selective institutions. Author's main message Education remains the most certain path to financial stability. However, while this is likely true for most people, the benefits of a four-year degree may not outweigh the costs for everyone, especially in light of high tuition costs and different rates of return for different college degrees. Estimating the returns for as many options as possible and making that information as transparent as possible for prospective students are important for informed decision-making. Understanding how the returns differ is key to efficient pricing of tuition and has implications for relatively new policy instruments, such as government support for differential tuition—charging more for degrees with higher rates of return. It is often assumed that a college degree is a crucial and perhaps even essential component of financial success and independence. As has become even more evident in the aftermath of the global financial crisis of 2008–2009, the dominant motivation for attending college has long been improved financial and job prospects. While scholarship for the sake of bettering oneself is still lauded, the financial rewards of higher education are undeniably the key reason for the recent growth in college enrollment. Given these motivations and the soaring cost of education in many parts of the world, it is essential that prospective students and policymakers understand the economic return that comes with a college degree and how this return differs across disciplines and types of institutions. There is considerable evidence that all college degrees are not created (financially) equal. For students, this means that decisions made at age 18 can have substantial lifelong consequences. For policymakers tasked with spurring growth in a tough economic climate, understanding which institutions and degrees create value for their students can help inform decisions that will shape the higher education landscape for the next generation. Discussion of pros and cons The decision to attend college involves nonrandom selection Measuring the economic return to a college degree, or more generally, to an additional year of education, is one of the oldest and most often-studied topics in modern microeconomic research. Despite a substantial literature, the problem of nonrandom selection continues to cloud what, on the surface, appears to be a relatively straightforward question. To understand the problem, first consider that the decisions of whether to attend college, which school to attend, and what field to study are far from randomly made. Smarter people are more likely to attend college, attend more selective institutions, and (to a lesser extent) major in more demanding and financially rewarding fields of study. There are other potential sources of bias discussed in the literature, but ability bias is the most straightforward and thus receives greater attention in this paper. Examining the reasons why smarter people get more education is not the focus of this paper, but it is important to recognize that the reasons go beyond simply being able to handle the advanced coursework. Furthermore, as with much of the literature described here, this paper deals primarily with average statistics. It is certainly true that there are many brilliant people who did not attend college and a considerable number of college graduates who are not particularly competent, but on average people who choose to attend college tend to be smarter. The question then becomes: How much of the college premium observable in the population is due to a student going to college and how much to the average college student being smarter than the general population? If the premium were due entirely to intelligence (it is not), meaning that college graduates would be paid equally well whether they attended college or not, then the implications for students’ education decisions would be radically different than if the entire college premium were due to the important skills and connections obtained in college (this is also not the case). Just as attending college is not a random event, neither is attending a highly selective institution or majoring in a demanding field. Graduates of Harvard or Oxford earn more on average than graduates of a local college, in part because of the talents that got them into a top-tier institution in the first place. These graduates would likely have been financially successful regardless of the school they attended. While the degree of selection into specific disciplines is certainly less than that of selection into college, there are fields of study that, on average, attract smarter students as well. Researchers deal with these problems in a number of different ways, the technical details of which are beyond the scope of this paper. Additional education has a positive causal effect on future earnings The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) produces an annual report, Education at a Glance, that offers a glimpse of the raw differences in earnings between college graduates and people with a standard secondary education across various countries. While the report does not address nonrandom selection into college, the data do provide a useful baseline for policymakers. Across all OECD countries, a postsecondary education is associated with an earnings premium of roughly 64% over a high school (or upper-secondary) education. This premium varies considerably, and somewhat predictably, across countries. For instance, in countries whose upper-secondary education is known to be rigorous, the premium for a postsecondary education is smaller. Conversely, in somewhat less advantaged countries, where access to higher education is limited and influenced to a large degree by family background, the premium is much greater. There are, of course, numerous other factors that influence the relative premia as well. Examples of countries on the low, middle, and high portions of the spectrum are New Zealand (18%), Denmark (28%), Belgium (29%), the UK (57%), the US (77%), Argentina (156%), and Chile (159%). Qualitatively, a positive causal effect (after accounting for the nonrandom selection described earlier) of additional education on future earnings is a near-unanimous finding in the literature. The magnitude of the effect is less clear, however. Surveys of the literature document wage premia ranging from 5% to 12% a year for studies using US data, with most estimates between 7% and 10% . The difference in estimated returns is due in large part to a sensitivity to the sample analyzed and the method of dealing with nonrandom selection. Extrapolating this out to a four-year college degree, the literature estimates returns in the range of 20–48%. While there is evidence of returns being concentrated around degree or certification milestones (that is, a much greater return associated with going from three years of college to a college degree than going from two years of college to three), this range does a good job of summarizing the literature. A survey of the returns to education across 15 European countries shows how the education premium varies with demographic characteristics, such as gender and labor force experience . A study presenting evidence on the rate of return to education from an even wider set of countries, and focusing more on the returns in developing countries, finds that returns are much greater for lower income countries , similar to the OECD data. Keep in mind that these reported figures represent average returns. Some people likely gain substantially more as a result of their education, while others gain much less. Some of the reasons for these differences in economic return, such as the type and quality of school attended and field of study, can be fairly easily quantified and are described below. Other factors are more difficult to pin down. Differences in return across the wage distribution A study of the return to an additional year of education across 16 countries—15 European countries and the US—finds that people at the top of the wage distribution receive a larger education premium than people near the bottom of the distribution . Using an econometric technique known as quantile regression, the study finds this pattern in 15 of the 16 countries examined. Greece is the only exception. This pattern could be indicative of any number of mechanisms, such as a greater return to education for high-ability people or differences in the quality of schools attended by people at the top and bottom of the wage distribution. These results, shown in Figure 1, add a twist to the traditional narrative of education creating a more equal society, suggesting instead that additional education may even increase inequality (although it still makes everyone better off). A data point on the 45-degree line indicates that the returns to education are equal (in percentage terms) for an individual at the ninth decile and one at the first decile of earnings, while data points above the line indicate higher returns for those with higher earnings. Economic return varies by discipline Relative premia can also differ according to a college graduate’s field of study (see for data on raw differences for the UK). The relative rank of earnings by discipline is generally not surprising. The most technical and quantitatively focused disciplines (such as engineering, computer science, economics, and finance) tend to have the largest education premia, while the less quantitative arts and humanities disciplines tend to have much smaller education premia, a difference that appears to be due both to lower wages and a lower probability of being employed. Figure 2 gives a sense of the average earnings for various disciplines and the spread between them for the US. But while earnings vary, are there actually different premia, in a causal sense, associated with different disciplines? A student’s choice of a major discipline in college is far from random, as it is influenced by factors such as comparative advantage (some students are naturally better writers, others are naturally better at math) and preferences (some students are more concerned with obtaining a high-paying job than others are). Taken in context with research that finds substantial effects of expected earnings on choice of a major discipline and high returns to math ability , it is not immediately clear that the earnings differences across disciplines are due to differences in the economic value of the disciplines. As in the research on returns to a generic college degree, a wide variety of econometric approaches have been used to address nonrandom selection of a major discipline. While the literature in this field is still relatively small, due primarily to limited availability in the past to data sources that contained information on both college major and labor market outcomes, the recent release of rich data on these measures has spurred a great deal of ongoing research in this area. The consensus is that the economic return varies across disciplines, with the magnitude of the differences likely to be smaller than those that are observed in the raw data (although the relative ranking is roughly the same) . A recent study compares lifetime returns to a college degree in four major disciplines relative to a high school diploma with no college experience: STEM; business; social sciences; and art/humanities . The study looks at men with at least some earnings each year (so it excludes men who were unemployed for an entire calendar year) and finds considerable differences. A STEM degree is estimated to be worth roughly $1.5 million more on average over a lifetime than a high school diploma and slightly more than a business degree. Social science degrees had a premium of roughly $1 million, while the arts/humanities had a premium of about $700,000. There are substantial differences in returns within these broad groupings. For instance, an economics degree is associated with higher earnings than all arts/humanities, social science, and business degrees and most STEM degrees (the exceptions are majors such as computer science and several engineering disciplines), while a biology degree is associated with far lower earnings than most other STEM degrees. These lifetime premia represent the return to each discipline after adjusting for various measures of ability and nonrandom selection. These premia and selection into both higher education and choice of discipline have changed over time . Premia have risen fastest for social science degrees, growing about 30% between 1965–1974 and 1975–1984 birth cohorts, compared with 21% for STEM degrees, 19% for a business degree, and 15% for arts/humanities degrees. There are also differences in unemployment rates for different degree holders. For instance, in 2012, approximately 71% of STEM graduates were employed full-time for the entire year, while only 54% of arts/humanities graduates were. Reasons for different returns to different disciplines What accounts for these differences across disciplines? The most obvious reason (to an economist, at least) is that the labor market values some sets of skills more than others. But while this is certainly part of the story, other, less straightforward factors are at work as well. A recent study finds that people face a penalty for not working in an occupation that matches their college degree . Given that penalty and the differences in unemployment rates for different degree holders, part of the variation in premia may be due to differences in the likelihood of working in the field in which one has a degree (which is distinctly different from a different monetary value being placed on the jobs held by people with different degrees). A related explanation is a phenomenon known as skill-biased technological change, which relates to how the occupational makeup of economies changes over time as a result of technological advances. Theory predicts that highly routinized jobs will not see the wage and employment growth experienced in other occupations because computers can perform the tasks cheaper and more efficiently. These jobs tend to be disproportionately held by people in the middle and lower socio-economic classes. For people with a college degree, skill-biased technological change argues for a bright outlook for fields that are quantitative (and thus can use new technologies) and heavily focused on critical thinking (and therefore cannot be replaced by new technology). People in these fields are likely to see the best labor market prospects going forward. The selectivity of the college a student attends may also play into future earnings and labor market success. A more selective college might provide better training, higher quality peers (peer effects have been shown to be an important part of the education process), and access to a better job network. Alternatively, differences in future earnings of students from different schools might be due simply to variation in academic ability. The evidence is considerably more mixed than that of the previously discussed research. For instance, one study finds a 20% wage premium for men who attend the flagship state university rather than less selective state schools . The study compared students who had attended the flagship school with students who were right at the margin of being accepted to the flagship (based on secondary school grades and entrance test scores). By comparing students in a very narrow range of admissions criteria, but who experience very different education outcomes (those just above the cutoff are accepted, while those just under are rejected), the study could effectively control for typically unmeasured ability. Other studies with similarly strong research designs, however, have found considerably smaller returns to college selectivity, some finding no return at all for certain demographic groups. There is disagreement on differential returns across institutional type (public nonprofit, private nonprofit, and private for-profit colleges). One study examining the returns to selectivity and to public versus private colleges finds a large premium associated with attending an elite private university, a moderate premium for a middle-tier private university, and mixed evidence for public universities . The returns to a for-profit education are part of a recent US political debate over the role of for-profit institutions and how they should be regulated. The evidence on for-profit versus nonprofit education is mixed, with some works finding smaller returns associated with a for-profit education and other research finding no statistical difference. There are very few studies on this topic, however, and more research is needed. Why it is important to understand the returns to higher education The evidence overwhelmingly indicates that attending college is, on average, the right financial decision, but what is true of the average is not always true for the individual. There are many people for whom college is not the best option, and pushing these people into four-year degree programs benefits neither them nor society. The big picture that emerges from the research reviewed here is that the returns to higher education depend on multiple factors. All college degrees are not created equal from the standpoint of the economic return on investment. This finding is important for policymakers, parents, and students to consider when guiding or making education decisions. Education policy has arguably the greatest potential to shape a country’s future. Higher education, in particular, is often pointed to as the best path to financial success, especially for students from the most disadvantaged backgrounds. Thus, it is crucial that policymakers understand the complexities of labor market returns to higher education. For prospective college students and their parents, it is also important to have some knowledge of the economic return to different types of education and of the risk associated with different disciplines (the chance, based on luck or other factors, that a college degree will not pay off financially and that not everyone will receive the average premium). Average college debt after graduation is now roughly $30,000 in the US, and a sizable number of recent graduates carry substantially more debt than that. Combined with the years of forgone earnings during college and the uncertainty of graduating, it is more important than ever for people to understand what the actual monetary return is for the increasingly expensive tuition. Transparency is crucial. Information on the momentous financial decision prospective college students are called on to make must be more readily available. A final caveat to the research results presented here: the returns to higher education likely go well beyond the easily quantifiable monetary benefits. While surveys indicate that more than 70% of students cite economic considerations as the dominant reason for attending college, there is far more to a job than a paycheck. A college degree can open up careers that are much more desirable along dimensions other than financial ones, creating a level of satisfaction that is difficult or impossible to put into monetary terms. Furthermore, there is evidence that education is positively associated with a multitude of other outcomes such as better health, marital outcomes, and more. Many of these outcomes are good not only for the individual, but for society as well. In this context, the economic return to education discussed here may represent a lower bound of the total returns to education for both individuals and society. Limitations and gaps Estimating the standard returns to education (an additional year or a degree) is one of the most common areas of empirical analysis in economics. However, evidence on how the returns to postsecondary education vary with factors such as institutional quality or field of study is concentrated almost exclusively on data for the US and a few European countries. More information is needed on how such factors affect returns in other countries, particularly in developing countries. Another crucial gap in the literature concerns the economic return to a degree from for-profit and online colleges. Enrollment in these institutions has grown considerably over recent decades, but these institutions have come under political fire lately because of poor labor market outcomes for graduates. One of the big challenges is that the type of student who attends a for-profit or online institution is often very different from the type of student who attends a traditional four-year nonprofit institution. While there have been a few well-done studies on this topic, much remains to be explored. Summary and policy advice The evidence laid out here overwhelmingly supports the view that, on average, investing in a college education is a sound financial decision. However, it is also true that the returns can vary substantially across institutional and individual factors, making some degrees a better financial decision than others. While the economic return to education should by no means be the only indicator of a degree’s worth, it is an important one. Public rhetoric often implies or outright declares that everyone should seek a postsecondary degree. While this is likely true for most people, there is little reason to think that the benefits will outweigh the costs of a four-year degree for everyone, especially in light of high and rising tuition costs and the fact that graduating from college is far from guaranteed. Six-year graduation rates, for example, are roughly 60% at US four-year institutions and 30% at two-year institutions, adding considerably to the cost of a college education for these students. There are some degrees that may not be worth the cost and some people who would do better not to pursue a four-year college education. Estimating the returns for as many options as possible and making that information as transparent as possible for prospective students are the ways to enable people, especially those who are less fortunate, to make the most informed decision. It is also important to understand that different college degrees are associated with different rates of return. Understanding how the returns to various disciplines differ is key to efficient pricing of tuition and has implications for relatively new policy instruments, such as differential tuition. The rationale behind differential tuition—charging students different tuition rates according to field of study—is simple: if some college degrees have much greater market value than others, an efficient market would charge a higher price to students seeking those higher-return degrees—and the students would be willing to pay the higher tuition because of the prospect of higher returns. Differential tuitions can ease fiscal pressures on colleges without harming students who have chosen careers with a lower financial return. Information on the varying returns to education can inform a government’s student loan policy in a number of different ways, depending on a government’s goals. There is evidence that rising student loan debt has motivated students to choose disciplines based on financial return rather than on benefits to society as a whole . Governments can use student loan policy, such as interest rates, repayment plans, and debt forgiveness, to incentivize students to pursue disciplines that have a relatively low financial return but a high social return. Alternatively, if the current occupational makeup is not a concern, student loan policies could be set to more accurately reflect the likelihood of default, effectively subsidizing students who pursue disciplines for which the financial returns are high. The author thanks two anonymous referees and the IZA World of Labor editors for many helpful suggestions on earlier drafts. Previous work of the author contains a larger number of background references for the material presented here and has been used intensively in all major parts of this article . The IZA World of Labor project is committed to the IZA Guiding Principles of Research Integrity. The author declares to have observed these principles and that no competing interests exist in relation to this paper. © Douglas Webber

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The UK had TV programmes about Madagascar in the months before we left which could have left the impression that it is a green island with much wildlife. The latter is certainly true but flying over it reveals the Red Island with clear evidence of the deforestation that has happened since the first settlers arrived and the silted-up rivers in the dry season. We landed in sunshine and were taken to our hotel to meet up with our group. The island has been separated from Gondwanaland for millions of years and over 90% of the wildlife are endemic and not found anywhere else. It is the fourth largest island in world but also the fifth poorest nation. We left Antananarivo on a Sunday morning via RN 2 which was still busy with a lot of trucks as it is the main route to the port of Toamasina. There is also a railway line (narrow gauge and dating from the 1930s) which is only for freight. The most common form of transport for passengers is the taxi-brousse; a minibus with luggage piled on the roof. Just outside the city centre brick making and laundry were being carried out by the River Ikopa: scenes which would be re-visited all over the highlands. Occasionally, it looked as if all the fabrics in a home including curtains and carpets were being washed. Our guide told us that when someone has died, all the fabrics in the home are washed to remove the evil spirits/death. This tradition is less frequently practised now. We had a distant view of Tana with the Queen’s Palace and the first church on the hill. Further on near Moramanga was this sign: The Malagasy Uprising was a nationalist rebellion against French colonial rule in Madagascar and lasted from March 1947 to February 1949. Political efforts to achieve independence for Madagascar had failed and spurred on radicalised elements of the Malagasy population, including the leaders of some militant nationalist secret societies. On the evening of 29 March 1947, coordinated surprise attacks were launched by Malagasy nationalists, armed mainly with spears, against military bases and French-owned plantations in the eastern part of the island concentrated around Moramanga and Manakara. In May 1947 the the French began to counter the nationalists. They increased the number of troops on the island to 18,000, mostly by transferring soldiers from French colonies elsewhere in Africa. The French military forces carried out mass execution, torture, war rape, torching of entire villages, collective punishment and other atrocities such as throwing live Malagasy prisoners out of an airplane (death flights). The mausoleum is on the site where more than 120 nationalists were executed. Before we reached Andasibe, we stopped at Peyrieras Reserve which cares for amphibians and reptiles. They have Nile Crocodiles and a number of lizards and geckos I am in the process of identifying. Later in our trip, we saw some of them in the wild. After a night in Andasibe, we hiked around four miles in the nearby National Park which preserves some of the 1% of the original forest that remains. In the rainforest it rained, heavily at times, leading to some of the park guides saying that this did not usually happen until November. October is usually dry and hot. We saw the five species of lemur in the park but I did not get photographs of them all. The Indri is the largest and its call can be heard 2km away. We also saw several species of birds, most of which flew around too quickly to photograph. One notable tree is the Travellers’ Palm which acquired its name due to the collection of water where each leaf meets the stem, providing a drink in hot weather. In the afternoon we visited Vakona Reserve which comprises Lemur Island and a crocodile reserve. It is owned by a French national who came to work in the now defunct graphite mine. He then set up the reserves which provide rescue for lemurs sold as pets (hence they are habituated to humans) and has one lodge in operation and another being built. We returned to our hotel as we had an early start the next morning. After the morning rush on the A96, we left Delnies Wood and returned to the coast near Ardesier, a former fishing village. On the other side of the promontory is a platform construction yard for the oil industry. The tip of the promontory is occupied by Fort George. Construction began in 1746 after the Jacobite rebellion to aid in the government suppression of them. It is still a forces base. In late 1984 when I was working in Inverness, a friend in the army brought a platoon of Gurkhas for tea. The fort took 22 years to complete and it is more than 1km in circumference. It is now the home of the Black Watch. We were told that the entrance doors were original and that the bridge we walked over was once a drawbridge. There are views over to Chanonry Point from the ramparts. We hope to explore it more closely when we continue our coastal journey in September and cross over to the Black Isle. The fort contains the Highlanders Regimental Museum and a magazine whose 2,672 barrels contained gun powder, not whisky. There was a small photographic exhibition ‘Scotland from the Air’ with photographs taken between the early 20th century and the last couple of years. Aerial photography started with crews taking shots for military planning. The RAF have 750,000 photographs of Scotland. Aerial surveys have been carried out in Scotland since 1976. Many were used in a TV programme ‘Scotland From the Sky’. The Historic Environment Scotland’s archives of more than 1.6 million photographs can be accessed via the following websites: http://www.Canmore.org.uk and http://www.ncap.org.uk On the way back along the old military road to rejoin the A96 into Inverness, we passed Inverness Caledonian Thistle FC training in Ardesier. There was a shop, so James popped in to get a newspaper. He was offered a free copy of the Sun which he declined. The woman in the shop had never heard of the boycott of paper in Liverpool after it published inaccurate accusations about Liverpool FC fans at Hillsborough in 1989. They were accused of being drunk and urinating on and assaulting emergency workers; and pick-pocketing the dead bodies, all of which was unsubstantiated. The A96 passes Inverness Airport and Culloden. We had to get an oil change done on the van before heading to our campsite. Situated close to the river Ness, there were riverside walks into town via Ness Islands or along the northern bank. In the evening we stuck to the south bank and met some friends for dinner. In the morning we walked along the north bank and passed one of several statues in an Oor Wullie series. This one was based on Scottish flora. I had a look in Inverness Cathedral. It is the most northern Anglican Cathedral in the UK and the first stone was laid in 1866 by the then Archbishop of Canterbury. From the reformation the Episcopal church was proscribed and clergy were imprisoned for carrying out public worship. This was the first time an archbishop had performed any actions in the city since then. The cathedral was completed in 1869. I was unable to spend any quiet time in there as shortly after we entered, two bus loads of tourists marched in. Crossing the river to the south side and city centre, we passed a man with a Liverpool FC shirt on. I asked him if he was from Liverpool and he said no, the United States and proceeded to show me his Donald Trump socks! The City Museum and Art Gallery has been created out of part of an old shopping centre next to the castle. In the art gallery section upstairs was an exhibition on immigration which aims to promote dialogue and understanding. I had seen it in Edinburgh beforehand but there were some newer items. There was also a small exhibition based on a collaboration between makers in Scotland and Iceland in 2017 and 2018 with some of the Scottish makers displaying work done subsequently. We had seen some of the Icelandic work when we were there in early 2017. The last time we were at Inverness Castle was in 2010 when we had completed walking the Great Glen Way from Fort William. We had lunch with a friend and then walked back to the Botanic Garden near our campsite. I was inspired to do more with my cacti, succulents and orchids. We were happy to leave before the weekend as the park next to the campsite was gearing up for the European Pipe Band Championship. We headed off down the A9 where I notice lots of garden escapees on the roadside near Kingussie: lupins. Further on we popped into Pitlochry for a coffee. Green Park Hotel before the town with great views of Loch Faskally and sculptures in the garden did not have a café but gave us some free coffees. So far, our mileage for this leg is 196 bringing the total to 534. We will not continue round the coast in July and August as it is very busy especially since the North Coast 500 was created. We have other trips planned and will return to the coast route in September. Ceduna faces west despite being on the south coast so we watched the sun go down after dinner as it is later here after the time change. After two longer driving days we had a shorter one today. Before leaving Ceduna we drove out to Pinky Point from where you can see ships belching out smoke at the port across the water. Millions of tonnes of gypsum, salt, grain and mineral sands are loaded onto ships each year and dozens of trawlers unload fish. There is an automated light somewhere but all there is at the point is this. There is a walking/cycling trail to the point from the town. We were briefly back on Highway One until the turnoff for the Flinders Highway which runs down the west coast of the Eyre Peninsula. Had we stayed on Highway One we would have passed the midpoint between Perth and Sydney. The first stop was at Smoky Bay, a quiet town and former port. It was named by Matthew Flinders who saw smoke rising from the fires of the indigenous people as he sailed by. There are numerous shells on the beach and some children were collecting them as we walked along it. Oysters are farmed here as well as at Ceduna and fishing is a popular hobby. Some people were fishing from the jetty and there were several seabirds hanging around. Further down the coast is Haslam, a community which is smaller and has no shop. Here tyres are used as a breakwater and others are just left on the beach and in the sea. They will continue to shed fibres into the ocean. Information boards outlined the history of the town and the push to build a jetty. Food supplies had to be ordered and delivered by boat from Adelaide and a jetty made unloading much easier. Perlube Beach is further south and has white sand and dunes and a caravan park. Our destination for the night was Streaky Bay which also got its name from Matthew Flinders who saw the streaks of colour left from seaweeds in the water. We stopped for lunch just past the town on the shore of Cape Bauer. It was still windy but there were lots of purple flowers just behind the beach. There were several notices regarding restrictions on razor fishing: the number that can be taken and the need to dispose of shells below the tide line. As we left to find our hotel, two cars with fishermen arrived. We only drove 85 miles today so the total is now 9,084. Our hotel in Norseman did not look very promising as we approached it. The signs were all down and it looked like it was ready for a re-paint. There was no answer to the phone number on the door but just as I was about to look elsewhere, James found a guy round the back and the reception door was opened. We discovered that it was built in 1939 and is under renovation. The interior has been done and now the exterior is underway. The guy who was doing some of the work was living in a caravan on the site. I think we were the only customers that night. We left fairly early the next morning as we had over 400 miles to drive. The town was so quiet James thought tumbleweed should be blowing down the streets and it had a hint of Hotel California about it. The Eyre Highway was named after the first European, John Eyre, to cross the area in 1841. It begins in Norseman and runs along the southern edge of the Nullarbor Plain. The Trans Australia Railway which runs from Perth to Sydney, passes through Kalgoorlie and runs north of the road. It passes into the Nullarbor Plain more quickly. We travelled on the Indian Pacific on that route seven years ago. The road leaves Norseman in the Great Western Forest which is bigger than England. This eventually peters out into bush with trees near Caiguna which continue until just before Eucla. Just outside Norseman we saw a couple of cyclists we had passed the day before and later saw a third as well as one guy running. I have no idea how far any of them were going. Our first stop was at Balladonia which promised bean coffee on a sign before the roadhouse. The hotel and community were originally 17 miles or so further east on the site of the old telegraph station at the end of the old telegraph road from Norseman. The modern road construction started in 1941 and the hotel moved to its current site in 1962. It is now part of the fairly standard set up of hotel/motel, camping & caravan site, filling station and shop/café/restaurant that most of the roadhouses comprise of. There is a small museum next to the café that covers many aspects of the community and area and one episode which brought it into the public domain. Skylab was a space research laboratory launched in 1973 from Florida. Various teams worked on over the years and in the late 1970s it was decided to return it to earth. It did so on 12 July 1979 and partially burned up on re-entry, spraying fragments into the ocean and on this part of Western Australia. Reporters descended on Balladonia and the roadhouse received a phone call from President Jimmy Carter apologising and offering assistance. NASA posted a $10,000 reward for the first piece of wreckage to be returned to the USA and this was claimed by a 17-year-old from Esperance. There was also some information about camels. They had been used for outback transport from the 19th century until motor vehicles arrived. The people who worked with and led the camels were often referred to as Afghans although those who worked near Balladonia were either from Karachi or Baluchistan in India. Camels fitted the outback climate very well, but their drivers remained nomadic and isolated from the rest of the community. Some of the camels escaped and have become feral. I saw some from the train in 2011. After Balladonia we drove round a bend and then came to the longest straight stretch of road in Australia: the 90 Mile Straight. As we stopped at the sign, I noticed a guy with an old Ford ute had also stopped. I asked him if I could take a photo as my brother used to be secretary of the Ford pre-67 Owners Club in the UK. He was quite happy for me to do so and told me that he was on the way back from an old ute gathering. He also said that he had got married in the early 1980s and that he and his wife had spent 17 years just travelling around the country. Further on we saw more old vehicles also returning home. Our lunch was at Cocklelbiddy Roadhouse. Near there, down an unsealed road to the coast is the Eyre Bird Observatory which we did not have time to explore. We continue through blue bush with stretches of blue flowering plants by the roadside and still some trees. The road goes over the Madura Pass at 90m and then descends from the Hampton Tableland to the plain. After Mundrabilla we spotted the first motorcyclist of the day heading in the opposite direction. Our destination for that night was Eucla (population 53) which sits on a 100m pass and is about three miles from the coast. There are sand dunes and the old telegraph station which dates from 1877 is slowly being covered by sand. There is also an old jetty down at the beach, but the winds were high and as we approached it looked like a sandstorm ahead, so we turned back. The surrounding landscape is much more like the Nullarbor with plants and after Eucla more like desert. The high winds overnight had brought cloud but at least we did not have to worry about fallen trees on the road. At the South Australia Border the old Eyre Highway (unsealed) runs parallel until Nullabor. There are several viewpoints looking over the Great Australian Bight. Just after Nullabor we passed the exit to Cook (population 2 and 1 dog) which the Indian Pacific Train stops at. The Highway enters the Yalata Aboriginal Reserve and hills and trees reappear. We passed three cyclists in total. Later, the landscape reverts to sheep pasture and cereal crops. The road passes through Penong before reaching Ceduna. The town claims to have Australia’s biggest windmill and has a windmill museum. I was not tempted.There is also a turn off to Cactus Beach which is renowned for surfing. We reached Ceduna having driven 302 miles in addition to the 435 on Wednesday bringing our total to 8,999 miles. Before leaving Esperance, we had a look at the old tanker jetty which is starting to fall apart. Then we drove up to the Rotary Lookout which gives views over to the islands and the west beach. Highway One runs north to Norseman with the railway alongside it for most of the way. Interestingly Google Maps only shows the main roads and no detail of the rest of the town e.g. streets, businesses etc (Eucla as well, although it is even smaller). They have obviously not got out here despite the fact that we are not in the Amazon rainforest or the remote Himalayas. Fortunately, maps.me is a good satellite app for smaller places, roads and footpaths. The surrounding landscape here is agricultural with huge cereal fields, occasional livestock and several large mills. Esperance port ships grain and minerals which are the two large industries in the area. Feeling my caffeine levels dropping, I was looking for somewhere to top them up. Nothing was open at Grass Patch. At Salmon Gums the roadhouse was open but the hotel was closed and up for sale. There are many small and large salt lakes but closer to Norseman woodland appears and we entered the Great Western Woodlands, the largest intact tract of temperate woodlands on the earth. Bromus Dam is a rare fresh water lake. It was created to service the early steam trains and around dawn and dusk there is a good chance of seeing wildlife. We heard some birds and got some fleeting shots. There is parking and picnic tables around the dam. A little further on is a side road to Dundas Rocks. These are rock formations and large boulders lying on the ground and there is a campsite beyond them. I found a painted rock on some of them. This craze had been going locally for a while before we left home, but this is the first one I have seen here. I am not participating so left it where it was. The rocks are south of the site of the abandoned town of Dundas. It was founded in 1893, a year after gold was discovered nearby. However, in 1894 gold was discovered near what is now Norseman and after a while, Dundas withered and died. As most of the buildings were timber there is now hardly anything to see of the buildings but there are a few street names, some interpretation boards, and you can drive the Dundas Coach Road heritage trail. Legend has it that a horse called Norseman pawed the ground and a piece of gold-bearing quartz lodged in his hoof. There is a statue of him in the town centre and one of the roundabouts has corrugated iron camels on it which are a tribute to the camel trains. As in other places, the main street had to be widened to allow them to turn around. I was chatting to one of the locals and told him that Moffat in Scotland has a sheep statue. He pointed out that Norseman is not twinned with anywhere so maybe that is something for them to explore. Gold is still mined north of the town and there is a huge waste heap on the hillside called Phoenix Tailings Storage Facility which is 40m high and holds 4 million tonnes of waste and was built between 1935 and 1977. Some eucalyptus trees are beginning to grow on it but there is too much salt and they will not really get established until that has all been washed out. Before we checked in we drove up to the viewpoint at Beacon Hill and walked the short 865m loop which gives views over the land surrounding the town. It was then time to check into our motel and get ready for the big drive tomorrow. Town is pretty quiet and there are quite a few vacant buildings. As we had our evening meal in the local bar (served by a woman from Lincolnshire) a few workers did come in for a drink and meal. Today’s 134 miles brought the trip total to 8,262. The first thing we did after leaving Walpole was to drive the few miles east to the Valley of Giants Treetop Walk in Nornalup National Park. The huge Red Tingle Trees (Eucalyptus jacksonii) grow up to 75m tall and 20m in girth. The karri trees seen elsewhere in WA (Eucalyptus diversicolor) can grow up to 90m. These tall trees have been used as lookout posts for forest fires. The walkway gets up to 40m off the ground and gives great views of the canopy. We saw several birds (including this Australian Ringneck) but no quokkas which also live on the trees and use the sword grass on the ground to give them cover from predators. When people walk fast on the walkway, it tends to sway a little making photography a bit of a challenge. I was thankful for the image stabilisers on my lenses. There is also a brief glimpse to the landscape outside the park. We also walked along the ground level Ancient Empire boardwalk. This is free, but you have to pay to go on the Treetop walk. A section of the Bibbelmum Track passes through the valley. It is 1000km and runs from near Perth to Albany. We saw one hiker near the Visitors’ Centre. All too soon it was time to carry on as our destination for the night was Esperance, 374 miles from Walpole. Vineyards are called wineries here but near Denmark, the next town on the South Coast Highway; I saw signs to a meadery and a cidery. Albany was settled before Perth and is the oldest (dating from 1826) and the largest town on this section of the coast. Initially, the British settlers were welcomed by the indigenous people there because they stopped the rape and murder being carried out by whalers and sealers. Unfortunately the Brits then stopped indigenous people coming into their shops and began to remove their children from them. Coming into town, we passed the world’s largest sandalwood oil factory. It has some 19th century buildings in the town centre and I had no problem finding a café to top up my caffeine levels. Down by the shore is a replica ship of the Amity Brig that brought the first settlers here from Sydney. We had by now left the big trees behind us and the landscape switched between farmland and bush. There were a few more forests but they were for commercial timber. We did not have a kangaroo cross the road in front of us today, but we did have to swerve around one lizard and had the first emu crossing of the trip. As we drove east the landscape got drier and the rivers had less water in them. Near Ravensthorpe we were in big cereal growing area with fields bigger than those in East Anglia. The town has artworks on the silos and a very large roundabout for a small community. It was established in 1900 and reminded me of something a university friend said to some Americans who were studying in the UK: ‘I suppose you have to come here as you don’t have any history over there’. He obviously has not been to Australia where European history is even more recent and indigenous history often not easily accessible by others. Our road began to traverse some hills and we were now back in mining and road train country. As we descended into Esperance there was more water around with lakes, ponds and nature reserves. All we had time for before dark was a short walk along the esplanade where the old pier was in the background near our motel was the sculpture by Cindy Poole and Jason Woolridge: Whale Tail. Our mileage was 381 making the trip total 8,128. Getting out of Bunbury was not as easy as it should have been because Ocean Drive was closed for a local running event. The motel owner told us how to get off the street and through to the next, so we got back onto the highway after several diversions. Today, the first part of our drive was a diversion from Highway One to see the southwest corner of Western Australia. We left Bunbury on the Bussell Highway but just before we reached Busselton we took the alternative tourist route which passes through the Tuart forest and then along the coast. When we reached the town, a market was underway, and it began to rain. We had coffee in the old courthouse and lock up which is now a café. Busselton has the longest wooden jetty in the southern hemisphere which was first built in 1853 and is now 1841 metres long. It dates from the town’s time as a timber port and was used for this purpose until 1972. It now has tourist attractions on it. Further along the road is the town of Cowaramup which derived its name from a now disused railway junction. The town has 42 life-size fibreglass Friesian cows in various sites around town. It reminded me of the cows that appeared in northwest England a few years ago but which were far from life-like unlike these. In the green countryside around both dairy and beef cattle are raised and some sheep. There are also lots of wineries. As it was Sunday, very few were open for tasting and the Margaret River Regional Wine Centre where you can taste wine from several wineries was shut. The one in Pemberton only opens Monday to Friday. The rain continued, and we were in countryside with rivers, pools, lakes and the water channels at the side of the road actually had water in them for the first time on this trip. There were black swans, ibis and egrets in the pools. In our six weeks in Australia we have had more rain than we saw in the three months of summer before we left. At Karridale, the Bussell Highway becomes the Brockman Highway, but after a few miles we took at shortcut along the Stewart Road to pick up the Vasse Highway which runs through forests of old, tall eucalyptus trees (karri trees) to Pemberton. One kangaroo bounded across the road in front of us. It continued to rain, heavily at times. Had it been dry, we might have visited the Big Brook Arboretum north of Pemberton, but it involves several miles on unsealed roads and we preferred to stay dry. Back on Highway One, now called the South Western Highway, it still ran among trees and after being in much drier landscapes I was more than happy to be in the forest. We crossed the Rooney Bridge and through part of Shannon National Park, so I assume some Irish people settled this part of the country. Later we passed by D’Entrecasteaux National Park which was named after a French Naval Officer. The road started to descend towards Walpole and the coast. At the John Rate lookout, we got our first glimpse of the Southern Ocean on this trip. He was the first forester in the district and in the 1950s discovered a third species of tingle tree. Ironically, he was killed by a falling branch of a karri tree. We were soon in Walpole which has a population of 439 and found our motel for the night. Walpole has an old piece of machinery near the information office which was used for hauling logs: indicating how important timber was for this community at one point. You could spend quite a lot of time in this part of the world: there are lots of walks in the National Parks and a whole coast to explore. Sadly, on this trip, we don’t have enough time. 227 miles today and the trip total is now 7.747 miles.

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- Research article - Open Access - Open Peer Review Spinal pain in adolescents: prevalence, incidence, and course: a school-based two-year prospective cohort study in 1,300 Danes aged 11–13 BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders volume 15, Article number: 187 (2014) The severity and course of spinal pain is poorly understood in adolescents. The study aimed to determine the prevalence and two-year incidence, as well as the course, frequency, and intensity of pain in the neck, mid back, and low back (spinal pain). This study was a school-based prospective cohort study. All 5th and 6th grade students (11–13 years) at 14 schools in the Region of Southern Denmark were invited to participate (N = 1,348). Data were collected in 2010 and again two years later, using an e-survey completed during school time. The lifetime prevalence of spinal pain was 86% and 89% at baseline and follow-up, respectively. A group of 13.6% (95% CI: 11.8, 15.6) at baseline and 19.5% (95% CI: 17.1, 22.0) at follow-up reported that they had pain frequently. The frequency of pain was strongly associated with the intensity of pain, i.e., the majority of the participants reported their pain as relatively infrequent and of low intensity, whereas the participants with frequent pain also experienced pain of higher intensity. The two-year incidence of spinal pain varied between 40% and 60% across the physical locations. Progression of pain from one to more locations and from infrequent to more frequent was common over the two-year period. Spinal pain is common at the age of 11–15 years, but some have more pain than others. The pain is likely to progress, i.e., to more locations, higher frequency, and higher pain intensity over a two-year period. It is now widely acknowledged that neck pain (NP), mid back pain (MBP), and low back pain (LBP) (spinal pain) start early in life and that the lifetime prevalence increases rapidly during adolescence to reach adult levels at the age of 18[1, 2]. In adults, LBP is now the leading cause of years lived with disability on a global level and the societal burden due to disability pensions and treatment costs for this disorder are high and increasing. Even amongst adolescents, consequences of pain are common, e.g., 8% of all 13 year olds and 34% of all 15-year olds seek health care for spinal pain in Denmark, and among those reporting recurrent LBP, 31% have refrained from participating in sport and physical activity and 26% have been absent from school, indicating that spinal pain in adolescence is not a negligible problem. In addition, spinal pain in adolescence is strongly associated with spinal pain and generalised pain in adulthood[7, 8] so, the young population is a group of special interest when exploring the incidence, progression, and severity of spinal pain. The incidence of NP, MBP, and LBP reported in adolescents is based on various definitions of pain, i.e., weekly pain in the past 3 or 6 months[9–12], frequent pain, quite bad pain, and pain in the past week. Incidence is however defined as new cases of a disease during a specified time period and prior studies have rarely been based on a group that has never had pain. In addition, the severity of spinal pain in adolescents has previously been assessed by describing the consequences of the pain and not directly by describing the pain characteristics such as frequency and intensity. In addition, the aspect of multiple pain sites and the extent to which the pain dissipates or changes location in the spine over time has not been addressed in this population, which is of interest because multiple pain sites are associated with high disability in adolescents, and in adults, they are a predictor of work disability. Consequently, there has been a call for more longitudinal studies, but to our knowledge, there are no population-based longitudinal studies that describe pain characteristics and changes in spinal pain in adolescence. Therefore, the overall aims of this longitudinal cohort study were to determine the prevalence, severity and course of spinal pain in Danish adolescents. The specific objectives were to: Determine the lifetime, one-week, and point prevalence of NP, MBP, and LBP (separately and combined) at age 11–13 and age 13–15, Determine the frequency and intensity of NP, MBP, and LBP and explore the associations between the two, Estimate the two-year incidence of NP, MBP, and LBP, and Describe the changes in pain location and the changes in frequency of spinal pain from baseline to follow-up. This study was nested within the SPACE study. SPACE was a school-based cluster-randomised controlled trial involving 14 schools in the Region of Southern Denmark. The main aim of SPACE was to investigate how physical environment combined with organisational initiatives could promote physical activity in adolescents aged 11–13 years. All 1,348 5th and 6th grade students (aged 11–13 years) at the 14 schools were invited to participate. There were no exclusion criteria. For a comprehensive description, see the SPACE protocol. There were no differences between the control group and the intervention group at baseline or follow-up with regard to adiposity, physical fitness or musculoskeletal strength. Therefore, it did not seem likely that the intervention had an impact on the presence of spinal pain and so, we decided to use the pooled cohort rather than the control group only. Prior to the study, the parents of the involved students received a letter including information about the project. Participation did not require parental consent, but the parents were informed that they could initially, or at any time later, withdraw their child’s participation. This form of passive consent was reviewed by the Regional Committee for Health Research Ethics together with the rest of the project protocol. The conclusion was that the project was acceptable according to Danish legislation and did not require formal approval because all tests were non-invasive and there were no physical interventions involved. Approval from the Danish Data Protection Agency was obtained (#2010-41-5147). The participants completed an electronic questionnaire (e-survey) during school time, observed by a teacher who also ensured that there were no interactions between participants. For a detailed description of the e-survey, see the SPACE protocol. Baseline data were collected from April to June 2010 and two-year follow-up data from April to June 2012. The e-survey contained parts of the Young Spine Questionnaire, which included identical questions for the three spinal regions separately. Using the neck questions as an example, the first question was: "Have you ever had pain in your neck?" ("often"/"sometimes"/ "once or twice"/"never"). If so, the next questions were: "Have you had neck pain in the last week?" ("yes"/"no") and "Do you have neck pain today?" ("yes"/"no"). Finally, they noted the worst pain ever in the neck using the revised version of the Faces Pain Scale (FPS-R). This scale is based on six faces with expressions illustrating progressively worse pain. The questions were repeated for the mid back and low back. A diagram with the three spinal areas clearly shaded and labelled was shown alongside the questions. The e-survey was designed in such a way that there was a jump to the next spinal region if the participant answered "never" to a question because any subsequent questions about pain last week or today, and pain intensity then became irrelevant for that particular spinal region. Immediately following the questions, an open field for comments was provided. The questionnaire was developed for 9-11-year olds and has shown satisfactory results for feasibility, content validity, and item agreement between questionnaire scores and interview findings. Lifetime, one week, and point prevalence of NP, MBP, and LBP were defined as a positive response to the first, second and third questions respectively for each spinal region. If the student answered "never" to the lifetime question, it was assumed that the answers to the one week and point prevalence questions were "no". Spinal pain was defined as pain in any of the three locations. Frequency of NP, MBP, and LBP were "often", "sometimes", "once or twice", or "never". Frequency of spinal pain was defined as "often", "sometimes", "once or twice", or "never" in any of the three locations. If the frequency of pain differed in the three locations, the location with the highest frequency was used. A missing value in any region resulted in a missing value for this variable. Pain intensity was based on the FPS-R with six faces scaled from 1 to 6 where 1 was labelled "no pain" and 6 as "very much pain" in the questionnaire. Then, the pain intensity was rescaled into a 0–10 scale (1 → 0, 2 = 2, 3 → 4, 4 → 6, 5 → 8, and 6 → 10). Incidence cases were defined as those who reported "never" having had pain at baseline but reporting pain at follow-up. Incidence proportions were reported separately for each spinal location. Pain locations were defined as none, NP only, MBP only, LBP only, NP + MBP, NP + LBP, MBP + LBP, and NP + MBP + LBP based on answers to the lifetime question. A missing value in any region resulted in a missing value for all the pain combinations that included this region. The prevalence, frequency, two-year incidence, and changes in pain locations and frequency of spinal pain from baseline to follow-up were reported using percentages and 95% confidence intervals (CI). The pain intensity was reported using the mean with 95% CI. Cross-sectional descriptions were reported by gender, but due to smaller cell sizes, the longitudinal descriptions were presented for the combined cohort only. The associations between frequency and pain intensity were illustrated graphically by histograms with 95% CI bars. Post-hoc analysis: There was a technical problem at one school where some of the students were unable to respond "never" at the LBP question at baseline. The lifetime, one week and point prevalence of LBP were therefore calculated also with this school excluded in order to investigate how much this technical problem had affected the prevalence of LBP. All statistics were calculated using STATA version 11.2. The participation rate was 95.8% (n = 1,291) at baseline and 82.4% (n = 1,064) at follow-up. Seventy-seven percent (n = 1,042) filled in both questionnaires. The participation rate for the follow-up was lower, primarily because a number of students had changed school (n = 156). Nineteen students refused to participate at baseline, and a further 14 refused to participate at follow-up. There were 51.6% (n = 666) boys at baseline and 53.1% (n = 565) at follow-up. The mean age was 12.6 years (SD = 0.63) at baseline. There were some statistically significant differences in baseline characteristics of those who completed both questionnaires and those who just completed the baseline questionnaire. Among the drop-outs, there was a predominance of girls and participants who had a history of NP and LBP, and participants who had pain at more pain sites, but who did not have higher frequency or intensity of pain. At baseline, the lifetime prevalence of spinal pain was 86% (95% CI: 84.0, 87.8), the one-week prevalence was 35.9% (95% CI: 33.3, 38.6) and the point prevalence was 16.9% (95% CI: 14.9, 19.0). At follow-up, the lifetime, one-week and point prevalence of spinal pain was 88.8% (95% CI: 86.9, 90.7), 48.5% (95% CI: 45.4, 51.5) and 22.9% (95% CI: 20.4, 25.5) respectively. NP was consistently the most common spinal pain site followed by MBP, and lastly LBP (Table 1). The lifetime, one week and point prevalence at baseline and follow-up are for all locations presented by gender in Table 1. Frequency, pain intensity, and the association between them NP, MBP, and LBP were mostly experienced only "once or twice" at both time-points (Table 2). A group of 13.6% (95% CI: 11.8, 15.6) of the participants reported that they often had spinal pain at baseline and this group increased to 19.5% (95% CI: 17.1, 22.0) at follow-up. Detailed results for the frequency of NP, MBP, and LBP are presented by gender in Table 2. The mean pain intensity was relatively low at baseline for all three spinal regions: 3.1 (95% CI: 2.9, 3.3) for NP, 3.1 (95% CI: 2.9, 3.2) for MBP and 2.7 (95% CI: 2.5, 3.0) for LBP. At follow-up, the mean pain intensity was higher in all locations. See Table 3 for gender-specific details.The mean pain intensity was lowest for students reporting pain "once or twice" with a statistically significant progressive increase across the "sometimes" and "often" groups. Thus the largest group had pain that was both of low frequency and low intensity, but a smaller group reported pain of both high frequency and intensity. This pattern was seen for all spinal regions and at both time-points (Figure 1). The two-year incidence of NP (no NP at baseline followed by NP at follow-up) was 60.1% (95% CI: 54.1, 66.0), for MBP 49.8% (95% CI: 45.0, 54.5), and for LBP 42.1% (95% CI: 38.2, 46.1). Changes in pain locations Both at baseline and follow-up, pain in all three locations combined was most common followed by the combination of NP and MBP (Table 4). We observed that changes in pain location were common over the two-year period (Table 4). We also observed that regardless of pain location at baseline, they were most likely to report pain in all three locations at follow-up. An exception to this was those with MBP only, who were more likely to have the combination of NP and MBP at follow-up (Table 4). In total, 378 (51.8%) participants had pain in more locations at follow-up than at baseline, whereas 262 (29.8%) had pain in fewer locations. Changes in frequency of spinal pain It appears that the spinal pain progressed from "never" to "once or twice" and further to "sometimes" and "often". Only a very small proportion of participants shifted from "never" to "often" (1.9%) (Table 5) and half of those reporting spinal pain "often" at baseline continued to have it at follow-up (Table 5). Paradoxically, a small proportion (7.7%) of those who reported pain at baseline did not do so at follow-up. We ascribe this to poor recall, and it is worth noting that this proportion was lower for those who reported spinal pain "often" (3.9%) than those who reported spinal pain "once or twice" (9.3%) at baseline (Table 5). When the school with the technical failure was excluded from analysis, the lifetime prevalence of LBP at baseline was two percentage points lower than reported in Table 1, but there were no differences in the one-week and point prevalence. Pain in the spine affected almost nine out of ten 11-15-year olds and among those who did not report spinal pain at age 11–13, around half had experienced pain two years later. For the majority, the pain appears to be relatively mild, i.e., mostly reported as "once or twice" and of low intensity. However, 14-20% reported more frequent pain which was also of higher intensity. In addition, localised spine pain in early adolescence appears to spread to involve other areas of the spine over time. This study reports higher prevalence and incidence of spinal pain than previous studies. A systematic review has shown that the lifetime prevalence of NP in adolescents ranged from 3% to 8%, MBP from 9.5% to 72%, and LBP from 7% to 72%. Earlier reporting of incidence has been based on varying definitions including weekly pain in the past 3 or 6 months[9–12], frequent pain, quite bad pain, and pain in the past week. Nissinen et al. reported a one-year incidence of LBP, based on ‘LBP ever’, in 18% of adolescents from age 13 to 14, which appears comparable to our result of 42% for a two-year incidence. However, because of the large variation in pain reporting in the past, comparison between estimates should be made with caution. A reasonable explanation for the high lifetime prevalence and incidence in this study is related to the response options of the first question ("Have you ever had neck pain?") which were "often"/"sometimes"/"once or twice"/"never". We assume some of those answering "once or twice" might have answered "no" if the only options were "yes" or "no". This assumption is based on an issue detected during the development of the questionnaire. In the first version, there was not a "once or twice" response option. During interviews, it became obvious that many children did not know whether to answer "never" or "sometimes" if the pain was experienced only once or twice, as they did not consider this frequency enough to be categorised as "sometimes". Therefore, the option "once or twice" was included in the questionnaire. The theory of the "once or twice" response option as an explanation of the high lifetime prevalence could be supported by another observation. If the variable of lifetime prevalence was dichotomised differently, i.e., if "once or twice" was included as "no", the results were more similar to previous reported lifetime prevalence. Although it makes comparisons with previous studies difficult, we recommend this approach in the future as it might result in more precise estimates. Also, some considerations need to be taken into account when presenting incidence rates. We observed that some students at follow-up reported that they had "never" had pain, despite a report of pain at baseline. Therefore, it is likely that some of those who reported never having had pain at baseline could have had an experience of pain previously. Since incidence is defined as new cases of a disease over a specified time period, we are sceptical of the use of this term. The literature about frequency, pain intensity and the association between them is currently limited, but supports the findings from this study. Investigating back pain frequency, Brattberg et al. reported that 22% of the boys in their study and 47% of the girls aged 13 years had back pain often. A similar association between frequency and intensity was reported in another study for NP, but no studies of such an association were found in relation to MBP and LBP. The report of pain in multiple locations was more common than reporting pain in one location only. We know that multiple pain sites are associated with disability in adolescents, but it is unknown if there is a difference in disability between those who experience pain simultaneously at the three locations or those with pain that shifts from one location to another. The association between disability and concurrent/non-concurrent pain at multiple sites, and the influence of other pain characteristics such as frequency and intensity should be investigated in future research. The strengths of this study were the school-based population and the longitudinal design. A follow-up period of two years is relatively short from a life course perspective, but enough to be able to observe an increase in all measured parameters and a noticeable change in pain location and frequency of spinal pain. Another strength was that the questionnaire used was developed for the target population and answered by the participants without parental or peer influence. We know that this age group is not very discriminative when reporting pain, e.g., scratches can be reported as back pain if they are located on the back, so comparison of prevalence with the adult population should be done with caution. This is one of the reasons why we included other descriptive variables like frequency and pain intensity in the study; we wanted other variables to determine the severity of the pain. The technical problem at one of the schools slightly inflated the lifetime prevalence of LBP at baseline, but did not influence the conclusions that can be drawn from this study. Finally, biological age might be a better predictor than chronological age as used in this study, but unfortunately we do not have data to illustrate this. We recommend that pubertal stage is considered in future studies. Neck, mid back, and low back pain are common at the age of 11–15 years. For the majority of the participants, the pain seems to be mild in nature, relatively infrequent and of low intensity. A group of 14-20% was more severely affected with frequent pain which was also more intense. The two-year course showed a progressive development in pain, and that pain was likely to spread to more locations over a two-year period, regardless of initial pain location. Faces pain scale – revised Low back pain Mid back pain Jeffries LJ, Milanese SF, Grimmer-Somers KA: Epidemiology of adolescent spinal pain: a systematic overview of the research literature. Spine. 2007, 32: 2630-2637. 10.1097/BRS.0b013e318158d70b. Leboeuf-Yde C, Kyvik KO: At what age does low back pain become a common problem? A study of 29,424 individuals aged 12–41 years. Spine. 1998, 23: 228-234. 10.1097/00007632-199801150-00015. 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BMC Public Health. 2011, 11: 777-10.1186/1471-2458-11-777. Christiansen LB, Toftager M, Boyle E, Kristensen PL, Troelsen J: Effect of a school environment intervention on adolescent adiposity and physical fitness. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2013, 23: e381-10.1111/sms.12088. Guidelines about notification etc. of a biomedical research project to the committee system on biomedical research ethics, No 9154, 5 May 2011.http://www.cvk.sum.dk/English/guidelinesaboutnotification.aspx, Lauridsen HH, Hestbaek L: Development of the young spine questionnaire. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2013, 14: 185-10.1186/1471-2474-14-185. Hicks CL, von Baeyer CL, Spafford PA, van Korlaar I, Goodenough B: The faces pain scale-revised: toward a common metric in pediatric pain measurement. Pain. 2001, 93: 173-183. 10.1016/S0304-3959(01)00314-1. Nissinen M, Heliovaara M, Seitsamo J, Alaranta H, Poussa M: Anthropometric measurements and the incidence of low-back-pain in a cohort of pubertal children. Spine. 1994, 19: 1367-1370. 10.1097/00007632-199406000-00010. The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2474/15/187/prepub This work was supported by the Danish Chiropractic Research Stipend, University of Southern Denmark, the Norwegian Chiropractic Association, and Nordic Institute for Chiropractic and Clinical Biomechanics. The SPACE study was provided by the Centre for Intervention Research. The Centre is funded by TrygFonden and the Danish Cancer Society. The SPACE study was funded by TrygFonden. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. EA: Conception and design, analysis, drafting the manuscript. JH: Conception and design, analysis, revising the manuscript. NW: Conception and design, revising the manuscript. LH: Conception and design, data collection, analysis, revising the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the manuscript. Authors’ original submitted files for images Below are the links to the authors’ original submitted files for images. About this article Cite this article Aartun, E., Hartvigsen, J., Wedderkopp, N. et al. Spinal pain in adolescents: prevalence, incidence, and course: a school-based two-year prospective cohort study in 1,300 Danes aged 11–13. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 15, 187 (2014) doi:10.1186/1471-2474-15-187 - Spinal pain

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- Open Access Poverty and Inequity in the Era of Globalization: Our Need to Change and to Re-conceptualize International Journal for Equity in Health volume 2, Article number: 4 (2003) Globalization and its Negative Consequences The peculiar current form of Capitalism rechristened as 'free market economics' goes by the motto of "trade, not aid", no matter how uneven the former may be, and despite the fact that equal relations between unequals simply reinforce inequality. In line with the above, Globalization – Capitalism's corresponding new flagship – is creating wealth for the few and depressing local wages and conditions of employment for the many. It has also brought about a shift in power: the nation state has weakened and has markedly reduced its social accountability. In the Globalization context, the privatization called-for often ends up meaning denationalization and an acceleration of poverty, of disparities, of exclusion, of unemployment, of alienation, of environmental degradation, of exploitation, of corruption and often brings about violence and conflict. All these add up to marginalization on a massive scale. The effects of Globalization are thus producing big winners and losers. [2–4] Further, Globalization limits the ability of union workers to bargain, as well as making it more difficult for governments to implement equitable policies. Governments that need to adopt proven pro-poor strategies are simply not doing so. [4, 5] As a result, sovereign states now 'row' rather than 'steer' in the process of development. Ergo, the very right to development of poor countries is threatened by Globalization. [2, 6] The 'corporocracy' in command of the flagship consistently ignores the social problems they see as patently as everyone else; they rather only pay lip service to change and seldom change their acquisitive practices (or only change them in very marginal ways). And what is more worrisome, in the dealings of Globalization, the deceptions are so brilliantly woven into its processes that falling for those deceptions is deemed as both fashionable and progressive. [3, 8] Because of these negative consequences of Globalization, communities in many Third World countries are no longer able to cope – their previously successful coping strategies diminishing daily. Moreover, because of Globalization, governments in the Third World are simply incapable of assuming minimum levels of welfare for their citizen. It is then implied that it is necessary to look for alternatives in the private sector or to directly privatize services. Often such privatization strategies lower the access and quality of services for the poor and end up widening the gap between the rich and poor. - A quick review of the hard facts documenting the negative effects of Globalization shows that: Under Globalization, the annual losses to developing countries run at an estimated $500 billion – an amount much higher than what they receive in foreign aid. - As a consequence, developing countries have had a series of years of consecutive negative financial flows; this is equivalent to at least seven years of an economic hemorrhage. - From 1960–99, there was a 60% fall in the prices of commodities other than oil! This resulted in a reduction of two thirds in the buying power of developing countries. - As a result, the number of hungry people around the world keeps rising every year and poverty is becoming increasingly feminized (70% of all the poor are women). 'Free trade has been free for business and industry, but not for women and the poor'. New technologies have not shown to have intrinsic pro-poor or pro-women positive effects either, although they have such a potential (which unless we help steer in that direction will invariably continue favoring the already wealthy and male). Therefore, any genuinely poverty-redressing policy is bound to be a gender-oriented policy. Our Need to Change Our work in development is about change. And change brings conflict, pain, confusion. Only out of this emerges a new understanding. For us, this means we have to start deconstructing the whole existing development delusion which has led us to the unwarranted situation in which people have come to accept scarcity and poverty as inextricable facts of life. But the universe does not have unmovable laws that lead to poverty! It has habits – and habits can be broken. [11–13] The greatest risk for us in this is to be deluded into thinking that palliative approaches and socioeconomic tinkering can bring about the long term stability needed for sustainable economic take-off. If poverty is a function of powerlessness, how can extreme poverty at the base of so much of the ill-health and malnutrition we find around the world be reversed? Whatever the response, one thing is clear: One does not have to wait until big changes are in place; otherwise, the process would never start. The poor can begin to empower themselves even while their respective governments are still saying 'no' to political changes...and this is where we can play a catalyst role. Existing grassroots organized groups we come across in our work do matter: their voices matter, especially if their raised voices lead them to influence key events. Unions matter; self-help projects matter, women's and youth organizations matter. When they speak out, they do have the legitimacy to do so. Working with and through them increases our legitimacy and their power. Real empowerment requires understanding the larger social forces that shape individual situations to then learn how to join with others in taking, not individual, but collective responsibility and action for reshaping situations of oppression and exploitation. What is most people-empowering is a shared vision of collective responsibility, i.e. that only by working together on an intolerable social reality can individual lives ultimately be improved. The role of progressive forces is to help develop such a rational understanding of the underlying forces at play. Only if we speak the truth will people have grounds to trust us. But, in all honesty, we have simply been too narrow in the focus of our own thinking when interacting with communities and their leaders and have failed to address the foundations of the problems of underdevelopment we posit to be addressing. It is high time for us to repair the damage inflicted by our Western-biased social order and by our lack of outspokenness about that order not having laid the foundations for a sustainable development. To do so now, calls for a serious rethinking on our part of the fundamentals of what we do and how this contributes (or not) to sustainable development. Let us not forget that we are more irrational than rational; our emotions control us more than our 'ratio'. Therefore, appealing to reason only is inefficient: To fully empower people, we have to appeal to their reason and to their emotions. Society is said to evolve as a (bloody) pendulum: a conservative cycle/a liberal cycle; always taking a toll of death. As long as we are trapped in these cycles and do not actively try to break their passive succession, we cannot expect much in the way of liberation. A Dearth of Workable Solutions? Redressing Poverty Through Empowerment The battle against poverty, ill-health and malnutrition calls for liberation, empowerment, self-reliance and partnership instead of heeding calls for integrity, operational effectiveness and administrative accountability – the latter three being an often touted Northern recipe for development success. To combat the ongoing process of immiseration, in part brought about by Globalization, welfare states choose to transfer payments and handouts. But what is needed is a transfer of assets and power (for example, few of us get involved in lobbying for more deliberate direct measures related to greater fairness in the tax system). And for this to happen, the poor will have to fight for it by themselves (!). The welfare ethics does not provide for this transfer. Moreover, in real welfare terms, numbers matter more than percentages or rates (!). The analysis of poverty should thus, by necessity, focus on numbers, not on rates – but not to make this analysis into a 'numbers game' as is too often being done by academicians, bureaucrats and politicians. Because we normally look at the effects of underdevelopment on just two broad income groups – the poor and the non-poor – a more operationally relevant poverty line needs to be defined, not as a mere cut-off point, but specifically to set measurable Poverty-Redressal Objectives over time. Here is a point where we can concretely contribute by helping define a Critical Consumption Level that will sustain at least good health and nutrition. Such an indicator needs then to be expressed as a fraction of the per capita income. Persons below this Critical Consumption Level will be potentially eligible for consumption subsidies, and persons above this line, potentially eligible for higher, progressive taxes. Such poverty redressal measures can still promote economic growth and need not be administered as welfare measures. As part of this new focus, Northern non-governmental organizations (NGOs) should more decisively support local efforts to address these larger structural issues in an open way letting people's movements, not elites, define the partners they want to work with and the causes they want to actively tackle. In such an effort, multiple social objectives have to be taken into account: true. But distributional concerns must take center stage. It is up to us to bring these concerns more into the heart of what we stand for and what we do. The alleviation of poverty through empowerment must be kept at the center of what we do professionally – beyond mere lip service (the latter a place where it mostly still is). In our example, current changing circumstances require that we more-than-think about new approaches to the role health and nutrition should play in fostering a sustainable development. At this juncture, then, we need people who can rescue themselves from their own modest objectives; we need development thinkers and doers of consequence. [13, 18, 19] Reversing the Negative Effects of Globalization With Globalization, the slogan "Might is Right" has come back with a vengeance. And in a defeatist stance, we have so far accepted this fact and have bowed to the forces we think we cannot effectively oppose. But while not denying that the giant tentacles of Globalization reach into every corner of the world, this should not be equated with omnipotence. (President Mahatir Mohamad, Kuala Lumpur, 9/2/1998) The bottom line here is that there is no single universal solution in sight that will promote just the benefits of Globalization to all people: giving the same advice to everyone simply has not and will not work. Unfortunately, a balanced and realistic value-free response to the negative effects of Globalization is difficult. On the one hand, the transnational corporations cannot be allowed to continue to hide, invest in smoke screens, espouse gradualist solutions and attempt to derive maximum publicity from piecemeal changes. They must be persuaded, cajoled or even forced to change (some initial success has been had in facing transnational pharmaceutical houses). On the other hand, new insights are emerging as to the appropriate mix of market and government activities needed to complement each other. The extraordinary and more equitable growth of Vietnam and China contradicts the view that a state control of the economy and the market is inimical to growth. The Equity/equality Approach As we had said already, equal relations between unequals reinforces inequality. Period! To illustrate this, think for a while that equity under Globalization is a bit like the fight of the Mongoose and the Snake: Both are of about the same strength, but invariably the mongoose wins – it is more resourceful and it organizes its strategy better to strike. The First World is like the mongoose; the Third World is like the snake. The lesson of this fable is that an asymmetry in the use of market power aggravates inequality. The affluent always end up having more political clout (and more wealth). Therefore, promoting self-interest (the soul of the market) is simply not enough. (Quoted from R Ricupero, UNCTAD) To achieve greater equity, a set of "equity modifiers" have been proposed. These include: - targeting interventions (geographically and/or to vulnerable groups or individuals), - land reform, - pro-poor educational/water and sanitation/health/nutrition and family planning interventions, - employment generation, - grassroots participation in the setting of priorities, - development of the non-farm rural economy, - aid to rural women, and the - levying of taxes on environmental polluters and degraders. As pertains to gender, gender equality is (finally) considered compatible with the basic tenets of the neo-liberal credo. But economic equality, not! (Quoted from S Maxwell, IDS, Univ. of Sussex) Some of the remedies proposed to specifically increase equity and access to basic services have thus included: - the targeting of subsidies (i.e. selective subsidies of goods and services disproportionately consumed by the poor), - prepayment plans (e.g. community-based health insurance), - exemptions and the selective dropping of some fees (e.g. health and education fees). - an emphasis on prevention and on improvements of the quality of care (in health), as well as on - a fairer urban/rural distribution of resources. In health, some consensus exists that government expenditures have to increase, but to be equitable, they have to be concentrated on preventive activities in rural areas and should be targeted to the lower income quintile. [Note that Social Marketing – one of the sweetheart companions of Globalization attempting to give it a human (equitable) face – focuses on high-powered "Madison Avenue-type" messages and communication strategies that pursue behavior modification and not informed choices. It is quite obvious that we should rather be trying to understand better what motivates people to change and why, and then letting them decide by themselves what steps to take to get there]. The bottom line here is: We need not apologize to act with a more resolute equity bias beyond lip service since such a bias is an important corrective to the other more dominant inequitable value biases out there in the heartless market place. Valid arguments have been raised against the targeting of interventions though. The example of health and nutrition is again used here to explain why. Equity and Targeting in Health and Nutrition The best way to improve the health and nutrition of the poor still is to have them move out of poverty. For equity to be achieved, economic growth in the development process needs to be deliberately geared towards the needs of the poor. Focusing on sustainable poverty alleviation is inseparable from bringing about greater equity. A focus on both tasks is necessary to achieve the indispensable reduction in the existing rich-poor gap. Focusing on poverty alleviation alone can end up as charity in disguise. Focusing on equity is a step towards social justice. Equity and social justice in health and nutrition are one and the same thing: in health and nutrition, social inequities are always unfair. Greater equity will only be achieved by raising the disposable income of the least privileged 20% of the population at a faster pace than that of the upper income quintile. And this will only happen through the combination of more income redistribution measures and government funds being deliberately directed to achieve this goal. The absence thus far of a serious and concerted fight for greater equity in health and nutrition is not a historical accident. It has suited the pro-status-quo Establishment. In the process, it has convinced all health and nutrition professionals to keep trying ever new technical fixes to the many problems experienced by the poor. [Note that not until the late 1970s did WHO recognize poverty as a distinct determinant of disease; until then, they still talked about "tropical diseases" being the major killers). Acknowledging the importance of equity is simply not enough; it is like a new toy: "batteries not included". Well thought out, concerted effective actions is what is needed. There is a dearth of basic information so far that shows convincing epidemiological morbi-mortality differences by income quintiles. There is an element of selective blindness here that hardly justifies having been kept in the dark (or having chosen to stay in the dark). This is part of the so-called 'exclusion fallacy' in which what we choose not to discuss is assumed to have no bearing on the issue. This dearth of epidemiological data on rich-poor health differences is actually not a surprise or a coincidence either; rather, we have to accept it as a deliberate omission. Furthermore, making such equity-relevant data available is no solution in and by itself either; it is a necessary, but not sufficient step in a process. What is important is what we commit ourselves to do with those data, how we use them proactively to correct inequities, starting when. [Note that (growth) stunting of under three year olds may actually be a quite excellent indicator of poverty, inequity and of violations of the rights of children. Therefore, many of us are echoing the growing calls for using stunting trends as one of the good indicators of trends in overall equity in society]. So now – with discussions on poverty and equity gaining momentum – there seems to be a new opportunity. Powerful alternative approaches are being brought to the fore that can be put in place to start making a difference on equity. Differences in perspectives are still significant, no doubt, both on conceptual and practical matters. Most of these differences are ideological. They are, therefore, not easy to overcome. A more suitable paradigm for sustainable improvements is called for. Unfortunately, the renewed interest in poverty alleviation and equity in our international community still is top-down; it ignores the contributions the poor themselves need to make to the debate. One can see here a set-up for yet another failure. Equity and health for all The claim that Health for All is not attainable in the era of Globalization is a value judgement, as is the lack of confidence in the public sector approach to primary heath care (PHC). It all depends on how decisively and quick a shift to greater control by the beneficiaries occurs at the grassroots. The core question here is what type of PHC we should support more aggressively now. Going back to Alma Ata is a good start. Then, decisively fixing PHC's well-known deficiencies (mostly the non-technical ones) can be the basis to get going – the sooner the better. We need to make PHC what it should have been from the outset, namely, a public sector driven vehicle fostering true equity in health. Privatization is simply never going to lead us to such a path. Who are the poor and how do we find them? We (professionals) have to move away from defining who the poor population groups are. Especially inappropriate are arbitrary absolute poverty income cut-off points. Communities themselves are the best qualified to identify the poor amongst them in each locality. International agencies ought to insist on it. Equity and the public/private allocation of resources Concrete actions to allocate government funds according to real needs are necessary. Most central government budgets do not compensate for inequities. Current government health services expenditures tend, in many countries and in many different ways, to benefit the rich more than the poor. Private for-profit health care discriminates against the poor and often is of poorer quality than government services although, not infrequently, it receives unwarranted government subsidies. Avenues and dead-end streets to equity Other than privatization, many currently proposed approaches to resolve the problems of health and nutrition still only favor and select actions covering, for the most part, four strategies: - targeting of services (the No. 1 choice), - participatory approaches (a distant second), - social health insurance schemes, and - expansion of social security schemes linked to health/nutrition benefits. These strategic approaches – purportedly leading to equity – depart from one question: If not PHC, then what? Rather, we repeat that what is needed is to mobilize a strong political popular support for a comprehensive truly equity-oriented health and nutrition policy, using an improved PHC approach that, at its core, resurrects the Alma Ata spirit. Equity and Targetry Many of us also think it is a fallacy to propose targeting as an alternative to PHC. In a way, individual targeting is a new variant of a selective PHC approach: "Go for the worst cases, fix them, and improve the statistics". But where are the sustainable changes to avoid the ongoing recurrence of the same problems being addressed? Unfortunately, individual targeting is seen as central among the alternatives being proposed by the World Bank and other major funding agencies (together with geographical and other types of targeting). In an era of fee for services, service delivery systems promoted by free-market proponents, one of the key issues for individual targeting to keep a semblance of equity seems to be the exemption from user fees for the poor. Unfortunately, these waiver schemes have proven to be mostly catastrophes. Individual targeting can simply not be made to work equitably and effectively. Targeting cannot be a full substitute for redistributive public policy! Moreover, targeting can and does stigmatize people by creating a clientele of 'second-class citizens' who can be easily manipulated by those in power. Geographical targeting has probably more potential; it can make sense in terms of equity. But keep in mind that poor areas or districts have little political clout to fight for their share and are also usually administratively weak to implement the needed changes. Starting with targeting interventions as the central thrust to achieve equity (no matter how carefully designed) thus seems the wrong approach. It pursues what rather is a 'mirage of equity' that basically leaves the perennial determinants of the rich-poor gap untouched. It tacitly blames the most vulnerable for being where they are and then tends them a rescuing hand. Local communities are not on the driver's seat when it comes to steer targeted (or other) project activities. Furthermore, one can genuinely be skeptical when one sees calls for participatory approaches in projects that have not taken the poverty reduction and the promotion of greater equity as their central thrust. Most often, communities are not being empowered to implement measures that directly aim at having them gain growing control over the assets and resources they need to improve their own lives. The Human Rights Approach A human rights framework is the emerging UN response to foster development in the new millennium. Globalization may be inevitable, but what it does to people is not – there are forces that can shape it, and human rights must be one of those forces. As someone said, human rights can set limits to the sways of the market. [23, 24] Human Rights are universal and indivisible: they do not apply some yes and some no, some today and some tomorrow, some to us and some to them, some to the Western countries and some to the other countries, some to the rich and some to the poor, some to women and some to men. We are therefore compelled to operationalize civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights in our daily work. We have to be on the lookout, though. One can easily 'preach human rights' and have little concrete to offer. To make the human rights approach concrete and giving it substance is a political task. Soft approaches will not do. Western intellectuals have simply abandoned their commitment to challenge the exploitation and oppression of the poor as they continue being brought about by Globalization. Concerted campaigns and struggles against poverty, tyranny any exploitation will form the only sustainable basis of an intellectual renaissance of ourselves. On human rights, a first step in the right direction, in an initial phase, will be the establishment of National Human Rights Committees. But bolder steps will have to follow thereafter. Furthermore, we have to fight the indifference of our youth to the present human rights situation. Our young remain largely indifferent to the negative effects of Globalization. We simply have to enroll the youth before they resign themselves to the fact that they can do little or nothing. Our youth seems more interested in the information superhighway. We have thus to use the same medium to give them more appropriate direction and guidance on options to counter Globalization and more aggressively foster human rights. In sum, an effective challenge against Globalization and its negative effects on human rights is possible, but probably demands the same kind of intellectual commitment and vigor that characterized anti-colonial or independence struggles. Bolder Steps are Needed The obvious ensuing set of questions to be asked at this point is: a) Is this more resolute equity bias a radical proposition? Yes, it is. b) Is it necessary? Absolutely. c) Is it impossible? No, it is possible. d) Is it likely? Not very likely, based on my latest dispassionate reality check. The inertia is so great and our collective virtual view of reality so distorted and entrenched, in part due to Globalization, that the likelihood of us changing that reality remains dim. Neither greater individual responsibility nor containment strategies will do. What, then, are the alternatives to choose from that could start doing the job before it is too late? Taking a minimalist stand towards Globalization will do no harm, but neither will it do much good. Inertia in history (has) and will always work(ed) against the more visionary and radical changes deemed necessary when the same fall outside the ruling paradigm. Development cooperation must thus become more political, because only structural reforms will deliver equitable and sustainable development. Solutions must be geared to control that which fuels the problem at its roots. The solutions to the consequences of Globalization on the health and nutrition sector, for example, cannot be medicalized any longer. Technical assistance focused on health/nutrition matters only is not enough to uproot the structural inequities underlying the pervasive and unrelenting ill-health and malnutrition we find in the world. We need to give a larger intellectual and political scope to our discussions on Globalization and come up with a focused common agenda with overt political interventions. What the people's movements around the world expect is simply "More", from life, from history and from us. When economics has ceased to strengthen social bonds and its prescriptions are actually further pauperizing millions, it is time to start thinking in political terms again. Stereotyping Globalization risks to emotionalize the issue rather than objectively analyzing and diagnosing it. We have to give up our quick prescriptive impulses (saying what should have been done) and become more empirico-analytical (describing and dialectically interpreting what is actually happening). One can set morally desirable goals so high (or set goals without following them with sincere, workable policies) that they remain out of all realistic reach and lose all power to determine the direction of action. Keep in mind that rules can be set or imposed more as a source of comfort than as an effective way to achieve veritable results. So Where Do We Go from Here? We should not 'leave it up to the Joneses' again and miss the opportunity the current momentum offers. The sense of urgency is high. Breaking down health, nutrition, education and other related data by income quintiles is a welcome first step to consolidate a credible international database that can be used to track equity issues in each respective field. Every year, a publication should rank countries according to their respective equity performance; the publication should further analyze existing gaps, and targets should be set for individual countries' improvements for the following year. But actually using these data to tackle the inequities at national, sub-national and especially the local level is where the real challenge lies. Donor agencies and civil society will have to more forcefully advocate for equity-promoting, participatory, bottom-centered interventions, as well as being more responsive to low income countries' government-initiated requests for funding to prepare and execute policies specifically addressing the central equity issue. Governments and donors will have to enter into binding commitments to move in the direction of poverty alleviation and greater equity including the close monitoring of progress. These binding commitments will be needed as a precondition for continued support. Funds would then be released in tranches based on the achievement of negotiated verifiable indicators of progress along the line of project implementation. A donor-NGO/civil society link and funding window should be developed concomitantly along the same lines. In the case of non-responsive or non-performing governments, donor funding earmarked for use by the latter should be progressively reallocated to the NGO/civil society sector. Non-performing NGOs should be dropped under the same guise. [See Schuftan. C., "Foreign aid: Giving conditionalities a good name (A development ethics with a South perspective)", D+C Development and Cooperation, No.4/1988]. All this may only add up to a start – and from the top at that. But it is a start in the right direction. The road ahead will, for sure, require our greatest boldness ever. Let the more creative inputs on ways out of the dead-end street of non-inequity-redressing schemes come from the more directly affected themselves. Devoting most of our energies to facilitate just that process, will, by itself, be a big leap forward. These seemingly abstract issues about which we write papers are matters determining the lives of millions of people. When all is said and done, a lot more is said than done. The facts discussed here are more than enough to allow us to go negotiate (or struggle) for new more radical equitable/pro-poor/pro-women/human rights-based strategies on the highest of moral grounds. Those whose interests we claim to serve expect it from us. Simonis U: IFDA Dossier. 1989, 73: 58 Hazel P: IFPRI News and Views, A 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture and the Environment. 1999 Bijoy CR: Mismanaging health. LINK (ACHAN). 1995, 13 (2): 15-17. Jonsson U: SCN News. 1999, 18: 81 Finance and Development (IMF). 1998, 35 (3): 2-5. Tandon Y: WTO: What strategies for the South?. South Letter. 1999, 3 (34): 14-16. Welford R: UNRISD News Autumn/Winter. 1997, 17: 7 Thomas C: You can't skate into a buffalo herd. World Watch. 1999, 12: 4 Tagwireyi J: SCN News. 1999, 18: 92 UNDP: Human Development Report. 1997 Anand A: Repetition or innovation?. Development Forum. 1988, XVI (5): 23-24. Morehouse W: Soul searching. Development Forum. 1988, XVI (4): 15 Robbins T: Jitterbug Perfume. Bantam Books New York. 1985 Lerner M: A new paradigm for liberals: The primacy of ethics and emotions. Tikkun. 1987, 2: 22–28-132–136. Shepperdson M: The Political Economy of Health in India. Chapter 16 of mimeo, Centre for Dev. Studies, Univ. College of Swansea, UK (undated). 304-370. Ray A: Perfecting tools to measure the alleviation of poverty. Chapter 2 in: The Impact of Development Projects on Poverty. Dev. Centre, OECD. 1989, 42-49. Barton C: Swaps are counterproductive. Development Forum. 1989, XVII (4): 3 Jaffe ED: The crisis in Jewish philanthropy. Tikkun. 1987, 2:4 (4): 30 Korten DC: Sustainable development: A review essay. World Pol J Winter. 159-190. 1991–1992 John P: Editorial. LINK (ACHAN). 1996, 13: 4 Gwatkin D: Poverty, Equity and Health in the Developing World: An Overview. World Bank. 1998, mimeo Follow-up to the Social Summit. UNRISD News Summer. 1999, 20: 7 Haddad L: SCN News. 1999, 18: 12-14. Jolly R: SCN News. 1999, 18: 11 Ramcharan B: SCN News. 1999, 18: 16 Hoeg P: An experiment in the constancy of love. In: Tales of the Night, Panther Books, Haverhill Press London. 1998, 120-121. Nieftagodien N: Globalization and social sciences in Africa. CODESRIA Bulletin. 1999, 1+2: 56-60. Nuscheler F: Development and Cooperation Magazine (DSE). 5-March 1998 About this article Cite this article Schuftan, C. Poverty and Inequity in the Era of Globalization: Our Need to Change and to Re-conceptualize. Int J Equity Health 2, 4 (2003) doi:10.1186/1475-9276-2-4 - Poverty Alleviation - Income Quintile - Political Clout - Great Equity - Bold Step

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The light pollution as a surrogate for urban population of the US cities We show that the definition of the city boundaries can have a dramatic influence on the scaling behavior of the night-time light (NTL) as a function of population (POP) in the US. Precisely, our results show that the arbitrary geopolitical definition based on the Metropolitan/Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSA/CMSA) leads to a sublinear power-law growth of NTL with POP. On the other hand, when cities are defined according to a more natural agglomeration criteria, namely, the City Clustering Algorithm (CCA), an isometric relation emerges between NTL and population. This discrepancy is compatible with results from previous works showing that the scaling behaviors of various urban indicators with population can be substantially different for distinct definitions of city boundaries. Moreover, considering the CCA definition as more adequate than the MSA/CMSA one because the former does not violate the expected extensivity between land population and area of their generated clusters, we conclude that, without loss of generality, the CCA measures of light pollution and population could be interchangeably utilized in future studies. More than 80% of the world and more than 90% of the US and European populations live under light-polluted skies (exposition to light at night) falchi2016 (). Since the first electric-powered illumination in the second half of the 19th century, the world has become covered by artificial electric light, changing drastically the night view of the Earth from space. The spreading of artificial electric light plays an important role on the duration of the productive day, not only for working but also for recreational activities. If in one hand the benefits of artificial light are quite evident, on the other hand, scientific researches suggest that the exposition to light at night could have adverse effects on both human and wildlife health kerenyi1990 (); blask2005 (); reiter2006 (); navara2007 (); reiter2007 (); chepesiuk2009 (); salgado-delgado2011 (); aube2013 (). For example, in humans, the pineal and blood melatonin rhythms are quickly disturbed by light pollution. Such studies argue that the night light exposure have two major physiological effects: they disrupt the circadian rhythms and suppress the production of melatonin salgado-delgado2011 (). This repeated suppression may have large consequences for the mammals health. For instance, it was shown that the suppression of the melatonin at night accelerates the metabolic activity and growth of rat hepatoma navara2007 () and human breast cancer blask2005 (). Moreover, the disruption of circadian rhythms made by the exposure of light at night might plays a crucial role in the etiology of depression salgado-delgado2011 (). The significant consequences of the exposure to night-time light (NTL) with the fact that 54% of world’s population lives in urban areas stimulates the interest in understanding how the light pollution evolves with the size of the US cities un2014 (). Bettencourt et al. found the cities in the US exhibit three different types of allometric laws for urban indicators with population size bettencourt2007 (): (i) Superlinear . The superlinear urban indicators increase proportionally more than the population of the cities. Such behavior is intrinsically associated with the social currency of a city, indicating that larger cities are associated with optimal levels of human productivity and quality of life. Doubling the city size leads to a larger-than-double increment in productivity and life standards bettencourt2007 (); bettencourt2010a (); Bettencourt2010b (). For example, wages, income, growth domestic product (GDP), bank deposits, as well as rates of invention measured by the number of patents and employment in creative sectors show a superlinear behavior bettencourt2007 (). (ii) Linear or isometric relation. The increasing of the linear urban indicators is proportional to the increasing of the population reflecting the common individual human needs, like the number of jobs, houses, and water consumption bettencourt2007 (). (iii) Sublinear. The sublinear urban indicators increase proportionally less than the population of the cities. This case is a manifestation of the economy of scale. The sublinearity is found in the number of gasoline stations, length of electrical cables, and road surfaces (material and infrastructure) cases bettencourt2007 (). From the results shown by Bettencourt et al., several studies have been carried out on the allometry of urban indicators in different levels of human aggregation melo2014 (); oliveira2014 (); bettencourt2016 (); caminha2017 (). Following this aim, we analyze and classify the allometric law between the NTL and the population of the US cities. Here, we use three geo-referenced dataset: the population dataset, the NTL dataset and the Metropolitan/Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA/CMSA). In order to define the boundaries of each US city, we use two methods: the City Clustering Algorithm (CCA) makse1995 (); rozenfeld2008 (); rozenfeld2011 () and the MSA/CMSA censusbureau2014 (). Finally, we find the allometric scaling between the NTL and the population for the two applied methods. Furthermore, to compare them, we analyze the allometric scaling between area and population. Materials and Method Population dataset (GPWv4) The population dataset is extracted from the fourth version of the Gridded Population of the World (GPWv4) doxsey-whitfield2015 (); sedac2016 () from the Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) at the Columbia University. The GPWv4 models the human population distribution on a continuous surface at high resolution. Population input data is collected through several censuses around the US, between 2005 and 2014. Data are provided in grid form, where each cell is formed by 30 arc-second angles (approximately 1 km 1 km at the Equator line). We use the US population count data, measured in number of people, for the year 2015, as depicted in Fig. 1a. The method successively introduced requires the population density of each grid cell. Therefore, we calculated the area of ââeach grid cell dividing them into two spherical triangles. The area of a spherical triangle with edges , and is given by, where km is the Earth’s radius and the spherical excess is defined by the following expression: with , , , and . In this context, the distance between two points, and , on the Earth’s surface is calculated by, In this formalism, the values of () and ( are the longitude and latitude, respectively, of the point (), measured in radians. Night-time light dataset (NTL) The NTL dataset is given by the night-time light radiance emission data from the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) ncei2016 (). The NTL dataset is defined by the monthly average of radiance, measured in , using the night-time data from the scanning radiometer Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) Day/Night Band (DNB) mills2013 (); ncei2016 (); viirs2016 (). The VIIRS DNB data are processed and filtered in order to exclude data impacted by the lunar illumination, lightning and cloud-cover, but they are susceptible to other temporal lights, e.g. aurora, fires, and boats mills2013 (); ncei2016 (). Such data span through the entire globe with a resolution of 15 arc-second (approximately 500 m 500 m at the Equator line) between the latitudes 75 North and 65 South. We use the US data for the year 2015 (April), as shown in Fig. 1b. Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area (PMSA) and Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA) The MSA are geographic entities with high degree of socioeconomic integration and population over 50,000 people. The PMSA are quite similar to MSA, however they present population over 1,000,000 people. The CMSA are metropolitan regions defined by the agglomeration of some PMSA. They are all delineated by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and provided by the US Census Bureau censusbureau2014 (). In order to superimpose the datasets, we perform two processes: (i) As the NTL grid has a higher resolution than the GPWv4 grid, we sum the values of all NTL grid cells, which their geolocated centers are within the same geolocated GPWv4 grid cell. Therefore, we produce a new NTL grid with the same positioning and resolution of the GPWv4 dataset; (ii) For the MSA/CMSA case, we use the same approach of (i), even though the MSA/CMSA are complex polygons. To deal with this problem, we use the even-odd rule algorithm shimrat1962 (). Thus, we define the NTL value for each MSA/CMSA. City Clustering Algorithm (CCA) We define the boundaries of each US city by applying the CCA to the population grid makse1995 (); rozenfeld2008 (); rozenfeld2011 (). We use the continuum CCA that depends on two parameters, namely, a population density threshold, and a cutoff length, rozenfeld2011 (). For the -th grid cell, the population density is geo-referenced in its geometric center (shown as small black circles in Fig. 2). If , the -th grid cell is populated. In Fig. 2 the populated cells are shown in grey and red. Next, the algorithm selects a populated cell (red cell in Fig. 2a) and aggregates in the same cluster all nearest populated cells which are within a distance from each (red cells in Figs. 2b, 2c and 2d). The Fig. 2 shows the four steps to determine the red cluster. We apply the CCA to the population grid varying (in ), from 0 to 10000, and (in ), from 1 to 20. For all pairs of parameters, we find that it is possible to statistically correlate through power-law relations the area and the population as well as the NTL and the population of the US cities, The exponents and are obtained through Ordinary Least Square (OLS) montgomery2015 () fitting to the data for different values of the parameters and . The ranges of compatibility and the consistency of the CCA technique are investigated in Figs. 3a-d. Indeed, the definition of the parameters and of the CCA affects the dimension and the geometry of the cities, but from the Figs. 3c and 3d, it can be seen that it does not affect the allometric exponent . Here, our starting strategy is to determine a range of parameters and for which the relation between area and population is isometric rozenfeld2008 (); rozenfeld2011 (); oliveira2014 (); caminha2017 (). We find that for and the allometric exponent is between and and we consider this relation approximately linear. Inside this range, we analyze the result of the CCA using and , where the five larger cities in the US Northeast Coast naturally emerge, as depicted in Fig. 4. We believe that, the lack of an exactly linearity, also inside this range, is due to the high density of some downtowns, specifically, of the most populated urban centers of the US Northeast Coast. For the pair of parameters, and , we find a allometric exponent (Figs. 5a) and a linear scaling between NTL and the population with exponent (Figure 6a). Alternatively, others parameters inside this range could be analyzed without affecting the allometric exponent (as shown in Figs. 3c and 3d). By analyzing the allometric scaling of the NTL with the population of the US cities using the MSA/CMSA (Fig. 6b), we obtain the allometric exponent . Such an exponent characterizes a sublinear relation between the NTL and the population, in contrast with the CCA result. As shown in Fig. 5b, the sublinear scaling behavior of the MSA/CMSA areas as a function of their corresponding populations, , clearly suggests that this might not be the most adequate definition of a city agglomerate to be adopted in our study. As indicated by Oliveira et al. oliveira2014 (), the arbitrary geopolitical concept behind the MSA/CMSA seems to overestimate the natural limits of urban areas. In order to illustrate this fact, we show in Fig. 7 the MSA/CMSA of the five most populated US regions, namely, New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island (NY, NJ, CT, PA), Los Angeles-Riverside-Orange County (CA), Chicago-Gary-Kenosha (IL,IN,WI) and Houston-Galveston-Brazoria (TX). The first and second columns show respectively the detailed maps of the population and the NTL datasets. The third column exhibits the cities defined by the CCA with =4560 and =3, as well as the discrepancy between the urban areas belonging to MSA/CMSA and CCA. We analyzed the allometric scaling behavior of the NTL as a function of the population of the US cities. Our results corroborate previous works showing that the scaling behaviors of urban indicators with population can be substantially different for distinct definitions of city boundaries. Precisely, using the MSA/CMSA definition, we found a sublinear allometric scaling exponent . Applying the CCA, we found an exponent which indicates an isometric relation between the light pollution and the population of the US urban agglomerations, in clear contrast with the exponent obtained using the MSA/CMSA. Considering the consistency of the CCA definition in terms of the extensivity between land population and area of their generated clusters, as demonstrated in previous studies for other urban indicators oliveira2014 (), we come to the conclusion that the proportionality between light pollution and population is indeed correct, as intuitively expected li2015 (). Under this framework and without loss of generality, it is therefore plausible to utilize NTL as a surrogate for city population in future studies. The isometric relation between NTL and population of the US urban agglomeration, obtained applying the CCA, imply that small and large cities are proportionally indistinguishable in terms of light pollution. In other words, there is no economy of scale or sublinearity concerning the NTL in US cities. Our result shows that a growth of the US cities will aggravate the light pollution and therefore the possible negative effects of the light pollution for the humans and the wildlife health. We gratefully acknowledge CNPq, CAPES, FUNCAP and the National Institute of Science and Technology for Complex Systems in Brazil for financial support. We especially thank our colleagues and friends H. P. M. Melo and T. A. Amor for the help and the discussions. - (1) F. Falchi, P. Cinzano, D. Duriscoe, C. C. M. Kyba, C. D. Elvidge, K. Baugh, B. A. 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Glue ear is one of the most common childhood illnesses, and occurs when the middle ear becomes filled with sticky fluid. It’s usually temporary and often linked with ear infections, but long-term glue ear can affect children's hearing and speech development. What is glue ear? Glue ear happens when the middle ear (behind the eardrum) becomes filled with sticky fluid. Otitis media with effusion (OME) is the medical name for glue ear. It’s very common – 1 in 5 pre-school children have glue ear at any one time and 8 out of 10 children will experience glue ear before the age of 10. For ears to work properly the middle ear needs to be kept full of air. The air travels through the eustachian tube which runs from the middle ear to the back of the throat. In children this tube is not as vertical and wide as it will be when they get older and as a result doesn’t work as well. If the eustachian tube becomes blocked, air cannot enter the middle ear. When this happens, the cells lining the middle ear begin to produce fluid. This is a runny liquid which can get thicker as it fills the middle ear. If your child has glue ear your GP may describe their ear or ears as being ‘congested’. With fluid blocking the middle ear, it becomes harder for sound to pass through to the inner ear, making quieter sounds difficult to hear. Glue ear can affect one or both ears. Fore more information, download our booklet Glue Ear: A guide for parents. Many things can contribute to glue ear, such as colds and flu, allergies and passive smoking. It’s often but not always linked with ear infections. Children with cleft palate, or with genetic conditions such as Down's syndrome, may be more likely to get glue ear as they often have smaller eustachian tubes that don’t function well. Parents, Scott and Siobhan, talk to us about what it's like for their son, Bayley, to have a cleft palate, his glue ear operation and hearing loss in our video. Spot the signs of glue ear - Changes in behaviour. - Becoming tired. - A lack of concentration. - Preferring to play alone. - Not responding when called. These signs can often be mistaken for stubbornness, rudeness and being naughty. You could ask your child’s teacher, or other people your child has had recent close contact with, if they’ve noticed any of these signs. Glue ear (otitis media with effusion) can cause temporary deafness and a prolonged period of time with reduced hearing can affect children’s speech and language development, for example, parts of words may not be pronounced clearly. They may also fall behind at school if they don’t have extra support. What should I do if I think my child has glue ear? Arrange an appointment with your GP. Often glue ear is associated with a heavy cold and will clear up when the congestion from the cold has gone. Your GP will examine your child’s ears and should be able to tell if they have glue ear. They may describe your child’s ear or ears as ‘congested’. If there is any pain or sign of infection your GP may prescribe a course of antibiotics. It’s likely that your child won’t receive any treatment for the first three months, but they should be monitored by your GP, known as ‘watchful waiting’. If the symptoms continue your GP, health visitor or school nurse can refer you to the audiology or ear, nose and throat (ENT) department at your local hospital. How do they test for glue ear? An audiologist will examine your child’s ears and a further assessment will be carried out. This will include a tympanometry test, which measures how well the eardrum can move. If there is fluid in the middle ear the eardrum won’t move properly. A graph (called a tympanogram) will show the results straight away. A hearing test should also be done to check if the glue ear is affecting your child’s hearing and by how much. These tests are very quick and are completely painless. The audiologist should explain the results of all the tests and discuss the best way to manage your child’s symptoms. It’s a good idea to monitor the glue ear with repeated tests at least three months apart. For most children, the glue ear will clear up in this time. If it hasn’t, you may be offered grommets or temporary hearing aids. It’s known that breast milk provides essential nutrients to help children to fight off infections in the first few months of their life. Breastfeeding also passes on the mother’s natural protection against illness. Research has shown that children who have been breastfed from birth are less likely to get glue ear at a young age. Ask your GP or health visitor for more information. It may help to feed your baby (either breastfeeding or with a bottle) in a sitting position rather than lying flat. This helps prevent fluids entering the eustachian tube during feeding. Research carried out by the Department of Health has shown that all children are more likely to get ear infections and glue ear if they’re often in a smoky environment. A child is likely to experience glue ear for as long as the environment remains smoky. Parents should try to make their children’s environment smoke-free e.g. the home and car. If it’s not possible to make the environment entirely smoke-free, then smoking should be confined to an area not used much by children. It’s important to remember that simply opening a window is not enough, as many dangerous smoke particles will stay in the air. Research suggests that allergy may be related to persistent glue ear in some children. You can ask your GP about testing your child for allergies or referral to an NHS allergy clinic if you think this might be the cause. Allergies to fur, pollen, dust mites or some foods may cause the eustachian tube to swell and this can prevent fluid from draining from the middle ear. For more information on allergy, you may like to contact the charity Allergy UK. Most cases of glue ear will clear up by themselves, but a temporary hearing loss as a result of a prolonged episode of glue ear can affect a child’s speech and language development and you may also notice a change in their behaviour. You should take your child to see your GP who will examine your child’s ears and see if they have glue ear. Your GP may monitor your child to see if the glue ear resolves by itself. If it doesn’t, your GP will refer your child to the audiology or ear, nose and throat (ENT) department at your local hospital for a hearing test. If your child is diagnosed with glue ear and their hearing is affected, the audiology or ENT department at the hospital will monitor the glue ear over a period of three months. This is known as ‘watchful waiting’. At the end of this period, your child’s hearing will be retested to see if the glue ear has resolved. If there’s no improvement, surgical intervention, such as grommets, or hearing aids may be offered. Grommets are tiny plastic tubes that are put in the eardrum. They allow air to circulate in the middle ear and help to reduce the fluid from further building up. This is usually done as a day case and is a short operation in hospital under general anaesthetic. The grommets are inserted after the fluid in the middle ear has been drained away. A discharge (occasionally blood-stained) may occur for a couple of days immediately after the operation. After this time there shouldn’t be any discharge. If there is, you should see your GP for advice and antibiotic drops. Any prolonged discharge from the ear should be assessed by your ear, nose and throat (ENT) doctor. Grommets usually stay in for around 6–12 months until the eardrum has healed and pushed them out. Sometimes the fluid comes back and another grommet operation may be considered. Our comic for children under 10, Harvey Gets Grommets, explains why Harvey gets grommets, what happens when he visits the doctor, and what happens at the hospital when the grommets are put in. [link to resource] Swimming and bathing with grommets Your ENT doctor will recommend keeping your child’s ears dry for the first 2–4 weeks immediately following the surgery. After this, most children with grommets don't need to take any special precautions and can swim and bath as usual with grommets in. There are a few children who may be at a particular risk of infection due to water entering the ear. If your child is one of these, your ENT doctor may suggest some of the following precautions. - Try to avoid your child diving or jumping into the water as this increases the outside pressure and forces water through the grommet into the middle ear. - Use earplugs and neoprene headbands, such as www.earbandit.co.uk. - Try to get your child to wear a swimming cap. - Avoid your child swimming in lakes or non-chlorinated pools. The water in these places usually has a high bacteria count and infection is more likely to occur. - Be careful when washing your child’s hair. Soapy water is able to slip more easily through the grommet into the middle ear. If the water is dirty it will infect it. With your child sitting upright in the bath, wash their hair first before body washing. Tilt their head back and rinse with clean water, then apply a shower cap. This way your child can play in the bath without getting dirty, soapy water in their ears. Otovent nasal balloon The Otovent nasal balloon (also known as nasal balloon autoinflation) is a non-surgical, drug-free treatment option for glue ear. Autoinflation is a method of encouraging the eustachian tube to open. This can help drain the ear naturally through the eustachian tube, by forcing air from the back of the throat to the middle ear. The Otovent is suitable for children from three years old. It consists of a balloon and a nosepiece. This treatment involves fitting the balloon to the nosepiece, putting the nosepiece against one nostril and keeping the other nostril and mouth closed. By blowing through the nostril, the balloon is inflated until it’s about the size of a grapefruit. The nosepiece is removed and the procedure repeated with the other nostril. The Otovent may be helpful for some older children during the watchful waiting period or while waiting for grommet surgery. Otovents are available on prescription. Ask your GP or ENT consultant about whether they think it will be suitable for your child. Hearing aids are devices designed to make sounds louder. They are used on a temporary basis for glue ear while waiting either for the glue ear to resolve or for grommet surgery. For children who have repeated problems with glue ear or are unable to have grommet surgery, hearing aids can be very helpful. Good quality, digital hearing aids are available free of charge for all children on the NHS. Your child may also be offered a bone conduction hearing implant. Read about Cody who still has glue ear at the age of 12. In 2008, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) published guidance about treatments for glue ear for the NHS in England and Wales. NICE currently recommends grommets or hearing aids as effective treatments. For some treatments, there may be very little or poor quality evidence available. Some may also be offered by the alternative or complementary health sector, which doesn't tend to produce the type of scientific evidence reviewed by NICE. They found the following treatments to be ineffective or lacked sufficient evidence to be formally considered effective. It’s believed that your child’s diet can affect the amount of mucus their body produces. Dairy products (made from cow’s milk) and a high amount of sugar in a child's diet can increase the amount of mucus the body makes. A build-up of mucus may be a cause of glue ear. It’s important that a child has a balanced diet. If you think it may help to reduce the amount of cow’s milk in your child’s diet but you’re worried about your child lacking calcium, consider alternatives, such as broccoli, which are naturally high in calcium and calcium-enriched dairy alternative products. Always ask your GP for advice before changing your child’s diet. Eating more healthy food with plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables, grains and lean meat or fish may help. You can also ask to see a registered dietician. Homeopathy is a type of care used to treat a wide range of conditions, including glue ear. It may help to stimulate the body’s own immune system by using tiny doses of natural substances. It’s often used to complement other forms of healthcare. For more information, contact the British Homeopathic Association at: 49-51 East Road All doctors who are listed practitioners with the British Homeopathic Association are registered with the General Medical Council and have undertaken training in homeopathy at a faculty-accredited postgraduate teaching centre. Osteopathy is a system of diagnosing and treating conditions, concentrating on the body's structure. This treatment can help to realign muscle tissue, bones and joints, allowing the body to function effectively and in doing so, may relieve pain and ailments. For information about osteopathy and to find a registered osteopath who specialises in treating children in your area, contact the General Osteopathic Council. The General Osteopathic Council registers qualified osteopaths and sets standards of osteopathic practice and conduct. Their aims are to protect patients, to develop the osteopathic profession and promote an understanding of osteopathic care. Phone: 020 7357 6655 (voice) The line is open between 9am and 5pm, Monday to Friday The Osteopathic Centre for Children (OCC) is a registered charity that offers osteopathic treatment to children up to the age of 18 for a wide range of conditions. The OCC has clinics in London. For more information contact: The Osteopathic Centre for Children (London) 22a Point Pleasant Phone: 0208 875 5290 (voice) The line is open between 9am and 5.45pm, Monday to Friday Xylitol is a plant-based product, which is usually used as a sweetener in food. It’s lower in calories than sugar and can be used by diabetics. Xylitol has been shown to inhibit the type of bacteria that can be a cause of tooth decay and ear infections. Clinical trials have shown that xylitol-based chewing gum, when used regularly, may reduce ear infections and glue ear. In the UK, xylitol can be found in small amounts in some types of chewing gum, children's vitamins and toothpaste. Other xylitol products currently available in the United States include granules, nasal sprays and sweets. A nasal spray containing xylitol has been developed and is available from health food and vitamins and supplements suppliers and online. For more information, talk to your GP or ENT consultant. There is also a US website www.xlear.com with more information and for the history of xylitol and its effects, you can visit http://www.xlear.com/what-is-xylitol. Support at school for children with glue ear Children’s hearing can be affected for long periods of time while waiting to see if the glue ear clears up naturally or while on the waiting list to have the grommet operation or hearing aids. Some children will have glue ear for long periods that may persist through secondary school, so it’s important that your child’s speech and education doesn’t suffer. If the glue ear persists and leads to children experiencing mild hearing loss, research shows that it can have a major impact on their development, but fortunately, there are lots of things that schools can do to support children with mild hearing loss. As a starting point, talk to your child’s teacher or the person who has been designated by the school to identify children with special or additional educational needs to ask for extra support at school. In England, this person is known as a Special Educational Needs Coordinator (SENCO). You could also talk to a Teacher of the Deaf (ToD) from the local authority specialist education service for deaf children. The school aren’t taking my child’s glue ear seriously Many parents of children with glue ear have told us that their child’s school doesn’t understand the impact glue ear can have on their child’s academic and speech and language development. They don’t always do enough to support children with glue ear. The law (Children and Families Act 2014) requires that schools in England take steps to support children with medical conditions. Glue ear can be regarded as a ‘medical condition’. Schools must also follow government guidance called Supporting children with medical conditions. This guidance requires schools to make sure that: - children with medical conditions are supported so that they have full access to education, including to physical education and school trips - staff receive appropriate training - there is someone in charge of how the school supports children with medical conditions - they have a policy that sets out how they will support children with medical conditions (this should be readily available). If you’re concerned about the support that your child is receiving, make sure that the school is clear that your child has a medical condition. Ask them how they’ll make sure they are meeting the requirements of the government guidance. The Welsh Government has produced guidance for schools on children with medical conditions. If you live in Scotland, your child may be regarded as having ‘additional support needs’. Schools in Scotland are required to provide support for these children, even if this support is only needed for a short while. The Enquire website has more information on additional support for learning and on your rights in this area. If your child’s glue ear is lasting for a long time and impacting on their education, they may be regarded as having special or additional educational needs. Schools and other education providers should provide special or additional educational support. Find out more about getting additional support at school. If your child’s glue ear is likely to, or has, lasted for at least 12 months, without clearing up, then your child may be regarded as having a disability under the Equality Act. This means that schools and other education providers in England, Scotland and Wales must ensure they take steps to prevent discrimination and also proactively provide support to counter any disadvantage that your child may experience. Find out more about the Equality Act and your child’s education. Northern Ireland has its own anti-discrimination legislation: - The Special Educational Needs and Disability (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SENDO) - The Disability Discrimination (Northern Ireland) Order 2006. To find out more information on disability legislation in Northern Ireland call the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland on 028 90 890 890 or visit their website. What you can do - Explain to your child’s teacher and/or SENCO that although glue ear is usually temporary, your child is deaf and needs extra help. Show them your child’s most recent audiogram so the school understands what your child can and can’t hear. - Seek advice from the local authority specialist education service for deaf children, who employ teams of Teachers of the Deaf (ToDs). Not all services provide direct support to children with temporary or mild hearing loss but they should provide the school with guidance and information. If your child has a hearing aid, they should have a ToD. - Tell them about us! The National Deaf Children’s Society supports children with all types of hearing loss, including glue ear, and has lots of information for professionals who work with deaf children. - Share our resources with your child’s teacher (and anyone else who works closely with your child) to help them understand how glue ear or mild hearing loss affects children in the classroom and what steps they can do to help make listening and learning easier. - Encourage your child’s teacher to share our deaf awareness tips and resources with the other children so that they know how to communicate with, and include, your child. - Explain the benefits of reducing background noise in the classroom as much as possible. - Ensure that staff and pupils know how to communicate clearly and effectively with your child. - Check that there has been an assessment of your child’s needs. - Create a personal passport or profile that summarises all the most important information about your child so that school can support your child in the best way possible. - Your child might need special educational needs (SEN) support. If you’re still concerned that your child’s school isn’t doing enough or that your child is falling behind at school, contact our Freephone Helpline for support and guidance on what to do next. Generally children with glue ear (otitis media with effusion) don’t experience problems flying, although sometimes doctors don’t recommend it depending on the current condition of the ears. The build-up of fluid in the middle ear can expand during take-off and, more commonly, landing due to changes in cabin pressure, causing discomfort. The risk is the fluid expands so much the eardrum perforates; if this happens a doctor should prescribe antibiotics but there is normally no long-term damage. Before flying, we strongly recommend seeing your GP who may prescribe decongestant medication. Eating and drinking during take-off and landing will help open your child’s eustachian tubes and prevent discomfort. Special ear plugs known as ‘EarPlanes’ (available from pharmacies) can help to reduce discomfort from changes in air pressure.

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- Research article - Open Access - Open Peer Review Knowledge, perception about antiretroviral therapy (ART) and prevention of mother-to-child-transmission (PMTCT) and adherence to ART among HIV positive women in the Ashanti Region, Ghana: a cross-sectional study BMC Women's Health volume 13, Article number: 2 (2013) Mother-to-Child Transmission (MTCT) has been identified as the greatest means of HIV infection among children. Adherence to antiretroviral drugs is necessary to prevent drug resistance and MTCT of HIV among HIV positive women. However, there is a gap in clients’ knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and Prevention of Mother-To-Child Transmission (PMTCT) which influence their decision to adhere to ART. The study was a descriptive cross-sectional employing both qualitative and quantitative methods. The study involved 229 HIV positive women in reproductive age (18 – 49 years) and had been on ART for at least six months. Fourteen health workers were also included in the qualitative study. Respondents were selected from three ART centers in the Kumasi Metropolis through systematic random sampling from August to November 2011. HIV positive women who had consistently missed two or more ART appointments within the previous two months were classified as defaulters. Data was analyzed with SPSS 19 and STATA 11. Logistic regression was run to assess the odds ratios at 95% confidence level. The ART defaulter rate was 27% and clients had good knowledge about ART and PMTCT. More than 90% of the HIV positive women had inadequate knowledge about ART and PMTCT and these women were more likely to default ART (OR = 3.5; 95% CI = 1.89, 6.21). The educational background of HIV positive women did not have significant influence on their knowledge of ART and PMTCT. Mothers, knowledge and understanding of ART and PMTCT could influence their adherence to ART. Educational interventions which target the understanding of both the literate and illiterate women in society are necessary to develop positive behaviors and enhance adherence to ART. HIV remains the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan African and HIV infection among children has mainly been through Mother-To-Child-Transmission (MTCT) . However, the most effective way of preventing MTCT of HIV is to prevent infection in women of reproductive age. Nearly 16 million women are living with HIV with 1.4 million pregnant women at risk of passing along HIV to their children each year . In Sub-Saharan Africa, the continent most ravaged by the epidemic, females are close to 60% of those infected with the virus and form 75% of infected 15–24 year olds. In Ghana, the level of HIV infection in 2009 was nearly 3 times higher among young women (1.3%) than young men (0.5%) and in 2010, new infections of HIV among females were higher than males (7,039 vs 5,852) [4, 5]. This growing feminization of the HIV pandemic does not only reflect women’s greater physiological vulnerability to infection, but also their social and psychological vulnerability created by a set of interrelated economic, socio-cultural and legal factors . In Ghana, Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) services are based on the United Nations adopted recommendations from the Inter-Agency Task Team (IATT) on prevention of MTCT of HIV for the implementation of a comprehensive four-pronged strategic approach . This comprises; primary prevention of HIV among women of reproductive age; prevention of unintended pregnancies among women living with HIV; prevention of HIV transmission from women living with HIV to their babies; and provision of appropriate treatment, care and support to mothers living with HIV and their families . Though awareness of HIV and AIDS have been high since 2003, where 98% of women and 99% of men were reportedly aware of HIV, comprehensive knowledge on HIV and AIDS, appropriate prevention and non-stigmatizing behaviour have been lagging behind . In 2008, the Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (GDHS) showed that only 28.3% of female respondents age 15–24 and 34.2% of men had comprehensive knowledge about HIV and AIDS. There has thus been little progress along this front . Patients’ knowledge and practices on HIV/AIDS, PMTCT and ARTs have been shown to influence their motivation and uptake of ARVs for PMTCT [10, 11]. As reported by Wenger et al. , a good level of understanding about HIV by the patient, a belief that ART is effective and prolongs life and recognition that poor adherence may result in viral resistance and treatment failure, could impact favorably upon his/her ability to adhere. Conversely, lack of interest in becoming knowledgeable about HIV and a belief that ART may in fact cause harm adversely affect adherence . Previous studies on the continent have found mothers knowledge on PMTCT to be low [13, 14]. Knowledge of HIV, ART and PMTCT could however be influenced by interplay of socio-economic and other cultural factors including clients’ educational level . A higher level of education has a positive impact on patient’s ability to adhere to ART . This paper sought to (i) assess the level of knowledge and perceptions of clients on ART and PMTCT and (ii) determine the extent of influence of clients’ knowledge level on accessing ART. A descriptive cross sectional study involving the use of both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques was employed. The study was conducted in Kumasi, the capital city of the Ashanti region and the second largest city in Ghana. The metropolis is bounded in the north by Kwabre, Bosomtwe and Atwima Kwanwoma to the south; on the east is Ejisu and Atwima is on the west of the metropolis. The Kumasi metropolis is the largest of the twenty-seven (27) political divisions (metropolis, municipality, districts) in Ashanti Region. It has an estimated population of 1,430,241 with an annual growth rate of 3.4%. The population is distributed in about seventy-six (76) communities in the metropolis. The Ashanti Region has 152 PMTCT centres and 21 ART centers. There are eight ART centres in the Kumasi Metropolis. As of 2010, the Ashanti Region was second with 3.9% to Eastern Region (4.2%) in the prevalence of HIV in the country with the prevalence being higher in the urban cities than the rural communities . Study population and sample The study was conducted in ART centres across Kumasi. The study population consisted of consenting HIV positive women who had been put on ARVs for treatment or prophylaxis (receiving ARVs for PMTCT) for at least six months, aged 18 to 49 years. A total of 206 women were randomly selected for the study from the ART centres at the various facilities for the quantitative study. The sample was selected in two (2) stages. Three facilities were selected out of a total of eight (8) ART centres in the Metropolis. All the names of the eight centres were numbered and put in a bowl and three; Suntreso Government Centre, Aninwaa Medical Centre and Kumasi South Government Hospital were selected without replacement. Systematic random sampling technique using the average weekly attendance was used to select respondents through exit interviews. Administrative records, which included the pharmacy refill, register and medical consultation appointment visits were also reviewed. In the qualitative study, a total of 23 HIV positive women and 14 health workers were involved. These were included in three Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with 8 participants each at Suntreso and Kumasi South Hospitals and 7 participants at the Aninwaa Hospital. The health workers participated in in-depth interviews. Data collection and statistical analysis The quantitative data collection was done with structured questionnaire. Questionnaires and interview guides were pre-tested to check for clarity, consistency and acceptability of the questions to respondents. Following this, the necessary corrections were made and questionnaires finalized for the actual field work. All questionnaires and interview results from the field were checked for completeness and internal errors during data collection. Questionnaires were then sorted, numbered and coded before entering using SPSS software. Data was analyzed using SPSS 19 and STATA 11. The main outcome of the study was respondents’ knowledge level on ART and PMTCT. Responses on the various questions to test for knowledge were coded as “yes”, “no” or “don’t know”. HIV positive women who had consistently missed two or more ART appointments within the previous two months were classified as defaulters. General knowledge level was computed by respondents’ total correct responses from the various issues posed to test for knowledge. Respondents who accepted all correct responses were grouped having “adequate knowledge” and vice versa. Bivariate associations and 95% confidence intervals were used to access the influence of selected socio demographic characteristics on the knowledge level of the women. The demographic factors included age, marital status (single and married), religion and educational level. The educational level was classified into formal (respondents who had ever completed a structural and certified school program). Single marital status involved women who had never married, divorced or widowed. The median time on ART for study population was 15 months. Data was obtained through FGDs and in-depth interviews with key informants using tape recorders and interview guides. Interviews and the FGDs were carried out in quiet and discreet locations in the hospital’s outpatient department and were conducted and audio-taped in the local language. Tapes were transcribed verbatim in Twi and then back-translated into English. Spot checks of interview and FGD transcripts and translations were regularly conducted to ensure the completeness of the transcription and the accuracy of the translation. Qualitative data was analyzed using Atlas.ti. A preliminary analysis of interviews was done and used for validation of results and further exploration using focus group interviews. Ethical clearance for the study was obtained from the Committee on Human Research, Publications and Ethics (CHPRE), the institutional Review Board of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) and Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital (KATH). Participants were given consent form to sign and had all their concerns and questions answered before data collection began. Anonymity and confidentially of the participants was assured since there was no inclusion of any identifiers or incriminating information on participants. Translators were used for participants who could not read the English language. Socio demographic characteristics Respondents’ ages ranged between18 and 49 years with a mean age of 35 (standard deviation =7.2). Majority of the respondents (87%) were Christians and more than half (55%) were married. Eighty-seven percent of the husbands had formal education and 84% were employed. Majority of the respondents had completed Junior Secondary school while 21% had no formal education. More than two thirds were employed (70%) and earned less than GHS 200.00 ($105.46) monthly. Knowledge on PMTCT and ART The analysis of data indicated that, in most items respondents had good knowledge about HIV/AIDS, PMTCT and ARVs. The percentages of 'true' responses for most of the knowledge items were higher than 'false' and 'don't know'. Respondents’ knowledge on the mode of transmission of HIV was very high. Almost all the respondents knew that transmission was through sexual intercourse (98.5%) and the use of unsterilized instrument (96.6%). The rest included blood transfusion, (91.3%) and 87.7% believed transmission could be through mother to child transmission (vertical). Fifteen percent of respondents still held the view that transmission could be through spiritual means, Table 1. Majority of the respondents (92%) perceived that mother-to-child transmission of HIV/AIDS was possible, whereas (1%) did not consider that as a possibility. Few (7.3%) did not know if MTCT of HIV was possible. As detailed in Table 1, vast majority of those who perceived that mother-to-child transmission is possible, had good knowledge about the means of MTCT. More than 90% knew MTCT could be intra-uterine, 81.1% during delivery and 98.4% through breastfeeding. Knowledge on PMTCT and ART was also good among respondents. As high as 88% knew that vertical transmission was preventable whiles 7.2% did not know that MTCT was preventable. On ART, 62% knew that ART is not given to cure HIV/AIDS and almost all the respondents (97.6%) knew that ARVs can be effective only on optimal adherence. In the qualitative study, some respondents still had negative perceptions about the causes of HIV/AIDS. Few thought HIV is by bewitchment and they have been seeking spiritual intervention at prayer camps and spiritualists. “I believe the only means I might have gotten the disease was spiritual because I brought my husband and children to test after I was tested positive and none of them had got it. I have not committed adultery and I don’t go to the hairdresser's salon. I believe someone bought it for me spiritually.” (ARV user, Kumasi South Government Hospital). Most of the respondents had good knowledge on PMTCT and ARVs. Most of the women stated that, the drugs makes the virus weak and unable to attack their immune system. “The drug acts like a cup to cover the virus and prevents them from acting so I only need to take it always to keep them where they are, and I can live as long as God wants me to” (ARV user, Suntreso Government Hospital). “When I tested positive, I was referred to this place to take ARVs. I know I need the drugs to prevent my baby from getting infected and this is very important to me so I make sure I come whenever I'm supposed to” (ARV user, Aninwaa Hospital). The health workers highlighted on the institution of adherence counseling to counsel clients on the benefit of adherence and the dangers of defaulting ART. They disclosed how this has improved adherence. “All clients go through adherence counseling before initiating ARVs. When they default along the way, they begin counseling all over for three weeks and this has been discouraging defaulting because they don’t want to go through that so they always make sure they come when it is time.” (Prescriber, Kumasi South Hospital). Influence of knowledge on PMTCT and ART on default of ART As shown in Figure 1, only 17 respondents provided correct responses to all questions to tease out level of knowledge of ART and PMTCT. This constituted only 11% of those who had never defaulted ART and 8% of total respondents. Defaulting rate was significantly higher among HIV positive women with inadequate knowledge on PMTCT and ART as compared to those with adequate knowledge (29% versus 0%), Table 2. Women with inadequate knowledge were 3.5 times more likely to default ART as compared to those with adequate knowledge and this difference was statistically significant (OR = 3.5; p < 0.01), Table 2. Influence of socio-demographic characteristics on knowledge level of PMTCT and ART In a comparative analysis (Table 3), adequate knowledge was higher among clients aged beyond 44 years (10%) and clients who were married had higher level of adequate knowledge as compared to those who were not married (11% vrs 5%) although this was not statistically significant. Percentage of HIV positive women with adequate knowledge were 9% among those with formal education and 6% among those with no formal education. Adequate knowledge was again higher among the Christians than the Muslims although this difference did not reach significant levels (10% vrs 0%). Fifty-five respondents representing 27% had missed their ART appointment within the previous two months whiles 73% had never missed an ART appointment. The defaulter rate among respondents was 26.9% in Suntreso Government Hospital, 24.4% in Kumasi South Government Hospital and 31.0% in Aninwaa, Figure 2. Earlier studies postulated a positive relationship between knowledge level and utilization of services [12–14]. However, there is little evidence of the influence of the knowledge and perceptions of ART and PMTCT of HIV positive women on their utilization of PMTCT services in Kumasi Metropolis, which is needed to inform the design of new intervention and uptake of existing ones. We explored the knowledge and perception and their predisposing factors through interviews with 229 women who were HIV positives. The general defaulting rate was 27% with variations in the rates at the various facilities. This was much lower and inconsistent with estimates of average rates of adherence to ART in many different social and cultural settings which range from 50% to 70% [16–20]. Generally, respondents had good knowledge on ART and PMTCT and this could be partly due to the institution of counseling as part of the programme, where new clients are taken through the benefits of adhering to ART, the problems associated with defaulting ART and issues relating to PMTCT. The respondents who had achieved optimal access cited the need to adhere to treatment to ensure effectiveness of the drug as a reason for always coming for ART appointment. This to some extent implies that the counseling had been very beneficial to the patients. Only 8% of respondents however had adequate knowledge on ART and PMTCT. Patient’s knowledge and practices on HIV/AIDS, PMTCT and ARTs influenced their motivation and uptake of antiretrovirals for PMTCT. HIV positive clients with inadequate knowledge in this study were significantly more likely to miss ART appointments as compared to those with adequate knowledge. As indicated in the study by Wenger et al. , HIV patients are less likely to miss ART appointments when they have a good knowledge of the etiology of the disease and understand that ART is effective upon adherence. This is also supported by studies by Catz et al. and Duff et al. , where knowledge level was statistically significantly associated with access to ART (p < 0.001). The result was in line with a report by Dzokoto , which indicated that knowledge on HIV and AIDS has been increasing since 2003, where 98% of women and 99% of men were reportedly aware of HIV. The result was also consistent with a recent study , where knowledge on PMTCT was high among the women studied. In that study, majority of the mothers knew that it was possible to reduce the risk of transmission during pregnancy (82.2%) and the breastfeeding period (71.6%). Eighty-eight percent knew vertical transmission is preventable and 85% knew it can be done through giving ART. However, only 34% were aware that delivering through cesarean section (C/S) has the possibility of reducing vertical transmission of HIV/AIDS. Breastfeeding approximately doubles the risk of mother-to-child transmission and HIV positive mothers’ knowledge of breastfeeding as a means of MTCT is necessary to inform their decision to breastfeed or not. In populations where breastfeeding continues into the second year, the risk of transmission through breastfeeding increases by about an additional 15-20%, in absolute terms. The risk of transmission during breastfeeding is more or less constant and continues as long as breastfeeding continues, at a rate of approximately 1% per month of breastfeeding . The knowledge on C/S as a means of preventing MTCT was low among the women. Other factors exerting an independent effect on MTCT include pre-term delivery, rupture of membranes (every hour of membrane rupture increases the risk of infection by 4%) . HIV positive women must be aware of C-section as means of PMTCT although it could not be recommended as an option in resource limited settings. Elective caesarean delivery before labor and rupture of the membranes reduces the transmission risk by approximately half [22, 23]. A lower level of general education and poorer literacy may impact negatively on some patients’ ability to adhere, and vice versa. Women with formal education were adequately knowledgeable about ART and PMTCT as compared to those without formal education. This could impact positively on their ability to adhere since they understand the ART, PMTCT and the need for them to adhere to ensure the effectiveness of the drug and also to prevent transmission to their babies when pregnant. This could be due to the fact that current educational packages are more understood and acceptable to the literate and they are also more able to read and understand educational materials. Most sensitization media including bill boards, TV adverts and leaflets as part of the social marketing campaign strategies are conducted in English language making it difficult for the illiterate in society to understand. This demands redesigning of educational interventions that targets both the literate and illiterate women. Some respondents still held the opinion that HIV is a spiritual disease and therefore there is the need to seek spiritual interventions. Some defaulters cited “use of alternative medicines “as a reason for not going for antiretroviral sand others sleep in prayer camps. This causes them to default most often. However as disease progression among these groups becomes rapid they return to the health facility to continue treatment with ARVs. This stresses on the need for increased health education with emphasis on the etiology of the disease both at the health facility level and the community level. Patients’ understanding of the origination and disease outcome to a large extent influences their health seeking behavior. The study might however suffer some limitations. First, the knowledge index might not include all variables or questions necessary to test the knowledge of ART and PMTCT. This could affect our classification of adequate and inadequate knowledge among respondents. Secondly, the questions we asked about knowledge were all closed ended. It is important to differentiate between knowledge by recall, which implies active knowledge, and recognition of correct answers given to closed options, which implies passive knowledge. Thus, the level of adequate knowledge might be false. However, we adopted open-ended questions in the qualitative interviews, and these findings largely supported the quantitative findings. The study also included HIV positive women who were already on ARVs and had prior adherence counseling and this might influence the knowledge level of respondents. Thirdly, the study did not collect information on other factors that might influence knowledge level and adherence to ART such as facility related factors, stigma and other community related factors. The study did not also observe ART counseling at any of the facilities to see how this is conducted and the kind of information given to clients. Finally, the data from the qualitative study was transcribed in twi before being translated into English. The authors analyzed qualitative data from transcripts that had been translated into English and this might have diluted some richness of the data. The knowledge level of HIV positive women on ART and PMTCT are important factors in adherence to ART. High knowledge is associated with access, use and adherence to ART. Although knowledge level on the mode of transmission of HIV/AIDS was high, some of the women also perceived it is transmitted through spiritual means. This indicates that although educational interventions are being implemented, they had not effectively demystified perceptions about the origination and causes of HIV/AIDS. The knowledge level of the mothers influenced their adherence to ART. Improving efforts to better the understanding of HIV positive women on HIV/AIDS and ART will therefore impact positively on their adherence to ART. Further study to explore the knowledge and adherence among both males and females would also be needed to inform policy. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS: Ways to improve women's health in the HIV context. http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2012/july/20120-724investmentgender. 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J Int AIDS Soc. 2010, 13: 37-10.1186/1758-2652-13-37. Catz S, Heckman T, Kochman A: Adherence to HAART therapy among older adults living with HIV disease. Fourth International Conference on the Biophysical Aspects of HIV infection. 1999, Canada Ottawa, Poster 18 Wenger N, Gifford A, Liu H, Chesney M, Golin C: Patient characteristics and attitudes associated with HAART adherence. Proceeding of the sixth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections: 31 January - 4 February 1999; Chicago. 1999, VA: Alexandria Addo V: Pregnant Women’s Knowledge of and Attitudes to HIV Testing at KATH. Ghana Med J. 2005, 3 (92): 31-33. Falnes EF, Tylleskär T, Paoli MM, Manongi R, Engebretsen IM: Mothers Knowledge and utilization of prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV in Northern Tanzania. J Int AIDS Soc. 2010, 13: 36-10.1186/1758-2652-13-36. National AIDS Control Programme: An overview of HIV and AIDS in Ghana: current situation, projections and interventions. 2010, Accra: National AIDS Control Progamme Weiser S, Wolfe W, Bangsberg D: Barriers to Antiretroviral Adherence to patients living with HIV infection and AIDS in Botswana. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003, 34 (3): 281-288. 10.1097/00126334-200311010-00004. Munyao P, Sarna A, Luchters S, Geibel S, Shikely K, Mandaliya K, et al: How feasible is a DAART strategy to promote adherence to ART? Lessons from Mombasa, Kenya. Horizons Research Update. 2005, Nairobi: Population Council Liu H, Golin CE, Miller LG, Hays RD, Beck CK, Sanandaji S, Christian J, Maldonado T, Duran D, Kaplan AH, Wenger NS: A comparison of multiple measures of adherence to HIV protease inhibitors. Ann Intern Med. 2001, 136 (2): 175. Nemes MIB, Carvalho HB, Souza MFM: Antiretroviral therapy adherence in Brazil. AIDS. 2004, 18 (Suppl 3): 15-20. Safren SA, Kumarasamy N, James R, Raminani S, Solomon S, Mayer KH: ART adherence, demographic variables and CD4 outcome among HIV-positive patients on antiretroviral therapy in Chennai, India. AIDS Care. 2005, 17 (7): 853-862. 10.1080/09540120500038439. WHO/UNICEF/UNAIDS/UNFPA: HIV Transmission Through Breastfeeding: A review of available evidence. 2007, Geneva: World Health Organization European Collaborative Study: Fluctuations in symptoms in HIVinfected children: the first 10 years of life. Pediatrics. 2000, 108: 116-122. Volmink J, Marais B, HIV: Mother-to-Child Transmission. Clin Evid (Online). 2008, 02: 909. The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6874/13/2/prepub The authors wish to recognize the support of Dr. Baafuor Kofi Opoku, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, KNUST, Kumasi and Prof. E.A. Addy, Dept of Community Health, KNUST. We also like to acknowledge the special support of Mr. Richard Osei Amaniampong and Mrs. Deborah Boateng for their special contribution to this research. We are also grateful to our research assistants for their assistance. Finally, we would like to appreciate the support of the management and staff at the ART centres as well as all participants for their cooperation and enthusiasm in this study. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. The study was conceived and designed by all authors. DB and GDK jointly collected the data under supervision by PAB. DB and PAB were involved in the data analysis and interpretation of the study findings. DB wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors reviewed and critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content and agreed to submit the manuscript for publication. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. About this article Cite this article Boateng, D., Kwapong, G.D. & Agyei-Baffour, P. Knowledge, perception about antiretroviral therapy (ART) and prevention of mother-to-child-transmission (PMTCT) and adherence to ART among HIV positive women in the Ashanti Region, Ghana: a cross-sectional study. BMC Women's Health 13, 2 (2013) doi:10.1186/1472-6874-13-2

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MARKET ALTERNATIVES: WILD HARVEST Academic & Industry Experts: Jay Bolden (Eli Lilly and Company), Ling Ding Jeak (National University of Singapore), Ned Mozier (Pfizer), Larry Niles (Consulting Biologist), and Eric Stiles (New Jersey Audubon). Four species of horseshoe crab, the Atlantic horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) and three additional Asian species, have been integral to the safe manufacturing of injectable medications for the past 40 years. Horseshoe crab blood is extraordinarily sensitive to bacterial contaminants that can cause life-threatening fever and toxic shock if introduced to the bloodstream. A unique clotting protein in the crab’s blood is extracted to create the Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) test, which is used to screen every injectable drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. In fact, anything that might go inside the human body – every shot, IV drip, or implanted medical device – is tested with LAL for contamination. An estimated 70 million LAL tests are performed each year, which in the United States alone, results in the bleeding of 500,000 horseshoe crabs annually. The horseshoe crabs are captured and drained of as much as a third of their blood before being returned to the ocean. Although some estimates are higher, at least 15 percent die from the bleeding procedure, with a similar percentage of bled crabs annually sold as bait in other fisheries. The released crabs often suffer sublethal effects of the bleeding process, such as injury and disorientation, increased incidence of disease, and unclear long-term effects possibly including lower spawning rates. In addition to the bleeding for LAL, there is a fishery for horseshoe crab, which in the US, is used as bait in the whelk and eel fisheries. The Atlantic States Fisheries Commission now regulates the number of crabs harvested for bait, after overharvesting in the 1990s caused a population crash. Today, despite a decade of conservation management, the horseshoe crab population in Delaware Bay (the largest population in the U.S.) is still depleted to about a third of the Bay’s carrying capacity. It is from this already depleted population that crabs are harvested for bait and for use in the pharmaceutical industry. The slow recovery of horseshoe crabs makes it clear that the current levels of harvest for bait and LAL manufacturing is ecologically unsustainable. The current overexploitation of horseshoe crabs is dangerously similar to that of other mismanaged species that have been driven to extinction. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature declared in 2019 that one of the three Asian species of horseshoe crab is now endangered. Three years earlier, in 2016, IUCN assessed the mid-Atlantic populations of the American horseshoe crab as vulnerable to extinction its Red List. Furthermore, in the mid-Atlantic region of North America, the overharvest of the horseshoe crab is causing significant ecosystem-level impacts. The six species of shorebirds that synchronize their spring migration along the Atlantic flyway to gorge on the eggs of spawning horseshoe crabs in Delaware Bay, a critical food stop on their journey north to Arctic nesting grounds, are some of the most rapidly declining shorebirds in North America. In 2014, the dwindling horseshoe crab population in North America prompted the classification of the red knot (Calidris canutus rufa), whose 9,500-mile migration from the tip of South America to the Arctic is among the longest of any bird in the world, as threatened under the US Endangered Species Act. Developing the Synthetic Alternative: In 1997, scientists Ling Ding Jeak and Bow Ho of the University of Singapore developed a synthetic version of factor C, the key enzyme in horseshoe crab blood that coagulates in the presence of endotoxins. This reaction is the basis of the LAL test. This synthetic alternative, produced using recombinant DNA, is known as recombinant Factor C (rFC). Multiple manufacturers subsequently developed their own products. Germany-based Hyglos developed its own version of rFC in 2013, and more recently, Japan-based Seikagaku developed a synthetic that mimics the “full cascade” of enzyme reactions that comprise the LAL test. This product can also replace horseshoe crab blood for a different set of bacterial endotoxin tests. In the United States, the Lonza Group owns the patent for recombinant factor C, which it sells under its own label. Demonstrating Efficacy: More than a decade of research has proven that for the detection of gram-negative bacterial endotoxin, rFC is just as effective as the LAL assay, if not more effective, in its ability to quantifiably measure endotoxin and in its ability to detect endotoxins across a range of concentrations. However, the pharmaceutical industry has been slow to adopt rFC due to concerns over efficacy, among other issues. The California conservation nonprofit Revive & Restore set out to dispel lingering doubts over efficacy of the rFC synthetic alternative. The results, which were published in PLOS Biology in 2018, demonstrated that a synthetically produced test for bacterial contaminants was just as effective as the LAL test produced with blood components of the horseshoe crab. Revive & Restore analyzed data from ten separate and independent studies, each showing that efficacy and reliability of the synthetic alternative was equal to or better than the product derived from horseshoe crab blood. This review paper, “Saving the horseshoe crab: A synthetic alternative to horseshoe crab blood for endotoxin detection,” establishes a path forward for the pharmaceutical industry to eliminate the practice of bleeding horseshoe crabs for biomedical testing. The review paper is the basis of a broad stakeholder engagement effort to shine a light on the opportunity for industry to convert to rFC and contribute to the recovery and sustainability of the horseshoe crab and the birds that depend on them. Revive & Restore’s effort has galvanized a renewed sense of purpose on this issue within the conservation community. Adoption by the Pharmaceutical Industry: Eli Lilly has become the first pharmaceutical manufacturer to adopt rFC. Three of its largest U.S. manufacturing facilities are now testing pharmaceutical water and other common manufacturing materials using the synthetic alternative, a step that reduces the number of LAL tests performed at each facility by 90 percent, according to endotoxin experts with decades of experience. The company took an even bigger step forward in its adoption of the synthetic alternative in 2018, when its migraine prevention drug (galcanezumab) that had been tested only using the rFC assay was approved by the FDA. Eli Lilly’s progressive pivot towards rFC is the result of years of research on the efficacy of the synthetic alternative by one of the company’s top biologists. The existence of an effective synthetic alternative to the LAL test provides the biomedical and pharmaceutical industries the opportunity to modernize procedures and to significantly contribute to the conservation of horseshoe crabs and Delaware Bay shorebirds. In the late 1970s, the pharmaceutical industry transitioned from using live rabbits to detect fever-inducing contaminants to using crabs, now the industry to modernize its methods and use modern technology instead of the blood of an ancient species. Immediate conversion to rFC for the testing of water and other common manufacturing materials presents no risk of diminution in reliability or sensitivity in endotoxin detection and is enabled under current regulatory guidance. Most importantly, converting to rFC for only the testing of common pharmaceutical manufacturing materials like water would decrease the demand for LAL by 90 percent, which means that mortality resulting from bleeding would decrease. Thanks to the leadership of Eli Lilly and Company, as well as the recently published PLOS review paper, there is now a clear path forward for the pharmaceutical industry to begin converting to the synthetic alternative. Recombinant factor C has begun getting traction in the market with Eli Lilly’s adoption of the synthetic alternative at several of its U.S. manufacturing facilities. Yet widespread uptake by the industry has been slow, despite the fact that the biomedical industry can switch immediately to the testing of water and other common manufacturing materials with virtually no regulatory oversight. Innovation leadership from within the pharmaceutical industry is needed to improve the sustainability of their manufacturing processes. Continued technological innovation is also needed. Charles River Labs has developed a micro-fluidic device that reduces the use of horseshoe crab-derived LAL by as much as 80 percent. Until regulators fully adopt rFC as an equivalent test, there will still be demand for LAL. More widespread innovation is needed to limit the use of this product from wild caught sources. Lastly, given the trend toward rapid product development in the pharmaceutical industry, new companies offering new variants of the synthetic alternative should be entering the market. Innovation of a synthetic bait alternative may help mitigate the harvest of 500,000 crabs in the bait fishery. However, given the dire resource management constraints of the American eel and whelk fisheries, it is hard to rationalize a significant investment. Each species is suffering from its own form of mismanagement, or in the case of whelk, a lack of management. Conservatism in the industry has slowed the conversion to rFC, but leadership from other manufacturers in the pharmaceutical industry is now essential. Without any change to the current drug manufacturing regulations in the United States, pharmaceutical companies can significantly reduce their unsustainable dependence on a wildlife product by converting to the equally safe and effective synthetic alternative for testing only common manufacturing materials. To fully ensure the adoption of the synthetic alternative, rFC needs to be validated as an acceptable endotoxin detection method by regulatory bodies around the world. Because vaccines and drugs are manufactured and distributed worldwide, various regulatory bodies (e.g., FDA) rely on different compendia (e.g., US Pharmacopeia) and, where possible, a harmonization process to assure uniformity in endotoxin testing methods across all regulatory jurisdictions. Because the use of rFC detection methods has not been incorporated as an accepted method into the harmonized Pharmacopeias, for final-product testing manufacturers must take the extra step of validating the rFC assay, which is a more burdensome process than the streamlined method of verification used for accepted methods described in the harmonized Pharmacopoeias. Recent scientific advancements only build upon decades of conservation efforts for both crabs and shorebirds spearheaded by conservation groups including National Audubon, New Jersey Audubon, the American Littoral Society, and the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network, as well as government agencies like U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. These groups have pushed the Atlantic States Fishery Commission to include the biomedical take of horseshoe crabs in its regional annual fishery catch limits; extensively studied the relationship between migratory shorebirds and spawning horseshoe crabs; and advocated for the adoption of the synthetic alternative to LAL. Abate W, Sattar A, Liu J, Conway M, Jackson S. Evaluation of recombinant factor C assay for the detection of divergent lipopolysaccharide structural species and comparison with Limulus amebocyte lysate-based assays and a human monocyte activity assay. J Med Microbiol. 2017 Jul 12;66(7):888–97. pmid:28693666. Aketagawa J, Miyata T, Ohtsubo , Nakamura T, Morita T, Hayashida H, et al. Primary structure of limulus anticoagulant anti-lipopolysaccharide factor. J Biol Chem. 1986 Jun 5;261(16):7357–65. pmid:3711091. Anderson RL, Watson WH, Chabot CC. Sublethal behavioral and physiological effects of the biomedical bleeding process on the American horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus. Biol Bull. 2013 Dec;225(3):137–51. pmid:24445440. Atkinson PW, Baker AJ, Bennett KA, Clark NA, Clark JA, Cole KB, et al. Rates of mass gain and energy deposition in red knot on their final spring staging site is both time- and condition-dependent. J Appl Ecol. 2007 May 9;44(4):885–95. Baker AJ, González PM, Piersma T, Niles LJ, Nascimento I, Atkinson PW. Rapid population decline in red knots: fitness consequences of decreased refueling rates and late arrival to Delaware Bay. Proc Biol Sci. 2004 Apr 22;271(1541):875–82. pmid:15255108. Bolden J, Knight M, Stockman S, Omokoko B. Results of a harmonized endotoxin recovery study protocol evaluation by 14 BioPhorum Operations Group (BPOG) member companies. Biologicals. 2017 May;48:74–81. pmid:28549938. Bolden J, Smith K. Application of recombinant factor C reagent for the detection of bacterial endotoxins in pharmaceutical products. PDA J Pharm Sci Technol. 2017 Sep-Oct;71(5):405–12. pmid:28733334. Chen L, Mozier N. Comparison of Limulus amebocyte lysate test methods for endotoxin measurement in protein solutions. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2013 Jun;80:180–5. Cooper JF, Levin J, Wagner HN. Quantitative comparison of in vitro and in vivo methods for the detection of endotoxin. J Lab Clin Med. 1971 Jul;78(1):138–48. pmid:4936365. Ding JL, Ho B. A new era in pyrogen testing. Trends Biotechnol. 2001, Aug;19(8):277–81. pmid:11451451. Ding JL, Ho B, inventors. National University of Singapore, assignee. Assays for Endotoxin. United States patent US 6645724. [Internet] Nov 11 1997. https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/c1/74/24/e32003d50429f4/US6645724.pdf Ding JL, Navas MA 3rd, Ho B. Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of factor C cDNA from the Singapore horseshoe crab, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda. Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol [Internet]. 1995 Mar [cited 2018 Apr 3];4(1):90–103. Duijns S, Niles LJ, Dey A, Aubry Y, Friis C, Koch S, et al. Body condition explains migratory performance of a long-distance migrant. Proc Biol Sci. 2017 Nov 15;284(1866). pmid:29093218. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; threatened species status for the Rufa Red Knot. Fed Regist [regulation on the Internet]. 2014 Dec 11;79(238):73706–48. Available from: https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2014-12-11/pdf/2014-28338.pdf. Grallert H, Leopoldseder S, Schuett M, Kurze P, Buchberger B. EndoLISA®: a novel and reliable method for endotoxin detection. Nature Methods 2011 Sep;8(10). Iwanaga S. The limulus clotting reaction. Curr Opin Immunol. 1993 Feb;5(1):74–82. pmid:8452677. James-Pirri M-J, Veillette PA, Leschen AS. Selected hemolymph constituents of captive, biomedically bled, and wild caught adult female American horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus). Mar Freshwater Behav Physiol. 2012 Oct;45(4):281–9. Levin J, Bang FB. A description of cellular coagulation in the Limulus. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1964 Oct; 115:337–45. pmid:14217224. Levin J, Bang FB. Clottable protein in Limulus; its localization and kinetics of its coagulation by endotoxin. Thromb Diath Haemorrh. 1968 Mar 31;19(1):186–97. pmid:5690028. Licensing of Limulus amebocyte lysate. Use as an alternative for rabbit pyrogen test. Fed Regist [regulation on the Internet]. 1977 Nov 4;42(213):57749–50. Loverock B, Simon B, Burgenson A, Baines A. A recombinant factor C procedure for the detection of gram-negative bacterial endotoxin. Pharmacopeial Forum [Internet]. 2010 Jan-Feb [cited 2018 Apr 3];36(1):321–9. Available from: http://www.usppf.com/pf/pub/data/v361/GEN_STIMULI_361_s200140.xml. McKenzie JH, Alwis KU, Sordillo JE, Kalluri KS, Milton DK. Evaluation of lot-to-lot repeatability and effect of assay media choice in the recombinant factor C assay. J Environ Monit. 2011 Jun;13(6):1739–45. pmid:21552635. Miyata T, Hiranaga M, Umezu M, and Iwanaga S. Amino acid sequence of the coagulogen from Limulus polyphemus hemocytes. J Biol Chem [Internet]. 1984 Jul 25 [cited 2018 Apr 3];259:8924–8933. Muta T, Miyata T, Misumi Y, Tokunaga F, Nakamura T, Toh Y, et al. Limulus factor C: an endotoxin-sensitive serine protease zymogen with a mosaic structure of complement-like, epidermal growth factor-like, and lectin-like domains. J Biol Chem [Internet]. 1991 Apr 5;266(10)6554–61. Nakamura T, Horiuchi T, Morita T, Iwanaga S. Purification and properties of intracellular clotting factor, factor B, from horseshoe crab (Tachypleus tridentatus) hemocytes. J Biochem. 1986 Mar;99(3):847–57. pmid:3519594. Nakamura T, Morita T, Iwanaga S. Lipopolysaccharide-sensitive serine-protease zymogen (factor C) found in Limulus hemocytes. Eur J Biochem. 1986 Feb;154(3):511–21. pmid:3512266. Reich J, Heed K, Grallert H. Detection of naturally occurring bacterial endotoxins in water samples. European Pharmaceutical Review [Internet]. 2014 Dec 23;19(6):67–8. Schwarz H, Schmittner M, Duschl A, Horejs-Joeck J. Residual endotoxin contaminations in recombinant proteins are sufficient to activate human CD1c+ dendritic cells. PLoS ONE. 2014 9(12):e113840. pmid:25478795. Smith DR, Beekey MA, Brockmann HJ, King TL, Millard MJ, Zaldívar-Rae JA. Limulus polyphemus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016:eT11987A80159830. Sweka JA, Klopfer M, Millard M, Olszewski S, Smith D, Sysak R, et al. 2013 Horseshoe crab stock assessment update [Internet]. Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. 2013 Aug. Thorne PS, Perry SS, Saito R, O’Shaughnessy PT, Mehaffy J, Metwali N, et al. Evaluation of the Limulus amebocyte lysate and recombinant factor C assays for assessment of airborne endotoxin. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2010 Aug;76(15):4988–95. pmid:20525858. Tokunaga F, Nakajima H, Iwanaga S. Further studies on lipopolysaccharide-sensitive serine protease zymogen (Factor C): its isolation from Limulus polyphemus hemocytes and identification as an intracellular zymogen activated by alpha-chymotrypsin, not by trypsin. J. Biochem. 1991 Jan;109(1): 150–7. pmid:2016264. Walls EA, Berkson J, Smith SA. The horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus: 200 million years of existence, 100 years of study. Rev Fish Sci. 2002;10(1):39–73. 2017 U.S. Pharmacopoeia-National Formulary [USP 40 NF 35] Volume 1. Rockville, Md: United States Pharmacopeial Convention, Inc; 2016. Bacterial Endotoxins Test. p. 163.

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Athletics, also known as track and field or track and field athletics, is a collection of sport events. The word is derived from the sport events, which can roughly be divided into running, throwing, and jumping. Athletics was the original sport at the first Olympics back in 776 BC where the only event held was the stadium-length foot race or "stade". The earliest recorded win was at these games in the stade race. There were several other "Games" held throughout Europe in later eras: - The Pythian Games (founded 527 BC) held in Delphi every four years - The Nemean Games (founded 516 BC) held in Argolid every two years - The Isthmian (founded 523 BC) held on the Isthmus of Corinth every two years (one year being that which followed the Olympics) - The Roman Games — a direct imitation of the Greek Olympics, however was a much more popularised spectacle, with most competitors likely to have been professional athletes (the Greek Olympics was more a common-man's fare). Many themes of the Roman Circus (chariot races, gladiatorial combats and wild animal displays) were incorporated into the Roman Games asides from athletic sports. Other peoples, such as the Celts, Teutons and Goths who succeeded the Romans, enjoyed athletic contests. However these were often relegated to training to war, and were not very well organised. In the Middle Ages the sons of noblemen would be trained in running, leaping and wrestling, in addition to riding, jousting and arms-training. Contests between rivals and friends would no doubt have been common on both official and unofficial grounds. Many athletic sports have found favour in Europe throughout the ages. However, at least in Britain, they fell out favour between the 13th and 16th centuries due to Government restrictions on sports aiming to reduce the practice of archery. After this band was lifted in the 17th century sports began to flourish once more, but it was not until until the 19th century that organisation begain to appear. This included the incorporation of regular sports and exercise into school regimes. The Royal Military College, Sandhurst being one of the first to adopt this in 1812, public schools not following until about 1840. Modern athletic events are usually organised around a 400 m running track, on which most of the running events take place. Field events (jumping and throwing) often take place in the field in the centre of the running track. Many athletic events have an ancient origin and were already conducted in competitive form by the ancient Greeks. Athletics was included in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 and has been part of the program ever since, providing the backbone of the Olympics. Women were not allowed to participate in track and field events in the Olympics until 1928. An international governing body, the IAAF was founded in 1912. The IAAF established separate outdoor World Championships in 1983. The AAU (Amateur Athletic Union) was the governing body in the United States until it collapsed under pressure from advancing professionalism in the late 1970s. A new governing body called The Athletics Congress (TAC) was formed, it was later renamed USA Track and Field (USATF or USA T&F). An additional, less structured organization, the Road Runners Club of America (RRCA) also exists in the USA to promote road racing. Both organizations allow athletes to receive money for racing putting an end to the "shamateurism" that existed before. Indoor Track & Field There are two seasons for track & field. There is an indoor season, run during the winter and an outdoor season, run during the spring. Most indoor tracks are 200 meters, however, there are smaller tracks that measure 180 meters (less common) and larger tracks that measure 300 meters. The indoor track consists of six running lanes instead of eight or ten like on an outdoor track. However, where the 60 meter race is held on the track can be expanded to eight. In an indoor track meet the same events are held as an outdoor meet with the exception of the 60 meter race, sometimes there is a 55 meter race. There are other variations besides the ones listed below but races of unusual length (e.g. 300 m) are run much less often. With the exception of the mile run, races based on imperial distances are rarely run on the track anymore since most tracks have been converted from a quarter mile (402.3 m) to 400 meters. Men and women do not compete against each other. Women generally run the same distances as men although hurdles and steeplechase barriers are lower and the weights of the shot, discus, javelin and hammer are less. - Track events - running events conducted on a 400 meter track. - Sprints: events up to and including 400 m. Common events are 60 m, 100 m, 200 m and 400 m. - Middle distance: events from 800 m to 3000 m, especially 800 m, 1500 m, mile and 3000 m. - steeplechase - a race (usually 3000 m) in which runners must negotiate barriers and water jumps. - Long distance: runs over 5000 m. Common events are 5000 m and 10000 m. - Hurdling: 110 m high hurdles (100 m for women) and 400 m intermediate hurdles. - Relays: 4 x 100 m, 4 x 400 m, 4 x 200 m, 4 x 800 m, etc. Some events, such as medley relays, are rarely run except at large relay carnivals. - Road running: conducted on open roads, but often finishing on the track. Common events are half-marathon and marathon. - Race walking: usually conducted on open roads. Common events are 10 km, 20 km and 50 km. - Field events - Throwing events - Jumping events - Composite events |Event ||Record ||Athlete ||Date ||Place | |100 m ||9.78 s ||Tim Montgomery (USA) ||Sept 14, 2002 ||Paris, France | |200 m ||19.32 s ||Michael Johnson (USA) ||Aug 1, 1996 ||Atlanta, USA | |400 m ||43.18 s ||Michael Johnson (USA) ||Aug 26, 1999 ||Seville, Spain | |800 m ||1:41.11 ||Wilson Kipketer (Denmark) ||Aug 24, 1997 ||Cologne, Germany | |1000 m ||2:11.96 ||Noah Ngeny (Kenya) ||Sept 5, 1999 ||Rieti, Italy | |1500 m ||3:26.00 ||Hicham El Guerrouj (Morocco) ||July 14, 1998 ||Rome, Italy | |mile ||3:43:13 ||Hicham El Guerrouj (Morocco) ||July 7, 1999 ||Rome, Italy | |2000 m ||4:44.79 ||Hicham El Guerrouj (Morocco) ||Sept 7, 1999 ||Berlin, Germany | |3000 m ||7:20.67 ||Daniel Komen (Kenya) ||Sept 1, 1996 ||Rieti, Italy | |5000 m ||12:37.35 ||Kenenisa Bekele (Ethiopia) ||May 31, 2004 ||Hengelo, Netherlands | |10,000 m ||26:20.31 ||Kenenisa Bekele (Ethiopia) ||June 8, 2004 ||Ostrava, Czech Republic | |20,000 m ||56:55.6 ||Arturo Barrios (Mexico) ||March 30, 1991 ||La Flčche, France | |25,000 m ||1:13:55.8 ||Toshihiko Seko (Japan) ||March 22, 1981 ||Christchurch, NZ | |30,000 m ||1:29:18.8 ||Toshihiko Seko (Japan) ||March 22, 1981 ||Christchurch, NZ | |3000 m steeplechase ||7:53.63 ||Saif Saaeed Shaheen (born Stephen Cherono) (Qatar formerly Kenya) ||Sept 3, 2004 ||Brussels, Belgium | |110 m hurdles ||12.91 s ||Colin Jackson (UK) | Liu Xiang (China) |Aug 20, 1993 | Aug 27, 2004 |Stuttgart, Germany | |400 m hurdles ||46.78 s ||Kevin Young (USA) ||Aug 6, 1992 ||Barcelona, Spain | |High jump ||2.45 m ||Javier Sotomayor (Cuba) ||July 27, 1993 ||Salamanca, Spain | |Pole vault ||6.14 m ||Sergey Bubka (Ukraine) ||July 31, 1994 ||Sestriere, Italy | |Long jump ||8.95 m ||Mike Powell (USA) ||Aug 30, 1991 ||Tokyo, Japan | |Triple jump ||18.29 m ||Jonathan Edwards (UK) ||Aug 7, 1995 ||Göteborg, Sweden | |Shot put ||23.12 m ||Randy Barnes (USA) ||May 20, 1990 ||Los Angeles, USA | |Discus ||74.08 m ||Jürgen Schult (E. Germany) ||June 6, 1986 ||Neubrandenburg, E. Germany | |Hammer ||86.74 m ||Yury Syedikh (USSR) ||Aug 30, 1986 ||Stuttgart, W. Germany | |Javelin * ||98.48 m (New style) | 104.80 m (Old style) |Jan Zelezny´ (Czech Rep.) | Uwe Hohn (GDR) |May 25, 1996 | 20 July 1984 |Jena, Germany | |Decathlon ||9026 pts ||Roman Šebrle (Czech Rep.) ||May 27, 2001 ||Götzis, Austria | |10.64 s (100 metres), 8.11 m (long jump), 15.33 m (shot put), 2.12 m (high jump), 47.79 s (400 m), 13.92 s (110 metre hurdles), 47.92 m (discus), 4.80 m (pole vault), 70.16 m (javelin), 4:21.98 min (1500 metres) | |20 km walk ||1:17:21 ||Jefferson Pérez (Ecuador) ||Aug 23, 2003 ||Paris, France | |30 km walk ||2:01:44.1 ||Maurizio Damilano (Italy) ||Oct 3, 1992 ||Cuneo, Italy | |50 km walk ||3:40:57.9 ||Thierry Toutain (France) ||Sept 29, 1996 ||Héricourt, France | |4x100 m relay ||37.40 s ||Mike Marsh, Leroy Burrell, | Dennis Mitchell, Carl Lewis (USA) |Aug 8, 1992 ||Barcelona, Spain | |4x200 m relay ||1:18.68 ||Mike Marsh, Leroy Burrell, | Floyd Heard, Carl Lewis (USA) |April 17, 1994 ||Walnut, USA | |4x400 m relay ||2:54.20 ||Jerome Young, Antonio Pettigrew, | Tyree Washington, Michael Johnson (USA) |July 22, 1998 ||New York City | |4x800 m relay ||7:03.89 ||Peter Elliott, Garry Cook, | Steve Cram, Sebastian Coe (UK) |Aug 30, 1982 ||London, England | |4x1500 m relay ||14:38.8 ||Thomas Wessinghage, Harald Hudak, | Michael Lederer, Karl Fleschen (W. Germany) |Aug 17, 1977 ||Cologne, W. Germany | |4x110 m hurdles relay ||54.40 s ||University of Tennessee (USA) ||May 22, 1981 ||Knoxville, USA | |Marathon ||2:04:55 ||Paul Tergat (Kenya) ||Sept 28, 2003 ||Berlin, Germany | Note : Two record distances are given for the men's javelin event ; this is because in the 1980s, the men's event was throwing at distances which caused many "flat landings" and judges at the event were having trouble discerning the exact point at which the javelin had landed and whether the throw was legal. In 1985, the specs of the javelin were changed by moving the centre of gravity forward by 4 cm. |Event ||Record ||Athlete ||Date ||Place | |100 m ||10.49 s ||Florence Griffith Joyner (USA) ||July 16, 1988 ||Indianapolis, USA | |200 m ||21.34s ||Florence Griffith Joyner (USA) ||Sept 29, 1988 ||Seoul, S. Korea | |400 m ||47.60 ||Marita Koch (E. Germany) ||Oct 6, 1985 ||Canberra, Australia | |800 m ||1:53.28 ||Jarmila Kratochvílová (Czechoslovakia) ||July 26, 1983 ||Munich, W. Germany | |1000 m ||2:28.98 ||Svetlana Masterkova (Russia) ||Aug 23, 1996 ||Brussels, Belgium | |1500 m ||3:50.46 ||Qu Junxia (China) ||Sept 11, 1993 ||Beijing, China | |2000 m ||5:25.36 ||Sonia O'Sullivan (Rep. Ireland) ||July 8, 1994 ||Edinburgh, Scotland | |3000 m ||8:06.11 ||Wang Junxia (China) ||Sept 13, 1993 ||Beijing, China | |5000 m ||14:24.68 ||Elvan Abeylegesse (Turkey) ||June 11, 2004 ||Bergen, Norway | |10,000 m ||29:31.78 ||Wang Junxia (China) ||Sept 8, 1993 ||Beijing, China | |20,000 m ||1:05:26.6 ||Tegla Loroupe (Kenya) ||Sept 3, 2000 ||Borgholzhausen, Germany | |25,000 m ||1:27:05.8 ||Tegla Loroupe (Kenya) ||Sept 21, 2002 ||Mengerskirchen, Germany | |30,000 m ||1:45:50.0 ||Tegla Loroupe (Kenya) ||June 7, 2003 ||Warstein, Germany | |3000 m steeplechase ||9:01.59 ||Gulnara Samitova, (Russia) ||July 4, 2004 ||Heraklion, Greece | |100 m hurdles ||12.21 s ||Yordanka Donkova (Bulgaria) ||Aug 20, 1988 ||Stara Zagora, Bulgaria | |400 m hurdles ||52.34s ||Yuliya Pechenkina (Russia) ||Aug 8, 2003 ||Tula, Russia | |High jump ||2.09 m ||Stefka Kostadinova (Bulgaria) ||Aug 30, 1987 ||Rome, Italy | |Pole vault ||4.91 m ||Yelena Isinbayeva (Russia) ||Aug 25, 2004 ||Athens, Greece | |Long jump ||7.52 m ||Galina Chistyakova (USSR) ||June 11, 1988 ||Leningrad, USSR | |Triple jump ||15.50 ||Inesa Kravets (Ukraine) ||Aug 10, 1995 ||Göteborg, Sweden | |Shot put ||22.63 ||Natalya Lisovskaya (USSR) ||June 7, 1987 ||Moscow, USSR | |Discus ||76.80 ||Gabriele Reinsch (E. Germany) ||July 9, 1988 ||Neubrandenburg, E. Germany | |Hammer throw ||75.97 m ||Mihaela Melinte (Romania) ||May 13, 1999 ||Clermont-Ferrand, France | |Javelin ** ||71.54 m (New style) | 80.00 m (Old style) |Osleidys Menéndez (Cuba) | Petra Felke, GDR |July 1, 2001 | September 9, 1988 |Rethymno, Greece | |Heptathlon ||7291 pts ||Jackie Joyner-Kersee (USA) ||Sept 23-24, 1988 ||Seoul, S. Korea | |12.69s (100 m hurdles), 1.86 m (high jump), 15.80 m (shot put), 22.56s (200 m), 7.27 m (long jump), 45.66 m (javelin), 2:08.51 (800 m) | |Decathlon ||8150 pts ||Marie Collonvillé (France) ||Sept 25-26, 2004 ||Talence, France | |12.48 s (100 m), 34.69 m (discus), 3.50 m (pole vault), 47.19 m (javelin), 56.15 s (400 m), 13.96 s (100 m hurdles), 6.18 m (long jump), 11.90 m (shot put), 1.80 m (high jump), 5:06.09 (1500 m) | |5 km walk ||20:02.60 ||Gillian O'Sullivan (Rep. of Ireland) ||July 13, 2002 ||Dublin, Ireland | |10 km walk ||41:56.23 ||Nadezhda Ryashkina (USSR) ||July 24, 1990 ||Seattle, USA | |4x100 m Relay ||41.37 ||Silke Gladisch, Sabine Rieger, | Ingrid Auerswald, Marlies Göhr (E. Germany) |Oct 6, 1985 ||Canberra, Australia | |4x200 m Relay ||1:27.46 ||LaTasha Jenkins, LaTasha Colander-Richardson, | Nanceen Perry, Marion Jones (USA) |April 29, 2000 ||Philadelphia, Pa., USA | |4x400 m Relay ||3:15.17 ||Tatyana Ledovskaya, Olga Nazarova, | Mariya Pinigina, Olga Bryzgina (USSR) |Oct 1, 1988 ||Seoul, S. Korea | |4x800 m Relay ||7:50.17 ||Nadezhda Olizarenko, Lyubov Gurina, | Lyudmila Borisova, Irina Podyalovskaya (USSR) |Aug 5, 1984 ||Moscow, USSR | |Marathon ||2:15:25 ||Paula Radcliffe (UK) ||April 13, 2003 ||London, England, UK | Note: As with the men's event, the specification of the women's javelin has been changed. On April 1, 1999 the IAAF moved the centre of gravity forward by 3 cm in order to ensure a greater number of legal throws and to allow for more accurate distance measurement. - Athletics records (http://digilander.libero.it/Aragorn_the_Dunedan/files/miscellanea/record_atletica.pdf) pdf full text - World Record progression in athletics (http://www.athletix.org/) - Track and Field all-time performances (http://www.algonet.se/~pela2/) - Paula Radcliffe (http://www.paularadcliffe.com) - The Official Website

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Sectarianism is a form of prejudice, discrimination, or hatred arising from attaching relations of inferiority and superiority to differences between subdivisions within a group. Common examples are denominations of a religion, ethnic identity, class, or region for citizens of a state and factions of a political movement. The ideological underpinnings of attitudes and behaviours labelled as sectarian are extraordinarily varied. Members of a religious, national or political group may believe that their own salvation, or the success of their particular objectives, requires aggressively seeking converts from other groups; adherents of a given faction may believe that for the achievement of their own political or religious project their internal opponents must be converted or purged. Sometimes a group that is under economic or political pressure will kill or attack members of another group which it regards as responsible for its own decline. It may also more rigidly define the definition of orthodox belief within its particular group or organization, and expel or excommunicate those who do not support this new found clarified definition of political or religious orthodoxy. In other cases, dissenters from this orthodoxy will secede from the orthodox organisation and proclaim themselves as practitioners of a reformed belief system, or holders of a perceived former orthodoxy. At other times, sectarianism may be the expression of a group's nationalistic or cultural ambitions, or exploited by demagogues. The phrase "sectarian conflict" usually refers to violent conflict along religious or political lines such as the conflicts between Nationalists and Unionists in Northern Ireland (religious and class-divisions may play major roles as well). It may also refer to general philosophical, political disparity between different schools of thought such as that between Shia and Sunni Muslims. Non-sectarians espouse that free association and tolerance of different beliefs are the cornerstone to successful peaceful human interaction. They espouse political and religious pluralism. While sectarianism is often labelled as 'religious' and/ or 'political', the reality of a sectarian situation is usually much more complex. In its most basic form sectarianism has been defined as, 'the existence, within a locality, of two or more divided and actively competing communal identities, resulting in a strong sense of dualism which unremittingly transcends commonality, and is both culturally and physically manifest.' - 1 Religious sectarianism - 1.1 Europe - 1.2 Africa - 1.3 Australia - 1.4 Asia - 1.5 Middle East - 2 Political sectarianism - 3 See also - 4 References - 5 Further reading - 6 External links Wherever people of different religions live in close proximity to each other, religious sectarianism can often be found in varying forms and degrees. In some areas, religious sectarians (for example Protestant and Catholic Christians) now[update] exist peacefully side-by-side for the most part, although these differences have resulted in violence, death, and outright warfare as recently as the 1990s. Probably the best-known example in recent times were The Troubles. Catholic-Protestant sectarianism has also been a factor in U.S. presidential campaigns. Prior to John F. Kennedy, only one Catholic (Al Smith) had ever been a major party presidential nominee, and he had been solidly defeated largely because of claims based on his Catholicism. JFK chose to tackle the sectarian issue head-on during the West Virginia primary, but that only sufficed to win him barely enough Protestant votes to eventually win the presidency by one of the narrowest margins ever. Within Islam, there has been conflict at various periods between Sunnis and Shias; Shi'ites consider Sunnis to be damned, due to their refusal to accept the first Caliph as Ali and accept all following descendants of him as infallible and divinely guided. Many Sunni religious leaders, including those inspired by Wahhabism and other ideologies have declared Shias to be heretics or apostates. This section possibly contains original research. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Long before the Reformation, dating back to the 12th century, there has been sectarian conflict of varying intensity in Ireland. This sectarianism is connected to a degree with nationalism. This has been particularly intense in Northern Ireland since the early 17th century plantation of Ulster under James I, with its religious and denominational sectarian tensions lasting to the present day in some forms. This has translated to parts of Great Britain, most notably Liverpool, and the West Central Scotland, the latter being very close geographically to Northern Ireland, and where some fans of the two best-known football clubs, Celtic (long been affiliated with Catholics) and Rangers (long affiliated with Protestants), indulge in provocative and sectarian behaviour. Historically, some Catholic countries once persecuted Protestants as heretics. For example, the substantial Protestant population of France (the Huguenots) was expelled from the kingdom in the 1680s following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In Spain, the Inquisition sought to root out crypto-Jews but also crypto-Muslims (moriscos); elsewhere the Papal Inquisition held similar goals. In most places where Protestantism is the majority or "official" religion, there have been examples of Catholics being persecuted. In countries where the Reformation was successful, this often lay in the perception that Catholics retained allegiance to a 'foreign' power (the Papacy or the Vatican), causing them to be regarded with suspicion. Sometimes this mistrust manifested itself in Catholics being subjected to restrictions and discrimination, which itself led to further conflict. For example, before Catholic Emancipation was introduced with the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, Catholics were forbidden from voting, becoming MP's or buying land in Ireland. Ireland was deeply scarred by religious sectarianism following the Protestant Reformation as tensions between the native Catholic Irish and Protestant settlers from Britain led to massacres and attempts at ethnic cleaning by both sides during the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, Irish Rebellion of 1798 and the Home Rule Crisis of 1912. The invasion of Ireland by English parliamentarian forces under Oliver Cromwell in 1659 was notoriously brutal and witnessed the widespread ethnic cleansing of the native Irish. The failure of the Rebellion of 1798, which sought to unite Protestants and Catholics for an independent Ireland, helped cause more sectarian violence in the island, most infamously the Scullabogue Barn massacre, in which Protestants were burned alive in County Wexford. The British response, which included the public executions of dozens of suspected rebels in Dunlavin and Carnew, along with other violence perpetrated by all sides, ended the hope that Protestants and Catholics could work together for Ireland. After the Partition of Ireland in 1922, Northern Ireland witnessed decades of intensified conflict, tension, and sporadic violence between the dominant Protestant majority and the Catholic minority, which in 1969 finally erupted into 25 years of violence known as “The Troubles” between Irish Republicans whose goal is a United Ireland and Ulster loyalists who wish for Northern Ireland to remain a part of the United Kingdom. The conflict was primarily fought over the existence of the Northern Irish state rather than religion, though sectarian relations within Northern Ireland fueled the conflict. However, religion is commonly used as a marker to differentiate the two sides of the community. The Catholic minority primarily favour the nationalist, and to some degree, republican, goal of unity with the Republic of Ireland, while the Protestant majority favour Northern Ireland continuing the union with Great Britain. Northern Ireland has introduced a Private Day of Reflection, since 2007, to mark the transition to a post-[sectarian] conflict society, an initiative of the cross-community Healing through Remembering organisation and research project. The civil wars in the Balkans which followed the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s have been heavily tinged with sectarianism. Croats and Slovenes have traditionally been Catholic, Serbs and Macedonians Eastern Orthodox, and Bosniaks and most Albanians Muslim. Religious affiliation served as a marker of group identity in this conflict, despite relatively low rates of religious practice and belief among these various groups after decades of communism. Sectarianism in Australia was a historical legacy from the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, between Catholics of mainly Celtic heritage and Protestants of mainly English descent. It has largely disappeared in the 21st century. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, religious tensions are more centered on Muslim immigrants amid the backdrop of Salafist or Islamist terrorism. For the violent conflict between Buddhist sects in Japan, see Japanese Buddhism. Pakistan, one of the largest Muslim countries the world, has seen serious Shia-Sunni sectarian violence. Almost 80 - 85% of Pakistan's Muslim population is Sunni, and another 10 - 20% are Shia. However, this Shia minority forms the second largest Shia population of any country, larger than the Shia majority in Iraq. In the last two decades, as many as 4,000 people are estimated to have died in sectarian fighting in Pakistan, 300 in 2006. Among the culprits blamed for the killing are Al Qaeda working "with local sectarian groups" to kill what they perceive as Shi'a apostates. Most Muslims in Sri Lanka are Sunnis. There are a few Shia Muslims too from the relatively small trading community of Bohras. Divisiveness is not a new phenomenon to Beruwala. Sunni Muslims in the Kalutara district are split in two different sub groups. One group, known as the Alaviya sect, historically holds its annual feast at the Ketchimalai mosque located on the palm fringed promontory adjoining the fisheries harbour in Beruwala. It is a microcosm of the Muslim identity in many ways. The Galle Road that hugs the coast from Colombo veers inland just ahead of the town and forms the divide. On the left of the road lies China Fort, the area where some of the wealthiest among Sri Lankans Muslims live. The palatial houses with all modern conveniences could outdo if not equal those in the Colombo 7 sector. Most of the wealthy Muslims, gem dealers, even have a home in the capital, not to mention property. Strict Wahabis believe that all those who do not practise their form of religion are heathens and enemies. There are others who say Wahabism's rigidity has led it to misinterpret and distort Islam, pointing to the Taliban as well as Osama bin Laden. What has caused concern in intelligence and security circles is the manifestation of this new phenomenon in Beruwala. It had earlier seen its emergence in the east. Sultan Selim the Grim, regarding the Shia Qizilbash as heretics, reportedly proclaimed that "the killing of one Shiite had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians." In 1511, a pro-Shia revolt known as Şahkulu Rebellion was brutally suppressed by the Ottomans: 40,000 were massacred on the order of the sultan. Sunni Iraqi insurgency and foreign Sunni terrorist organizations who came to Iraq after the fall of Saddam have targeted Shia civilians in sectarian attacks. Following the civil war, the Sunnis have complained of discrimination by Iraq's Shia majority governments, which is bolstered by the news that Sunni detainees were allegedly discovered to have been tortured in a compound used by government forces on November 15, 2005. This sectarianism has fueled a giant level of emigration and internal displacement. The Shia majority oppression by the Sunni minority has a long history in Iraq, after the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the British imposed upon Iraq a rule of Sunni Hashemite monarchy that suppressed various uprisings against its rule by the Christian Assyrians, Kurds, Yazidis and Shi'ites. After the monarchy's overthrow, Iraq was ruled by the de jure secular Baathist Party, while de facto a minority Sunni absolute rule that discriminated against and persecuted the Shia. Many sectarian atrocities by pro-government Shia militias alligned with Iran have also been reported throughout the post-Saddam years. Sectarianism has been described as a characteristic feature of the Syrian civil war. The sharpest split is between the ruling minority Alawite sect, a Shiite Muslim offshoot, and the country's Sunni Muslim majority. In Yemen, there have been many clashes between Salafis and Shia Houthis. According to The Washington Post, "In today’s Middle East, activated sectarianism affects the political cost of alliances, making them easier between co-religionists. That helps explain why Sunni-majority states are lining up against Iran, Iraq and Hezbollah over Yemen." The Saudi government has often been viewed as an active oppressor of Shia Muslims because of the funding of the Wahabbi ideology which denounces the Shia faith. Prince Bandar bin Sultan, Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated: "The time is not far off in the Middle East when it will be literally 'God help the Shia'. More than a billion Sunnis have simply had enough of them." According to The New York Times, "The documents from Saudi Arabia’s Foreign Ministry illustrate a near obsession with Iran, with diplomats in Africa, Asia and Europe monitoring Iranian activities in minute detail and top government agencies plotting moves to limit the spread of Shiite Islam." As of 2015[update], Saudi Arabia is openly supporting the Army of Conquest, an umbrella group of anti-government forces fighting in the Syrian Civil War that reportedly includes an al-Qaeda linked al-Nusra Front and another Salafi coalition known as Ahrar al-Sham. Sectarianism in Lebanon has been formalized and legalized within state and non-state institutions and is inscribed in its constitution. The foundations of sectarianism in Lebanon date back to the mid-19th century during Ottoman rule. It was subsequently reinforced with the creation of the Republic of Lebanon in 1920 and its 1926 constitution, and in the National Pact of 1943. In 1990, with the Taif Agreement, the constitution was revised but did not structurally change aspects relating to political sectarianism. The dynamic nature of sectarianism in Lebanon has prompted some historians and authors to refer to it as "the sectarian state par excellence" because it is an amalgam of religious communities and their myriad sub-divisions, with a constitutional and political order to match. According to various historians, sectarianism in Lebanon is not simply an inherent phenomena between the various religious communities there. Rather, historians have argued that the origins of sectarianism lay at the "intersection of nineteenth-century European colonialism and Ottoman modernization". The symbiosis of Ottoman modernization (through a variety of reforms) and indigenous traditions and practices became paramount in reshaping the political self-definition of each community along religious lines. The Ottoman reform movement launched in 1839 and the growing European presence in the Middle East subsequently led to the disintegration of the traditional Lebanese social order based on a hierarchy that bridged religious differences. Nineteenth-century Mount Lebanon was host to competing armies and ideologies and for "totally contradictory interpretations of the meaning of reform" (i.e. Ottoman or European). This fluidity over reform created the necessary conditions for sectarianism to rise as a "reflection of fractured identities" pulled between enticements and coercions of Ottoman and European power. As such, the Lebanese encounter with European colonization altered the meaning of religion in the multi-confessional society because it "emphasized sectarian identity as the only viable marker of political reform and the only authentic basis for political claims." As such, during both Ottoman rule and later during the French Mandate, religious identities were deliberately mobilized for political and social reasons. The Lebanese political system Lebanon gained independence on 22 November 1943. Shortly thereafter, the National Pact was agreed upon and established the political foundations of modern Lebanon and laid the foundations of a sectarian power-sharing system (also known as confessionalism) based on the 1932 census. The 1932 census is the only official census conducted in Lebanon: with a total population of 1,046,164 persons, Maronites made up 33.57%, Sunnis made up 18.57% and Shiites made up 15.92% (with several other denominations making up the remainder). The National Pact served to reinforce the sectarian system that had begun under the French Mandate, by formalizing the confessional distribution of the highest public offices and top administrative ranks according to the proportional distribution of the dominant sects within the population. Because the census showed a slight Christian dominance over Muslims, seats in the Chamber of Deputies (parliament) were distributed by a six-to-five ratio favoring Christians over Muslims. This ratio was to be applied to all highest-level public and administrative offices, such as ministers and directors. Furthermore, it was agreed that the President of the Republic would be a Maronite Christian; the Premier of the Council of Ministers would be a Sunni Muslim; the President of the National Assembly would be a Shiite Muslim; and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament a Greek Orthodox Christian. The Lebanese Civil War, 1975–1990 During the three decades following independence from the French Mandate, "various internal tensions inherent to the Lebanese system and multiple regional developments collectively contributed to the breakdown of governmental authority and the outbreak of civil strife in 1975”. According to Makdisi, sectarianism reached its peak during the civil war that lasted from 1975–1990. The militia politics that gripped Lebanon during the civil war represents another form of popular mobilization along sectarian lines against the elite-dominated Lebanese state. Christians began setting up armed militias what they “saw as an attempt by the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) to seize Lebanon – those militias would be united under the Lebanese Forces umbrella in 1976”. Lebanese Sunni groups splintered into armed factions as well, competing against one another and against the Christian militias. The beginning of the Lebanese Civil War dates to 1975, when a Maronite militia opened fire on a bus full of civilians in response to an assassination attempt of a Maronite leader by PLO-affiliated Muslims. On May 31, seven weeks after fighting began between militias, Beirut witnessed its first sectarian massacre in which "unarmed civilians were killed simply on the grounds of their religion." Syria entered the conflict in June 1976, in order to avoid a PLO takeover of Lebanon – Syria’s entry into the war resulted in a de facto division of the country into zones controlled by Syria, the PLO, and Maronite militias. Shi’a militias were also created, including the formation of Amal in the late 1970s and later when some Amal militants decided to create a more religious Shi’a militia known as Hezbollah (Party of God). The Lebanese Civil War became a regional dilemma when Israel invaded in 1982 with two avowed aims: destroy the PLO military infrastructure and secure its northern frontier. In March 1989, Prime Minister (and Acting President) General Michel Aoun launched a “liberation war” against the Syrian army with the backing of the PLO and Iraqi president Saddam Hussein. In doing so, General Aoun internationalized the Lebanese crisis by “emphasized the destructive role of the Syrian army in the country”. His decision resulted in multilateral negotiations as well as efforts to strengthen the role of the UN. By 1983, what had begun as an internal war between Lebanese factions had become a regional conflict that drew in Syria, Israel, Iran, Europe and the United States directly - with Iraq, Libya, Saudi Arabia, and the Soviet Union involved indirectly by providing financial support and weaponry to different militias. After fifteen years of war, at least 100,000 Lebanese were dead, tens of thousands had emigrated abroad, and an estimated 900,000 civilians were internally displaced. The Taif Agreement After twenty-two days of discussions and negotiations, the surviving members of the 1972 parliament reached an agreement to end the Civil War on October 22, 1989. The Taif Agreement reconfigured the political power-sharing formula that formed that basis of government in Lebanon under the National Pact of 1943. As noted by Eugene Rogan, "the terms of Lebanon's political re-construction, enshrined in the Taif [Agreement], preserved many of the elements of the confessional system set up in the National Pact but modified the structure to reflect the demographic realities of modern Lebanon." As such, several key provisions of the National Pact were changed including: it relocated most presidential powers in favor of Parliament and the Council of Ministers and, as such, the Maronite Christian President lost most of his executive powers and only retained symbolic roles; it redistributed important public offices, including those of Parliament, Council of Ministers, general directors, and grade-one posts evenly between Muslims and Christians thereby upsetting the traditional ratio of six to five that favored Christians under the National Pact; it “recognized the chronic instability of confessionalism and called for devising a national strategy for its political demise. It required the formation of a national committee to examine ways to achieve deconfessionalization and the formation of a non-confessional Parliament," which has not yet been implemented to date and it required the disarmament of all Lebanese militias; however, Hezbollah was allowed to retain its militant wing as a “resistance force” in recognition of its fight against Israel in the South. Spillover from the Syrian conflict The Syrian conflict which began in 2011 when clashes began between the Assad government and opposition forces has had a profound effect on sectarian dynamics within Lebanon. In November 2013, the United States Institute of Peace published a Peace Brief in which Joseph Bahout assesses how the Syrian crisis has influenced Lebanon’s sectarian and political dynamics. Bahout argues that the Syrian turmoil is intensifying Sunni-Shia tensions on two levels: “symbolic and identity-based on the one hand, and geopolitical or interest based, on the other hand." Syria’s conflict has profoundly changed mechanisms of inter-sectarian mobilization in Lebanon: interest-based and “political” modes of mobilization are being transformed into identity-based and “religious” modes. Bahout notes that this shift is likely due to how these communities are increasingly perceiving themselves as defending not only their share of resources and power, but also their very survival. As the conflict grows more intense, the more the sectarian competition is internalized and viewed as a zero-sum game. Perceptions of existential threat exist among both the Shiite and Sunni communities throughout Lebanon: the continuation of the Syrian conflict will likely increase these perceptions over time and cause terrorism. There are notable divisions within the Lebanese community along sectarian lines regarding the Syrian Civil War. The Shi'ite militant and political organization Hezbollah and its supporters back the Assad government, while many of the country's Sunni communities back the opposition forces. These tensions have played out in clashes between Sunnis and Shi'ites within Lebanon, resulting in clashes and deaths. For instance, clashes in the northern city of Tripoli, Lebanon left three dead when fighting broke out between Assad supporters and opponents. The largest concentration of Syrian refugees, close to one million people as of April 2014, can be found in Lebanon and has resulted in a population increase by about a quarter. According to the United Nations, the massive influx of refugees threatens to upset the “already fragile demographic balance between Shi’ites, Sunnis, Druze, and Christians.” The Lebanese government faces major challenges for handling the refugee influx, which has strained public infrastructure as Syrians seek housing, food, and healthcare at a time of economic slowdown in Lebanon. For background on Syria-Lebanon relations, see Lebanon-Syria relations. This section does not cite any sources. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In the political realm, to describe a group as "sectarian" (or as practising "sectarianism") is to accuse them of prioritizing differences and rivalries with politically close groups. An example might be a socialist group who are accused of devoting an excessive amount of time and energy to denouncing other socialist groups rather than capitalists, their common foes. - Roberts, Keith Daniel (2017). Liverpool Sectarianism: The Rise and Demise. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-78694-010-0. - "John F. Kennedy and Religion". Retrieved 29 July 2015. - "Lahore bomb raises sectarian questions". BBC News. January 10, 2008. Retrieved May 23, 2010. - "HTR - Day of Reflection - Home". Retrieved 29 July 2015. - "Healing Through Remembering". Retrieved 29 July 2015. - "Central African Republic: Ethnic cleansing and sectarian killings". Amnesty International. February 12, 2014. - "Eight dead in Central African Republic capital, rebel leaders flee city". Reuters. January 26, 2014. - "Pakistan - International Religious Freedom Report 2008". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2013-04-19. - "Pakistan, Islam in". Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2013-04-19. Approximately 97 percent of Pakistanis are Muslim. The majority are Sunnis following the Hanafi school of Islamic law. Between 10 and 15 percent are Shiis, mostly Twelvers. - The Christian Science Monitor. "Shiite-Sunni conflict rises in Pakistan". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 29 July 2015. - Jalāl Āl Aḥmad (1982). Plagued by the West. Translated by Paul Sprachman. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 978-0-88206-047-7. - H.A.R. Gibb & H. Bowen, "Islamic society and the West", i/2, Oxford, 1957, p. 189 - "Iraqi Sunnis demand abuse inquiry". BBC News. November 16, 2005. Retrieved 2007-05-12. - Salafi-Houthi clashes in Yemen kill 14 Archived 22 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine retrieved 6 February 2012 - "How sectarianism shapes Yemen's war". The Washington Post. 13 April 2015. - syedjaffar. "The Persecution of Shia Muslims in Saudi Arabia". August 4, 2013. CNN Report. Retrieved 1 May 2014. - "Iraq crisis: How Saudi Arabia helped Isis take over the north of the country," The Independent, 13 July 2014. - "WikiLeaks Shows a Saudi Obsession With Iran". The New York Times. 16 July 2015. - "U.S. Backs Saudi-Led Yemeni Bombing With Logistics, Spying". Bloomberg. 26 March 2015. - "Jihadis likely winners of Saudi Arabia's futile war on Yemen's Houthi rebels". The Guardian. 7 July 2015. - "'Army of Conquest' rebel alliance pressures Syria regime". Yahoo News. 28 April 2015. - "Gulf allies and ‘Army of Conquest’". Al-Ahram Weekly. 28 May 2015. - Kim Sengupta (12 May 2015). "Turkey and Saudi Arabia alarm the West by backing Islamist extremists the Americans had bombed in Syria". The Independent. - "Saudi execution of Shia cleric sparks outrage in Middle East". The Guardian. 2 January 2016. - Bahout, Joseph (18 November 2013). "Sectarianism in Lebanon and Syria: The Dynamics of Mutual Spill-Over". United States Institute of Peace. - Hirst, David (2011). Beware of Small States: Lebanon, Battleground of the Middle East. Nation Books. p. 2. - Makdisi, Ussama (2000). The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. xi. - Makdisi, Ussama (2000). The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 11. - Makdisi, Ussama (2000). The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 2. - Salamey, Imad (2014). The Government and Politics of Lebanon. London: Routledge. p. 57. - Rogan, Eugene (2009). The Arabs: A History. New York: Basic Books. p. 242. - Makdisi, Ussama (1996). "Reconstructing the Nation-State: The Modernity of Sectarianism in Lebanon". Middle East Report. 200: 23. doi:10.2307/3013264. - "Lebanon: The Persistence of Sectarian Conflict". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs: 5. 2013. - Rogan, Eugene (2009). The Arabs: A History. New York: Basic Books. p. 382. - Rogan, Eugene (2009). The Arabs: A History. New York: Basic Books. p. 411. - Saseen, Sandra (1990). The Taif Accord and Lebanon's Struggle to Regain its Sovereignty. American University International Law Review. p. 67. - Rogan, Eugene (2009). The Arabs: A History. New York: Basic Books. p. 460. - Holmes, Oliver (21 March 2014). "Three dead in north Lebanon in spillover from Syria war". Reuters. Retrieved 8 April 2014. - Ryan, Missy (27 March 2014). "Syria refugee crisis poses major threat to Lebanese stability: U.N." Reuters. Retrieved 6 April 2014. - Sectarianism in Syria (Survey Study), The Day After, 2016. - Middle East sectarianism explained: the narcissism of small differences Victor Argo 13 Apr 2015 Your Middle East |Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sectarianism| |Look up sectarian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|

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Host plants are just one part of building habitat into the landscape. In biology the term”host” frequently means the organism that a parasite lives off of. But in the context of landscape “host plant” refers to those species that support the larval stages of butterflies and moths. When you imagine a butterfly garden, you might be inclined to think of beautiful borders full of purple, blue, white, yellow and orange blooms. Open blooms, with bright color and little scent are the classic butterfly attractors. But these are the nectar plants that sustain the adult butterflies.The larvae frequently need a different suite of species to develop.It is surprising to find that a number of grasses and trees are important as host plants. It is also encouraging to discover that a number of species common in the landscape or easily available are equally important to a number of butterfly species. Juniperus ashei (cedar), the bane of allergy sufferers, is important in the life cycle of the Olive and Juniper Hairstreak butterflies, as well as providing nesting material for the Golden cheeked warbler and berries for a variety of birds. Several of the oaks (e.g. Blackjack, Post Oak, Shumard oak) also play host to specific species, for example the Chinquapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii) feeds Horace’s Duskywing butterflies and provides acorns for squirrels and birds. Quercus virginiana (Southern live oak), that graces many landscapes in Austin, is simultaneously providing home to small mammals and songbirds while providing sustenance for Horace’s Duskywing and the Northern White M hairstreak butterflies. A variety of Skipper butterflies (see identification of butterflies and moths of north america) utilize different grasses as larval host plants. Common prairie grasses such as little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi) and Switch grass (Panicum virgatum) play host to different species belonging to this family of butterflies that comprises approximately 1/3 of all North American butterfly species. Inland sea oats (Chasmanthium latifolium) is a native commonly used in landscaping that also hosts multiple species of these stout, small winged, fast flying butterflies. There are several flowering natives, readily available for landscaping, that serve as host plants for butterfly species. Tecoma stans and Black Dalea (Dalea frutescens) provide homes for the larvae of the Dogface butterfly. The popular Cenzio (Leucophyllum frutescens) plays host to the larvae of the Theona checkerspot and the ubiquitous Lantana sp. offers nursery sites for the Painted lady larvae. There are climbers that are favored by particular butterfly species Old man’s beard (Clematis drummondii) is dramatically covered with feathery achenes in the fall, sustaining birds with their seeds. In spring their leaves feed the larvae of the Fatal metalmark butterfly. The different species of passionflower vines are renowned for hosting a wide variety of butterfly species including many of the Fritillaries. Finally it would be remiss if we did not mention the special relationship that the most famous of Texas butterflies, the endangered Monarch, has with the milkweeds . The toxins in the sap of the milkweed family are processed by the larvae making them toxic as well. This poisonous state is carried through metamorphosis into adulthood making them distasteful to birds that might prey on them. Texas’ position at the base of the North American continent, places it in a position where it is the funnel that many migrating species (such as butterflies and birds) pass through. Thus, we have the delight of the aerial show of butterflies that pass through in Spring and Fall, as we as those that brave the hot summer and vagaries of winter. With a little forethought and planning we can be good hosts, planting species that provide sustenance for the young and old as well as shelter from wind, sun and rain. Do you have any novel ideas for providing for wildlife in general, or butterflies in particular? Perhaps not just in residential landscapes but larger scale areas associated with business or local parks? Noreen Damude and Kelly Conrad Bender (1999). Texas Wildscapes: Gardening for Wildlife. Texas Parks and Wildlife Press. Jim P Brock and Kenn Kaufman. (2003). Field Guide to Butterflies of North America. Houghton Mifflin Company. A member of the Pedaliaceae that is also known as Ram’s Horn for it’s fantastic seed pods. Can’t tell you how pleased I am that this plant, which has popped up in the greenbelt behiind the fence, is a native rather than an exotic or invasive. According to Enquist, this is an occasional plant of roadsides and wastes., common only in Mason County. The seeds apparently attach themselves to bypassing animals, thus spreading and propagating the species. Apparently the seed pods were used for food by various native tribes of the Southwest, as well as plant fibers which were used for weaving. The plant has a rather strong unpleasant odor, which means that the photograph is more pleasant than the taking of the photograph. Ajilvsgi recommends it for the xeriscape garden, if there is room. It blooms from June to September, usually only a few flowers at a time. A quick look at fascinating, if not friendly, beetles on a common native aster. There is something joyous about a field of flowers. When nature repeats with reliability, like the appearance of the bluebonnets, it penetrates through the layers of our lives that separate us from our natural surroundings. Not only do we reconnect to seasons through plants, but it also serves as a subtle measure of the health of the ecosystem. Note all the news reports on wildflower predictions each year. What is perhaps just as remarkable, but less remarked on, is the subsequent unfolding of flowers, annuals and biennials, through the spring. The Bluebonnets (Lupinus texensis) are among the first to appear with the occasional patch of Indian paintbrush (Castilleja coccinea) to highlight the colors tastefully. What follows is the sequential flowering of different species. Many from the Asteraceae and while some, like scrambled eggs (Corydalis curvisiliqua) are from more obscure families like Fumariaceae. Together they form layers in the landscape in space and time. The casual manner in which the form and color of these species, frequently seen on roadsides, complement each other always strikes me as rather amusing given the effort and time someone might put in to create the same, very temporary effect. Eventually the fields of blooms give way to smaller and smaller patches until finally we arrive at the enormous sunflowers of the summer. The ever changing mosaic of these roadside species is largely connected to environmental conditions and germination requirements. Some seeds, like those of the bluebonnets require stratification and fall rains for the plants to germinate and begin growing well before Christmas. Similarly, the firewheel (Gaillardia pulchella) seen here with brown eyed susans (Rudbeckia hirta) should be planted early as they require 70F to germinate and so may only appear the following spring if the weather warms up too quickly. While the annuals and biennials are tied to seasons through seed germination. It is possible that perennials might offer more reliable color, although their flowering (timing and profuseness) is tied to weather conditions as well. Primrose is a common name applied to members of the genus Calylophys sp. and Oenothera sp, both found in the Onagraceae. These species provide alternate yellows to the early daisies and occasionally delicate pink. The purple/blue range of the spectrum can be found in the wine cup (Callirhoe digitata). A perennial with a deep tap-root, it has leaves close to the ground year round, but sends dramatic purple flowers up over grasses and neighbouring plants early in the spring. A more upright form is that of Widow’s tears (Commelina erecta) which, while low (growing about 1-3 ft tall), offers a vertical line in contrast to the Purple prairie verbena (Glandularia bipinnatifida) that grows profusely with a relaxed habit that is frequently covered with butterflies. Hummingbirds find a food source in the bright red cedar sage (Salvia roemeriana). With it’s attractive leaf it brightens shady spots from early spring until mid summer, providing dramatic contrast to the white caliche stone and brown mulch found in forested areas. Spring in Texas clearly offers a diverse palette of color and form. To mimic the natural sequence and arrangement of wildflowers one must understand both germination and flowering requirements of the plants selected. Like a puppet master it is all in the timing of seed application, watering and of course placing of both perennials and the annuals/biennials. Can you imagine selecting 4 or 5 species to place in an area for a spring show? Can you imagine a “meadow” effect in say a 3×3 ft area? What are the important criteria that we can take from nature to implement in design in order to attain that effortless look of sequential color? Like trees, shrubs are appealing not only for their attractive flowers, but also for their permanence in the landscape and the possible offering of food in the fall. Thus, while it is interesting to note those early bloomers, that help to wake up the landscape and our senses, paying attention to leaf shape and architecture can add a subtle dimension to landscape. Walking around the back paths of the LBJ Wildflower center early one spring I smelt the most delightful sweet scent. It was particularly elusive but, following my nose for a bit, I was able to trace it to the Agarita bushes. It surprised me that such a delicate smell game from the strings of small yellow blooms as the bush itself is incredibly robust and the leaves are uncomfortably prickly, just like a holly’s. In fact it is known to be selected by birds for nest sites as the dense prickly foliage offers excellent protection. As the picture indicates the ephemeral yellow blossoms result in bright red berries later in the year. Diospyros texana is a wiry looking shrub. It offers a great sculptural element to the landscape heightened by its beautiful bark. In the spring it has delicate little bell-shaped flowers that produce fruit later in the summer. The small fleshy fruits of this hardy tree provide food for birds and small mammals. In the woodland, surprisingly tropical looking blooms hang overhead. Eve’s necklace (Styphnolobium affine) offers graceful stems, delicate pink yellow blooms clustered on dangling infloresences and vibrant green compound leaves that move easily in the breeze. While it is a very attractive, it should be notes that the black seed pods house toxic seeds. Similarly it’s close cousin the evergreen Texas Mountain Laurel (Sophora secundiflora) has very attractive blooms that have a sweet scent, particularly evident in the evening, that give rise to silvery seed pods housing toxic red seeds. This is a very popular landscape tree, although it is slow growing, and this year the flowering in February and March was remarkable! This may be connected in some way with the drought/spring rain weather patterns that we experienced.Part of the delight of a Texas spring is the advent of the rains and the filling of the creeks. Here along Bear creek, a contributor to the Edwards aquifer, we find Button bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis). This versatile shrub is particularly useful in riverine areas. It does not mind having it’s roots regularly or partially submerged and it offers both nectar to insects and seeds to ducks and rodents. The glossy green leaves present a third leaf type to consider, the entire leaf. Our introduction to these species presents us with further considerations for the landscape. We had already met the idea of host plants (with Agarita and Texas persimmon), but now we introduce the possibilities of evoking interaction through the senses, smell and sight. Scents can be intriguing and invite exploration while different leaf shapes offer visual interest. Can you suggest particular arrangements or collections of shrubs? How do they meet with your selection criteria? Moving into Fall it is hard to remember the possibilities of spring. Creating a landscape with staggered flowerings is aesthetically interesting and serves to mark the passage of time. Those early spring blooms cheer us as much as the watery sunbeams peeking through grey clouds, but they also have an important ecological function in providing a continuous food source for those species that utilize pollen and nectar. So now, as the heat of summer burns away all memories of cooler weather, lets consider some of the early spring bloomers. The Crabapple (Malus ioensis) seen here blooming out near Johnson city in February is perhaps one of the earliest. Deer are very fond of this tree and so they do have to be protected from browsing. Small bitter fruits will follow in early fall. Texas has several native trees that are early bloomers. Some like the redbud and Mexican plum have very obvious blooms that are enjoyed by humans and pollinators alike. These are well-known trees for landscape and pair well together visually and in terms of flowering time. Mexican Plum has the added attractions of plum-like fruit and fall color in later seasons, while Redbud’s offer interesting leaf shape and large pods. Mexican Buckeye (Ungnadia speciosa) is equally attractive mid-size tree or large shrub that has early flowers and very interesting seed pods later. The Mexican buckeye is not actually a true buckeye. The Red Buckeye (which is a true buckeye) has a similar common name but belongs to a different genus and species – Aesculus pavia. The images of the flowers were taken in March on a hike down to Hamilton Pool. Not all blooms follow the traditional flower form of petals, stamens, stigma, style and ovary. Huisache (Acacia farnesiana) combines flowers in clusters with the yellow filaments of the stamens producing the attractive color. Pods 3 -4 in long soon follow. The light green compound leaves are very attractive, however the tree is thorny and readily sheds small twigs. Combined with the fact that a dark blue-brown color leaches from the pods when they are wet, this might not be the best tree for a patio or walkway but it is delightful set in a parkland. The oaks are another group of trees with flowers that may not immediately be recognized as such. The catkins are a collection of flowers (inflorescence) just as the yellow balls of the Huisache are. The male and female catkins of the Spanish Oak (Quercus buckleyi) have a slight pinkish tint just like the new leaves. The flowers on the male catkins produce pollen and then fall away while the fertilized female flowers of female catkins produce the acorns that we are familiar with. These are a small sample of early flowering trees. They may be selected for their flowers, or for other characteristics such as leaf shape, autumnal color, food source or animal habitat. How would you rate selection criteria for trees? Do you have particular features that continue to frame decisions time and time again? How important is flowering time to you? Milkweed is a wonderful, and essential, host for the Monarch butterfly. However, these pictures beautifully illustrate the complexities of the food web with a milkweed at it’s heart. When considering plants in a landscape there is often an emphasis on using local or native species. Ignoring the all important “What constitutes a native species?” . The next consideration is “Why use native plants?”. This is hardly a new question in the world of landscape design. But there is a persistent myth that using native plants in landscape makes things easier and less costly. That statement invites an interesting debate which points to the fundamental requirement for knowledge about plants and their interaction with the environment. Planting anything without insight into the basic biology and ecology of a plant is playing “landscape roulette”. It is also necessary to have both macro- and micro- understanding of an area Fortunately this is relatively easy to achieve given the growing body of knowledge of plant eco-physiology and the fact that ecological patterns appear like repeating fractals at different scales. Take for instance the standard world biomes map we see patterns connected to climate and vegetation. It is not surprising that if we look at a map of the Texas “ Natural Regions” or “Ecoregions” we see similar patterns of vegetation connected to topography, rainfall and temperature. Thus, learning to “read” the landscape is as important as getting to know the foibles of the local “characters” – the plants. And we still need to answer why “locals” should get preference. In nature where a plant is seen to grow is the result of a history of seed dispersal, germination conditions and physiology. In a constructed landscape where a plant grows is the result of someone’s intent and care – and the physiology and biology of the plant. Knowledge and experience of the plants, climate, ecology and landscape purpose are fundamental to success in a situation that is largely bound by the laws of nature. So what is important in considering conditions for creating landscape are those same things that define broader picture of natural plant dispersal – rainfall and temperature, topography and soil. [Useful documents like the soil types of Texas, describe in great detail local conditions – to the point of being overwhelming]. But these environmental variables are usually far from static, or predictable, and it is not necessarily the averages which define a plant’s distribution. More often it is the extremes. Consider the climate in Austin. If you view the averages it appears to be a pleasantly warm climate, view the extremes and it is possible that a plant has to deal with freezing temperatures and days of 100+F in the same year, not to mention winds, excessive rain or no rain at all. We are all very aware of the growing challenges associated with rainfall. Last year presented Texas with its worst drought in many years (US total precipitation 2011), and there does appear to be a shift in rainfall totals over the past decades (changing US rainfall since 1960). It is not only rainfall that is shifting. The USDA has recently published a new plant hardiness map minimum temperatures that reflects changes in climate. There is finally recognition that the hottest temperatures challenge plants as well and the American Horticultural Society has produced a heat zone map. Perhaps the most hidden, or least considered factor, is how land is actually being used. A new vision that considers human land use in an ecological context makes the world biomes map we are familiar with seem grossly oversimplified. Anthropogenic biomes and the impact of human land use at a local level highlight the importance of intelligent and ecologically informed decisions with regard to landscape, particularly in the urban setting. This picture of the less than pristine biome, ever-changing land use, and pressure on fundamental natural resources, such as water, should lead us to expand the role of plants in the intelligently constructed landscape. Plants are the ecological go-between, the mediator between static urban structure and capricious natural events and forces. Now having considered our landscape, we can return to the questions “why use native species?” and “what constitutes a native species?”. Situated in context of the immediate environment the conversation may be less academic.

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|P. vitticeps – detail of head| Eight species, see text. Pogona is a genus of reptiles containing eight lizard species (according to some sources, but some others say nine) which are often known by the common name bearded dragons. The name "bearded dragon" refers to the "beard" of the dragon, the underside of the throat, which can turn black for a number of reasons, most often as a result of stress. They are adept climbers, spending significant amounts of time on branches and in bushes and near human habitation. Pogona species bask on rocks and exposed branches in the mornings and afternoons. They are found throughout much of Australia in a wide range of habitats such as deserts, shrublands and Eucalyptus woodlands. Several species of this genus, especially the central bearded dragon, are often kept as pets, they can also be exhibited in zoos due to their hardy nature and easy care in comparison to other exotic reptiles. - 1 Description - 2 Habitat - 3 Behaviour - 4 Reproduction - 5 Species - 6 In captivity - 7 See also - 8 References - 9 Further reading - 10 External links The genus Pogona is in the subfamily Amphibolurinae of the lizard family Agamidae. Characteristics include broad, triangular heads and flattened bodies with spiny scales arranged in rows and clusters. These are found on the throat, which can be expanded when threatened, and at the back of the head. These scales are used to scare off predators, yet they are not very sharp. Bearded dragons display a hand-waving gesture to show submission (most often when acknowledging another bearded dragon's territory), and a head-bobbing display to show dominance between dragons. They have the ability to change colour during rivalry challenges between males, in response to ambient temperature changes such as turning black to absorb heat, and other stimuli. Males grow up to 60 cm (24 in) long, and females up to 51 cm (20 in). Bearded dragons also produce a mild venom originating from primitive venom glands. Although generally harmless towards humans, it is effective towards smaller-sized animals. Bearded dragons originate from deserts in Australia, with the various species occupying slightly overlapping areas of the landmass. They live in the arid and subtropical woodlands, scrublands, savannas, shore areas, and into the great interior deserts. Their range extends throughout the interior of the eastern states to the eastern half of South Australia and southeastern Northern Territory. They are considered to be semi-arboreal and will quite readily climb and bask at height. This is also linked to dominance behaviour and competition for territory/basking areas. They can be found on fallen/broken trees, rocky outcrops and bushes when basking. Bearded dragons go through a type of hibernation called brumation. Brumation is like hibernation where reptiles go months without eating but they sporadically drink water. Reptiles go dormant in the hottest temperatures, but it differs from brumation during cooler temperatures. When temperatures are extreme, there is a very small range between temperatures that the reptile's bodies can stay active and where their body cannot tolerate the extreme heat and they die. Bearded dragons go through brumation when the temperature goes below 60–70 °F during the night and 75–80 °F during the day for eight to ten hours. When the climate is too hot they will often burrow underground. They will also form more permanent burrows or covered hiding places to use as protection from the climate changes at night and predation. Adult bearded dragons are very territorial. As they grow, they establish social hierarchies in which displays of aggression and appeasement form a normal part of their social interactions. A dominant male will adopt a dominant stance and sometimes ready himself for a fight to attack a male aggressor to defend territory, food sources or in competition for a female. Any approaching male will be seen as a challenge for the territory without displaying submissive behaviour. Aggressive males have also been known to attack females who do not display submissive gestures in return. The beard itself is used for both mating and aggression displays and forms part of a range of gestures and signals through which the dragons have basic levels of communication. Both sexes have a beard, but males display more frequently, especially in courtship rituals. Females also display their beard as a sign of aggression. The beard darkens, sometimes turning jet black, and inflates during the display. The bearded dragon may also open its mouth and gape in addition to inflating its beard to appear more intimidating. Extreme behaviour such as hissing can be observed when threatened with a predator, inflating the body and tilting towards the threat in defense. Bearded dragons have relatively strong jaws but will often only attack as a last resort when threatened outside of competition with their own species. Head bobbing is another behaviour seen in both females and males; they quickly move their head up and down, often darkening and flaring their beard. Changes in the pace of head bobbing are thought to be a form of communication. Males head bob to impress females, and a male will often have to demonstrate his dominance when attempting to mate before the female will concede. Smaller males will often respond to larger males head bobbing by arm waving, which is a submissive sign. Females will also arm wave to avoid aggression, often in response to a male's head bobbing. Female bearded dragons have been seen lowering themselves towards the ground and intermittently arm waving whilst moving away from a dominant male in an attempt to either appease or escape. When brumation comes to an end the male bearded dragon goes out to find a mate. A courtship ritual occurs where the male starts bobbing his head, waving his arms, and stomping his feet in front of the female. The male chases the female and will bite the back of her neck and hold on while he gets in position to copulate. When breeding bearded dragons, the incubation temperature can change the sex of the baby within the egg regardless of its sex chromosomes. If the eggs are incubated at a higher temperature (34 °C/93.2 °F and higher), the hatchlings will be female and when the eggs are incubated at a lower temperature (30 °C/86.0 °F and lower) they will be male. During the development of an embryo, abnormalities may result in birth defects. These abnormalities might be caused by chromosomal disorders, chemicals, or other genetic or environmental factors. - Bicephalism is when a bearded dragon is born with two heads and one body. - Anasarcia is when a bearded dragon is swollen within the egg. Observing eggs in the incubator, an anasarcia egg will appear to be sweating. The cause of this is not known. - Shistosomus reflexa - Shistosomus reflexa is when the organs of a bearded dragon develop outside of the body. - Spinal and limb defects - Spinal and limb defects are abnormalities in the spine, tail, limbs, or toes. This occurs when there are nutritional deficiencies, trauma, or temperature issue during the development of the affected area. - Micropthalmia / Anopthalmia is when a bearded dragon is born with small eye(s) or no eye(s) The cause of these defects is a traumatic event or an environmental event that occurred during the development of the eyes. - Hermaphroditism is when the reproductive organs of both male and female are present. When a bearded dragon is born with both reproductive organs, infertility is the result. The following eight species are recognised as being valid. - Pogona barbata (Cuvier, 1829) – Eastern bearded dragon - Pogona henrylawsoni Wells & Wellington, 1985 – Rankin's dragon, Black-soil bearded dragon, Dumpy dragon, Dwarf bearded dragon - Pogona microlepidota (Glauert, 1952) – Kimberley bearded dragon - Pogona minima (Loveridge, 1933) – Western bearded dragon - Pogona minor (Sternfeld, 1919) – Western bearded dragon, Dwarf bearded dragon - Pogona mitchelli (Badham, 1976) – North-west bearded dragon - Pogona nullarbor (Badham, 1976) – Nullarbor bearded dragon - Pogona vitticeps (Ahl, 1926) – Central bearded dragon or inland bearded dragon Bearded dragons are kept as pets. Most commonly, the inland or central bearded dragon (sometimes Rankin's bearded dragon) are in captivity. Introduced into the U.S. as pets during the 1990s, bearded dragons are a species that have gained much popularity as an exotic pet. This popularity has been sustained, even after Australia banned the sale of its wildlife as pets in the 1960s. Generally speaking, the bearded dragon is a solitary animal. Male bearded dragons are usually housed alone, as they will fight with other males and breed with females. Captive adults reach about 40 to 61 cm (16 to 24 in) from head to tail, weigh 350 to 600 g (10 to 20 oz) and live for about 10 to 12 years with good care. They have been known to live up to about 14 years in captivity, and the current world record is 18 years. Through selective breeding, there are many different versions of the Central Inland Bearded Dragon; these are referred to as “Morphs”. There are a few main genetic traits, Hypomelanism and Translucents, which refer to traits physically displayed by the dragon. Hypomelanism (or Hypo's) tend to have more vibrant colouration and lighter colours as well as very light brown/see through claws. Translucents (or Trans) have a slightly opaque quality to their skin, making their colours seem stronger, and also have black eyes. There are also “Leatherbacks” (reduced scale texture to give a smoother skin), “Silkbacks” (Highly reduced scale texture and very soft outer skin) and “German Giants” (noticeably larger than your average bearded dragon) Silkbacks in particular require special care as they have far more delicate skin and as such require different UV and humidity requirements. They also tend to live shorter lifespans. Added to this there are various patterns, such as “Tiger”, and colour types, such as “Citrus” (yellows and greens), “Oranges” and “Reds”; there are also more extreme morphs that have been bred such as “Witblits” (Light Grey/Smokey), “Paradox" (the colouration has patches where grey/purple patches appear instead of its normal skin colour) and “Zeros” (Smokey Grey with purple tints and almost see-through skin). Over the years, many different breeders have selective bred certain lines to emphasis these traits and will often name their own such as "Dunner", “Rainbow Tigers”, “Sandfire” or “Fire & Ice”, all with either their own colouration, patterns or physical traits. Juvenile and baby bearded dragon diets consist mainly of insects, and they require substantial amounts of protein. A juvenile bearded dragon eats insects three times a day on average. After a few feedings the dragon's usual appetite can be determined. Crickets and dubia roaches are the most popular insects fed to bearded dragons, but they can also be fed other insects such as black soldier fly larvae, spiders, locusts, superworms, silkworms, butterworms, fruit flies, grasshoppers and hornworms. Bearded dragons also eat increasing amounts of plant-based food as they grow; adults should have a diet consisting primarily of plant matter, the most important of which are leafy greens. Spring greens, endive, kale, rocket, Chinese leaf and watercress are all suitable vegetables, as are butternut squash, pea shoots, bell peppers and many other plants. It is important to check before feeding something new to a bearded dragon, as some things can be toxic to them or will act to bind calcium in their diet, preventing them from being able to absorb calcium. This diet is also seasonal, meaning that it changes with availability of live prey in the wild. Studies of wild Pogona vitticeps have shown that termites compose over 60% of the stomach contents of those studied. Bearded dragons, like many reptiles, are opportunistic and will binge feed on live food sources where available, preferring live prey over plant matter. Common health issues Although bearded dragons are fairly resilient to illness, improper care can potentially fatally hurt a bearded dragon. Some health issues that bearded dragons may have include: metabolic bone disease, atadenovirus, impaction, prolapsation, and parasites. The majority of health issues bearded dragons face in captivity are due to poor diet and inadequate heat and lighting. Metabolic bone disease Metabolic bone disease (MBD) is a collective term for several common diseases/illnesses that can be fatal for bearded dragons. A main attribute of MBD is weakening of the skeletal structure and possible deformation. It occurs in bearded dragons due to malnutrition or the use of improper lighting, meaning they are unable to properly assimilate calcium from their diet or there isn't enough in their diet. Most bearded dragons in captivity will be fed supplementation and all will need a UVB light to enable them to properly use calcium in their diet. Typical foods that bearded dragons eat, including kale, mustard greens, and collard greens, are high in calcium and should be eaten daily along with other leafy greens and vegetables to have a well balanced diet Bearded dragons require UVB lights to process calcium in their diet. Without processing this calcium, their bodies will use calcium from their bones, therefore weakening them. Symptoms seen in bearded dragons with MBD include bumps in the legs, twitches or tremors, bumps along the spine or tail, a swollen bottom jaw, and jerky movements. Hypocalcemia occurs when there are low levels of calcium in the bearded dragon's blood. Hypocalcemia is most often tied to metabolic bone disease. Low levels of calcium can result in twitching muscles, or seizures. Hypocalcemia is most often seen in young bearded dragons, as they are slightly more fragile than adults. Maintaining a diet which consists of enough calcium is crucial to avoiding hypocalcemia as well as metabolic bone disease. Impaction occurs often in bearded dragons when they are fed food that is too big for them. Bearded dragons will try to eat worms or crickets that are too big for them, but this can be extremely harmful. Food should not be bigger than the space between their eyes for a young dragon. Older dragons can generally cope with larger insects but not oversized prey. If a dragon eats food that is too big for it, pressure will be put on its spinal cord during digestion. This pressure can lead to Impaction which can lead to death. Atadenovirus (ADV), also referred to as adenovirus, is a viral disease that can be deadly. ADV can be spread between reptiles through contact alone. Most juvenile ADV-positive bearded dragons don't live past 90 days. While ADV-positive adults will live longer, they eventually contract liver diseases. Common symptoms of ADV-positive bearded dragons include stunted growth and slow weight gain. Because of their compromised immune systems, ADV-positive bearded dragons may be infected with intestinal parasites. Bearded dragons require UVB to enable Vitamin D3 synthesis and to prevent illnesses like metabolic bone disease. Vitamin D3 is essential to calcium absorption, with calcium playing a major role in various critical biological functions. Bearded dragons also require UVA; this wavelength stimulates feeding, breeding, basking and overall health. They also require a basking heat source, most commonly a light emitting source, to provide a basking area. Heat and UV are both vital to the bearded dragons' biological function. In the wild, a bearded dragon may live up to 12 years, if not eaten as prey. - Wells, Richard W.; Wellington, C. Ross. 1985. "A Classification of the Reptilia and Amphibia of Australia". Australian J. Herp. Suppl. Ser. (1): 1–61. (Genus Pogona, p. 19). - "8 Reasons For Your Bearded Dragonś Black Beard". beardeddragontank.com. - Browne-Cooper, Robert; Brian Bush; Brad Maryan; David Robinson (2007). Reptiles and Frogs in the Bush: Southwestern Australia. University of Western Australia Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-920694-74-6. Pogona minor minor, Abrolhos Bearded Dragon - Fry, Bryan G.; Vidal, Nicolas; Norman, Janette A.; Vonk, Freek J.; Scheib, Holger; Ramjan, S. F. Ryan; Kuruppu, Sanjaya; Fung, Kim; Blair Hedges, S.; Richardson, Michael K.; Hodgson, Wayne. C.; Ignjatovic, Vera; Summerhayes, Robyn; Kochva, Elazar (2005). "Early evolution of the venom system in lizards and snakes". Nature. 439 (7076): 584–588. doi:10.1038/nature04328. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 16292255. - Fry, Bryan G.; Roelants, Kim; Champagne, Donald E.; Scheib, Holger; Tyndall, Joel D.A.; King, Glenn F.; Nevalainen, Timo J.; Norman, Janette A.; Lewis, Richard J.; Norton, Raymond S.; Renjifo, Camila; de la Vega, Ricardo C. Rodríguez (2009). "The Toxicogenomic Multiverse: Convergent Recruitment of Proteins Into Animal Venoms". Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics. 10 (1): 483–511. doi:10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164356. ISSN 1527-8204. - Bearded dragon natural habitat. https://thepetenthusiast.com/bearded-dragon-care/#Natural-Habitat - "Central Bearded Dragon - Pogona vitticeps - Australian Museum". australianmuseum.net.au. Retrieved 19 April 2018. - "Bearded Dragon (Pogona) Species Profile: Habitat, Diet, and Care". www.peteducation.com. Retrieved 23 September 2015. - Mayer, William Vernon. “Dormancy.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 17 May 2016, www.britannica.com/science/dormancy#ref1121981. - Vosjoli, Philippe De. The Bearded Dragon Manual: Expert Advice for Keeping and Caring for a Healthy Bearded Dragon. 2nd ed., Lumina Media, 2016. - "Why Do Bearded Dragons Burrow? - Online Bearded Dragon Care". Retrieved 23 September 2015. - Pat J. Pogona vitticeps Central Bearded Dragon. 17 February 2000. Animal Diversity Web. - Green, Darren. Keeping Bearded Dragons Pogona Species. Australian Reptile Keeper, 2009. - Amey Andrew P. Whittier Joan M. (2000) The annual reproductive cycle and sperm storage in the bearded dragon, Pogona barbata. Australian Journal of Zoology 48, 411–419. - Hosking, Chris. “Australian Museum.” Central Bearded Dragon - Pogona Vitticeps, 2 May 2017, australianmuseum.net.au/central-bearded-dragon. - Yong, Ed. “Hot Wild Dragons Set Sex Through Temperature Not Genes.” Phenomena, National Geographic | Phenomena, 1 July 2015, phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2015/07/01/hot-wild-dragons-set-sex-through-temperature-not-genes/. - Brown, Danny. A Guide to Australian Dragons in Captivity. ABK Publications, 2012 - "Pogona ". The Reptile Database. www.reptile-database.org. - "Exports of Australian native plants and animals". environment.gov.au. Retrieved 19 March 2018. - "Hades Dragons". hadesdragons.co.uk. 2010. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2013. - "Oldest bearded dragon ever". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 12 August 2018. - "Bearded Dragon Care". Big Al's Pets. December 2014. Archived from the original on 28 January 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2015. - Bearded Dragon Food Pyramid 15 April 2016. Complete Critter. http://www.completecritter.com/bearded-dragon.html - "MBD". www.beautifuldragons.com. Retrieved 4 May 2017. - Tricia Power (1995–2012). "Calcium Deficiency". Tricia's Chinese Water Dragon, Reptile and Amphibian Care Page. Retrieved 5 May 2017. - "Atadenovirus – This Disease Can Be Deadly To Your Bearded Dragon". www.reptilesmagazine.com. Retrieved 5 May 2017. - Bjornebo, Heather (11 August 2016). "Atadenovirus in Bearded Dragons". azeah.com. Retrieved 5 May 2017. - "AnAge entry for Pogona vitticeps". Retrieved 14 April 2018. - Storr GM. 1982. "Revision of the Bearded Dragons (Lacertilia: Agamidae) of Western Australia with Notes on the Dismemberment of the Genus Amphibolurus ". Rec. Western Australia Mus. 10 (2): 199-214. (Pogona, new genus, p. 201). |Wikispecies has information related to Pogona| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pogona.|

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Nuclear energy makes economic nonsense and ecological disaster and provides great opportunities for terrorists. Peter Bunyard Human-induced global warming is already upon us. The trends in fossil fuel use and the release of greenhouse gases from all human activities, including agriculture, indicate that worldwide we will be hard pushed to achieve the 60 to 80 per cent reduction in greenhouse gases necessary to stabilise greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere at 550 parts per million (ppm) before the century is out. That’s the upper limit before climate change events become extreme and devastating, according to climatologists . The carbon dioxide level is currently close to 380 ppm in the atmosphere, more than 30 per cent up on the pre-industrial level of 280 ppm. Even at 400 parts per million, which will be reached within 10 years at the current rate of increase of 2 ppm per year, average global temperatures will rise by 2 deg.C . In its scientific review, Climate Change 2001, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that business-as-usual (BAU) activities across the planet could lead to an average temperature rise of as much as 5.8 deg. C within the century. But such predictions, disturbing as they are, do not take into account the impact of global warming on terrestrial vegetation, including the world’s tropical rainforests. Peter Cox and his colleagues at the Hadley Centre of UK Met Office have elaborated climate models that incorporate a dynamic carbon cycle. They predict that, within half a century, the BAU scenario will cause soils and vegetation to switch abruptly from a sink for atmospheric carbon to a source. That would mean not only the loss of the current capacity to withhold and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but in addition, the release of carbon from soils and vegetation that has accumulated over the past 150 years. The net result could be a doubling of current concentrations of greenhouse gases within a matter of years. Adding in the fossil fuel emissions could take the levels of carbon dioxide to four times pre-industrial levels, i.e 1 000 ppm. The positive feedback from the loss of terrestrial carbon further heats up the earth’s surface, and the average surface terrestrial temperature could rise by as much as 9 deg. C instead of the predicted 5.8 deg. C; temperatures as high have not been experienced for more than 40 million years . The soil/vegetation feedback on global warming is not the only one; we face other powerful positive feedbacks, including the change in albedo (the fraction of solar energy reflected back into space) as ice vanishes from the Arctic Circle and from parts of Antarctica where grass is establishing itself for the first time in millions of years . In addition, the potential release of methane from the oceans overlying the vast sediments of the Amazon Fan, or in the permafrost regions of the Northern Hemisphere, could lead to the large changes in climate that were responsible for the mass extinctions of the Permian more than two hundred million years ago. It has emerged that the Greenland ice sheet is less stable than previously thought. Its rapid melting would raise sea levels by several metres. Moreover, the Gulf Stream is diminishing in strength because of the influx of fresh water into the Arctic Circle . In short, the climate system as we know it is poised on the edge of a profound transition. Once past a point of no return, terrestrial organisms including human beings will have little or no time to adjust and their future on this planet could well be jeopardized. The UK government, spearheaded by the Prime Minister Tony Blair, has declared its intention to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from Britain by as much as 20 per cent of the baseline year of 1990 by the end of the First Commitment Period of the Kyoto Protocol. That 20 per cent will incorporate carbon trading, allowing industry to purchase carbon credits from elsewhere to offset its emissions, including reforestation projects in developing countries. It will also take on board ‘clean development mechanism’ projects (CDMs) in developing countries, whereby a donor industrialized country can share the equivalent of greenhouse gas emissions foregone through investing in a ‘cleaner’ project than would have been deployed had the additional investment and technical expertise not been available. Despite a host of different projects, including wind-farms, it is becoming clear that the UK will have difficulty achieving that target. Energy demands in the UK are rising and emission cuts are stagnating. Indeed, over the past 40 years, the mean rate of energy demand has been increasing at 0.5 percent a year, mostly provided through burning fossil fuels. Moreover, recent figures supplied by the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) show that carbon dioxide emissions from the UK, rather than falling as planned, are rising rapidly, by 2.2 per cent in 2003 and 1.5 per cent in 2004. And that despite the UK’s commitment to a legally binding 12.5 percent cut in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990, let alone the 20 per cent called for. Currently, the UK’s emissions are no more than 4 per cent below 1990 levels [6, 7]. The reality is that recent energy demand in the UK is growing at almost double the rate of the past half century; the DTI is predicting that the current per annum increase of 0.9 per cent will continue at least until 2010. Energy demand is up in all sectors of the UK economy, in transport, electricity and space-heating. Blair’s government is now reviewing a number of options for reducing emissions , including wind power and the renewables; investment in tidal, wave and solar systems; a new nuclear power programme; subsidies for energy efficient household appliances; new building regulations that will incorporate energy efficient designs; carbon taxes including a rise in fuel duties; and a reduction in the prices of alternative fuels such as bio-diesel. The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that as much as 1400 GW (gigawatts = 109 watts) of coal-fired plants will be in operation by 2030 in the world, a considerable proportion in India and China. At a meeting of the IEA and World Coal Institute in Beijing (23 April, 2004), Wu Yin, Deputy Director-General of Energy Department, National Development & Reform Commission, China, stated that in 20 years’ time, China anticipated that coal would feature as the main fuel for a significantly enlarged electricity supply system. Vijay Sethu, Executive Director, Project & Structured Finance, Asia, ANZ Investment Bank, Singapore, confirmed that a similar situation would prevail for India. Both countries would also resort to nuclear power [9, 10] During their lifetimes the coal-fired plants of China and Indian could emit some 500 Gt (gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide, equal to half of anthropogenic (human-source) emissions in the last 250 years. In their 22nd report on Environmental Pollution of 2000, the Royal Commission set out four different scenarios for the UK to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by mid century. How such reductions were to be achieved was markedly different in each case; however, all four scenarios anticipated that fossil fuels would continue to be used for transport, perhaps through fuel cells, but with the hydrogen originating from fossil fuels . Scenario 1 is based on the notion that the UK would have a BAU economy, but with final energy demand kept down to 1998 levels. A 57 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions would be obtained through the deployment of at least 52 GW of nuclear power — four times today’s capacity— or as suggested, through using fossil fuel for electricity generation in which the carbon dioxide is recovered and buried in oil wells. Electricity would also be derived from renewable energy sources, including 200 offshore wind farms, each with 100 large turbines, as well as wave and tidal machines. The Severn Estuary barrage would be up and running and photovoltaic solar panels installed on the roofs of buildings. In recent years, efficient solar water heating systems have been developed that, even in the UK climate, make an effective contribution in reducing fossil fuel energy demands. Scenarios 2 and 3 involve a reduction in energy use of more than a third while Scenario 4 requires an energy reduction of nearly one half compared to energy demands in 1998. Through reductions in transport, in electricity and in low- and high-grade heat, Scenarios 2 and 4 avoid the use both of nuclear power and fossil fuel stations with carbon dioxide recovery. Their demands for renewable energy resources are also reduced compared to Scenario 1. Meanwhile, Scenario 3 makes up for a reduced use of renewable energy sources by resorting to nuclear power although far less, at 19 GW, than the requirement for 56 GW in Scenario 1. On the assumption that people and businesses are not going to pay silly prices for their energy, the Royal Commission has suggested a cut-off price of 7p/kWh for renewable energy supply, thereby imposing limits on the quantity of energy from such sources that could be available by 2025. The nuclear industry has always seen itself as the saviour of industrialised society. The slogan of the 1960s, especially in the United States, was that nuclear power would deliver unlimited energy cheaply and safely, and that it would step into the breech when fossil fuel supplies became scarce. At the time, no one was thinking of the problem of greenhouse gases . In its 1981 report on nuclear costs, the Committee for the Study of Nuclear Economics showed that a station such as Sizewell B would cost some £2 billion more (1980’s money) over its lifetime than a comparable-sized conventional thermal power station such as Drax B in Yorkshire , which would put nuclear power beyond the reach of privatization. In 1996, for £1.5 billion, the newly created British Energy acquired seven Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR) stations and the country’s only commercial Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR). The actual cost of construction had amounted to over £50 billion, of which more than £3 billion had recently been spent on the Sizewell B PWR, newly commissioned in the mid 1990s. The government sell-off in 1996 of what was to become the UK’s largest electricity producer might have seemed a give-away at the time, but in 2002, on account of having to compete for electricity sales against other non-nuclear generators, British Energy found its losses piling up with every unit of electricity sold. In less than a year, and in the biggest write-off of capital in the UK, the company’s market value plummeted to little more than £100 million. Basically, British Energy could not go on trading and had to call on the government to salvage it. Despite complaints of favouritism from non-nuclear companies, the government agreed a loan of £410 million to British Energy, and a month later, upped it to £650 million. Meanwhile, as Energy Minister Brian Wilson reiterated in parliament on 27 January 2002, the government would provide the £200 million required to go into the fund for decommissioning. Dale Vince, the managing director of Ecotricity, regards such support for the nuclear industry as economic nonsense. He said in an interview published in The Guardian , “If we were given £410 million instead of British Energy, we could have built enough onshore wind energy to power 10 per cent of the country’s electricity needs.” Unfortunately, you cannot just shut down nuclear stations and walk away. You have to keep the safety systems, including core-cooling, up and running for as long as the fuel is in the core (see Box 1). And then, when the spent fuel is extracted, you have to make multi-billion dollar decisions what to do with it (see Box 2). How nuclear power is generated Uranium-235, which comprises on average just 0.7 percent of natural uranium, is a fissile (capable of atomic fission) isotope that splits into more or less two radioactive halves when struck by a neutron. The bulk of natural uranium is made up of uranium-238, which, in contrast to the rarer isotope, does not split on being struck by a neutron but tends to absorb a neutron and, through a process of radioactive transformation (with the emission of an electron), jump up to the next element - plutonium. Plutonium is also fissile, and can be ‘bred’ from uranium fuel when a reactor is up and running. A reactor, as distinct from the uncontrolled fission that makes an atomic bomb, needs the process of fission to be kept at a steady operating level. That is achieved through inserting or withdrawing control rods made of a material that will absorb neutrons and so prevent them from causing a runaway chain reaction (see Fig. 1). With the exception of fast breeder reactors, which use plutonium to ‘enrich’ the fuel, the majority of reactor systems use a ‘moderator’ such as graphite or heavy water to slow down the neutrons so that they will be more effective in bringing about a chain reaction. The moderator therefore allows the use of uranium with a relatively low content of uranium-235. The majority of reactors in use today will use uranium fuel that has been enriched to around 4 percent. Figure 1. Controlled chain reaction in a nuclear plant as opposed to divergent chain reaction that makes an atom bomb The nuclear fuel cycle The nuclear fuel cycle begins with the mining of uranium, followed by extracting it from the ore. The uranium is then enriched by centrifuging gaseous uranium hexafluoride, so that the heavier uranium-238 leaves behind an increasing concentration of uranium-235, the fissile material. The enriched uranium is then manufactured into ceramic fuel and encased in ‘cladding’, usually of zirconium alloy or stainless steel, as used in Britain’s Advanced Gas Reactors (graphite moderator and carbon dioxide gas for transporting heat to a steam generator). Spent fuel from the power plant is highly radioactive and must be handled remotely. Initially, it is placed in cooling ponds to allow short-lived radioactive isotopes to decay. Then, there are two options: one to dispose of the intact, radioactive fuel, with its cladding, in long term repositories, where continual cooling can be provided; two to reprocess the fuel so as to extract any unused uranium as well as plutonium. Reprocessing leads to the production of various waste streams of virulently radioactive material. Various attempts have been made to vitrify (turning to glass) high level radioactive waste, so that it can deposited as a glass block. The UK still has to decide how and where to dispose of that waste. Meanwhile, the extracted plutonium can be made into fresh fuel, such as Mixed Oxide Fuel, which also contains uranium. Reactors need to be adapted to take MOX fuel because its fission characteristics are different from using enriched uranium fuel. Essentially, fossil fuels underpin the use of nuclear power, especially in the mining, extraction and manufacture of uranium fuel. To date fossil fuels have provided the energy and materials for the construction of nuclear installations, quite aside from providing electricity to maintain safety systems. Figure 2. The nuclear fuel cycle including fossil fuels used in extracting uranium, constructing the nuclear plant, turning the power generated into electricity and decommissioning and reprocessing to get rid of hazardous nuclear wastes. Do you send it to loss-making British Nuclear Fuels (BNF) for reprocessing, with all that entails in terms of discharges of radioactive waste into the Irish Sea and the atmosphere? That being the case, do you continue sanctioning the production of Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX), which makes economic nonsense, as well as a dubious saving on uranium and is a security nightmare (see below)? Or do you reduce costs by storing the spent fuel intact? As to the use of MOX, many critics within and outside the industry have repeatedly pointed out that the gains are far outweighed by economic and environmental problems. In France, reprocessing spent fuel to extract plutonium for MOX fuel manufacture will save no more than 5 to 8 per cent on the need for fresh uranium. Meanwhile, as experience in both France and Britain has shown, reprocessing spent reactor fuel leads to a hundredfold or more increase in the volume of radioactive wastes. In the end, all the materials used, including tools, equipment and even the buildings become radioactive and have to be treated as a radioactive hazard. It is also highly questionable whether the use of MOX fuel will actually reduce the amount of plutonium that has been generated after half a century of operating reactors, both military and civil. Worldwide, more than 1 500 tonnes of plutonium have been generated, of which some 250 tonnes have been extracted for making bombs and another 250 tonnes extracted as a result of reprocessing the spent fuel from ‘civilian’ reactors. Apart from its military-grade plutonium - plutonium relatively pure in the 239 isotope - Britain now has some 50 tonnes of lower quality reactor-grade plutonium contaminated with other, less readily-fissionable isotopes such as 241 . Because of the continued reprocessing of spent reactor fuel in commercial reprocessing plants in Britain, France, Russia and Japan, the world will have some 550 tonnes of separated civil plutonium by the year 2010, enough to produce 110 000 nuclear weapons. Mixed oxide fuel, containing up to 5 per cent plutonium, is ideal material for terrorists, being no more than mildly radioactive compared with spent reactor fuel, and in a form from which the plutonium can be easily extracted. Just one MOX fuel assembly contains some 25 kilograms of plutonium, enough for two weapons. A reactor, modified to take the plutonium-enriched fuel for up to 30 per cent of the reactor core, has some 48 MOX fuel assemblies. Currently, 23 light water (ordinary water) reactors - 5 in Germany, 3 in Switzerland, 13 in France and 2 in Belgium - have been converted to use MOX fuel. Five countries, Britain, Belgium, France, Japan and Russia, are manufacturing the fuel. With BNFL’s new MOX plant up and running, supply will exceed demand by a factor of two, at least until 2015. BNFL claims that the use of MOX fuel will help burn up stocks of plutonium, including those from dismantled weapons. But the very operation of civilian reactors, with their load of the plutonium-generating uranium isotope, the 238 isotope, makes it inevitable that more plutonium is generated than is consumed. A 0.9GW pressurized water reactor which has been modified to take MOX fuel will burn a little less than one tonne of plutonium every ten years, whereas plutonium production will be about 1.17 tonnes, hence about 120 kilograms more. The new myth is that nuclear power is the only source of energy that can replace fossil fuels in the quantities required to fuel the industrial society, whether in the developed or developing world, while eliminating the emissions of greenhouse gases. Economies of scale demand that nuclear power stations are large, at least one GW (electrical) in size. Their sudden shutdown can put a considerable strain on the overall electricity supply system. And if their shutdown is the result of a generic problem, that will have major consequences, including the necessity of bringing on stream a large tranche of spare capacity. Furthermore, that capacity is likely to be fossil-fuel based and relatively inefficient. As reported recently in New Scientist , the UK’s advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGRs) are showing signs of unexpected deterioration in the graphite blocks. These blocks serve the double function of moderating the nuclear fission process and of providing structural channels for nuclear fuel and control rods. The potential failure of the graphite compromises safety and in all likelihood the UK’s 14 AGRs, currently supplying nearly one-fifth of the UK’s electricity, will have to be shutdown prematurely, rather than lasting through to 2020 and beyond. Bringing reserve capacity to replace the AGRs will inevitably lead to a surge in greenhouse gas emissions. But that’s not the only problem the UK nuclear industry faces. On Sunday 12 June, 2005, the BBC reported that a leak of highly radioactive waste containing enough uranium and plutonium to make several atomic weapons had gone unnoticed for more than 8 months . It appears that a pipe in British Nuclear Fuels’ thermal oxide reprocessing plant at Sellafield in Cumbria had fractured as long ago as last August, spewing nitric acid with its deadly load of radionuclides onto the floor. The leak, containing as much as 20 tonnes of uranium and 160kg of plutonium, was discovered only in April of this year. British Nuclear Fuels has justified the use of the reprocessing plant as being essential for the production of mixed oxide fuel from the spent fuel taken from the UK’s Advanced Gas Reactors. As a result of the leak, the nuclear inspectorate has ordered British Nuclear Fuels to shut down THORP, the thermal oxide reprocessing plant. Just how the spilt waste can be removed remains to be seen, but once again the accident reinforces concerns that the nuclear industry, quite aside from its poor economic showing, can never be made safe enough. In addition, the Environment Agency inspectors told BNF that it had to improve the way it discharged low level radioactive waste into the Irish Sea, now probably one of the most contaminated waters in the world. Some commentators estimate it will take considerably more than a century to clean up the radioactive waste that the industry has already discharged into the environment, at a cost of well over £50 000 million. Article first published 08/07/05 Got something to say about this page? Comment

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ECE 354 Week 1 Journal Guess The Meaning LATEST Price: $10.00 $4.99 Qty: Check out This Tutorial Purchased: 3 Times. Tutorial Rating: This Tutorial contains following Attachments:No Attachments ECE 354 Week 1 Journal Guess The Meaning NEW Ashford ECE 354 Week 1 Journal Guess the Meaning Guess the Meaning [CLO: 1]. Due by Day 7. As you have discovered throughout this first week, “assessment is an essential educational tool that complements curriculum and instruction” (Howard, V. F., & Aiken, E., 2015, p. 11). In order to effectively utilize this essential tool, it is helpful to have an understanding of the language most commonly used in assessment. To begin this journal, you will need to complete “The Language of Assessment” interaction that is located within the Summary and Resources in Chapter 2 of “Assessing learning and development in young children.” After completing the activity, reflect on the following questions: • How did the activity help to increase your knowledge of vocabulary related to assessment? • What assessment terms are you still confused about? • How did completing this activity help you to feel more confident about the content you will be learning in this course? Suggested Assignment Length: One to two double-spaced pages (not including title and reference pages). ECE 354 Week 1 Assignment Determining the Observation Site Ashford ECE 354 Week 1 Assignment Determining the Observation Site Determining the Observation Site [CLO: 3]. Due by Day 7. For Weeks Two and Five of this course, you will be asked to complete an assessment as well as a developmental screening on a young child. For this Learning Activity, you will find a child to observe for both of these assessments. Before selecting a child to work with, ensure he/she will be available during the next five weeks, as you will need to observe them on more than one occasion. If you are currently working with children, you may request permission to observe and work with a child in your class or center. If you are not currently working with children, or do not have children of your own (one to eight years of age), you will need to use the videos provided below for your observations. To access the videos, go to The Colorado Department of Education’s Results Matter Video Library- Practicing Observations and scroll down the list to find the titles of the videos for the child you choose from the table below. To locate transcripts for these videos, please click HERE. Please make sure to watch all of the videos listed in the table below for your chosen child. You must ensure that you can observe and assess the child on multiple occasions. You will need a minimum of two different assessment times, three is preferable. You also must ensure that you are working with the same child for all required assessments during this course. ECE 354 Week 1 DQ 1 The Assessment-Learning Process Ashford ECE 354 Week 1 Discussion 1 The Assessment-Learning Process The Assessment-Learning Process. [CLOs: 1, 2]. 1st Post Due by Day 3. As you read in Chapter 1 of your course text, the assessment-learning process consists of a continuous cycle of assessment, planning, and teaching. It is important to consider that the cycle both begins and ends with assessment. “In between assessment there is continuous planning, teaching, and learning” (Howard, V. F., & Aiken, E., 2015, p. 16). In order to be effective caregivers and educators, we must first understand the purpose of assessment. Once we understand the “why,” we can then focus on the “how.” For this discussion you will reflect on the why, and begin to plan how to move forward in the assessment-learning process. To prepare for your first discussion, view the Early Childhood Assessment Purposes video. For a transcript of the video, please click HERE. Include the following in your discussion post: • According to Pretti-Frontczak (2015), there are six main purposes of assessment: Developmental and Behavioral Screening, Eligibility under IDEA, Planning Instruction, Revising Instruction, Program Evaluation, and Accountability. For this discussion you will choose one of these six purposes of assessment and locate a scholarly resource that provides a rationale for this purpose of assessment. • Discuss why your chosen assessment purpose is important for young children and what some of the detriments or problems are, if any. Support this portion of your post with the scholarly resource you located in the step above. • Identify how you know where to begin when using assessments with children. Provide specific examples. • Analyze the importance of goal setting. What are the implications for improper goal-setting? • Explain what the next steps are if an assessment does not yield comprehensive results. • Defend why using multiple measures of assessment is considered a best practice. Include at least two reasons and support your rationale with the text and at least one scholarly resource ECE 354 Week 1 DQ 2 Assessment In Early Childhood Ashford ECE 354 Week 1 Discussion 2 Assessment in Early Childhood Assessment in Early Childhood [CLOs: 1, 2]. 1st Post Due by Day 3. When using assessments with young children, it is important to make sure that they are being used appropriately and with a specific purpose in mind. The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is an important resource to use as you are making decisions about assessment in early childhood. According to Howard, V. F., & Aiken, E. ( 2015), “NAEYC takes the position that assessment in ECE is not only unique and valuable but also vital to implementing developmentally appropriate practices and the success of individual children, their families, ECE professionals, and ECE programs” (p. 60). Developmentally, young children have distinct needs when it comes to assessment, as the traditional paper/pencil assessment is not appropriate. Therefore, it is important that assessment in early childhood is approached in a developmentally responsive manner, always considering the individual needs of this age group. For this discussion you will reflect on the similarities and differences between assessment with older children and assessment in early childhood, and explore the unique ways in which assessment in early childhood is conducted. Include the following in your discussion post: • Explain why it is necessary to approach assessment in early childhood differently than assessment with older children. • In what ways are assessments similar, regardless of theageofthechildren? • Identify how play-based, project-based, and child-directed learning support the implementation of developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood. • Compare and contrast your personal stance on assessment with that of either NAEYCor the Division for Early Childhood (DEC). In what ways do they align? In what ways do they differ? Use Chapter 2 of the course textbook to support your response. • Determine what, in your opinion, the role of families is in the assessment-learning process. Thinking about the age of children you desire to work with and the unique needs of that age group, how do you envision working with families during the assessment process? Provide specific examples. ECE 354 Week 2 Assignment Observation Ashford ECE 354 Week 2 Assignment Observation Observation [CLOs: 3,4]. Due by Day 7. In Week One of this course, you were asked to find a child to observe. Using the plan that you created in the second discussion forum this week, you will observe the child using the requirements below and summarize your observation. This can be done in one sitting, or it can be done in two since you will be conducting two different observations. Two is preferable for accuracy of assessment. For the observation, you will need to: • Be sure you have the permission of the child’s parent or guardian. • Exclude any identifying information for this child (e.g., last name). • Follow the guidelines for minimizing bias shared in section 4.1 of the course textbook. • Familiarize yourself with sections I-1.6 – I-1.11 of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct regarding assessments. • Be sure you have the appropriate materials ready: o You will need either a Running Record Form or an Anecdotal Record Form, whichever you choose. For this form, you will choose one developmental domain to observe (e.g., cognitive, physical, motor, or language). o You will need either a Time Sampling Form or an Event Sampling Form, whichever you choose. For this form, you will choose one developmental domain to observe (e.g., cognitive, physical, motor, or language). o Example: Assessing “Bobby,” I would first observe his motor development using an Anecdotal Record Form. In a different sitting, I would observe his cognitive development using an Event Sampling Form. For the assignment, you will need to include: • Qualitative Observation (2.25 points): A copy of the completed Running Record Form or Anecdotal Record Form (Remember, this should address one domain). • Quantitative Observation (2.25 points): A copy of the completed Time Sampling Form or Event Sampling Form. (This should address a different domain). • Observation Summary (2.75 points): A one- page summary of the observation(s). In this summary, include: o How you feel the observation went and why. o How receptive you feel the child was and why you feel that way. (If using one of the video options, state the reaction of the child upon being videotaped as you see it.) o The most challenging aspect of this observation. o The most enjoy able aspect of this observation. o What you learned from this experience. o What you would change next time. • Developmentally Appropriate Activities (2.25 points): A one-page discussion providing some developmentally appropriate activities you might implement for this child to foster growth in each of the developmental domains you observed, and why those activities are a good fit for this child. Use at least one scholarly source to support your discussion. • Ethical Code of Conduct (1 point): A paragraph explaining how you upheld sections I-1.6 – I-1.11 of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct while conducting your observations. Make sure to provide specific examples to support your explanation. ECE 354 Week 2 DQ 1 Validity And Reliability Ashford ECE 354 Week 2 Discussion 1 Validity and Reliability Validity and Reliability [CLO: 2]. 1st Post Due by Day 3. “Whether discussing formal or informal assessments, the assessment process must have integrity across an assessment’s development, use, and analysis” (Howard, V. F., & Aiken, E., 2015, p. 93). Before beginning the discussion, make sure you have read section 3.4 of our textbook that discusses the importance of reliability and validity in assessment. Next, watch the following videos on test validity and reliability: 1. a) Introduction to Test Validity. To view a transcript of the video, please click HERE. 2. b) Reliability. To view a transcript of the video, please click HERE. Then, address the following: • Summarize your understanding of reliability and validity, including how they are related. • Explain the importance of reliability and validity in assessment. • Analyze the following situation: o Acenterorschoolislookingforanassessmentinstrumenttomeasurereadingability.Theselection has been narrowed to two possibilities: • Test A shows measures of strong validity, but there is no information about its reliability. • Test B includes measures of strong reliability, but there is no information about its validity. o Which test would you recommend? Be sure to include a comprehensive rationale with three reasons that support why you chose the test you did. ECE 354 Week 2 DQ 2 Observation Plan Ashford ECE 354 Week 2 Discussion 2 Observation Plan Observation Plan [CLOs: 1, 2]. 1st Post Due by Day 3. OBSERVING YOUNG CHILDREN VIDEO “According to child development specialists, one of the most accurate ways to learn about children is to observe them in daily activities” (Wortham, 2012, p. 117). Among the many types of qualitative and quantitative observation tools discussed in Chapter 4, anecdotal records, time sampling, and event sampling are widely used in schools and centers across the nation. Another commonly used form of observation is a running record. For this discussion, you will begin to develop a plan for the observation types you will use in your written assignment this week, which involves the observation of an actual child. Here is what you are asked to do: • Qualitative Observation Tools: You will need to choose either an anecdotal record or running record as your form of qualitative observation to use. If you need more clarification about anecdotal and running records before choosing which tool you will use, review section 4.2 of the course text or read the optional resources Anecdotal Records and Running Records. For the qualitative observation tool, you choose, address the following: o Discuss whether you will be using this tool to observe social/emotional development, physical development, cognitive development, or language development. o Explain the purpose for using this tool to assess your chosen domain. • Quantitative Observation Tools: You will need to choose either time sampling or event sampling as your form of quantitative observation to use. If you need more clarification about anecdotal and running records before choosing which tool you will use, review section 4.3 of the course text or read the optional resources Time Sampling and Event Sampling. For the quantitative tool you choose, address the following: o Describe this quantitative observation tool and explain its characteristics. o Discuss whether you will be using this tool to observe social/emotional development, physical development, cognitive development, or language development. o Explain the purpose for using this tool to assess your chosen domain. • Discuss how you will eliminate bias from your observation. Be sure to specifically explain how you will use at least three of the nine strategies that are shared in section 4.1 of the course text for eliminating bias from observations. ECE 354 Week 3 Assignment Curriculum-Linked Assessments Ashford ECE 354 Week 3 Assignment Curriculum-Linked Assessments Curriculum-Linked Assessment [CLOs: 3,4]. Due by Day 7. In the discussion forums this week we learned about the use of screening assessments as a tool to indicate a potential concern about a child’s learning and development. After administering screening assessments, a typical next step is to evaluate any areas of concern that were indicated on the screener. One way in which this is accomplished is through creating learning activities and curriculum linked assessments. “If every intentional activity that goes on in education is part of the curriculum, then these activities should be assessed to determine if children are making progress in the curriculum” (text, section 7.1) Doing this allows for opportunities to assess and evaluate the child’s performance to see where his/her true areas of need are and to determine what further steps might need to be taken. Your assignment this week will give you the opportunity to put the process we just discussed into action. There are four steps to your assignment. Step 1 (1.5 points): Choose one child from the example document, “Developmental Checklists Birth to Five.” After choosing a child, write an analysis of the child. Your analysis should include the following: • Which checklist you are using • The age of the child • The information that you have learned from the checklist about the child’s strengths and developmental concerns you would have about this child that includes at least three different developmental areas from the checklist. Step 2 (3 points): Create a learning objective from the child. Using this child and the domain of your choice from The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework domains, choose a learning standard that relates to an area of need for the child you choose based on their checklist. Create a clear learning objective that aligns with this standard, which you can use to measure the child’s performance on the assessment you will create in Step 3. For example, if the screener indicated that the child struggles with identifying shapes, you would choose to focus on a shape skill from the Mathematics Knowledge and Skills Domain. Your objective might be the child will be able to identify colors correctly at least 80% of the time. Another example would be if the screener indicates that the child struggles to cooperate with others, you would choose a cooperation skill from the Social and Emotional Development Domain. Your objective for this might be the child will be cooperating when playing with a partner at least 90% of the time. If you need assistance with how to create effective learning objectives, please view the Objectives section of the ECE/CD Lesson Planning Handbook that is available with your Constellation materials for the course or review section 7.1 of the course text. In your assignment include the following: • The learning standard you chose from the The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework • A clear and measurable learning objective • A rationale that explains why you developed the learning objective you did and how it aligns with yourlearning standard. Make sure to include evidence from the checklist to support your choice. Step 3 (4 points): Develop a curriculum linked developmentally appropriate assessment that assesses your learning objective. You will find helpful guidelines for creating your assessment in Chapter 7 of the text. Also, remember as is stated in section 7.3 of your text, not all assessments are paper and pencil tests so feel free to be creative with your assessment. For example, if you are creating an assessment on shapes you might have the children draw the names of the shapes you say, identify examples of the shapes in the room, or match a picture of the shape to its name. In your assignment include the following: • An example of or a detailed description of your assessment, along with specifically how you will document the child’s progress. For a more detailed explanation, please review the week three guidance. Step 4 (2 points): Provide a rationale for your curriculum linked assessment. In your rationale, including the following: • Explain how you your curriculum linked assessment aligns with the guidelines for teacher developed assessments shared in section 7.3 of the course text. • Discuss how the level of learning in your objective matches the level of learning on the assessment • Explain how you will use the results from this assessment to differentiate, accommodate or modify, instruction and intervention. Utilize information from section 7.1- Curriculum Linked to IndividualLearning from your course text to support your explanation. ECE 354 Week 3 DQ 1 Role Of Screeners Ashford ECE 354 Week 3 Discussion 1 Role of Screeners Role of Screeners [CLO: 1]. 1st Post Due by Day 3. In Week Two, we focused on the important role observations play in the assessment of young children. From conducting observations professionals working with young children may have some areas of concern about a child’s development. When this happens, they often use a developmental screener as the next step in ensuring a child’s success. Screeners are a “brief assessment to identify possible problems that may later be further evaluated using more extensive and more accurate assessment” (Howard, V. F., & Aiken, E., 2015, p. 149). In this discussion, we will look at the connection between observations and screeners, the purposes of screeners, and including families in the screening process. To prepare for your discussion, you will need to read the case study in the introduction of Chapter 5 and watch the Observation, Screening, Assessment, and Documentation video. Using both the Observation, Screening, Assessment and Documentation video and Chapter 5 of your course text as support, discuss the following: • Explain the relationship between observations and screeners in the assessment of young children. Include at least two specific examples of how they are connected. • Discuss how the information shared in the video does or does not align with the screening process shared in the case study in the introduction section of Chapter 5 of the course text. Include at least two specific examples to support your thinking. • Based on your understanding of the purposes of screeners, how will you use screening in your current or future work with young children? Make sure to include specific examples that are connected to the purposes of assessment shared in the video and the course text. ECE 354 Week 4 Reflective Journal Ashford ECE 354 Week 4 Reflective Journal Reflective Journal [CLO: 1]. Due by Day 7. Throughout this course we have discussed some of the important topics surrounding assessment. There is no question that assessment is important as we have learned over the last four weeks, but it is also a heavily debated topic in education. According to Wortham (2012), “Assessments in the early childhood years have many purposes; some are beneficial for young children, and others are detrimental” (p. 21). Reflecting back over your coursework so far, as a caregiver, teacher or practitioner, how do the benefits of assessments at any age level directly relate to you and your work with children? What do you feel Wortham means in the above quote that assessments can be detrimental? What might the impact of these detriments be for the child, for you as the caregiver, and for the families? In what ways might culture impact assessments (i.e. language barriers)? Finally, think back to how you viewed assessment at the start of this course. How have your views of assessment changed? How will the knowledge you have gained of assessment support you in your future work with children? ECE 354 Week 4 DQ 1 Performance-Based Assessments Ashford ECE 354 Week 4 Discussion 1 Performance-Based Assessments Performance-Based Assessments [CLOs: 1,2]. 1st Post Due by Day 3. Chapter 6 examines the purpose of authentic assessment, as well as the pros and cons of using authentic assessments with children. Imagine that your program, school, or center has adopted performance assessment to measure a child’s growth. Your supervisor has asked you to create a letter for families explaining performance assessment. In your letter, you must address the following: • At least two reasons why using performance assessment with children is a reliable method of measuring growth. • At least two typical concerns associated with performance assessment and how you will address those concerns. • At least two different performance assessments that you will use in the classroom and why you will use these assessments. Guided Response: Review several of your peers’ responses. Respond to at least two of your peers by providing feedback on their letter. Remember to make sure your feedback is professional. When providing feedback to your peers about their letter, be sure to consider the following points: • What are the overall strengths of the letter? Be specific. • Are there any points that were not considered in the letter that you think would be beneficial to include? • What is another type of performance assessment that you believe your classmate should consider including in their letter? Justify why you believe they should include this assessment. ECE 354 Week 4 DQ 2 Diagnostic Assessments Ashford ECE 354 Week 4 Discussion 2 Diagnostic Assessments Diagnostic Assessments [CLOs: 2,3,4]. 1st Post Due by Day 3. “At its core, a diagnostic assessment is a detailed investigation of children’s strengths and skill gaps that permits targeted intervention.” (Howard, V. F., & Aiken, E., 2015, p. 282). Informal diagnostics assessments can and should be developed by professionals who work with young children. This allows them to observe how and what the child is learning so they can make informed decisions about how to help the child. One way to do this is by developing a learning activity that allows you to determine where the child is struggling with a particular skill. “Diagnostic assessments fall into two types: informal or teacher developed, and formal standardized instruments, which are professionally developed and commercially available.” (Howard, V. F., & Aiken, E., 2015, p. 282) For this discussion we will be focusing on the informal, or teacher developed, diagnostic assessments. To begin, choose a child from Developmental Checklists Birth to Five. This must be a different child than the one you chose for your Week 3 assignment. Once you have chosen a child, you will need to identify an area of need for the child based on the checklist. Then, include the following as your initial discussion post: • Based on your own observation, identify the child’s perceived area of need based on the checklist. • Describe an activity you would do with the child based on the child’s area of need. Include enough detail so that someone else could repeat the activity on their own. (e.g., If you use the checklist for 12- to 24- month-olds and it states that they cannot sort shapes or colors, your activity would contain elements such as naming colors and shapes, identifying colors and shapes, and finding examples of shapes. From completing these activities, you would be able to determine where the child’s struggles are with sorting shapes and colors). • Explain how using this activity would allow you to be able to determine the child’s specific struggles in this area of need. Be specific. • Discuss how you used your knowledge of developmental milestones to assist you in creating this informal diagnostic assessment activity. ECE 354 Week 5 Final Paper Assessment Portfolio Ashford ECE 354 Week 5 Final Paper Assessment Portfolio Focus of the Final Project: As you have learned throughout this course, assessments are used for many purposes. As professionals working with children, we must look at assessment as a driving force behind planning instruction, maximizing growth and development, and developing goals for children in our care. We must begin to understand the relationship between how children are assessed and how assessment data is used. This is a multistep process of gathering data, determining goals for instruction, and then implementing those goals into our work with children. For this Final Project, you will develop a partial portfolio for the child you observed, and, with that information, you will develop instructional goals for that child. This assignment has three parts: Step 1 (5 points): The first part of this assignment requires you to develop a cohesive statement of purpose, which will serve as the introduction to this assignment. Using information gained from all five weeks of this course you will provide an overview of assessment and state how it applies specifically to your future work with children. Your statement of purpose must include the following: • The purpose of assessment. • How you will utilize assessment when working with children. Make sure to include how this plan forutilizing assessment aligns with your future work. • How you can use assessment to document children’s work. • How will you use children’s interests and ideas when assessing? • How you will use assessment to differentiate instruction and intervention for children who may have aspecial need. Refer back to your Week Three Assignment to assist with this. Step 2 (5 points): The second part of this assignment requires you to create an assessment portfolio for the child you have been working with. It is imperative to maintain the confidentiality of the child you are working with, so make sure to only include the child’s first name. For this assessment portfolio: • Describe the child that you are creating this portfolio for. Include, in paragraph form, the information you provided to your instructor in the week 1 learning activity (remember not to include any identifying information about the child (e.g. last name). • Observe the child you have been working with using the screening document “Developmental Checklists Birth to Five” from The Early Childhood Direction Center. Make sure to use the appropriate age range for the child. • After completing the Developmental Checklist Birth to Five, create a diagnostic activity for the developmental area where the child scored the lowest. Make sure to include a statement explaining the purpose of the assessment. • You will also need the information you compiled on this child from the Week Two Observation Assignment. (Be sure to make any changes recommended by your instructor.) This includes both observation forms: Running Record or Anecdotal Record and Time Sampling or Event Sampling forms. Step 3 (15 points): The final part of this assignment requires you to create developmentally appropriate instructional goals for this child (based on the age of the child you are working with and all of the data you have gathered). • 5 points: Create at least three objectives (goals) for each developmental domain: cognitive, physical, social and emotional, and language for a total 15 objectives. If you need assistance with how to create effective learning objectives, please view the Objectives section of the ECE/CD Lesson Planning Handbook that is available with your Constellation materials for the course or review section 7.1 of the course text. o Along with each objective, provide a corresponding classroom activity that will be used to help this child reach this objective. • 5 points: You will also create a recommendation plan, which you will share with the child’s family, for helping this child to continue with his or her growth and development at home. o Summarize how you will communicate with families about the assessments and the information gained from them. Your summary should include how you will connect with the family as well as the type of information you will share with the family. Refer back to your Week One Discussion Two, Week Three Discussion One, Week 4 Discussion One and Week 5 Discussion 2 for ideas to use in your summary. o Identify three activities that the families of this child can work on at home. Include instructions for completing each of the activities. • 5 points: Discuss the next steps (intervention plans, referral for further evaluation, etc.) that you would take after connecting with the child’s family about their strengths and areas of need. Make sure to explain how these next steps align with the instructional objectives you created. ECE 354 Week 5 DQ 1 Standardized Achievement Tests Ashford ECE 354 Week 5 Discussion 1 Standardized Achievement Tests Standardized Achievement Tests [CLOs: 1,2]. 1st Post Due by Day 3. Chapter 9 of your course text discusses standardized assessments and explains the difference in the types of standardized assessments. It is important to understand that assessments are standardized when “the same procedures are used every time the test is given” (Howard, V. F., & Aiken, E., 2015, p. 331). Developing the understanding that there are many types of standardized assessments, such as screeners and diagnostic assessments covered in the previous weeks of class, is equally important. Another type of standardized assessment, and one that is hotly debated in education today, is achievement testing. Specifically, achievement testing “is used to measure children’s progress and compare it to other children of the same age” ((Howard, V. F., & Aiken, E., 2015, p. 331)). It is this type of standardized assessment that is our focus for this first discussion post. To prepare for this discussion, read the “Something's Wrong with Both Standardized Tests andThe 'Opt-Out' Movement” article. Include the following in your initial post: • Explain, in your own words, what standardized testing is and how it is different from achievement testing. • Compare and contrast how the different types standardized testing differs from the other forms ofassessment discussed throughout this course. Provide specific examples and support your points with information from the course text. • Defend one of the quotes below from the article Something's Wrong with Both Standardized Tests andthe 'Opt-Out' Movement. Explain why you support or agree with the quote and provide specific details as to why. Support this portion of your post with the text and at least one scholarly resource. o Option One: “Federallymandatedstandardizedtestingwasbornfromadesiretoguaranteethe right to individuality and autonomy across socio-economic bounds.” – Jordan Shapiro o OptionTwo:“Whenseenfromadeskofafederalbureaucrat,standardizedtestsmakemore children stand out.” –Jordan Shapiro o Option Three: “When seen from the desk-chair of a classroom pupil, children are robbed of the individuality that comes from differentiated instruction.” – Jordan Shapiro • Propose a solution to the standardized achievement testing debate. How do you feel children should be assessed in both early childhood and beyond? Provide a rationale for your solution. ECE 354 Week 5 DQ 2 Portfolios Ashford ECE 354 Week 5 Discussion 2 Portfolios Portfolios [CLOs: 1,2]. 1st Post Due by Day 3. For your final project this week, you will be developing a portfolio. In order to help you better understand the purpose of your assignment, we want to take a deeper look into the use of portfolios as an assessment tool. Chapter 6 of the course text discusses how portfolios are used to develop a holistic picture of a child’s abilities by providing a framework to gather and evaluate artifacts ((Howard, V. F., & Aiken, E., 2015). As a professional working with children, your role in portfolio assessment is a vital one. For this discussion, we will focus on the importance of portfolio assessment in the classroom or childcare center. • Discuss how portfolio assessments support you as a professional in your quest to ensure the growth of the children with whom you work. Make sure to include specific examples of the purposes of portfolios to support your thinking. • Explain how you will manage the logistical piece of using portfolio assessments. Reference section 6.2 Portfolio Logistics from the course text to support your explanation. • Describe the different types of evidence that are included in portfolios. Make sure to explain the role the children will play in this piece of the portfolio process. • Discuss how you will include families in the portfolio assessment process, and why this important to the portfolio process. • Explain how the portfolio process you will use with children mirrors the portfolio you are creating for your final project in this course. Write a reviewYour Name: Your Review: Note: HTML is not translated! A B C D F Enter the code in the box below:

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1 Kings 12-14; 2 Chronicles 17, 20 High Place of Jeroboam (Nearly all archaeologists agree that this excavated podium was the one that Jeroboam constructed to house the golden calf at Dan. Archaeologists now think the platform was roofed. Evidence of a four-horned altar has been found as well as religious objects such as three iron shovels, a small horned altar, and an iron incense holder.) Background: While we often focus on Solomon's wisdom, giving the one example of dividing a living child to two women in a maternity suit; we often neglect the degree to which his decrees and decisions harmed not only himself, but Israel. While he built a temple to Jehovah, he built even larger palaces for himself. While his father David sinned, he repented and still remained faithful to the Lord. Solomon drifted to worshiping other gods & marrying outside of Israel. It became an issue of David breaking the portion of the 10 Commandments related to mankind, while Solomon blasphemed against the God that made him king. Alma taught that only denying the Holy Ghost was worse than murder or adultery (Alma 39:11-13), and it seems that Solomon’s evil works came close to this gravest of all sins, as he continued sinning even after being rebuked by prophets. David reached out to all the tribes of Israel, accepting political, military and religious leaders from both Judah and Israel. On the other hand, Solomon favored Judah. He began by rejecting leaders that favored Israel, including his brother and one of David's two high priests. He taxed the Ten Tribes heavier, including requiring more soldiers and laborers to build his palaces and edifices, than he required from Judah. Instead of expecting Israel to worship only Jehovah as David did, Solomon built temples to the gods of his foreign wives. Because of Solomon's betrayal of Jehovah, Jeroboam was anointed and ordained as the future King of Israel. And because he ruled Israel so harshly, he left Israel and his son Rehoboam little room to negotiate and maneuver. Dear Abby's Advice to New Royalty - Listen to the Old Guys! 1 Kings 12-14 Israel's unity as a kingdom was fragile. Rehoboam inherited his father's penchant to annoy and punish the 10 Tribes. And they knew it. Jeroboam, previously anointed King of Israel, returned from Egyptian exile. Surely, many in Israel were wary of making such a drastic dynastic change, and so Jeroboam decided to present an immediate challenge to Rehoboam, packaged neatly as a populist demand for basic rights. Israel would gladly accept Rehoboam as king if he would lessen the hardships imposed by his father, Solomon. The young prince sent Israel away for three days while he sought council. We learn from Rehoboam that if you don't like the first answer you are given, keep looking around and eventually someone will tell you what you want to hear. And as Voltaire once said, "common sense is not that common." Rejecting the council of the elders to accept Israel's common sense demands, Rehoboam instead followed the guidance from his peers. They insisted the people only understood brute force. If he gave in to Israel now, what would they demand next? His kingdom would immediately be diminished, never being as great as David or Solomon. The young men's Machiavellian counsel of "whipping them with scorpions" and having a pinkie finger thicker than Solomon's loins, was clearly meant to tell Israel they were no longer Tribes of the God of Israel, but subjects and servants of the king. Rehoboam fell head first into Jeroboam's political trap. He was forced to choose between being a weakened ruler or a tyrant. For him, following sharply in his father's stead seemed to be the proper choice. Solomon slew or exiled many at the beginning of his reign and succeeded in holding the nation together by force. Rehoboam believed he could do the same. Israel rebelled, proclaiming Jeroboam their king. The short-lived United Kingdom would never reunite again in history. Jeroboam's Ancient Bull Cult Jeroboam worships the golden calf Although anointed by a prophet to rule the Ten Tribes, Jeroboam still had a fierce competitor: Solomon's Temple. In fact, this was Jehovah's (Yahweh) temple. This was the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Moses. As mentioned in previous lessons, Jehovah was one of the divine sons of Elohim or El Elyon. When El divided the nations in the days of Peleg, he assigned a nation to each of his divine sons. Jehovah received the future kingdom of Israel, which he nurtured from Abraham on, until Israel fully came into its own. Jeroboam knew that Jehovah chose the Levites, and particularly the sons of Aaron to serve him in the temple. Most of the Levitical authority was in Jerusalem and attached to the temple. By the time he could build his own temple to Jehovah, Israel may have defected back to Jerusalem for religious reasons. Jeroboam needed to provide an option acceptable to his people. He made two calves (young bulls), which anciently symbolized both Elohim and Baal. He did not embrace the local Canaanite god Baal. Instead, I believe he reached back into Israel's past and resurrected the worship of El Elyon for Israel to follow. Elohim or El Elyon, being the father of all the gods/divine sons, would have been very familiar to Israelites, Canaanites, and other Semitic tribes in the region. Unlike Jehovah, the invisible mountain God that sat on the mercy seat between the two cherubim in the Jerusalem Temple, Elohim was often represented by bull or calf images that symbolized his power and fertility. He was not assigned to a particular nation, but was father of the gods. And he was often worshiped at wilderness shrines or "high places." Jeroboam created not one, but two shrines to El. These were placed in the northern (Dan) and southern border (Beth-el) regions. It seems the king did this for two reasons: first to prevent Israel from leaving to worship elsewhere, and second to encompass the entire land. Jehovah's temple was confined sacred space. The sacred bulls on the far borders of the land made all of Israel a holy place. There were other reasons to build a high place in Beth-el. First, its name means "House/Temple of El." It was named anciently by Jacob, when he saw in vision El Elyon on his throne above Jacob's ladder/staircase (Genesis 28:11-19). Jeroboam adopted and adapted the ancient worship of El to fit his needs. There was just one problem with Jeroboam's plan: he had not been authorized by either Elohim nor Jehovah to take such a radical departure. No prophet of God approved his plan, nor anointed the priests, as was done in the cases of the Tabernacle and the Temple. Still, his sin was not as wicked as Baal worship which would come under future kings (2 Kings 3:1-2). Jeroboam’s sin was not of worshiping a god from the Canaanites, but of wrongly worshiping El without God’s permission. The Curse of Jeroboam In 1 Kings 13, we find a prophet of God (Jehovah) went to the high place in Beth-El and condemned Jeroboam for his apostate twisted form of worship. The prophet foresaw the future destruction of Jeroboam’s family and the bull idol. Amazingly, Jeroboam did what Solomon and Rehoboam did, continued worshiping false gods. It wasn’t in his interest to repent. As with most people of the day, Jeroboam believed there were many living gods, and Jehovah was just one of many. When Jeroboam’s hand withers as he touches the altar, he asks the prophet of Jehovah to heal his hand. He knows Jehovah has the power to heal, and his hand is healed. Yet, he continues in his apostate worship, because for him, Solomon, and many future kings of Israel and Judah, Jehovah is just one of many. Because of rebellion, we will see kingdoms ripped from many kings of Israel and Judah over the course of several centuries. Few kings will be considered faithful and true to Jehovah God. However, some soon appear in Judah, such as Asa and Jehoshaphat. Still, it would not be long before Israel is taken from Jeroboam. Jeroboam’s only son is found on his deathbed. The king sends his wife in disguise to the prophet Ahijah, who originally anointed him king. Ahijah is now old and blind, yet the Lord reveals to him the Jeroboam’s wife and her purpose. The prophet tells her that the child would die and the kingdom soon would be torn from the house of Jeroboam (1 Kings 14:1-20). The account turns to the king of Judah, Rehoboam. Not only did Solomon’s wives lead him to worshiping other gods, but Rehoboam is also affected by his mother’s foreign influence. She was an Ammonite, and brought with her the worship of her land. This strange religion included, “they also built them high places, and images, and groves, on every high hill, and under every green tree. And thee were also sodomites in the land: and they did according to all the abominations of the nations which the Lord cast out before the children of Israel” (1 Kings 14:23-24). High places were hills (natural or man made) where ancient people worshiped. High places included Jehovah worship for centuries, and included Jacob’s sacred site at Beth-El (see above). However these high places were tied to the goddess Asherah. Asherah was known as the goddess of wisdom and fertility. Anciently, she was viewed (or differing versions of her were viewed) as the consort or wife of Elohim, Jehovah, and/or Baal. Asherah was represented by the tree, and often groves were grown in her honor. The version that Rehoboam introduced was probably as a wife of Baal, for it also included “sodomites” or homosexual prostitutes involved in the worship rites. Asherah was also connected tightly to Jehovah and his temple. She represented the Tree of Life, the mother of God (Jesus). However, direct worship of her was less common among those who worshiped Jehovah. In Nephi’s Vision of the Tree of Life, the Tree is directly connected to the Mother of God, with Jesus as her fruit. Nephi understood this temple symbolism as representing Asherah, the wife of the true God (1 Nephi 8-15). “7 And behold this thing shall be given unto thee for a sign, that after thou hast beheld the tree which bore the fruit which thy father tasted, thou shalt also behold a man descending out of heaven, and him shall ye witness; and after ye have witnessed him ye shall bear record that it is the Son of God. 8 And it came to pass that the Spirit said unto me: Look! And I looked and beheld a tree; and it was like unto the tree which my father had seen; and the beauty thereof was far beyond, yea, exceeding of all beauty; and the whiteness thereof did exceed the whiteness of the driven snow. 9 And it came to pass after I had seen the tree, I said unto the Spirit: I behold thou hast shown unto me the tree which is precious above all. 10 And he said unto me: What desirest thou? 11 And I said unto him: To know the interpretation thereof—for I spake unto him as a man speaketh; for I beheld that he was in the form of a man; yet nevertheless, I knew that it was the Spirit of the Lord; and he spake unto me as a man speaketh with another. 12 And it came to pass that he said unto me: Look! And I looked as if to look upon him, and I saw him not; for he had gone from before my presence. 13 And it came to pass that I looked and beheld the great city of Jerusalem, and also other cities. And I beheld the city of Nazareth; and in the city of Nazareth I beheld a virgin, and she was exceedingly fair and white. 14 And it came to pass that I saw the heavens open; and an angel came down and stood before me; and he said unto me: Nephi, what beholdest thou? 15 And I said unto him: A virgin, most beautiful and fair above all other virgins. 16 And he said unto me: Knowest thou the condescension of God? 17 And I said unto him: I know that he loveth his children; nevertheless, I do not know the meaning of all things. 18 And he said unto me: Behold, the virgin whom thou seest is the mother of the Son of God, after the manner of the flesh. 19 And it came to pass that I beheld that she was carried away in the Spirit; and after she had been carried away in the Spirit for the space of a time the angel spake unto me, saying: Look! 20 And I looked and beheld the virgin again, bearing a child in her arms. 21 And the angel said unto me: Behold the Lamb of God, yea, even the Son of the Eternal Father! Knowest thou the meaning of the tree which thy father saw? 22 And I answered him, saying: Yea, it is the love of God, which sheddeth itself abroad in the hearts of the children of men; wherefore, it is the most desirable above all things. 23 And he spake unto me, saying: Yea, and the most joyous to the soul” (1 Ne 11:7-23). In these verses we find that Nephi recognizes the Tree of Life as representing the Mother of God. It is the Love/Wife of God that sheds itself through her son (the fruit of the tree) to all mankind. But this is not the Asherah that Rehoboam builds high places to. This is an apostate wife of Baal, encouraging sexual sin and perversion. The sacred things of God have again been distorted and twisted into an apostate form. To punish Judah, the Lord sent in the Egyptians to punish them. The royal and spiritual treasures of Judah were carried off as the prize for Egypt’s entrance into the land. Rehoboam’s sins have not only cost him half the kingdom, but all the kingdom’s riches. He has no choice but to replace the gold implements (such as shields) of his army with items made of bronze. Jehovah’s temple probably received no implements of any kind, since the Bible is silent on the topic (1 Kings 14:25-28), In less than a generation, David’s dream of a temple for the Lord had become an afterthought. Solomon built it, then neglected it in his pursuit of riches and other gods. Rehoboam also neglected the Lord’s House in his perverse sexual desires and worship of the apostate goddess. Asa, the Righteous King of Judah 2 Chronicles 14-16 Judah was occasionally blessed with righteous kings. Among these was Asa. In his days, he “took away the altars of the strange gods, and the high places, and brake down the images, and cut down the groves: and commanded Judah to seek the Lord God of their fathers, and to do the law and the commandment” (2 Chron 14:2-5). He built up Judah and had no war in his days, “because the Lord had given him rest” (vs 6). In chapter 15, the prophet Azariah tells the king and people they shall prosper if they would only follow Jehovah and keep his commandments: “Hear ye me, Asa, and all Judah and Benjamin; The Lord is with you, while ye be with him; and if ye seek him, he will be found of you; but if ye forsake him, he will forsake you” (2 Chron 15:2). So upright was Asa’s kingdom in his early years, that not only did Judah and Benjamin repent and follow God, but many faithful people out of “Ephraim and Manasseh, and out of Simeon” immigrated to Jerusalem to worship God and escape the evils being done in Israel (vs 9). Asa does suffer from a lack of faith, when Syria came to war with Judah. Rather than trust in God, Asa emptied all the treasures out of the temple and his palace as a tribute, to send Syria away. Because he lacked the faith to trust in God’s deliverance, he was chastened by the seer Hanani, and smitten with illness, which he died from (2 Chron 16). Jehoshaphat and Ahab - The Odd Couple 2 Chronicles 17-20 One of the strangest alliances in the Bible was between Jehoshaphat and Ahab. Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, was revered as a very righteous king and follower of Jehovah: “And the Lord was with Jehoshaphat, because he walked in the first ways of his father David, and sought not unto Baalim (plural of Baal)” (2 Chron 17:3). The kingdom that waned under Rehoboam was again growing in glory. Jehoshaphat became rich as king, because the Lord blessed him for his devotion. He removed the groves and high places that Rehoboam and other kings set up (vs 6). He sent the Levites throughout all the land, teaching God’s law to the people (vs 9). So great was God’s glory on Jehoshaphat that other nations feared him and would not go out to war against Judah (vs 10). On the other hand, Ahab reigned over Israel’s darkest times. His wife was Jezebel, and the worship of Baal and his consort Asherah had become the main worship in the land. Still, Jehoshaphat joined Ahab in fighting Syria. The Premortal Divine Council 2 Chronicles 18:18-22 Ahab’s apostate prophets all predicted an easy victory for the allies. Yet, Jehoshaphat insisted on hearing from a prophet of Jehovah. Ahab was concerned, because the nearest prophet was Micaiah, who never prophesied well of him. Still, Micaiah was sent for on behalf of Jehoshaphat. The prophet began mocking Ahab, telling him what the others had said. However, Ahab knew Micaiah spoke falsely and commanded him to tell him the truth. Interestingly, the story is reminiscent of the ancient divine council: “18 Again he said, Therefore hear the word of the Lord; I saw the Lord sitting upon his throne, and all the host of heaven standing on his right hand and on his left. 19 And the Lord said, Who shall entice Ahab king of Israel, that he may go up and fall at Ramoth-gilead? And one spake saying after this manner, and another saying after that manner. 20 Then there came out a spirit, and stood before the Lord, and said, I will entice him. And the Lord said unto him, Wherewith? 21 And he said, I will go out, and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets. And the Lord said, Thou shalt entice him, and thou shalt also prevail: go out, and do even so. 22 Now therefore, behold, the Lord hath put a lying spirit in the mouth of these thy prophets, and the Lord hath spoken evil against thee” (2 Chron 18:18-22). Here Micaiah has a theophany, a vision of God on his throne. God is surrounded by the “host of heaven” which are the ancient divine council (see Isaiah 6, Abraham 3, Job 1). In Abraham, we see the original council, where God asks “whom shall I send” to be the Savior of mankind. In Isaiah, the Lord asks “whom shall I send” to preach to the people (Isaiah volunteers as a symbol of Christ). Here, God asks who shall go to entice Ahab. A lying spirit offers to do the work. Some may find this strange, but we find that Satan (Adversary) was among those in the ancient divine councils, and Job even saw him challenge Jehovah for primacy over Israel by tempting Job himself! Here, the same spirit entered into the mouths of the prophets of Baal, leading Ahab to his death in battle. “So Shall Ye Prosper” 2 Chronicles 19-20 The battle against Syria having gone badly, because the two kings disobeyed Jehovah’s prophet, Jehoshaphat found himself rebuked, and he repented. His big challenge came when the Ammonites and others attacked Judah. Should he do as previous kings and give up a tribute from the treasuries of the palace and temple? The king went to the temple and prayed: “5 And Jehoshaphat stood in the congregation of Judah and Jerusalem, in the house of the Lord, before the new court, 6 And said, O Lord God of our fathers, art not thou God in heaven? and rulest not thou over all the kingdoms of the heathen? and in thine hand is there not power and might, so that none is able to withstand thee? 7 Art not thou our God, who didst drive out the inhabitants of this land before thy people Israel, and gavest it to the seed of Abraham thy friend for ever? 8 And they dwelt therein, and have built thee a sanctuary therein for thy name, saying, 9 If, when evil cometh upon us, as the sword, judgment, or pestilence, or famine, we stand before this house, and in thy presence, (for thy name is in this house,) and cry unto thee in our affliction, then thou wilt hear and help. 10 And now, behold, the children of Ammon and Moab and mount Seir, whom thou wouldest not let Israel invade, when they came out of the land of Egypt, but they turned from them, and destroyed them not; 11 Behold, I say, how they reward us, to come to cast us out of thy possession, which thou hast given us to inherit. 12 O our God, wilt thou not judge them? for we have no might against this great company that cometh against us; neither know we what to do: but our eyes are upon thee. 13 And all Judah stood before the Lord, with their little ones, their wives, and their children. 14 Then upon Jahaziel the son of Zechariah, the son of Benaiah, the son of Jeiel, the son of Mattaniah, a Levite of the sons of Asaph, came the Spirit of the Lord in the midst of the congregation; 15 And he said, Hearken ye, all Judah, and ye inhabitants of Jerusalem, and thou king Jehoshaphat, Thus saith the Lord unto you, Be not afraid nor dismayed by reason of this great multitude; for the battle is not yours, but God’s” (2 Chron 20:5-15). The Lord delivered Judah and their king, because of their faith. Because of that faith, “came the Spirit of the Lord in the midst of the congregation” (vs 14). The priest Jahaziel told them, “stand ye still, and see the salvation of the Lord...fear not, nor be dismayed” (vs 17). The next morning, Jehoshaphat cried to his people, “Believe in the Lord your God, so shall ye be established; believe his prophets, so shall ye prosper” (vs 20). Judah found that day that the Ammonites and Moabites had slaughtered themselves, leaving great treasures for the people to spoil. Once again, the “fear of God was on all the kingdoms of those countries, when they had heard that the Lord fought against the enemies of Israel. So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet; for his God gave him rest round about” (vs 29-30). Even as a righteous king can create an environment of peace and protection from God, so can we do in our families, our churches, and in our lives. However, it requires us to reject the false gods that continually are about us. Many offer sordid pleasures, while others justify our sinful lifestyles. However, only God can create order from the chaos that surrounds us, and bring peace and safety to us. Daniel Peterson, Nephi and His Asherah: http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/publications/jbms/?vol=9&num=2&id=223 The Ancient Divine Council: http://www.thedivinecouncil.com Order out of Chaos: http://joelsmonastery.blogspot.com/2010/07/gospel-scholarship-order-out-of-chaos.html Map of Divided Israel/Judah:

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Almost a quarter of Veterans nationwide live in rural communities, which may negatively impact their health‐related quality of life compared to their counterparts in urban areas. The high rates of chronic pain amongst rural Veterans coupled with the barriers found in these areas complicate the delivery of pain self‐management interventions. Technology-assisted treatments, or telehealth, may provide a comparable alternative to face-to-face interventions. The "Pain Education School" program has been shown to positively impact Veterans stage of change, their experience of pain, and their mood. The purpose of the current feature is to propose the feasibility and potential efficacy of using picture-telephone (PICTEL) videoconferencing technology to disseminate a pain education program to rural Veterans with chronic, non-cancer pain. The current study used a retrospective outcome design with a sample of 463 Veterans aged 18-88 years old with mixed idiopathic, chronic, non-cancer pain conditions who participated in the Pain Education School program either face-to-face or via PICTEL at a Midwestern VA Medical Center between January 8, 2010-November 4, 2011. The preliminary findings of the current study suggest that the use of PICTEL technology to disseminate pain education to remote clinics may be comparable to face-to-face interventions. A positive preliminary study is promising and such a telehealth program is feasible within the VA system. Approximately 23% of the 22 million Veterans nationwide live in rural communities, which is disproportionate when you consider that only 18% of the US population resides in these areas . In addition, about 44% of active duty service members come from rural regions about 57% of these rural Veterans are enrolled in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) health care system . Pain is one of the most common reasons Veterans consult with their primary care providers and is one of the most prevalent symptoms reported by returning Veterans.4 In fact, about half of the Veterans within VA health care settings experience pain regularly.5 Additionally, Veterans in rural communities have been found to have lower health‐related quality of life compared to their counterparts in urban areas . The incidence of chronic pain is higher in rural areas because the population is often older, obese, and impoverished. Social factors also play a role, such as limited access of pain specialists, transportation issues, unstable housing, poor education, and unemployment. The high rates of pain amongst Veterans coupled with the barriers found in rural areas increase the likelihood of primary care providers assessing and treating chronic pain rather than pain specialists. Thus, clinical care at a distance is progressing as a model and is being used more frequently to treat disease in rural areas. Dial-up phones and videocassette recording devices are both examples of technologies that have become obsolete, but new, amazing devices and applications are coming on the market every day (e.g. at-home patient monitoring and wearable technology) that allow services to be provided at a distance. Past research has shown that using technology to deliver pain self‐management interventions produced positive results [6-8]. However, it is still unclear if interventions provided using technologies are as effective as their face-to-face counterparts. There is also not enough evidence to suggest the superiority of one modality over another. In addition, there seems to be little guidance on intervention development. However, treatment retention and outcomes have been shown to improve . There are several benefits and challenges to implementing technology-assisted interventions. Even though the use of technology can improve access to treatment, circumvent some of the barriers faced by patients, and provide an avenue for maintenance of gains; technology-assisted interventions may introduce other difficulties, such as the need to supplement it with understandable materials, promote engagement and retention of patients, encourage the practice and use of skills learned, and take steps to ensure patient safety. In 2014, the VA announced that 690,000 Veterans had received care via telehealth that year, which was about 12% of all Veterans enrolled in the system . The term “telehealth” applies to the use of technologies to provide clinical care and patient education in circumstances where distance separates those services and those providing services in real time. However, there continues to be a need for greater outreach using electronic information and communication technology to ensure excellence in health care delivered to our nations Veterans. According to the Institute of Medicine, people with chronic pain have substantial unmet educational needs . Moreover, patients tend to disregard or ignore information about the reliability and validity of health materials to which they are exposed . The face-to-face "Pain Education School" was developed at a Midwestern VA Medical Center in November 6, 2009 to address the health education needs of Veterans who suffer from chronic, non-cancer pain in the catchment area. Research findings from the first year of the in-person “Pain Education School” program suggested that Veterans who participated in the program moved from a contemplative to a preparation stage of change, witnessed improvement in the experience of their pain, and exhibited an improvement in their mood . During the development and implementation of the pain education program, it was also determined that there would be many Veterans who would be unable to access this program due to environmental barriers (i.e., transportation) if the program was only made available at the main hospital (VA). Approximately 22% of Veterans in the current VA system are served by community-based outpatient clinics (CBOCs), which could serve as another avenue of providing care if telehealth technologies were used. Past research has provided a range of evidence indicating that interventions for a variety of chronic conditions delivered by videoconferencing produced similar outcomes to treatment delivered in-person.15,16 In addition, research has found that videoconferencing is feasible as a means of delivering therapeutic interventions for people with chronic conditions in rural communities [16,17]. However, research support for group, pain education programs addressing chronic, non-cancer pain utilizing clinic-based videoconferencing is lacking. Thus, the current investigators applied picture-telephone (PICTEL) videoconferencing technology in January 8, 2010 to the program in order to outreach to rural Veterans in CBOC A (population 27,880 and 46 miles away) and then in November 5, 2010 to CBOC B (population 30,293 and 37 miles away). The term “rural” is hereafter defined as nonmetropolitan areas of the US that are communities of 50,000 residents or less and more than 20 miles from the Midwestern VA Medical Center. According to the Veterans Access, Choice, and Accountability Act of 2014 environmental barriers and their “burden” may be defined as the Veteran residing 20 miles from a full-service VA medical facility. The purpose of the current feature is to propose the feasibility and potential efficacy of using PICTEL technology to disseminate a pain education program to rural Veterans with chronic, non-cancer pain. The level of specificity provided below may be helpful to other VA facilities trying to implement a similar program. Veterans were referred to the “Pain Education School” program by their primary care provider. The investigators would receive the consult through the computerized patient record system (CPRS) and determine the closest location to the Veteran (VA, CBOC A, or CBOC B). The Veteran was then sent a letter two weeks before the scheduled appointment about the location, time, and place of their appointment. The participant then attends their first one-hour class session after the introduction class. The participant is scheduled and encouraged to attend 11 subsequent weeks of one-hour classes led by guest speakers from 23 different disciplines within the VA. The program provides a menu of treatment modalities-the presenters rotated on a schedule, not the Veterans. Presenters from each discipline shared information about chronic, non-cancer pain from their perspective, available treatments within their service, and how to access their respective clinics. Logistics and considerations The program is coordinated by two assigned pain providers who are charged with the tasks of scheduling and contacting patients and presenters; maintaining communication and troubleshooting with the telehealth clinical technician; setting up and coordinating all the sites (VA, CBOC A, and CBOC B); checking patients in at the time of the appointment; completing patient encounters at the distant site (VA); promoting the services to potential referral providers; and transferring materials across sites. The role of the assigned telehealth clinical technician is outlined in a telehealth service agreement, which defines the responsibilities and procedures involved in establishing and operating a telehealth clinic between the involved medical facilities. Telehealth care providers are credentialed and privileged to provide the above noted clinical service(s) at both the originating (CBOC) and the distant (VA) facilities. Therefore, there is always two technicians present during each program, one at either side. The telehealth department provides technical support for providers to ensure clinical efficiency and effectiveness during a telehealth visit. Specifically, the facility telehealth coordinator ensures that there is adequate technology infrastructure, bandwidth, and technical support to ensure there is an efficient group encounter. Biomedical engineering assists in the setup of pertinent equipment used for telehealth videoconferencing. The telehealth clinical technician takes the initial steps in troubleshooting. If after the initial troubleshooting it is deemed that the equipment requires further action to resolve the problem, the telehealth clinical technician contacts the national telehealth technology help desk for support . As with any medical visit, intervention, or encounter the clinical documentation of the event is very important. Telehealth visits are documented in CPRS and the notes include all pertinent information. The rendering provider closes out the appointment at the distant site (VA) and also provides the same information to the originating site (CBOC). The information required for the patient care encounter to close the appointment must be provided to the telehealth clinical technician by the provider. The telehealth clinical technician at the CBOC validates workload encounters using the Healthcare Common Procedure Coding System code Q3014, “telehealth originating site facility fee . Workload will be obtained using encounter data and clinic designation. The creation of encounter forms, progress notes, and the consult templates to telehealth visits are also essential. To ensure the facility receives accurate workload and to evaluate the economic and other impacts of the telemedicine programs, sources such as the data warehouse and the virtual care modality report are used to verify accurate workload credit . The current Midwestern VA Medical Center system uses 42-inch plasma televisions connected to Tandberg Codec C40’s. The Tandberg Codec C40 provides all the power required to transform any conference room to a 1080 HD video multimedia presentation . The codec is a device, either hardware or software based, that encodes analog video/audio signals to digital video/audio, and vice versa. For the purposes of the “Pain Education School,” multipoint videoconferencing with a multipoint control unit allows for three or more locations to participate in a telehealth modality. During a multipoint encounter, there are two modes available to support the session. In a continuous presence videoconference, all participants can be seen at the same time on the monitor with microphones off mute. In the voice activated mode, microphones at all the sites can be active all at once, but should be placed on mute except for the presenter or if a participant has a question. This prevents extraneous noises and interruptions. Use of PowerPoint or other information can be displayed as needed. Best practices and etiquette There are several best practices for conducting a successful videoconference which occur either before or during the meeting . Before each meeting, the coordinators and telehealth clinical technicians are tasked with checking the room to ensure the seating arrangement will allow everyone to be properly viewed, making sure all media (PowerPoints, audio, and video clips) are fully functioning, and troubleshooting the equipment at least 30-45 minutes ahead of the scheduled meeting. To avoid having technical difficulties and to ensure success of the telehealth program, it is important to build close relationships with the support staff, such as room schedulers, public affairs officers, environmental management services, biomedical electronic services, and escort services. The authors have learned over time that these are often times relationships that may be overlooked and are actually necessary for a telehealth education program to be realized (Figure 1). Figure 1. Flowchart of study participants. Conducting a successful videoconference also requires a certain level of etiquette. For example, the microphone should remain muted until the videoconference starts or until the distant facility wishes to speak to the originating sites. During the meeting, the coordinators introduce the presenters for the day; ensure the presenters are facing the camera; and allow approximately 5-10 minutes before the class wrap-up to answer any questions, review important items, and confirm the next class date and time. The presenter, on the other hand, needs to make sure they look into the camera when speaking; speak in a normal tone; avoid noisy activities (e.g., tapping a pen or whispered side conversations); and slow their speaking pace slightly to accommodate split-second delays when transmitting over long distances. The role of the participant is to engage in the learning process and raise their hand to be recognized by the facilitator if they want to speak. To measure the efficacy of using PICTEL for pain education, an Institutional Review Board proposal and the Research and Development Office Request were submitted to the participating VA. The current study used a retrospective outcome design with a sample of 463 Veterans aged 18-88 years old with mixed idiopathic, chronic, non-cancer pain conditions who participated in the Pain Education School program either face-to-face (N=350; 76%) or via PICTEL (N=113; 24%) at a Midwestern VA Medical Center between January 8, 2010-November 4, 2011. There were no exclusion criteria used for the study. As a part of quality management, measures were completed by participants of the face-to-face and PICTEL interventions at the introduction and conclusion of the program. The assessments included a battery of measures, including the Readiness Questionnaire (M. Jensen, personal communication, August 23, 2004), the Patient Pain Questionnaire (PPQ) and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-2) . The single item Readiness Questionnaire measures the patient’s stage of readiness to adopt a self-management approach to their pain. The temporal stability of the Readiness Questionnaire (r = 0.63) has been found to be reliable . The PPQ measures the level of knowledge and experience of the patient in managing their pain. The PPQ has historically been tested with established reliability and validity The PHQ-2 measure inquires about the frequency of feeling down, depressed, and hopeless and anhedonia over the past two weeks. A PHQ-2 score > 3 has a sensitivity of 83% and a specificity of 92% for major depression . At the end of the program, Veterans completed a feedback form which addressed patient satisfaction with the program. A recent study found that Veterans who participated in the pain education program reported learning “new and useful” information, perceived the program as “easy to understand,” used the learned information, and recommended the program to others . In addition, 4% of the program’s participants specifically commented on the statement, “If I could change anything…,” in reference to the CBOC or the PICTEL technology. In particular, comments were made about “having a better setup” at the CBOC and making “more information from the program (available on the technology).” Veterans voluntarily participated in the “Pain Education School” program and were free to withdraw at any time. Preliminary findings from the current study propose there was no significant difference between the face-to-face and PICTEL interventions on any of the outcome measures aforementioned. However, the preliminary findings from the current study support past research which has found a significant difference between the pre- and post-measures of the participants’ stage of readiness to adopt a self-management approach, their experience of pain, and the frequency of their depressed mood, regardless of how the intervention was delivered . These results suggest the “Pain Education School” telehealth program had a moderate effect in increasing participants’ readiness to adopt a self-management approach. In addition, the current findings suggest the telehealth program had a small to moderate effect in decreasing the negative experience of pain. Finally, the results suggest the telehealth program had a small to moderate effect in decreasing depressive symptoms. The preliminary findings mirrored those of previous non-cancer pain research in which Veterans participating in a pain education program did not evidence increased pain knowledge . A prior research study found that the addition of audience response systems to the pain education program at a VA demonstrated significantly greater increases in pain knowledge compared to those locations (CBOC1 and CBOC 2) without the technology by facilitating active learning . The “Pain Education School” is a unique program developed and implemented in the VA system using PICTEL technology to provide education to the rural Veteran population. The program delineated in this feature may prove to be an avenue by which rural Veterans can bypass identified barriers and realize self-management goals by empowering them to self-tailor their own pain management plans. The preliminary findings of the current study suggest that the use of PICTEL technology to disseminate pain education to remote VA CBOC’s may be comparable to face-to-face interventions. The current study also underlines the importance of making partnerships, having support from administration, marketing, and obtaining knowledge about the healthcare system in order to have a successful telehealth program. Despite the current intervention having positive findings, there continues to be a need to address some problematic areas. An important lesson learned during the implementation process was how to handle frequent technical issues with the equipment. This could be potentially resolved by having a telehealth clinical technician and/or personnel from biomedical electronic services present during the entire program time to ensure proper set-up and function of the equipment. Another lesson learned was the need for the telehealth clinical technicians assigned to take on additional responsibilities beyond those outlined on the telehealth service agreement at the CBOC sites. Thus, the description of their responsibilities would have to be amended to include these additional duties in light of the findings from past research. It also proved difficult to make materials available to the Veterans at the CBOC’s as mentioned in the previous satisfaction survey study and there was a higher attrition rate witnessed in the current preliminary study due to incomplete measures. Finally, there is a need to increase program exposure to Veterans directly in the CBOC clinics. Most of the referrals come from the VA providers themselves, which does not account for a provider effect nor consider whether Veterans would have self-referred and engaged in the program with improved marketing. This could be potentially resolved by setting up program boards at the CBOC’s in order to post class offerings at those locations. Despite any limitations, technology-administered interventions constitute a potentially cost-effective way to reach large numbers of rural Veterans who cannot access services needed to facilitate their pain management efforts. There are merits to the current videoconferencing format, but a lot of the recent studies on mobile health and internet-based training programs address transportation and time-related barriers. Despite these advancements, there continues to be issues related to trust, quality, security, privacy, and reimbursement with these newer formats. Therefore, videoconferencing may serve as the best option for telehealth care in the current healthcare system. Before videoconferencing programming can be widely disseminated, more large-scale, multisite, and scientifically-rigorous evaluations of this program are needed. This feature serves as encouragement for other VA’s to transfer this low-intensity approach as a means of creating awareness, and may be utilized as a benchmark for distance-learning within the healthcare system. The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose at this time. The authors would like to thank all the Veterans and providers who contributed to the Pain Education School program. The authors also thank all the technicians who contributed to the successful implementation of the telehealth program, including Cyndi Berg, RN; Laura Pistello; Kristen Wood; Janet Dumas-Chavis; and Martin Munoz, the facility telehealth coordinator. Most of all, the authors would like to thank the Jesse Brown VA Medical Center and the Anesthesiology/Pain Clinic department for their vision and ongoing support of the Pain Education School program. - Office of Rural Health (2015) Annual Report: Thrive. Available at: http://www.ruralhealth.va.gov/docs/ORH_Annual_Report_2015_FINAL.pdf. - Weeks WB, Wallace AE, Wang S, Lee A, Kazis LE (2006) Rural-urban disparities in health-related quality of life within disease categories of Veterans. J Rural Health 22: 204-211. [Crossref] - Gironda RJ, Clark ME, Massengale JP, Walker RL (2006) Pain among veterans of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom. Pain Med 7: 339-343. [Crossref] - Kerns RD, Otis J, Rosenberg R, Reid MC (2003) Veterans' reports of pain and associations with ratings of health, health-risk behaviors, affective distress, and use of the healthcare system. J Rehabil Res Dev 40: 371-379. [Crossref] - Bender JL, Radhakrishnan A, Diorio C, Englesakis M, Jadad AR (2011) Can pain be managed through the Internet? A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Pain 152: 1740-1750. [Crossref] - Heapy AH, Higgins D, Cervone D, Wandner L, Fenton BT (2015) A systematic review of technology-assisted self-management interventions for chronic pain: Looking across treatment modalities. Clin J Pain 31: 470-492. - Lieberman G, Naylor MR (2012) Interactive voice response technology for symptom monitoring and as an adjunct to the treatment of chronic pain. Transl Behav Med 2: 93-101. [Crossref] - Newman MG, Szkodny LE, Llera SJ, Przeworski A (2011) A review of technology-assisted self-help and minimal contact therapies for anxiety and depression: Is human contact necessary for therapeutic efficacy? Clin Psychol Rev 31: 89-103. - Comstock J (2015) Telehealth served 12 percent of VA-covered Veterans in 2014. MobiHealthNews.com. Available at: http://mobihealthnews.com/37325/telehealth-served-12-percent-of-va-covered-veterans-in-2014/ - Institute of Medicine (2011) Relieving Pain in America: A Blueprint for Transforming Prevention, Care, Education, and Research. Washington, DC: National Academic Press. - Gaglio B, Glasgow RE, Bull SS (2012) Do patient preferences for health information vary by health literacy or numeracy? A qualitative assessment. J Health Commun 17 Suppl 3: 109-121. [Crossref] - Cosio D, Hugo E, Roberts S, Schaefer D (2012) A Pain education school for Veterans with chronic non-cancer pain: Putting prevention into VA practice. Fed Pract 29: 23-29. - Cosio D, Lin EH (2013) Effects of a pain education program for veterans with chronic, noncancer pain: a pilot study. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother 27: 340-349. [Crossref] - Kairyab D, Lehouxac P, Vincentde C, Visintinb M (2009) A Systematic review of clinical outcomes, clinical process, healthcare utilization and costs associated with telerehabilitation. Disabil Rehabil 31: 427-447. - Steel K, Cox D, Garry H (2011) Therapeutic videoconferencing interventions for the treatment of long-term conditions. J Telemed Telecare 17: 109-117. [Crossref] - Jennett PA, Affleck Hall L, Hailey D, Ohinmaa A, Anderson C, et al. (2003) The socio-economic impact of telehealth: a systematic review. J Telemed Telecare 9: 311-320. [Crossref] - House Committee on Veteran’s Affairs. Veterans Access, Choice, and Accountability Act of 2014. Available at: https://veterans. house.gov/the-veterans-access-choice-and-accountability-act-of-2014-highlights - Department of Veteran Affairs (2015) VISN-12 Operations Manual for Clinic-based Telehealth. - Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. Healthcare Common Procedure Coding System Quarterly Update. Available at: https://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Coding/ HCPCSReleaseCodeSets/HCPCS-Quarterly-Update.html - Tandberg (2015) The Physical Interface Guide: Tandberg Codec C40. Available at: http:// www.cisco.com/c/dam/en/us/td/docs/telepresence/endpoint/codec-c-series/physical_interface_guide/ tandberg_codec-c40_physical_interface_guide_tc30.pdf. - Advanced Etiquette (2015) 8 Tips for Video Conferencing Etiquette. Available at: http://www. advancedetiquette.com/2013/04/8-tips-for-video-conferencing-etiquette/. - Ferrell BR, Rhiner M, Ferrell BA (1993) Development and implementation of a pain education program. Cancer 72: 3426-3432. [Crossref] - Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB (2003) The Patient Health Questionnaire-2: validity of a two-item depression screener. Med Care 41: 1284-1292. [Crossref] - Watson EC, Cosio D, Lin EH (2014) Mixed-method approach to veteran satisfaction with pain education. J Rehabil Res Dev 51: 503-514. [Crossref] - Simmons EB, Cosio D, Lin EH (2015) Using audience response systems to enhance chronic, non-cancer pain knowledge acquisition among Veterans. Telemed J E Health 21: 557-563.

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Wealthy people take almost all of the national income. So why are we only discussing income inequality between genders and races? Why Occupy Wall Street Still Matters It was the middle of September. An ad hoc coalition of political groups, mostly left of center but not all, whose members mostly were young but not all, came together to express their opinions outside the officially approved two-party paradigm. United by their anger and energy, these people held general assemblies (they called them “sit-ins.”) They marched. Throughout that fall and into part of the following year, they caught the attention of the news media, inspiring activists around the country. In the end, the powers that be did what power powers that be usually do: they sent in the cops. Beaten and swept away in mass arrests, the young activists drifted away. Voters, convinced by the system’s propaganda that the movement threatened law and order, turned to the right. One year later, it was clear to most that the Free Speech Movement at UC Berkeley had failed. Students had demanded that school administrators allow political organizations, including civil rights groups, to table and solicit contributions on campus. (In 1964 only the campus Democratic and Republican clubs were allowed to do so.) There was a concession: the acting chancellor grudgingly opened the steps of a single building for open discussion and tables, but only during certain hours. By the fall of 1966, however, UC had a new right-wing president and California was led by a new right-wing governor, Ronald Reagan, who had promised to “clean up the mess in Berkeley.” Now we understand that the FSM was a prequel to a beginning. The FSM morphed into a campus movement that inspired widespread social unrest of the 1960s that centered on opposition to the Vietnam War. Everything that followed–feminists burning bras, gays rioting after the bust at the Stonewall Inn, America’s withdrawal from Vietnam–had its roots in that “failed” movement. Keep the “failed” Free Speech Movement in mind as you read and watch this week’s coverage of the anniversary of Occupy. One year after activists set up the first Occupy Wall Street encampments in New York and Washington, D.C., the Occupy movement is described as in “disarray.” Indeed, it’s hard to remember how big OWS was. Were there really more than a thousand Occupations? Did 59% of the American public support OWS when it was barely a month old? What happened? “I think they’re idiots. They have no agenda,” Robert Nicholson, who works on Wall Street, tells The Los Angeles Times. “They have yet to come out with a policy statement.” “The movement [grew] too large too quickly. Without leaders or specific demands, what started as a protest against income inequality turned into an amorphous protest against everything wrong with the world,” argues the AP. I was at Freedom Plaza in D.C. and Zuccotti Park in Manhattan. I’m a member of my local Occupy chapter on Long Island, Occupy the East End. (Yes, we’re still around.) I agree with Mikell Kober of Brooklyn, who was protesting in front of a Bank of America branch. She told a reporter that OWS is “about creating a public space where people could gather and have a conversation about the things that need to change.” Coming up with a list of demands isn’t the point. Thinking outside the D vs. R box is. Now people know that electoral politics is theater. Real politics is in the streets. For the first time since the Sixties, we know that. The flaw in Occupy, the seed of its future destruction, was its basic original premise: occupying public space nonviolently. Occupying nonviolently is an oxymoron. If you decide to be nonviolent, you leave peacefully when the police show up to evict you. Which is what happened last winter to the OWS encampments. If you are determined to occupy–and remain in–public space, you must resort to violence in order to defend yourselves from police violence. OWS ought to have decided whether it wanted to be nonviolent or whether it wanted to occupy public space. If it chose nonviolence, it could have engaged in acts of resistance–flash mobs, demonstrations, strikes–that did not require setting up and defending encampments. Also, a political movement is defined more by what it is not than by what it is. OWS was a movement outside of the duopoly, yet many “Occupiers” worked with, and got co-opted by, Democratic Party front groups like MoveOn.org who stole OWS’ “We are the 99%” slogan.Though the physical presence of OWS is a mere shadow of its presence a year ago, the Occupy idea remains colossally important–largely because the two major parties still refuse to engage the biggest problem we face: America’s growing poverty. “I don’t think Occupy itself has an enormous future,” Dr. Mark Naison, a professor at Fordham University, told the Associated Press. “I think that movements energized by Occupy have an enormous future.” Like the Free Speech movement nearly a half century ago, Occupy is the prequel to the beginning. Of course, change doesn’t always mean progress and inspiration isn’t always positive. “Reagan’s political career owed a lot to the [FSM] people who used the [UC] campus as a radical base for political activity. It is an irony that helped elect him,” says Earl Cheit, executive vice chancellor at Berkeley from 1965 to 1969. COPYRIGHT 2012 TED RALL Things Have Changed. Time to Adapt. The Occupy National Gathering, held July 1-4 in Philadelphia, perfectly captures the current state of Occupy Wall Street. First, the cops pushed the Occupiers around, refusing them space in Independence Park. They wound up in Franklin Square. (Just like old times. In September 2011 Occupiers found Wall Street blocked off by the NYPD. Zuccotti was ad hoc option two.) Second, the Philly confab was wimpy and watered-down. When one of your honored guests is Daryl Hall of the 1980s duo “Hall & Oates,” militancy is probably off the menu. Third, the Occupiers weren’t really Occupiers (though many no doubt didn’t know that they’d been coopted by Democratic Party operatives). ONG was yet the latest attempt by front groups set up by MoveOn.org in order to channel the energies of the OWS movement into the Obama reelection campaign. “What’s going on with Occupy?” people ask me. “We don’t hear anything about them anymore.” By which they mean, they haven’t seen or read anything about OWS in the corporate media. They also probably haven’t “heard” about the enormous street protests in Montreal, which routinely draw 400,000 to 500,000 people, or about Bill 78, a law passed by Quebec’s parliament that suspends the rights of free speech and assembly, which has transformed the province into a police state, or that the real unemployment rate—the way it was calculated before 1980—is 23 percent.) When your media is this far gone, you don’t “hear” much. Some say Occupy is dead. Others disagree. “Occupy Will Be Back,” liberal writer Chris Hedges wrote recently.” It is not certain we will win. But it is certain this is not over.” (I don’t know who this “we” is. As far as I’ve heard, the squishy former New York Times journo’s role at Occupy has been limited to book-shilling.) As a person who helped plan the event that initially sparked OWS; as one who was thrilled by its instant popularity, potency and potential; as someone who participated in the branch of OWS in my own community through the winter, including direct action confronting the authorities—and as a long-time student of historical crises and revolutionary movements—I think it’s less important to guess whether Occupy has a future than to examine how a movement with widespread public support from left and right alike devolved from nearly 2000 public encampments to its current situation: marginalization and cooption. That said, this summer offers good opportunities for OWSers to make some noise. Occupiers will protest the two major party conventions later this summer. The longer the campaign goes on without either candidate seriously engaging jobs and the economy—hands down the most important issue in Americans’ minds—in a credible way, the more removed from reality the political horserace and its media carnival barkers become, the longer the suffering goes on (and suffering, we sometimes forget, is cumulative, each pain and setback exponentially building upon the last), the more appealing Occupy, or perhaps some more aggressive successor, will be. Whether the first major street movement since the 1960s survives, grows or metastasizes, we must learn the lessons of Occupy’s first year. Like every political system, every movement contains the seeds of its future demise. OWS began with an unsustainable premise: occupy public space, yet remain nonviolent. What happens when the cops show up? You leave peacefully. Game over. Which, with the exception of Occupy Oakland—an interesting exception, insofar that clashes with the police increased popular support—is what happened everywhere from lower Manhattan to City Hall Park in Los Angeles. Occupy should have permitted resistance, violent and/or nonviolent. That, or it shouldn’t have camped out in parks in the first place. Similar movements, in Spain and Russia for example, operate out of offices and churches and use flash-mob tactics to carry out hit-and-run direct actions against banks and other targets. If you’re going to make an Alamo-like stand, well…make a stand. As I and just about everyone else pointed out at the time, moreover, camping out in the cold sucks. A dumb tactic for a movement that began in the fall and intended to last indefinitely. Occupy has been overly inclusive. As a reaction to and rejection of the two big corporate-backed political parties, OWS was inherently radical. Yet for week after week, month after month, General Assemblies all over the country have been disrupted and hijacked by liberals, Democrats, and other traditional partisans who don’t share the OWS ideology of non-partisanship and non-affiliation with Ds or Rs, and militant resistance to their backers, the banksters and other corporate hucksters. Others have criticized OWS’ unwillingness and/or inability to issue a list of demands. Not me. I have seen how the debates within Occupy have empowered voiceless men and women who used to think politics was for politicians. It was—is—powerful. Let the oppressors try to guess how we may be mollified, how they might avoid revolution. Demands, we believed, would define us too narrowly and separate us from one another. But things have changed. We have been kicked out of our encampments. Occupy groups in numerous cities have split into radical and reformist (liberal and/or Democratic) factions. There really is no place for the liberals within Occupy. Democratic apologists should go where they belong, to volunteer for Obama, to waste their time and money on the torturer of Guantánamo, the drone murderer of Waziristan, he who golfs while the 99% watch their wages shrink and their homes taken away, he who extended his “good war” against Afghanistan through 2024. We real Occupiers, we radicals, should come together around a list of demands that define us, and allows the wait-and-see public what we’re about, to understand that we are fighting for them—demands that a somewhat reasonable and responsive government would agree to, but cannot and will not because it would counter their insane, addictive greed, their lust to control and own everything, everywhere, everyone. They even trademark the germs. There should be demands for justice: prison sentences and fines for the politicos and corporate executives of those whose behavior was not only reprehensible but illegal, along with the seizure of their companies and their properties for the public good. One would start, naturally, with the President. There should be demands for redress: payments and other material compensation for those who were the victims of crimes, economic and otherwise. Torture victims need counseling and homes, and deserve punitive and compensatory damages; those who lost their homes to illegal foreclosures need not only their old lives back, but also interest and cash penalties to serve as a deterrent to those tempted to engage in such behavior again; the same goes for those who rotted in prison for non-criminal “crimes” like using drugs. And there should be demands for systemic changes: opening up ballots to third parties; making it illegal for elected representatives to talk to businesspeople, much less accept contributions from them; rigorously enforcing the constitution, laws and treaty obligations so that, for example, Congress gets back the exclusive right to wage war; expanding the Bill of Rights to include such obvious 21st century necessities as a right to a college education should a citizen desire one, a right to a living wage that doesn’t depend upon the whims of local employers, and a right to be treated for any illness, without charge, just because you’re American and you live in the wealthiest society that has ever existed, anywhere. (Ted Rall’s new book is “The Book of Obama: How We Went From Hope and Change to the Age of Revolt.” His website is tedrall.com.) (C) 2012 TED RALL, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Democrats and Democratic front groups like MoveOn.org are trying to channel the Occupy movement back into the system with such “Astroturf” actions as “Occupy the Ballotbox” and “Occupy the Primaries.” What bizarre co-option schemes can we look forward to next? Time for the Occupy Movement to Come In From the Cold The Occupy movement is an attempt to replicate Tahrir Square in the United States. But you can’t just cut-and-paste a model that (sort of) worked in Egypt to the United States. Especially when you don’t understand Tahrir. American media mischaracterized the Tahrir Square political uprising as an ongoing occupation cum encampment. True, poor people from outside Cairo who couldn’t afford hotel rooms slept in the Square throughout the rebellion against soon-to-be ex-president Hosni Mubarak. However, most of the tens and hundreds of thousands of demonstrators whose nonviolent protest led to the resignation of President Hosni Mubarak came and went throughout the day, often shuttling between their jobs and homes and the square. Unlike the U.S. Occupations, which devote most of their General Assemblies to logistical issues—are the cops coming? will the drummers limit themselves to two hours a day?—Tahrir was a laboratory of democracy where people from different cities, religious and political persuasions met to debate and discuss issues and problems. “Debates rage over the timing of elections, the power of Islamists, the weakness of civilian rulers and the lack of accountability of their military counterparts,” The New York Times reported on July 12th. Other things are different. For example, Chicago is a lot colder than Cairo. From a communiqué issued by Occupy Los Angeles: “Also, there is a movement going asking people to dress nicely—they are calling it ‘khakis and a polo.’ By day, that makes sense, but dress warmly for night time! Hypothermia is dangerous.” Hypothermia? Not a huge concern under the palm trees of southern California. At this writing the daytime high is 20 degrees Centigrade and the nighttime low is 14. But the weather is a serious issue for much of the country. The mercury is dropping throughout the northern United States. Winter is on the way. What will happen to OccupyMN in Minneapolis? OccupyMNers marched to local banks and the regional branch of the Federal Reserve to demand a moratorium on housing foreclosures in particular and lower income inequality in general. They’re living in tents near the local Government Center. Freezing temperatures will arrive in a week or two. Snowfalls of two and three feet are not uncommon. How long will the Occupiers of cold-weather cities like New York, Boston and Seattle last in their tents and sleeping bags? Interestingly, the U.S. Parks Police-issued four-month permit for Stop the Machine (the Washington occupation on which the Occupations were originally modeled) expires in February. The authorities are playing this like Russia when it was invaded by France and Germany: Retreat now, let the winter freeze the bastards out. If the northern Occupations (which are the heart of the movement) are to survive the winter, they must move indoors. This will ratchet up the tension with the authorities. Which is the obvious next step anyway. Occupy has to come inside. To avoid frostbite. And to avoid stagnation. Occupy Albany is thinking about moving into New York’s state capitol building. There are countless options. Government offices, bank offices and branches, mortgage companies, colleges and universities with unsavory relationships to the top 1% who are screwing over most Americans—all are obvious candidates for occupations. Not to mention the millions of homes all over the country that have been vacated by illegal and immoral bank foreclosures. The Nation notes that New York has many privately owned public spaces, including the atriums of buildings owned by Donald Trump, IBM and Citigroup. “These locations may not be altogether practical for the occupiers, and in fact protesters would likely face strong resistance from the properties’ owners if they were to try to hold any of these plazas and atriums,” writes Francis Reynolds. “But the fact that most of these privately owned public spaces are in the lobbies of banks and corporations is a powerful metonym for the way money is shaping our cities and our society. If Zuccotti falls, where will the occupation move next?” So far, this question has been raised—only to be abandoned in favor of less pressing tangents at the major general assemblies. Occupy Wall Street can’t get it together long enough to set a drum circle schedule. OWS must remain dynamic in order to survive. So a change of address would probably for the best. They need to stay warm. More importantly, they need to make a militant political statement. That hasn’t happened yet. In repressive Arab states like Bahrain and Egypt, the mere act of appropriating a centrally-located public space to express discontent over a prolonged period was seen by the regime and their subjects alike as provocative and confrontational. Not so much in the U.S. Wiggly fingers at general assemblies and arrest-by-the-numbers at non-threatening (in)actions aren’t going to cut it in this second phase. Many of the young hipsters have gone home. Now OWS is substantially populated by the habitually homeless. Filth and smelly bodies abound. It made sense to invite the most dispossessed Americans to join a movement dedicated to eradicating economic injustice. But openness has caused problems. “Now, protesters from Portland to Los Angeles to Atlanta are trying to distinguish between homeless people who are joining their movement and those who are there for the amenities,” reports the Associated Press. “When night falls in Portland, for instance, protesters have been dealing with fights, drunken arguments and the display of the occasional knife. One man recently created a stir when he registered with police as a sex offender living in the park. A man with mental health problems threatened to spread AIDS via a syringe. At night, the park echoes with screaming matches and scuffles over space, blankets, tents or nothing at all.” At Occupy Wall Street discussions have been replaced by vacuous sloganeering in the form of politics (“end the fed,” “we are the 99%,” etc.)—nothing close to the energy of the ideological incubator of Tahrir Square. “What specifically are you protesting?” sympathetic New York Times columnist Charles Blow asked an OWS participant “I don’t know. It’s just cool,” she answered. On a recent visit I found about 150 full-time OWSers, another 100 or so floating supporters, and at least 300 or 400 tourists running around snapping photos of signs and assorted freaks. And lots of foreign journalists. Everyone thought it was cool. Cool is cool. But it ain’t revolution yet. Revolution is dangerous. No danger; no change. OWS has become comfortable. The authorities have become comfortable with OWS. But that’s about to change. If and when Occupiers move into indoor space, they may have to abandon their current strict adherence to nonviolent tactics. Unless they offer resistance, the state—guardian of corporate interests—will simply drag them out of The Donald’s atrium and off to jail. OWS and its progeny will certainly go down in history as the first salvo of a nascent American revolution. Whether the Occupy movement survives to participate in what comes next (as opposed to serving as an interesting historical antecedent whose mistakes will be studied by future, more successful efforts), or whether anything will come next, will depend on whether they are willing to disrupt governmental and corporate activity—and assume greater risks. Which doesn’t necessarily mean engaging in violent acts. But it does require courting a violent reaction from the authorities. David Galland of the Casey Research blog sneers: “Like the ‘Free Speech Zones’ now mandatory for anyone caring to express an opposing opinion as presidential motorcades rush by, the Occupy Wall Street folks have allowed themselves to be corralled within the boundaries of a designated protest area, approved by the powers-that-be as suitable for the malcontents. Exposing the extent of the farce, the New York Police force has a portable, extendible watchtower that looms over the park, keeping a Sauron-like eye on the goings-on. That thing would have lasted about ten minutes back in the good old brick-throwing days. If I learned nothing back in the Sixties, it is that (once you decide on an objective) you need to assemble in the spot that most forcibly gets your point across—by disrupting business as usual—until the government has no choice but to arrest you, after which you return to same scene and repeat until someone gives. You win if the other guy blinks. Were I trying to discomfit Wall Street, I’d be blocking the doors of the major financial houses.” In other words, no more four-month permits. Right-wing radio talk personality Glenn Beck warns the establishment: “Capitalists, if you think that you can play footsies with these people, you’re wrong. They will come for you and drag you into the streets and kill you…they’re Marxist radicals…these guys are worse than Robespierre from the French Revolution…they’ll kill everybody.” Beck may be able to see further down the road than the OWSers—some of whom are sucking up to the cops who abuse them by saying they’re part of the 99% too—can see themselves. Wayyy down the road. The Occupiers need a warm place to sleep before they begin feeding banksters to the guillotine. COPYRIGHT 2011 TED RALL Time for #OWS to Broaden Its Appeal It has been 30 days since Occupy Wall Street began. The movement hasn’t shaken the world à la John Reed—not yet—but at one thousand occupations and counting, it can’t be ignored. OWS has become so impressive, so fast, that it’s easy to forget its half-assed origin. No matter. The fact that the French Revolution was partly set off by the drunken ravings of the Marquis de Sade hardly reduces its importance. Soon the Occupiers will have to face down a number of practical challenges. Like weather. Winter is coming. Unless they move indoors, campers at Occupy Minneapolis and Occupy Chicago will suffer attrition. But indoor space is private property. So confrontation with the police seems inevitable. As I saw at STM/Occupy DC, there is an ideological split between revolutionaries and reformists. Typical of the reformists: This week OWSers urged sympathizers to close their accounts with big banks like Citibank and Bank of America and move their savings to credit unions and local savings and loans. If revolutionaries get their way, there will be no banks. Or one, owned by the people. There is no immediate rush, nor should there be, to issue demands. The horizontal democracy format of the Occupy movement’s General Assemblies is less about getting things done than giving voices to the voiceless. For most citizens, who have been shut out of politics by the fake two-party democracy and the corporate media, simply talking and being heard is an act of liberation. At some point down the road, however, the movement will come to a big ideological fork: do they try to fix the system? Or tear it down? The Occupiers don’t have to choose between reformism and revolution right away—but they can’t wait too long. You can’t make coherent demands until you can frame them into a consistent narrative. What you ultimately want determines what you ask for in the time being—and how you ask for it. Trotsky argued for the issuance of “transitional demands” in order to expose the uncompromising, unjust and oppressive nature of the regime. Once again, an “epoch of progressive capitalism” (reformism, the New Deal, Great Society, etc.) has ended in the United States and the West. Thus “every serious demand of the proletariat” de facto goes further than what the capitalist class and its bourgeois state can concede. Transitional demands would be a logical starting point for an Occupy movement with a long-term revolutionary strategy. Both routes entail risk. If the Occupiers choose the bold path of revolution, they will alienate moderates and liberals. The state will become more repressive. On the other hand, reformism is naïve. The system is plainly broken beyond repair. Trying to push for legislation and working with establishment progressives will inevitably lead to cooption, absorption by big-money Democrats and their liberal allies, and irrelevance. (Just like what happened to the Tea Party, a populist movement subsumed into the GOP.) Revolution means violence in the streets. Reform means failure, and the continued, slow-grinding violence by the corporate state: poverty, repression, injustice. At this point, job one for the movement is to grow. I don’t mean more Facebook pages or adding more cities. The day-to-day occupations on the ground need to get bigger, fast. The bigger the occupations, the harder they will be for the police to dislodge with violent tactics. More than 42 percent of Americans do not work. Not even part-time. Tens of millions of people, with free time and nothing better to do, are watching the news about the Occupy movement. They aren’t yet participating. The Occupiers must convince many of these non-participants to join them. Why aren’t more unemployed, underemployed, uninsured and generally screwed-over Americans joining the Occupy movement? The Los Angeles Times quoted Jeff Yeargain, who watched “with apparent contempt” 500 members of Occupy Orange County marching in Irvine. “They just want something for nothing,” Yeargain said. I’m not surprised some people feel that way. Americans have a strong independent streak. We value self-reliance. Still, there is something the protesters can and must do. They should make it clear that they aren’t just fighting for themselves. That they are fighting for EVERYONE in “the 99 percent” who aren’t represented by the two major parties and their compliant media. OWSers must broaden their appeal. Many of the Occupiers are in their 20s. The media often quotes them complaining about their student loans. They’re right to be angry. Young people were told they couldn’t get a job without a college degree; they were told they couldn’t get a degree without going into debt. Now there are no jobs, yet they still have to pay. They can’t even get out of them by declaring bankruptcy. They were lied to. But it’s not about them. It’s about us. The big point is: Education is a basic right. Here is an example of how OWSers could broaden their appeal on one issue. Rather than complain about their own student loans, they ought to demand that everyone who ever took out and repaid a student loan get a rebate. Because it’s not just Gen Y who got hosed by America’s for-profit system of higher education. So did Gen X and the Boomers. No one will support a movement of the selfish and self-interested. The Freedom Riders won nobility points because they were white people willing to risk murder to fight for black people. Occupiers: stop whining about the fact that you can’t find a job. Fight for everyone’s right to earn a living. The Occupy movement will expand when it appeals to tens of millions of ordinary people sitting in homes for which they can’t pay the rent or the mortgage. People with no jobs. Occupy needs those men and women to look at the Occupiers on TV and think to themselves: “They’re fighting for ME. Unless I join them, they might fail.” The most pressing issues for most Americans are (the lack of) jobs, the (crappy) economy and growing income inequality. The foreclosure and eviction crisis is also huge. OWS has addressed these issues. But OWS has not yet made the case to the folks watching on TV that they’re focused like a laser. It takes time to create jobs. But the jobless need help now. The Occupy movement should demand immediate government payments to the un- and underemployed. All foreclosures are immoral; all of them ruin neighborhoods. The Occupy movement should demand that everyone—not just victims of illegal foreclosures—be allowed back into their former homes, or given new ones. For the first time in 40 years, we have the chance to change everything. To end gangster capitalism. To jail the corporate and political criminals who have ruined our lives. To save what’s left of our planet. The movement must grow. Nothing matters more. COPYRIGHT 2011 TED RALL

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THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIEFS AND “THE SNEFRU CODE”: FIRST HISTORICAL AND SYMBOLICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND NEW GEOMETRICAL DISCOVERIES. To Stéphanie Fesneau, tango dancer and teacher, to have demonstrated obvious the unthinkable. – Est-ce en ces nuits sans fond que tu dors et t’exiles, Million d’oiseaux d’or à future Vigueur ? – 1) A POSSIBLE ESOTERIC MEANING ENCLOSED ON THE SINAI RELIEF BY MEANS OF “THE SNEFRU CODE” In the Antika article of 3 January 2013 (“Ipotesi di lettura della stele di Snefru”) were for the first time showed and commented some overwhelming images, which seemed capable to reveal how the five more famous pyramids of the IV Dynasty were geometrically codified in the relief made by the founder Snefru in a Sinai stone cave around the 2600 BC (obviously, if we accepted the current dating of mainstream historiography and archeology, that were just called in doubt by this discovery). Practically, by those tables it was possible to see that lining up the pyramids bases to that of the relief and placing the tips on the Pharaoh’s eye, a very interesting system of intersections was developing between the pyramids profile sections (including the prolonging of their characteristic axis) and the whole of the relief, system that already at this point seemed not due to chance. But all this was just the beginning of an unexpected geometrical play – as varying the pyramids scale and lining up their bases and tips in different positions, the intersections system went on systematically and inexorably appearing, giving foundation to the hypothesis of a common geometrical matrix, from which as the characteristic measures of the relief as those of pyramids were both deducted. Below, we can seem some examples of what happens with the Big Pyramid, by means of images that in the other article we had no way of showing Instead, between the ones that we have already showed, maybe at the end the most interesting images came out when on the Pharaoh’s eye was positioned the tip of the Pyramid of Menkaure. In this case we can see how the higher gallery – which is usually interpreted as an incomplete work because, so to speak, ends in a confused way in the body of the rock – if overlapped to the Snefru relief immediately finds a symbolic-religious sense that seems rather clear: it actually gets to draw a penis in relaxed position on the Pharaoh enemy pubis, a character who acts as a submitting and pity imploring one. But anyone being in historical and anthropological problems knows very well that a relaxed penis, a penis melting away with rock, could easily be interpreted as an ancestral symbol of castration, and so as symbol of death. It is actually a common experience in the human kind how the ejaculation produces, after the instant of lust, a deep sense of vacuum, an experience which is at the basis of the dictum “animal semper triste post coitum”, words that seem to emphasize the fundamental connection between the higher joy which man could experience in his life with the fatal premonition of death. Actually, the modern psychology too inexorably report this strange phenomenon: the virile power seems to be lost at the end of the coitus with the sperm lost into the feminine genitals. Today we interpreted the feminine genital organ just a simple biological mechanism, but both in ancient historic or prehistoric times it was worshipped as a religious symbol, commonly identified with the stone. This idea, in spite of its archaic appearance, it’s still common nowadays, as there’s no gift symbolically deeper for a beloved woman that a jewel with a precious stone set on. The best is surely the diamond, because it joins in itself the gifts of the dark deepness of hearth with the high and pure light of the sky. A shining diamond is stone in symbiosis with the sun, the Feminine melt with the Masculine: its hardness and brightness surely allude to that eternity that man can partially achieve by the generation of a son, the symbol at the same time more universal and more powerful of the faith in the worth and endlessly going on of life. Actually, there is no scholar or amateur of the issue that is not aware of the fact that hundreds of figures of feminine genitals and nudes – more or less complete and defined – have been found sculpted or engraved in bones, or little stones (they call them “portables sculptures”: but a more correct definition seems that of “amulets”), or in the more inaccessible deepness of the Paleolithic and Neolithic caves from about the 30.000 BC. But if the stone is interpreted – as it seems – as a sort of metaphysical vagina, as an abyss from which all life come and return, it seems to become clear that the scene represented by the Snefru relief in combination with the Menkaure Pyramid must be a metaphysical scene, not the representation of what usually we call “a real fact”. Therefore, in contraposition with the relaxed penis, represented by the “unfinished” gallery, we can definitely hypothesize that the other gallery represents a penis vigorously erected, most likely pointing to the northern stars, that to Ancient Egyptians were the place of the eternal life. It’s sufficient to move the pyramid tip a little to the left to understand how it could change the meaning of won and submitted character, which represented with a big and erected penis would be more difficultly interpretable as doomed to the annihilation. This way to symbolically interpret the human body and sexuality often appear to the modern historian and intellectual, consciously or unconsciously (this has not many importance) as an overwhelming and almost incredible sign of backwardness in a culture that in contrary we are inclined to respect in a very deep way – almost as a bestiality worthy of a very primitive people that someway was inherited by an advanced civilization, so advanced to be capable to sculpt that kind of relief – furthermore using a mathematical code which appear rather refined. But it’s easy to guess that this kind of evaluations has nothing to do with something like “an objective reality”, and that, in contrary, they could descend from the Protestant and Counter Reformation prejudices still current in our culture, which even in that phase that was baptized with the rather strange name of “Modernity” begun to accept the nude as an easy sight only from the moment in which sexuality was radically distinguished from conception, and so from the relation with the sacred. It is common notion that until the invention and diffusion of contraceptives the bourgeois society, as the so called “communist”, or “socialist”, has considered the representation of nude and human sexuality as a taboo that only in absolutely exceptional situations could be legitimately crossed, after that the scarcely understandable Counter Reformation prudery came up to the point to consider obscene statues and paintings which were for a long time peacefully displayed in churches or other sacred spaces – sometimes real masterpieces admired and respected by generations of believers as symbols absolutely worthy to embody the sacred history told by the Bible. It’s only on the basis of this kind of cultural prejudices that we are inclined to watch at the religious symbol which appear pointing the tip of the Menkaure Pyramid on the Pharaoh’s eye as a sort of bestiality. To completely release ourselves from these prejudices it’s maybe a good thing to remember that in ancient times and other cultures things didn’t go necessarily this way and, in contrary, the western prudery seems scarcely diffused in the more or less recent historical past too. For instance, in the Sparta of the heroes, that still today is considered by scholars of any of religious and political orientation an unsurpassed example of abnegation and noble dedication to the more universally recognized virile values – courage, loyalty, stoic acceptance of pain and death, calm and measure also in the most extreme dangerous situations – it was a common use as for the men as for the women – especially the unmarried young ones – to walk around naked “to be modest”, as the elderly said to the astonished and scandalized strangers, that couldn’t believe that displaying the naked body formed by the daily gym training young men and women was just “walking around dressed only by their virtue”. But if from the austerity of Sparta we move to the refinement of Athens, we may be astonished discovering that the same married woman which practically could never get out of her husband home – the same woman of which was considered inconvenient to pronounce the name in a public place – had her home entrance consecrated to a goddess symbolized by an erected phallus, auspice of fertility and fortune, a goddess to which rituals and feasts was dedicated; these things, in contrary of what we are inclined to think nowadays, were not some kind of clownery put on by rich men with the passion for the porno and burlesque. They were an absolutely serious kind of things, which had the same dignity of the other feasts and rituals. And if from Classic Greek we move to Asia, immediately we meet in India some splendid temples which walls and towers are interminably decorated by fine style sculptures, representing sexual intercourses of any sort, and sacred spaces dominated by the gigantic figure of an erected phallus – and the sacred representation of vagina was so much common too. Now, no reasonable person could imagine that this kind of splendid masterpieces could be the fruit of the will of a mad and debauched tyrant or of the work of a civilization made by exhausted aesthetes with a refined pornographic taste. In contrary, works of this kind are a reason to hypothesize that in the past of humanity there were very developed cultures in which genitals, sexuality and the body in its complex were not considered as an almost unmentionable piece of shame, but instead as visible manifestation of the divine into the human. Once we are capable to remember all this, we do not have any kind of reason to be overwhelmed in discovering that to Ancient Egyptian too, a culture by all people and from many centuries considered very elaborated and highly refined – a culture that proofs lesser and lesser questionable are drawing us to maintain as technologically very advanced – the corporeity was considered as a religious symbol, and not necessarily a scandal. Herodotus tells us that during what he calls a Dionysus feast (so, presumably, an Osiris feast) Egyptian women went in procession with a puppet representing the goddess, whose erected phallus – that was slightly shorter that the height of the puppet – was continuously moved on and back by an ingenious mechanism; aside his testimony, we can still watch at some sacred images in which we can see Isis giving back life to Osiris with an oral intercourse, a scene absolutely unthinkable in our religious culture, if not as outrage and blasphemy. The sacralization of sexuality and human body got to the point that in one of their myths of creation we find Atum generating the universe masturbating, swallowing the sperm and then generating the second and the third of the goddesses of the Ennead, Geb and Nut (who we should intend, as it seems, the Damp and the Dry) urinating and defecating. Therefore, it is historically reasonable to discover that the galleries of the Menkaure Pyramid represent in succession a penis first relaxed and then erected (or the reverse) as a death and resurrection symbol that could be put on to the succumbing goddess of the Snefru relief by the geometrical code with which it had been built. Nothing is more logical than to hypothesize that the corridors of that pyramid hah been built that way just to be overlapped to the relief, revealing that way to the initiates one of the exoteric messages that have been encrypted in this stone. Actually, if we imagine to move the Menkaure pyramid a little on the left, we find that the succumbing goddess has no more a relaxed penis, a penis melting away with stone (and therefore with death) but instead a firm erection, sign of life and power, and of that eternity which symbol were to the Ancient Egyptian the northern stars, the stars that don’t go through the setting. In general, it seems that the Menkaure Pyramid overlapped to the Snefru relief, was made to send this message: death, which appear to the human eye as melting away with the Mother Stone, is instead a passage to a never ending life, “the life of millions of years”, of which many times the Pyramid Texts speak about. 2) THE GEOMETRICAL CODE OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIEFS Obviously, apart from giving cause to reflections about its symbolic and religious meaning, the discovery of what we have hurriedly baptized “the Snefru code” encouraged purely geometric researches too, in the first moment to control if this same code could concern also other Ancient Egyptian reliefs: and, as it was an easy prevision, immediately we have seen that things was just this way. If we look at the images that follow – in which we take in consideration the relief known as “Djoser running” – immediately we realize that it was projected on the basis of the same code, as it contains not only the IV Dynasty Pyramids (we recall that following the mainstream archeology, the IV Dynasty would begin only some centuries after the death of Djoser), but the figures and the hieroglyphics of the Sinai relief too. In the fourth figure we can even note that also the Orion constellation, which Sacred Angles was a fundamental part of the planning code of all pyramids and statues of IV Dynasty (on this issue see the Gabriele Venturi’s World Mysteries article of 7 November 2012 “The Descending Corridors of Pyramids and the Narmer Stone: an Archaeoastronomical and Theological Perspective”), is very probably contained into the code. This images are surely something that makes you think, and it would be an easy play going on with other ones to increase the more or less shallow amazement that we can feel in front of an unexpected phenomenon. But it is maybe more useful to send the reader to the gallery to see other examples of the geometrical plays we can get from the Ancient Egyptians relief, and now it is better to concentrate ourselves on the purely geometrical problem that seems to be posed by this kind of phenomenon, that we could call “meaningful intersections”. Actually, the first thought that comes in mind watching at these images is that the two reliefs must have been projected on the basis of the same mathematical-geometrical matrix, as the meaningful intersections keep on repeating not only overlapping two different images, but as we are going to see below, also in the case in which the image is, so to speak, overlapped to itself, therefore moving it in a way to fit some parts – that appear geometrically meaningful – with other parts that appear congruent. The phenomenon seems rather impressive, even overwhelming on first sight. But who’s expert with problems and issues connected with mathematics and geometry – or with music too – is usually perfectly conscious of the fact that what appears first sight very complex could have rather simple fundaments – and actually things are often like that. We all know how are almost monstrously complex the mathematical operations that are necessary to the experiments of quantum mechanics, that without enormously powerful computer would be absolutely impossible. Yet, the more simple experiments, in which only the motion of one particle is described, can be geometrically represented in a very simple way, so that people not very well up in high mathematics can understand them, only on the basis of a bit of instruction and a good intuition (this is a kind of exemplifications in which Feynman is very good, for instance). But, alas, moving from the simpler case to one which involve four or eight particles things begin to get very hard, until we rapidly come to phenomenon that are simply unfathomable, so that modern physics could really be thought and represented by the pure abstraction of the mathematical formulas and calculations. On the issue, Heisenberg maintained – with some good reasons as it seems – that in relation of the deep meaning of quantum mechanics the iconographic system with which it is usually popularized is a middle course between falsification, vulgarization and fraud. Anyway, the case of Ancient Egyptian reliefs – not appearing so complex and abstract as quantum mechanics – could be similar; similar in the sense that the complexity of the observed or built up phenomenon – or of those we could build up – could be the result of a rather simple but fundamental mathematical-geometrical structure, if would be true that hypothesis that – before to enounce – we will show by means of images. In this case too we have to inform the reader that we could show many more examples of golden ratio relations between the elements of the Snefru relief (for instance, the hieroglyphic in front of the hawk seems just a part of the five tips stars that we can construct into a regular pentagon, a geometrical figure intrinsically dominated by the golden ratio). But again we let to the gallery the easy play to multiply the examples, because in this moment seems more useful to show how this same kind of ratio – that seems to characterize the Snefru relief – seems to characterize other reliefs too, works that belong to very different periods of Ancient Egyptian culture. Once we have shown that the golden ratio stays at the basis of the figurative and hieroglyphic production all along Ancient Egyptian history, what appear as an evidence to the immediacy of intuition will be showing itself as true to the slowness of analysis. As we can see analyzing the images, the golden ratio seems to characterize the space of Ancient Egyptians reliefs belonging to very distant times, from the more ancient one, known by the name of “Djoser running” to that of Ramses – that was engraved in an age in which the sacred architecture had taken a stylistical way very different from which of the IV Dynasty, moving from the pyramid form to that of temple with columns. But what seems going on without any change is the golden ratio, from which forms, dimensions and space relations keep on resulting. Even more impressive seems the fact that an architectonic space so big as the Dahshur Plateau – and even that “rough” precessional meridian known by the name of “Nabta Playa stone circle” – seems to correspond to the same, “magical” proportions that characterized pyramids and reliefs. That the Nabta Playa stone circle could correspond to the golden ratio would not seem so strange when in the following images we will have observed that its characteristic angles are included in the Snefru relief of Sinai, then in Djoser running, in the Big Sphinx, in the profile of the most famous diorite Khefren portrait, in the descending corridors of two different pyramids, one of them is the well known Red Pyramid; all these are works that, following the mainstream history and archeology, would belong to a period that we should place more or less three millennia after the time in which the Nabta Playa stone circle was built and frequented. It’s our opinion that the way in which the development of the pyramid form is usually described could be wrong, and that we have good stylistical and morphological reasons to maintain that the Giza as the Dahshur Plateau should be placed in an age rather anterior to the 10.500 BC, as the stepping pyramids and those attributed to V Dynasty should be a late and substandard imitation, carried out in a time in which the technique to build up masterworks as the Big Pyramid had been forgotten by millennia, as it seems that the pyramids ascribed to the V Dynasty have fallen down a few centuries after their construction. But even if the building technique was lost and dead, what was unchanged and still alive of that far times was the code with which they were geometrically built up. But we have to postpone the analysis of this very complex issues to a future work, to keep on concentrating on the problems that we can immediately face up on the basis of the following images. Having watched at all those images the reader will be convinced of the plausibility of our hypothesis, that we can summarize in these propositions THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS RELIEFS OF EACH AGE ARE BEEN BUILT UTILIZING THE GOLDEN RATIO SO THAT 1) EACH LEAST PART OF EACH SINGLE FIGURE AND HIEROGLYPHIC WOULD STAY IN A GOLDEN RATIO KIND OF RELATION WITH THE WHOLE OF THE SINGLE FIGURE AND SINGLE HIEROGLYPHIC OF WHICH IT IS A PART. 2) EACH SINGLE HIEROGLYPHIC AND FIGURE WOULD STAY WITH THE WHOLE OF THE SPACE OF THE RELIEF AND WITH THE OTHER HIEROGLYPHICS AND FIGURES ALWAYS IN A GOLDEN RATIO. 3) THEREFORE, BETWEEN THE POINTS OF THIS KIND OF SPACE DOES NOT EXIST THAT KIND OF EMPTY, SHAPELESS AND MERELY QUANTITATIVE RELATION THAT WE CAN FIND INTO THE CARTESIAN SPACE, BUT A CONSTANT GOLDEN RATIO KIND OF RELATION, THAT WAS EVIDENTLY BELIEVED AS SACRED. 4) THAT MEANS THAT IN THIS KIND OF SPACE WE GO TOWARD THE UNENDINGLY BIG AS TOWARD THE UNENDINGLY LITTLE FOLLOWING THE PACE OF A FIBONACCI’ SPIRAL. 5) THEREFORE, IN THIS KIND OF CONTEXT, THE INFINITE KIND OF INFINITIES THAT CHARACTERIZE OUR MATHEMATICS ARE UNTHINKABLE, PARTICULARLY THAT LINEAR-CONTINUOUS KIND OF INFINITE THAT TO THE AVERAGE WESTERN ONE SEEMS THE MOST OBVIOUS AND FAMILIAR. Therefore, the whole of these evidences seems to force us to the conclusion that the invention – or the creation – of the high geometry and the connected astronomy should be backdated at least until the Nabta Playa times, that’s to say in a period between the 5000 and the 7000 BC. But it’s our opinion that these discoveries could be enormously older, and that they could be reasonably placed in the deepness of Paleolithic, a time in which – following our hypothesis – people would recreate the lost harmony of the Golden Age by an artistic an architectonic production based on the Golden Ratio, a mathematical system that in our ancestral past had been probably an esoteric-religious symbol enormously powerful, that was supposed capable to embody that paradise lost, variously imagined by the different cultures, in which harmony spontaneously reigned in the nature and between people, a symbol that was also believed capable to defend the world from the omnipresent and terrible powers of the chaos. To give an example of what we are saying, we could see in the following images how the famous Altamira bison could be easy interpreted not as a random decoration of the cave, but as a figure of a stellar goddess obtained joining about twenty stars of the north sky, the sky that will be considered by Ancient Egyptians the place of the eternal life. The Ramses “skirt” as the angles structure of the Snefru relief could be the result of an heritage of the ancient precessional diagram that the rhinos “fresco” of Chauvet could represent Also that system of signs that we can find into the Altamira caves – that was variously interpreted as a formless bunch of scribbles, or as an example of abstract drawing, or as the fruit of the mystical visions of shamans went in ecstasy – to a more attentive look seems actually an ensemble of calendar systems, in which we can notice the ancestors of our round brackets and braces (but employed in a vertical direction we are not used to), and various examples of the most common bar code . But it’s clear that the problems connected with this hypothesis – that on first sight appear as radical as archeologically unfounded – are not a matter that we can develop in the short space of an article, and it is probable that we will be forced to employ the book form to demonstrate in an indisputable way a thesis that – without any further proof – could legitimately appear a mere fantasy. Anyway, we think that from the material we have exposed in these pages, seems to result unavoidable a radical reconsideration of the last prehistoric phase of humanity, that which precedes the epoch-making invention of writing. If the Golden Ratio actually characterized the Nabta Playa stone circle, therefore all we believed to know about the Neolithic Era would appear as an illusion, and we will forced from now on to think that those human beings – that for so long time we have imagined as savages nearest to the animal condition than to the human kind – had been in contrary as similar as different to us as, for instance, Marco Polo and the Chinese people that he describes in his most famous book “Il Milione”

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It has been documented that the first Germans to arrive in America did so in 1608. The facts on the following table represent the German and German/American’s contributions to Maryland. 1669-John Lederer was born in Hamburg, Germany in 1644, and studied medicine at the Hamburg Academic Gymnasium. On March 9th, 1669, Lederer left Chickahominy, an Indian village near the headwaters of the York River, traveling northwest to Eminent Hill. He and the members of his party became the first Europeans to crest the Blue Ridge Mountains and the first to see the Shenandoah Valley and the Allegheny Mountains beyond. John Lederer settled in Maryland in 1671. In 1672 his observations were translated from Latin by Sir William Talbot, the governor of Maryland, and published, along with a map of his expeditions, as The Discoveries of John Lederer, In three several Marches from Virginia, To the West of Carolina, And other parts of the Continent: Begun in March 1669, and ended in September 1670. He was naturalized in 1671, when he settled in Maryland. Source: Drake, Richard B. (2001), A History of Appalachia, Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky Source: "The first Germans in North America and the German element of New Netherland"-1912 1681-The first known German settlers within the now current limits of Maryland were Dutch and French Labadists, who located on Bohemia Manor (see profile Augustine Herman-Science & Medicine), Cecil County (at that time part of Baltimore County). 1708-Justus Engelhardt Kuhn, of German descent, from the Rhine Valley, applied for citizenship. He was the first Maryland portrait painter. He continued his painting until his death in November 1717. 1714-Twelve German families of fifty persons, followed by twenty families of eighty persons, settled on the Rappahannock river near the present city of Fredericksburg. 1729-The Maryland General Assembly authorizes the erection of Baltimoretown (Baltimore) on the north side of the Patapsco. They appointed commissioners to govern. 1732-First German Church is built in Frederickstown, near the Monocacy river. 1732-Charles, Lord Baltimore on the 2nd of March 1732, made the liberal offer of 200 acres of land in fee, subject to a rent of four shillings sterling per year, payable at the end of three years, for every hundred acres, to any person having a family who should within three years actually settle on the land between the rivers Potomac and Susquehanna, and to each single person, male or female, between the ages of fifteen and thirty, one hundred acres of land on the same terms. 1733-Maryland was an insignificant colony before the German immigration. It was first settled in 1633, and after 56 years, in 1689 it had only about 25,000 inhabitants. The next 21 years saw only an additional 5000 and in 1733 the number of taxable inhabitants..which comprised all males above the age 15 was 31,470. It was about this time the Germans began to arrive and the population increased to 130,000 and in 1756 154,188 and in 1761, 164,007. 1735-In 1735 about 100 families from the Palatinate Germany by way of the Chesapeake Bay, landing at Annapolis or Alexandria settled at Monocacy and Frederick. 1745-‘Frederick Town’ settled-“Frederick Town” was laid out by Daniel Dulany (a land speculator) in 1745,and settled by a German immigrant party led by a young German Reformed schoolmaster from the Rhineland Palatinate named Johann Thomas Schley. He and his wife built the first house of the new town. The settlement was founded upon a tract of land granted by Daniel Dulany on the banks of Carroll Creek. Within three years the settlement had become the county seat of Frederick County. Schley's first task as leader of the settlement party was the foundation of a German Reformed Church (today the church is known as Evangelical Reformed Church, UCC), which also served immediately as a public school, in keeping with the German Reformed tradition of sponsoring universal public education. The Schleys were activists for the American Revolution and had been a military family in Germany. 1748-2,800 Palatinates came into Maryland by way of Baltimore and Annapolis; some of whom located in Baltimore and Baltimore County, but the larger part settled in and about Fredericktown. 1753-May 1753, Rev. Theodore Frankenfield, installed as the first regular pastor of the Monocacy and Conogocheague congregations, which were the only regularly organized German Reformed congregations in Maryland. 1756-‘Schifferstadt’ was completed on the 300 acres purchased by Joseph Burnner in Frederick Maryland. The Brunner Family arrived in Philadelphia in August 1728 aboard the ship 'Allen'. It was built as a residence and as a fort against Indian attacks. The walls are 3" thick, cellar is 10-12 ' deep. It is America’s finest example of German colonial architecture and celebrated their 250th Anniversary in 2006. It is one of the oldest structures in Frederick. Listed on the National Historic Registry 74000952 7-22-1974. To read more, click here. 1765-First book printed and published in Baltimore: The Detection of The Conduct and Proceedings of Messrs. Annan and Henderson,.Baltimore-Town, was printed by Nicholas Hasselbach, a German. Source: The preface to this work is dated February 12, 1765 and survives only through a unique copy found in the Garrett Library at John Hopkins University. 1776-The first paper mill in Maryland was founded by William Hoffman, a German from Frankfurt, in 1776. Known as the Hoffman Paper Mill, it was located in Baltimore County on the Gunpowder Falls. When paper currency was first adopted by the Continental Congress, it was Hoffman’s Mill who made the paper for it. 1777-Hessian Barracks built in Frederick. To control the traffic through Frederick during the American Revolution, the British garrisoned a Hessian regiment in the town during the war. After the war, with no way to return to their homeland, the men of the Hessian regiment stayed on and married into the families of the town, strengthening its German identity. Barracks Frederick –built by Chapter X-Acts of Maryland. General Assembly passed 1777. Used during the Revolutionary War to confine Hessian soldiers. (Hessian Soldiers) Glatz (Shultz) House-Maryland 1734 1779-Resolution introduced in the senate of the general assembly of Maryland that Messrs. Hanson, Beale and Fischer translate into the German language certain acts of the assembly. *The first official recognition by the State of the existence of the German language among its inhabitants. 1783-The German Society of Maryland is founded to help combat serious problems facing immigrants from German-Speaking countries. Incorporated by Act of the General Assembly of Maryland, Chapter 100 (February 3, 1818) 1784-John Frederick Amelung arrives from Bremen with 300-400 tradesman. He establishes the New Bremen near Frederick. It is thought to be the first works established in America for the manufacture of hollow glassware. Pieces made and presented to General George Washington. See John Amelung profile-Manufacturing & Retail. 1787-Ordered by the House of Delegates that the printer of Fredericktown be directed to translate into the German language the proceedings of the Committee on the Federal Constitution and print copies for distribution in Frederick, Washington & Baltimore counties. 1790-As many as 100,000 Germans have immigrated to America. They make up an estimated 8.6% of the U.S. population and account for 12% of the population in Maryland. 1796-First Sugar refinery in the United States was founded by Gartz (Garts) and Leypold on Peach alley on the east side of Hanover street between Conway and Camden. Sources: Baltimore Past & Present (Brantz Mayer 1891) and http://www.homes-baltimore-maryland.com/history.shtml Historical firsts in Baltimore The German Citizens in Baltimore, By Karl A. M. Scholtz, 1929 1800-Between 1800-2005, over 7 million German speakers immigrated to the US (Majority between 1840-1914). Source: Max Kade Institute. 1828-The first umbrellas manufactured in Baltimore were made by Francis Beehler, a woodcarver from Heidelberg, Germany, who established a factory in 1882 on East Baltimore Street. It later moved to 204 W. Lexington St., in 1886, which burned in a spectacular 1922 fire that was fueled by thousands and thousands of yards of silk and took the life of a firefighter. It is said to be the first umbrella factory in the United States. Source: Baltimore Sun June 07, 2003 1832-The German Society (Charles F. Mayer, Counselor and Brantz Mayer) had a state law passed in December of 1832. The purpose was to relieve the German Society of part of its financial burden in tending to the immigrants. It provided that the captain of each ship arriving in a Maryland port state the number of immigrants on board. Then each immigrant had to pay a sum of $1.50 to the State. Three-fifths of this money was to be allocated to the "Trustees of the Poor of Baltimore" and two-fifths to the German and Hibernian Societies of Baltimore. The Hibernian Society, founded in 1803, is the Irish counterpart of the German Society. The law of 1832 originally stipulated that the money be divided equally between the two societies, an unsatisfactory arrangement, because many more Germans and Swiss arrived in Baltimore than Irish. Therefore, in 1833, an amendment was passed providing that the money be divided proportionally between the two societies according to the actual number of arrivals of each nationality. *Seal designed by Prof. Charles Raddatz 1833-Law indicated above was amended- The law of 1832 originally stipulated that the money be divided equally between the two societies, which was not a fair disbursement since many more Germans and Swiss arrived in Baltimore than Irish. Therefore, in 1833, an amendment was passed providing that the money be divided proportionally between the two societies according to the actual number of arrivals of each nationality. This meant that the German Society received $.60 for each German/Swiss immigrant arriving. For the first time, reliable figures were obtainable. 1833-1839: 44,584 persons 1840-1850: 50,660 persons These official statistics support the fact that some 180,000 Germans arrived in Maryland ports during the three decades preceding the outbreak of the Civil War. 1835-Two brothers, George and Henry Berger, travel to Baltimore from Germany. They combine three bakeries and formed ‘Bergers’. Bergers continue to produce one of Maryland’s best known cookies. 1837-Carroll County was created in 1837 from parts of Baltimore and Frederick Counties. The county is located in the northern, central part of the state. The first settlers to Carroll County consisted of two primary ethnic groups: Germans from southeast Pennsylvania and English from Tidewater Maryland. 1839-William Knabe formed a partnership with H. Gaehle and began maufacturing pianos originally at the corner of Liberty and German Streets, but to expand to 1-7 North Eutaw Street. One of the largest manufacturers of pianos in the United States, employing up to one time more than 230 persons in Baltimore. Numerous piano medal winners. See Knabe profile in Manufacturing and Retail 1841-Frederick Raine, a German from a family in Westphalia, Germany, landed in Baltimore (1840) after working as an apprentice in a newspaper office in Münster. In 1841 he established and began printing ‘Der Deutsche Correspodent’, a weekly German language newspaper that grew from the initial eight subscribers to a daily circulation of about 15,000 during the 1880s and 1890s. The last edition ran on April 28, 1918. The paper is being digitized by the Maryland Historical Society (2010). See Frederick Raine profile in Printers & Publishing. 1845-St. Alphonsus Church in downtown Baltimore is built by German immigrants. It was referred to as the ‘German Cathedral’. Early German immigrants were predominantly Lutheran. St. Alphonus was the first church of German Catholics. See church section for more information. 1847-School Sisters of Notre Dame come to Baltimore. Mother Theresa (Karolina Gerhardinger, born in Regensburg, Bavaria (1797) with five companions arrive to teach children of German immigrants. Sister Caroline is left in charge when Mother Theresa returns to Germany. Sister Caroline worked for 42 years establishing elementary schools, high schools and colleges throughout the country. Dozens of parish schools, 2 girls high schools and a college were established in Maryland. 1860-The 1860 Federal Census Analysis shows that there is a population of 590,860 peoples in Maryland. Of that number, 77,536 were foreign born. Of that 77,536, 43,884 were born in the German states (Austria 182; Bavaria 7,733; Baden 3,485; Hesse 8,126; Nassau 94; Prussia 2,827; Wuertmberg 2,229 and Germany-not specified 19,208. The next largest foreign born population was that of Irish and was 21,872, followed by the English with 4,235 and the Scottish with 1,583. 1860-Between 180,000 and 216,000 German born men served in the Union Army. More than a dozen German born men attained the rank of General. Between 3500-7000 German born men fought in the Confederate service. Source: Encyclopedia of American Civil War, A political, social, military history, by David Heidlow and Heanne T. Heidler. 1863-Ludwig Hilgartner joins Gottfried Schimpf (Schimpf until 1873) and forms Schimpf & Hilgartner with offices on Lexington Street. By 1879, using both imported Italian and fine domestic marble, machinery powered by 22 workers in a two story building at 528 W. Baltimore Street became one of the most prominent and well-known finishers of marble in the United States. 1864-Through the last will and testament of Mrs. Catherine Eberhart, three two story houses on North Caroline Street near Madison were donated in 1864 to the Redemptorists to take care of the sick and infirmed. By 1867 the institution had expanded so much the sisters were forced to purchase four acres of land at Caroline and Hoffman Streets (at $24,000). The money was raised by the three parishes of St. James’, St. Alphonsus and St. Michael’s. The work was done by the nuns who came to Baltimore of the request of Archbishop Martin Spalding. He sent for them to care for the growing German population in Baltimore. Here the sisters established St. Joseph’s German Catholic Hospital. It officially opened its doors in 1872. St. Joseph’s German Catholic Hospital became St. Joseph Medical Center in Towson in the 1960s. Source: Baltimore Sunpaper 1-1-2012; Ecclesiastical History of the Catholic Germans, SHGM, Charles Gelner. 1867-Concordia Hall was a music venue in Baltimore, founded by Germans from the largest immigrant community in Baltimore. It was the location for readings by Charles Dickens in 1868, during his first American tour, and other visiting lecturers and musical groups, and the site of civic events. A fire tragically destroyed the Concordia in 1891. It stood on the west side of Eutaw Street, south of old German Street (Redwood). It was the location of a large national convention of Brewers in 1887. 1868-The Maryland General Assembly orders “That bill or bills’ proposing amendment or amendments shall be published by order of the Governor, in at least two newspapers in each county, where so many may be published and where not more than one may be published, then in that newspaper, and in three newspapers published in the City of Baltimore, one of which shall be in the German language, once a week for at least three months preceding the next ensuing general election, at which the proposed amendment or amendments shall be submitted, in a form prescribed by the General Assembly, to the qualified voters of the State for adoption or rejection. Proceedings and Acts of the General Assembly, March 30, 1868. Maryland Manual1929; Vol. 146, pg. 424. 1868-Every public general law which is made to take effect before the first day of June next after the session at which it may be passed, shall immediately after its passage be published at the expense of the State, daily for one week in two daily newspapers of the City of Baltimore, one of which shall be printed in the German language, and one newspaper in each county having the largest circulation, if there be a newspaper in said county. C440. Maryland Archives, Vol. 388, pgs. 22-23. 1873-The School Sisters of Notre Dame found a college on Charles Street at Homeland Ave., which was then Baltimore County. It is the first Catholic women’s college in the United States. 1875-In 1875, George Aloysius Frederick (see profile Architects & Engineers), Baltimore born to German immigrants from Prussia, completes Baltimore’s City Hall. Frederick was awarded the job in 1865. The building was made with Baltimore County marble and Falls Road bluestone and was the first municipal building in the country built to be fireproof. 1875-The Medical Alumni Association was established by Dr. George W. Miltenberger (see profile in Science & Medicine), and formal meetings began with the election of a president. It was the first such Association in the United States. 1884-Ottmar Mergenthaler (see profile Printers & Printing) invents the Linotype machine. The machine revolutionizes the printing industry. Prior to its invention, no newspaper in the United States with more than eight pages was printed. 1884-Winfield Scott Schley (See profile, Military) volunteers, after two unsuccessful attempts by others, to search for survivors of “Greely’s Arctic Expedition”. He is successful in locating seven members of the expedition. 1886-The founding of the Society for the History of the Germans in Maryland. The charter was adopted on January 19, 1886. The first meeting was held on January 5th of that year at the Maryland Historical Society. On January 19 this committee submitted a draft of Constitution, which was at once adopted and ordered to be printed. Twenty three gentlemen subscribed their name to the Constitution. The regular officers were selected. Rev. J.G. Morris as President. The first meeting had guest speaker Hon. Anton Eickhoff, author of ‘In der neuen Heimath’. It was around this time when the society attempted to obtain a listing of all early German immigrants but found that all lists prior to 1846 had disappeared. Their website: http://www.shgm.org/ 1886-Elizabeth Mimms Schmidt and Peter Schmidt, her husband, open a bakery where the bread is baked in their home by Elizabeth and sold and delivered by Peter. Today the Schmidt Baking Company employs 860 people with eleven distribution centers, making it the largest independent premium line wholesale baker in the mid-Atlantic. 1890-October 6-The ‘German Day in Baltimore’ (to commemorate the cornerstone of German immigration in 1683). Occurred all over the city with over 14,000 participants (floats, singing groups, fireworks at the Washington Monument, etc.). Source: ‘The German Day in Baltimore’ by L.P. Henninghausen. This was the beginning (even though there were a few years between the event) of the 'German Festival', which is still celebrated annually. For a history of the event, click here. The 1890 Baltimore Census shows of the 434,439 people in Baltimore, 101,112 are German or of German parentage. This is 23.28% of the city's population. Another estimate stated y Karl Scholtz in 'The German Citizens of Baltimore' (1929) states that according to the best figures available, in 1890,one fourth of the city's population at that time spoke German. 1891-The first ballpark in Baltimore to have a double decked grandstand and the first stadium to have lettered rows and numbered seats (prior to this date, it was all open seating), was built by the Von der Horsts, owner of the Orioles of the American Association. It was called ‘Union Park’ and was located at Barclay Street. 1894-According to 'The German in Baltimore', by J.G. Morris in 1894, there are 32 (thirty two) places of Worship in Baltimore in which all the pulpit instruction is imparted in the German language. See German Churches. There were also five German banks, Three German Fire Insurance Companies and Five German bookstores. 1898-The Immigration Law passed in 1832 was later incorporated in an amendment form in the Baltimore City Charter of 1898. 1900-53.4% of Marylanders had one or both parents who were born in German speaking districts of middle Europe. Maryland had the 4th largest concentration of German-Americans (exceeded only by Kentucky, Indiana and Missouri). The national average was 30.2%. The actual numbers were 44,990 born in Germany and 145,513 with one or both parents born in Germany. Source: The ‘Deutsche Sprachgebiet’. German Life Magazine Inaugural edition. Author Dan Tolzman. 1904, June-Cornerstone of the Deutsche Emigrantenhaus was laid at 1308 Beason Street. Establishing a house here was very important as Locust Point became one of the major immigration points after the Civil War. The arrivals in 1866-67 alone jumped from 4,000 to 10,000. In fact, over 1.2 million European immigrants disembarked near this site (piers six through nine), as part of the ‘Great Wave’ of immigration from 1868 to 1914. The house still stands today. 1906-Henry Sonneborn, a german immigrant arriving in 1849, opens the 10 story Henry Sonneborn Company, at the corner of Pratt and Paca Streets. It was once the largest menswear factory in the world. 1907-The Hansa Haus located at 2 East Redwood (German Street when built) Street in Baltimore City was built in 1907 for the North German Lloyd Steamship Company. Parker, Thomas & Rice were the architects. Until the end of the 20th century, the Coat of Arms of the 37 cities of the Hanseatic League were displayed on the exterior of the building. See ‘Hansa Haus’. 1910-The 1910 census gave as the number of persons born in Germany who were resident in Maryland 36,652. Those of German parentage, including those born in Germany and those whose parents were born in Germany 135,325. This amounts to 45.7% of the total foreign population in Maryland and about 11% of the total population of Maryland. The population of Baltimore contains a larger percentage of Germans than the counties. The large cities attract the immigrant especially those with a seaports. The city of Baltimore in 1910 had 26,021 persons born in Germany and 96,557 of German parentage. This was 45% of the total of 211,913 foreign parentage and 17% of the total population of Baltimore. If the old immigration is added about 40% of the population would have German blood. Maryland was above the general average for the country. As for the US, the total white population was 81,731,957 of which English (including Scottish and Welsh) 24,750,000 1911-Johns Hopkins begins the First Art as Applied to Medicine Department. It is the oldest medical illustration program in the country. Max Brödel (See profile, Science & Medicine) was named the department’s first head and went on to train some of the world’s leading medical illustrators. 1914-By 1914, on the eve of World War I, 94,000 Germans lived in the City of Baltimore, making up 20% of the population. 1916-Gustav Strube (See Profile, The Arts), a German born conductor and composer and founding conduction of the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra. He taught at the Peabody Conservatory. He wrote one opera, Ramona, which also premiered in 1916. 1920-So profound was the German influence in the city that through the 1920s, a third of the city’s public schools included German as part of the regular curriculum, one in four Baltimoreans could speak German fluently. Source: The Baltimore Sun, 1-24-2010, Frederick N. Rasmussen 1933-Approximately 100,000 German Jews came to the United States (Max Kade Institute) 1940-Gustav Brunn, a Frankfurt, Germany native develops a spice used for crabs. He had arrived a year earlier in Baltimore from Germany. His spice was sold many years later to McCormick. Brunn invented 'Old Bay' 1970-In 1970 more than six million Americans reported that they had learned German as their first language. The 1980 total of subscriptions to German language newspapers and magazines: 300,000. These break down into two daily papers, 23 weeklies, 15 monthlies and 12 other periodicals. 1987-German-American Day (October 6) was established by Congressional resolution and presidential proclamation by President Ronald Reagan. 1990-The 1990 Census show that the German-Americans are the largest ethnic group in the U.S. with 57,947,374 persons or 23.3% of the U.S. Population claiming some form of German ancestry. Dr. Don Heinrich Tolzmann, President of the Society of German-American studies adds that the German category does not include Germans from other German speaking states and regions of Europe and the Americas. So to the German Statistic could be added: Swiss-German 700,000* (70% of the total Swiss Statistic) Pennsylvania German 305,841 The six additional German ethic groups total 1,952,051. The total of the seven groups 59,937,646. The results indicated that the German Americans constitute a full one-fourth of the population. (Source: Deutsche Welt-U.S.A., July/Aug. 1992) 2000-German Americans comprise 15.2% of the United States population, followed by Irish at 10.8% and African at 8.8%. German is the largest ethnic group in the United States. In Maryland, the German population represents 15.7 of the population (5,296,486). Source: 2000 U.S. Census. See Map Largest Ancestry-2000 2008-German Americans comprise 16.5% of the United States population. The largest, followed by Irish and English. In Maryland, the German population is also the largest ethnic population with 16.5% (932,275) of the 5,633,597 Marylanders. Source: 2008 U.S. Census Bureau (American Community Survey) 2013, October 1-

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Do you want to become a famous actor/actress? If YES, here is a complete guide plus requirements needed to become an actor or actress with no experience. There is no doubting the fact that the film industry all over America and Europe has come a long way. It is also true that it generates good returns on investment at all times. What is An Actor/Actress? An actor or actress is someone who interprets a character to use in performing in productions like theatre, film, television, and radio. An actor or actress attends auditions to rehearse, for their role so as to be able to, deliver a performance to an audience. Talent, confidence, creativity, self-motivation, and commitment are personal requirements an actor or actress should have. There are different acting types, and some of them are: Method acting- this is a situation, where the actor/actress in identifying with the portrayed character, recalls emotions and reactions from his or her own life, and uses it. Presentational acting on the other hand is when the actor uses a specific language, gesture, or look, in directly or indirectly addressing the audience just to indicate his/her awareness of their presence. The term ‘actor’ is not specifically for the males; it is sometimes used on the females also. An actor or actress also portrays a character in a comic or dramatic production. An actor or actress performs in films, television, radio, theatre, music videos or commercials. Duties of an Actor or Actress and their Job Description - Reading Scripts: Actors have to read scripts to understand what their role entails. It is this understanding that leads to a correct interpretation of their roles. - Meeting with agent: Before an actor accepts a role, he or she has to meet with his or her agent, to discuss what performing in the production would entail. Also, the actor would meet with other professionals too before accepting a role. - Audition: An actor’s life revolves around auditions. An audition is an interview or sample performance, which consists of a practical performance to show the candidate’s skill and suitability. - Research: Actors have to research on the traits, lifestyle and circumstances surrounding their characters, so as to authentically portray them to the audience. - Memorization: Actors read their lines from memory, and so have to memorize the lines of their character so as to effectively portray such character. Sometimes, due to additions or changes while on set, lines might be changed and the actor would have to memorize new lines to effectively act out his role. - Rehearse: An actor practices his or her lines and performance privately and then before the production team, with other actors and so as to check their movements in front of a camera or stage this is so that the best performance can be given to the audience. - Role Discussion: An actor discusses his or her role with the director and other actors, so that suggestions can be exchanged that will improve the overall performance of the actor. - Performance: An actor has to perform his/her role according to directions from the director, so that the audience can view the best performance. - Learning new skills: Depending on the actor’s role, new skills might have to be learnt like ballet dancing, singing, learning karate, or horseback riding. Tools Used by Actors and Actresses - Their bodies: The body is a tool that is used for expression, and gesticulations. This tool refers to the hand, face, feet, head etc. The body is used to show the intensity of the actor’s emotions. - Their voices: The voice is used to show how well the actor interpreted his lines. The voicing of lines shows the depth of the character that the actor is embodying. - Their minds: The mind is used to envision the type of character which the actor wants to portray to the audience. This is where an actor brings up personal experiences and knowledge gotten from past experiences. - MP3 Players/recorders: An actor during private rehearsals can record his voice, so as to verify, if he was able to interpret the line correctly, and make adjustments where necessary. - Computer: This is used to research the character the actor wants to portray, so that his portrayal of the character might be authentic. Also, the computer is used for networking, and to keep in touch with an actor’s fan base. Other tools such are online tools, which are: - Instagram: Actors depend on their headshots to get roles, but headshots are a bit limited. The instagram tool can give a great boost to an actor and give him or her better branding online. - YouTube: Creating a YouTube channel is easy, and any actor can take advantage of this, by creating a channel and posting clips or videos in it. The actor can design the channel’s landing page to include, other places he or she can be found. - Twitter:The Smartphone has opened up possibilities for either would be actors, or established actors. Whilst twitter is another way for an actor to connect with his or her fans, they also have the chance to follow other professional actors, acts, and filmmakers. The actor also gets to post their thoughts, re-tweet funny posts or articles. A twitter can create a powerful following. - Facebook Fan Page: Facebook fan page, allows different type of content, like videos, photos, and tours, without mixing them up with your personal page. This means you have a dual existence on Facebook; with one part for work and the other part, for personal stuff. - Personal Blog/Website: This is another online tool that can be used by the actor, to project his work and by extension himself. The website has to be mobile friendly and user friendly. All of the, actor’s other pages on Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, Instagram and other platforms can be linked here. How to Become an Actor or Actress With No Experience – A Complete Guide Labor Market Situation +Facts and Figures of the Movie Industry The labor market situations for actors in the following four countries (US, UK, Australia and Canada) are based on the following: - In the United States According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, as at 2013, the average hourly income was $41.94. As at 2012, the industry had 80,000 employees with projected job openings at 28,900 for between 2012 and 2022. This leads to a slow growth average of between 3% and 7%. - The union representation of actors had a higher representation than other occupation. - Most Film and Television stars belong to the Screen Actors Guild/American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (SAG-AFTRA) - Stage actors belong to the Actors’ Equity Association. - Entry educational requirement is no degree, a college or a Master’s degree. - Trainings are usually long-term and are gotten on the job. In the U.K 6% of Equity members earned over £30,000 per annum. 52% of Equity members earned less than £6,000 per annum. Equity has an approximate of 19,000 members. Actors in the UK worked an average of, 11.3 weeks per year. 49% of working actors are women. Minority actors stand at 6%. 47% of actors are under 40 years of age. 58% of actors are self-employed. - Entry educational requirement is no formal education, an HND, or a degree. - A postgraduate isn’t essential but is useful in gaining more experience, skills and contacts. - There are no set incomes for actors, and only well-established actors earn high incomes. - Most actors are paid a fee for each contract or performance, and so most actors are self-employed. - The trade union for professional performers is Equity. - Equity negotiates with employers as regards minimum pay for actors, and this depends on who the actor is working for, and the setting he or she is working in. - Some organizations pay non-Equity rates. - 86% of working actors have professional training. - Entry requirement for drama school or university is an audition, and three A levels or an equivalent qualification. - Drama UK accredits most drama schools and university courses. - Agents take from between 10% to 25% of an actor’s earnings. As at 2012, 5,000 actors were employed with, a projected job opening of 4,800 by 2017. The employment trend has declined by -11.1% between 2007 and 2012, and is expected to further decline between 2012 and 2017. Male actors had a higher percentage than their female counterparts, by 20.7% for those working full time; as compared to the 12.3% for the female actors. The average salary per year was AU$48,500, with an average weekly work hour of 38 hours. - New South Wales has the highest number of actors, leading other regions with a 32% - Employment growth in the last 5 years for male and female, full-time and part-time stands at 600. - Australia’s first color feature film was released in 1955. - Wages vary according to experience, employer and level of skill. As at 2005, the annual employment income for only 14% of actors, who worked full-time, was C$26,177. The remaining 86% of actors, who worked part-time, was C$22,489. In 2006, 49% of actors were self-employed. As at 2006, women held 46% of the acting jobs, a steady decline, where 1991 had 49% of women actors. Average annual growth is 0.9%. - Entry educational requirement is no degree but a diploma, and bachelor’s degree is regarded as important assets. - The number of actors is expected to increase in the coming years. - Selected applicants at auditions are usually those, who had attended recognized acting schools, and universities that offered programs related to acting. The demand for the acting profession is on a decline for some countries and is only marginally growing in other countries. This is majorly due to the temporary nature of the work, as actors have to constantly look out for jobs. Once the one they are in, which could be a day, week, or month, it then ends. And most actors getting meager fees as compared to the high fees earned by a few percent. Most actors also have other jobs and do not fully depend on the fees they get from acting. So, the field isn’t growing and is getting saturated -especially as many actors consistently throng auditions. Impact of the Internet and Technology on the Acting Profession - The Positives The internet has brought actors closer to their fans. Most fans can follow their favorite actor on any of the social media platform and also interact with them. Another positive fact is that, actors could let their fans aware of new projects, productions, and tours, through the internet. Also, actors can promote themselves or their images by posting humanitarian efforts carried out by them. - The Negatives The private lives of actors and their families can easily be spread online, not allowing actors have their private moments. The internet stores everything, and so actors that have had compromising pictures or videos, posted online, can have them re-surface any time. Career Ideas That Exist Within the Acting Profession - Theatre or film director: A director of either a film or theatre is responsible for the overall creative and practical interpretation of a script or musical score. - Film/Television/video producer: A producer oversees a project from start to finish, and may also be involved in the processes of marketing, and distribution. Producers, directors and other production staff, work hand –in-hand during a shoot. - Dancer: This might be part of the skill set offshoot gotten by the actor. A dancer uses body language, gesture and movement to portray a story, character, or situation to an audience. - Lecturer: A lecturer teaches students either in an academy, undergraduate, or colleges. An actor could teach students, in acting classes’ tips, on how to become better at acting, and how to stand out in auditions. - Community Arts Worker: A community arts worker collaborates with a variety of groups to encourage, artistic activities, so as to improve on their quality of life as well as, supporting them. - Broadcast Presenter: This is an individual who introduces news items, information and entertainment to audiences in an attractive manner. A broadcast presenter is usually regarded as the public face of programs on the television, or public voice of programs on the radio. - Drama therapist: This is a therapy of creative arts, where art performances are used to promote emotional, psychological and social change. This is especially if the clients are unable to express their grief or feelings through words. - Theatre Stage Manager: Theatre stage managers help coordinate all parts or aspects of a theatre company, to ensure that performance is successfully delivered. Professional Bodies and Associations Within the Acting Profession In the United States - Screen Actors Guild-American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (SAG-AFTRA): SAG and AFTRA have been merged into one union, and the union represents nearly 160,000 members. Members of SAG-AFTRA get preference during hiring, especially if the organization or studio has a collective bargaining agreement with the union. - Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS): This is not a union but a professional body that has honorary members of over 7,000, accomplished individuals working in the cinema. They uphold excellence and inspire imagination, so that members could connect the world, through the motion pictures medium. - Actors’ Equity Association (AEA): This is a union that represents, actors and stage managers that work in professional theatre. In the UK - Equity: This is an organizing and campaigning union that represent actors at the parliament and other areas of influence. They are in charge of fees and payments for artists, safety and health regulation, outstanding royalties, pension and insurance schemes for members. - Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance (MEAA): The alliance is a union that covers everyone in the media, arts industry, entertainment, and sports. The members are up to 20,000. The alliance is a merger of: - Actors Equity (AE) - The Australian Journalists Association (AJA) - The Australian Theatrical & Amusement Employees Association (ATAEA) - The Symphony Orchestra Musicians Association (SOMA) - The New South Wales Art workers Union. The union campaigns on issues that affect their members, and also lobbies governments on policy issues, like unemployment regulations, dismissal laws, tax regulations, and performers copyright. - Canadian Actors’ Equity Association: This is an association of performers, which is nearly for 6,000 professional artists. The association negotiates for agreements, and working conditions of its members. - ACTRA Toronto: ACTRA negotiates contracts, such as working conditions, minimum pay standard, with producers and engagers, on behalf of its members. Benefits of Becoming an Actor or Actress - Playing different and diverse characters: Actors get to play many diverse characters. They get to be heroes, or villains. They can get into any character required of them. This is a benefit since you get paid for being someone else. - Being seen on the big screen: There is an immense satisfaction that is gotten when your face appears or is being seen on the big screen. It could be a commercial, or a production. You become famous and people instantly recognize you wherever you go. - Doing what you love: Actors get paid doing what they love, which is portraying the characters of others. - Learning new things: Actors learn from their new roles because they have to research on the character they are to play, and through this medium get to learn about history, fields, places, people etc. - Bringing joy, inspiration, and feeling to others: Different people identify with certain characters they see in different movies which might evoke different feelings in them like joy, sadness, or inspiration in their own lives. - Creative: Each new role is challenging and actors get to be creative on how to portray the different characters they act, so that the audience could enjoy it. - No monotony in acting: Actors get to play different roles for each new movie or production and due to this; there is rarely any monotony to what they do. This makes their job less boring. - Good pay: Most actors get good pay for acting and this invariably leads to them living the kind of lives they want. - Helping people: Most actors participate in fund raising events, and because of their popularity, people attend this fund raising event just to either see the actor in person or take pictures with him or her. This invariably brings more people than would have come to the fund raising event. Factors Discouraging People from Becoming Actors/Actresses - Temporary nature of work: No movie lasts forever, as production usually ends. This means that actors always have to search for jobs just so that they could work. This could discourage those who do not like the hassle of constantly searching for jobs. - Extreme Criticism: Movie critics hound the acting lives of actors, especially if they starred in a bad movie, or had a terrible role, and this can cause actors to become depressed as they write articles and constantly talk on the mistakes an actor made. This might be discouraging to people, who cannot handle light much less extreme criticism. - Being always politically correct: Because they are constantly in the eye of the public, actors have to be careful on what they say so that their words or actions aren’t misconstrued by their fans, the public, and other interested stakeholders. This might be discouraging to those wanting to be actors, because they cannot have an unfettered expression without being judged. - Lack of Privacy: Every step an actor takes isn’t hidden from public view. Every detail about what they do might get picked up by willing paparazzi or written about by online blogs, or mainstream media. For those who cherish their privacy, this fact might discourage them especially as their families won’t be spared from such publicities. - Pretentious Lifestyle: Due to the fact that they are always under scrutiny, actors have to always be on guard physically and mentally, so as to keep up with a cheerful personality always, even if they aren’t feeling too cheerful. This can be mentally and physically draining. This factor can discourage potential actors from becoming one. - Unpleasant rivalries: Rivalries occur between actors and this fact isn’t helped by their fans, which fuel these rivalries. Rivalries could result in verbal assaults, indirect criticisms and this might affect an actor’s social standing and even the movies, he or she gets to perform in. - Rumors/Scandals: The age of the internet hasn’t been fair to actors, as most are linked to their co-stars, directors, producers, and other people even when it is an innocent hang-out. - Crazy and weird fans: There are fans that are obsessed with their favorite idols, and can indulge in crazy things to get their attention. Some of these things are like; stalking the actors, slashing their wrists, sending weird gifts and letters, giving creepy phone calls. - Uncertain relationships: Due to the nature of their jobs, which require them being on location in faraway places; actors keep uncertain relationships especially, if their partners are the kind that demands attention always. Also, rumors and the media attention can serve as a relationship destroyer especially, as distrust and insecurity begins to step in. How Much Do Actors and Actresses Earn - In the U.S, actors earn an average hourly income of $41.94. - In the U.K, 6% of Equity actor members earned over £30,000 per annum. 52% of Equity actor members earned less than £6,000 per annum. - In Australia, the average income per year for actors was AU$48,500 - In Canada, 14% of actors, who worked full-time, earned an annual average of C$26,177. The remaining 86% of actors who worked part-time earned an annual average of C$22,489. How Long Does It Take to Become An Actor or Actress? - In the United States, the length of time can be from age 5 (for child actors), age 17 (after high school), a 2 – 4 years degree in drama or arts. And then auditions, till eventually one gets a role. - In the United Kingdom, there is no single route to becoming an actor in the UK, especially for those without formal educational training. One might take the route of joining a local amateur dramatics group, or work at a theatre, or get into one of BBC placement schemes. Others can become actors after working as camp entertainers during holidays, or a tour operator at a holiday resort. Those with a degree might not take these routes, but might use networks and join a union. - In Australia, one can become an actor anytime, regardless of education or age. - In Canada, one can become an actor anytime, regardless of age and education. Educational Requirements Before Becoming an Actor/Actress - In the United States While a degree level is not required, save perhaps a high school diploma, intending actors or actors who wish to advance can get a degree in Theatre arts, acting/performing or drama. Also, one could participate in college productions, to bolster the resume as well as gain experience in front of a camera or on stage. - In the United Kingdom-: There is no formal requirement, but most actors have a degree or HND, with few venturing into Postgraduate, which is not necessary but might be beneficial. - In Australia, while the entry requirement is no education, actors with bachelor degrees in Arts (Acting), fare much better than colleagues without. - In Canada, it is possible to work with no education but a Diploma of Collegial Studies (DEC) in professional theatre acting, a degree in performing arts or theatre, or any other training programs as offered by the Conservatoire d’art dramatique du Quebec, and the National Theatre School of Canada. Is Certification Required to Become an Actor/Actress - In United States-: The UCLA Extension: Acting certificate requires that candidates have a, professional-level proficiency in spoken and written English; foreign students must pass Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). - In U.K-: Certification and training schools have to be accredited by Drama UK. There is a one year diploma course in Professional acting. Graduates get a recognized diploma in professional acting, and graduate-student equity membership. - In Australia, one can take the Advanced Diploma of Acting course. - In Canada-: Acting for Camera and Voice (ACV); Entry requirement include either a high school diploma, or a Grade 12 English, or an appropriate Academic and Career Entrance (ACE) Certificate program. Also, candidates are enjoined to have basic computer skills. How Much Does It Cost to become an Actor or Actress? - In the U.S, the UCLA extension: Acting certificate costs $9,150 - In the U.K, 1 year professional diploma course, costs approximately £16,000 - In Australia, the Advanced Diploma of Acting course will cost $24,727 - In Canada, ACV would cost $6,042 Can You Acquire Acting Skills Online? Yes, one can acquire acting skills by taking an online course or attending an online school. The schools are either free or paid for and purely depend on what the intending actor wants. It is worthy to note that acting schools either offline or online do not give an intending actor talent, the schools only aim to get the talent of the intending actor noticed. The online school schools give: - Step by step guide in becoming an actor. - Online acting classes - Tips on how to pass auditions, get a role, and build a successful career. - Sample resumes, monologues and cover letters. Career Opportunities within the Acting Profession - Research Assistants: Due to the fact they carry out researches, actors can become research assistants, especially those that have a research related bachelor degree. Research assistants work in research institutes or universities and assist in academic research. - Interior Designers: Because they have seen how sets are being designed, actors that have a flair for decoration can become interior designers. Interior designers, designs and coordinates, the decorative elements of a structure, house or office’s interior. - Event Planner: Actors throw parties all the time, and due to this fact, some become adept at planning parties and events, and so might become event planners. Event planners are those who identify target audience for an event, devise the concept and plan the logistics. - Promotional Modeling: A promotional model is one who is hired by a company to help promote a consumer brand, service or concept by interacting directly with the consumers. - Freelance Writing: A freelance writer is one who sells his writing services hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, but whose job is not on a regular salary basis. - Personal Trainer: Actors who are fit can decide to personally train others. They might need to get the minimum educational requirement plus pass a certification exam but the pay is good, and they can set their own working hours. A personal trainer is a professional who prescribes exercises and hands out instructions. Skills Required to Become a Successful Actor or Actress - Reading comprehension: Before an actor can translate his or her part, he or she has to first comprehend all that have read. Understanding the written sentences and asking questions for clarity. - Memorizing: After reading his or her lines, an actor has to understand and commit them to memory. The memorization will help the actor in correctly transforming the lines. - Transformation/translation skill: Actors have to be able to take the words written in a script and turn them into something which can be acted. An actor should know the difference between speaking and acting. This skill allows the actor know about the character, therefore, leading to his or her understanding on the intentions of the character. - Embodiment skill: Embodying has to do with representing an idea, feeling concept in tangible form. Actors need to be able to behave in a way that is in line with their given task. This shows that they have read and understood exactly what is required of them. - Listening skills: An actor needs to pay attention on instructions from his or her director and other colleagues, so as to understand and act on the points being made. - Speaking: The ability to convey thoughts and information and doing this audibly and with clarity is an important skill and actor must have. Tips and Advice for Becoming a Famous Actor/Actress - Networking: Every profession requires this. Most times, actors get their parts based on who they know. This is why even recognized actors go out of their way to attend events, such as fashion shows, award shows, movie launch, fund raising events and other shows- because there is a possibility of meeting future employers. - Get a good agent: Agents make or mar the careers of actors. Getting a good agent means one who is willing to be honest with you as regards your chances and also search for the jobs for you. An agent shouldn’t be reluctant of going the extra mile for his client. - Create your own work: Actors have been known to try their hands at other aspects of film making, like producing and directing. Sometimes, most of your acting jobs might not represent or show case your range of abilities, this could lead to an actor creating his own work. The work could be posted on line as a web series, as well as go ahead and become an independent film, play, or a big production outfit. This provides valuable education to the producer, and gives him or her edge over their colleagues. - Understanding that not every role is to be taken: Actors sometimes get carried along with their passion and love for the job, that they forget the business side altogether. This means that not every role must be accepted. Your representatives, such as your manager and agent might give their advice concerning a role, but only you know what roles will project your image and profile and what might not. - Finding your niche: Every actor should have a niche for themselves, by knowing the unique qualities they have, and putting it to use. Qualities can be known by asking others, watching one’s self in film and noting the funny habits and quirks. Once this is known, one can then hone and capitalize on the said qualities. The acting industry requires talent but most actors get an edge over their colleagues by have a bachelor’s degree in theatre, or radio and television broadcasting. Some go a step further, by getting a Master of Fine Arts in Performing Acts. The acting jobs are referred to as temporary jobs – especially as actors are paid hourly, except for some famous ones – since filming can take place in a day, week, month or several months; and as such, most actors constantly look out for other jobs, making the field a very competitive one.

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The four conditions or tests are cf. A detailed explanation of these concepts can be found in numerous textbooks on social science methods e. However, these issues will be addressed again in Section 4. This section will give a short overview of the main steps in undertaking case studies, drawing mainly from YIN a 's seminal work on case study research. Analyze Qualitative Data According to YIN a there are six possible sources of evidence for case studies: documents, archival records, interviews, direct observation, participant-observation, and physical artifacts pp. Indeed, the case study's unique strength is "its ability to deal with a full variety of evidence—documents, artifacts, interviews, and observations" YIN, a, p. YIN a, pp. This will help to refine the data collection plans with respect to both the content of the data and the procedures to be followed. As another fundamental characteristics he puts forth that "you do not start out with a priori theoretical notions" ibid. According to HARTLEY , data collection and analysis are "developed together in an iterative process," which can be a strength as it allows for theory development which is grounded in empirical evidence p. Besides, a careful description of the data and the development of categories in which to place behaviors or process have proven to be important steps in the process of analyzing the data. The data may then be organized around certain topics, key themes or central questions, and finally the data need to be examined to see how far they fit or fail to fit the expected categories ibid. YIN a maintains that data analysis consists of "examining, categorizing, tabulating, testing, or otherwise recombining both quantitative and qualitative evidence to address the initial propositions of a study" p. According to YIN a, pp. He contends that any of these strategies can be used in practicing five specific techniques for analyzing case studies: pattern matching, explanation building, time-series analysis, logic models, and cross-case synthesis YIN, a, pp. Finally, checking the findings with the case study participants can be a valuable part of the analysis and can enhance validity HARTLEY, , p. Besides, the analyzing of data is enhanced by reference to the existing literature and using this to raise questions about whether the researcher's findings are consistent with or different from extant research ibid. In a final step—or a final series of steps—the results and findings of a case study need to be brought to closure. This step is called reporting, with numerous forms of reports being available, and the typical case study report being a lengthy narrative YIN, , p. STAKE , p. This section provides a brief introduction to qualitative content analysis as a text analysis method for qualitative social research. At the end of this section, quality criteria and validation issues relevant for qualitative content analysis will be highlighted see Section 4. However, there does not seem to exist a homogenous understanding of this method at present, but originally the term "referred only to those methods that concentrate on directly and clearly quantifiable aspects of text content, and as a rule on absolute and relative frequencies of words per text or surface unit" TITSCHER et al. Later, the concept was extended to include all those procedures which operate with categories, but which seek at least to quantify these categories by means of a frequency survey of classifications ibid. It is "essentially a coding operation," with coding being "the process of transforming raw data into a standardized form" BABBIE, , p. They contend that "coding forces the researcher to make judgments about the meanings of contiguous blocks" and that coding is "the heart and soul" of whole text analysis ibid. According to them, classical content analysis "comprises techniques for reducing texts to a unit-by-variable matrix and analyzing that matrix quantitatively to test hypotheses" and the researcher can produce a matrix by applying a set of codes to a set of qualitative data e. More will be said on the topic of coding in Sections 4. The development of content analysis is fundamentally connected to the development of mass media and international politics and content analysis has gained significance in the first half of the twentieth century with the dramatic expansion of mass communication MAYRING, , p. In fact, the theoretical basis of the first moves towards analyses of contents was Harold D. But even before that, different approaches to analysis and comparison of texts in hermeneutic contexts e. Bible interpretations , early newspaper analysis, graphological procedures and even Freudian dream analysis can be seen as early precursors of content analysis MAYRING, a, . According to GILLHAM , the "essence of content analysis is identifying substantive statements—statements that really say something" p. BERELSON defined content analysis like this: "Content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication" p. Obviously, classical content analysis is essentially a quantitative method with the core and central tool being its system of categories cf. The simplest type of evaluation consequently consists of counting the numbers of occurrences per category assuming there is a relationship between frequency of content and meaning. Besides, different indices which correlate two separate measurements and contingencies, more complex procedures can also be used for analysis TITSCHER et al. BERELSON's book "Content analysis in communication research" first published was the first compendium of the methods and goals of quantitative content analysis which had been developed up to that time, and which concentrated on assessment on the basis of frequency analyses BERELSON, He contended that the quantitative orientation neglected the particular quality of texts and that it was important to reconstruct contexts. MAYRING a, even speaks of "a superficial analysis without respecting latent contents and contexts, working with simplifying and distorting quantification. MAYRING's qualitative content analysis tries to overcome these shortcomings of classical quantitative content analysis by applying a systematic, theory-guided approach to text analysis using a category system cf. BRYMAN states that qualitative content analysis is "probably the most prevalent approach to the qualitative analysis of documents" and that it "comprises a searching-out of underlying themes in the materials being analyzed" p. Being a little bit more specific he defines qualitative content analysis in the following way:. There is an emphasis on allowing categories to emerge out of data and on recognizing the significance for understanding the meaning of the context in which an item being analyzed and the categories derived from it appeared" BRYMAN, , p. However, this seems to be rather the description of a general approach to analyzing documents qualitatively. In contrast to this, MAYRING's qualitative content analysis is not only an approach to analyzing documents but also a sophisticated and concretely described method at the same time. Before presenting MAYRING's qualitative content analysis, a short overview of the basic assumptions and definitions of qualitative research will be given. Thus, a clear and concise definition of qualitative research can hardly be found. Therefore, qualitative methods are often used when the field of research is yet not well understood or unknown and aim at generating new hypotheses and theories, while quantitative methods are frequently used for testing hypotheses and evaluating theories cf. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them" p. Its development Section 4. MAYRING's concept of qualitative content analysis was developed in the s in a longitudinal study about psycho-social consequences of unemployment, when about open-ended interviews yielded more than 20, pages of transcripts, which had to be analyzed in a qualitatively oriented way cf. Since then MAYRING's works seem to have become standard literature on qualitative content analysis and some regularly appear in new editions e. The main idea in the development of MAYRING's approach is "to preserve the advantages of quantitative content analysis as developed within communication science and to transfer and further develop them to qualitative-interpretative steps of analysis" MAYRING, a, . The object of qualitative content analysis can basically be any kind of recorded communication, i. However, not only the manifest content of the material is analyzed, but also so-called latent content as well as formal aspects of the material MAYRING, b, pp. Given this background, MAYRING a offers the following definition of qualitative content analysis: "an approach of empirical, methodological [sic! Obviously, the strength of qualitative content analysis is that it is strictly controlled methodologically and that the material is analyzed step-by-step. Central to it is a category system which is developed right on the material employing a theory-guided procedure. Categories are understood as the more or less operational definitions of variables. Above, we said that qualitative content analysis aims to preserve the advantages of quantitative content analysis but at the same time apply a more qualitative text interpretation see Section 4. Fitting the material into a model of communication: It should be determined on what part of the communication inferences shall be made, to aspects of the communicator his experiences, opinions, feelings , to the situation of the text production, to the socio-cultural background, to the text itself or to the effect of the message. Systematic, rule-based analysis: The material is to be analyzed step by step, following rules of procedure, devising the material into content analytical units. Categories in the center of analysis: The aspects of text interpretation, following the research questions, are put into categories, which were carefully founded and revised within the process of analysis feedback loops. Subject-reference instead of technique: instead of merely being a set of techniques for text analysis, the connection to the concrete subject of analysis is a very important point for qualitative content analysis. This implies that the procedures of content analysis cannot be fixed but have to be adapted depending on the subject and its context. Verification of the specific instruments through pilot studies: Due to the subject-reference, fully standardized methods are abstained from. That is why the procedures need to be tested in a pilot study. Inter-subjective verifiability is a case in point here. Theory-guided analysis: Technical fuzziness of qualitatively oriented research needs to be balanced by theoretical stringency. This means that the state-of-the-field of the respective research subject as well as subjects closely related are required to be taken into account and integrated into the analysis. Inclusion of quantitative steps of analysis: Quantitative analyses are especially important when trying to generalize results. As a matter of fact, this notion of triangulation to argue in favor of an integration of qualitative and quantitative methods is not limited to content analysis but has been raised by many researchers cf. Quality criteria of reliability and validity see also Section 4. Qualitative Data Analysis - Research-Methodology As a matter of fact, it is this kind of systematics what distinguishes content analysis from more interpretive, hermeneutic processing of text material MAYRING, , p. The seven components of content analysis listed above see Section 4. Consequently, MAYRING has developed a sequential model of qualitative content analysis and puts forward three distinct analytical procedures which may be carried out either independently or in combination, depending on the particular research question MAYRING, , p. Summary : attempts to reduce the material in such a way as to preserve the essential content and by abstraction to create a manageable corpus which still reflects the original material. For this the text is paraphrased, generalized or abstracted and reduced. Explication : involves explaining, clarifying and annotating the material. As a first step a lexico-grammatical definition is attempted, then the material for explication is determined, and this is followed by a narrow context analysis, and a broad context analysis. Finally an "explicatory paraphrase" is made of the particular portion of text and the explication is examined with reference to the total context. Structuring : corresponds more or less to the procedures used in classical content analysis and is also viewed as the most crucial technique of content analysis, the goal of which is to filter out a particular structure from the material. Here the text can be structured according to content, form and scaling. - A Candle for a Marine (Always a Marine series Book 18)! - Orpheus is Bleeding! The first stage is the determination of the units of analysis, after which the dimensions of the structuring are established on some theoretical basis and the features of the system of categories are fixed. Subsequently definitions are formulated and key examples, with rules for coding in separate categories, are agreed upon. In the course of a first appraisal of the material the data locations are marked, and in a second scrutiny these are processed and extracted. If necessary the system of categories is re-examined and revised, which necessitates a reappraisal of the material. As a final stage the results are processed. Obviously, the central part of the process—structuring—is derived from classical content analysis, because here, too, units of coding and evaluation are set up and arranged in a schema of categories TITSCHER et al. However, the basic difference between classical content analysis and structuring within qualitative content analysis is the development and use of the coding agenda 7. However, "extraction" seems to be closely related to MAYRING's structuring since it literally means the extraction of the relevant information from the text by the means of using a category system. Thus, the material is reduced and a new basis of information separate from the original text comes into existence ibid. Therefore they argue in favor of a theory-based category system, which is more open and can be changed during extraction when relevant information turns up but does not fit into the category system. Both the dimensions of existing categories can be modified and new categories can be designed. It is actually a package of techniques from which the analyst can chose and then adapts to his research question 8. Figure 1 shows the basic proceeding of qualitative content analysis from the initial theory to the final analysis and interpretation. Among the procedures of qualitative content analysis MAYRING a, hallmarks the following two approaches as central to developing a category system and finding the appropriate text components as a result: inductive category development and deductive category application. Quantitative content analysis does not provide satisfactory answers to the question where the categories are derived from, and how the system of categories is developed. - Qualitative research: Data analysis. - When Dream and Day Unite? - Navigation menu. - Analyze Qualitative Data « Pell Institute. - I Love You, Mom. - Guidelines for Writing Exceptional Academic Papers; But within the framework of qualitative approaches it is essential to develop the aspects of interpretation—the categories—as closely as possible to the material, and to formulate them in terms of the material. The steps of inductive category development are displayed in Figure 2. The main idea of the procedure is to formulate a criterion of definition, derived from the theoretical background and the research question, which determines the aspects of the textual material taken into account. Following this criterion the material is worked through and categories are deduced tentatively and step by step. Within a feedback loop the categories are revised, eventually reduced to main categories and checked in respect to their reliability MAYRING, a, . Or, put the other way round: the technique of content analytical summary can be used furthermore for an inductive category development MAYRING, , p. Deductive category application works with previously formulated, theoretically derived aspects of analysis, which are brought into connection with the text. The qualitative step of analysis consists of a methodologically controlled assignment of the category to a passage of text MAYRING, a, . Figure 3 shows the steps of deductive category application. According to MAYRING a, ; , the main idea here is to give explicit definitions, examples and coding rules for each deductive category, determining exactly under what circumstances a text passage can be coded with a category. Finally, those category definitions are put together within a coding agenda. Any kind of social research asserts its claims to fulfill certain quality criteria for measuring and collecting data. It is widely accepted that measurement or the methods of measurement should be as objective, reliable and valid as possible cf. In fact, the research strategy that is regularly pursued in content analysis is governed by these traditional criteria of validity and reliability, where the latter is a precondition for the former but not vice versa TITSCHER et al. Since arguments concerning the content are judged to be more important than methodical issues in qualitative analysis, validity takes priority over reliability MAYRING, , p. Two specific problems of content analysis that are often discussed in this context are problems of inference and problems of reliability TITSCHER et al. Problems of inference relate to the possibility of drawing conclusions, on the one hand, about the whole text on the basis of the text sample and, on the other hand, about the underlying theoretical constructs such as motives, attitudes, norms, etc. As a result, inference in content analysis confines itself only to specific features of external and internal validity. Problems of reliability : here, particular attention is paid to the trustworthiness of the coding. The so-called inter-coder reliability shows to what extent different coders agree in the coding of the same text and intra-coder reliability explains how stable the coding of one coder is. Because of the problems of reliability, the coding of texts is usually assigned to multiple coders so that the researcher can see whether the constructs being investigated are shared and whether multiple coders can reliably apply the same codes MAYRING, , p. Semantic validity relates to the meaning reconstruction of the material, and is expressed in the appropriateness of the category definitions, the key examples and the rules for coders. Sampling validity refers to the usual criteria for precise sampling and correlative validity refers to the correlation with some external criterion e. Predictive validity can only be used as a quality criterion if predictions can reasonably be made from the material in this case verification is usually easy and significant. Construct validity relates, for instance, to previous success with similar constructs, established models and theories, and representative interpretations. Stability refers to whether the same results are obtained in a renewed application of the analytical tool to the same text and reproducibility is the extent to which the analysis achieves the same results under different circumstances, for instance with different coders. It can be measured through inter-coder reliability for which a range of measures and indices have been developed. MAYRING additionally notes another quality criterion that has gained in significance recently: communicative validation p. The main idea behind this concept is to discursively achieve mutual consent and accordance about the results of the analysis between the researchers and the researched. Thus, it draws on the degree to which the original data were representative of a larger population ibid. Features of the units of evaluation : It will be examined whether the problem locations, where there is some disagreement about coding, differ systematically from the material. Properties of individual categories : The question is whether instances of disagreement are particularly common with particular categories. Differentiation of categories : It will be checked whether the distinctions between categories are too fine. Properties of the coders : If the lack of reliability cannot be attributed to a , b , or c , then the problem is usually with the coders and may perhaps be solved by more careful selection, more thorough training, shorter operation periods, etc. The further development of new quality criteria calls for an analysis of where and what kind of other errors can be made or occur in conducting content analysis ibid. This section explores and discusses the possibilities of applying qualitative content analysis as a text interpretation method in case study research and thus tries to find an answer to the research question initially posed see Section 2. The rising popularity of mixed methods approaches and the use of triangulation have already been mentioned briefly in the introduction of this paper. Having its origin in navigation, military strategy and geodetic surveying, the term triangulation in social research is used in a less literal sense to describe the use of multiple methods and measures of an empirical phenomenon cf. Data accumulated by different methods but bearing on the same issue are part of what is called the " multi-method approach": "Different methods have different strengths and weaknesses. In fact, the "effectiveness of triangulation rests on the premise that the weaknesses in each single method will be compensated by the counter-balancing strengths of another" JICK, , p. Therefore, triangulation "can potentially generate what anthropologists call "holistic work" or "thick description" JICK, , p. In the case of using qualitative content analysis in case study research, triangulation takes actually place on two different levels. On the first and more obvious level, data is triangulated by integrating different material and evidence see Section 5. On second level, triangulation takes place by applying a method of analysis qualitative content analysis that has not been particularly developed for this purpose to a different research design case study research. As was already shown in Section 3. Besides, we also saw that case study research has a major function in generating hypotheses and build theory. In fact, a theory or theoretical framework first emerges through the inductive approach of studying an empirical case or object, not through a deductive process. As the author tried to demonstrate in Section 4. Hence, qualitative content analysis might be an appropriate analysis and interpretation method for case study research. As a matter of fact, its quantitative counterpart—classical content analysis—is repeatedly mentioned as a method of analyzing data in the context of conducting case study research cf. YIN, a, p. Qualitative Data Analysis Even though they concede that this is "not a particularly satisfactory approach," they claim that "it is not infrequently used" REMENYI et al. In Section 4. Besides it preserves the advantages of quantitative content analysis but at the same time apply a more qualitative text interpretation. Therefore, it can be argued that qualitative content analysis could prove to be a useful tool for analyzing data material in case study research. In fact, the contribution of using qualitative content analysis in case study research will be demonstrated on the basis of the following points: [ 76 ]. One of the strengths of qualitative content analysis is the way it tries to synthesize openness—as claimed by the qualitative research paradigm—and theory-guided investigation—usually demanded by the hypothetical-deductive paradigm. In fact, despite this openness, qualitative content analysis is strictly controlled methodologically and the material is analyzed in a step-by-step process see Section 4. It is this combination that fosters its strong ability to deal with complexity. Qualitative content analysis takes a holistic and comprehensive approach towards analyzing data material and thus achieves to almost completely grasp and cover the complexity of the social situations examined and social data material derived from them. At the same time, qualitative content analysis uses a rule-based and methodologically controlled approach in order to deal with the complexity and gradually reduce it. The procedures of summary, explication and structuring step-by-step reduce complexity and filter out the main points of analysis in an iterative process. Therefore, qualitative content analysis perfectly fits the credo of case study research: helping to understand complex social phenomena see also Section 3. We just mentioned theory-guided analysis as one of the special strengths of qualitative content analysis see above, Section 5. Theory-guided analysis also offers the chance to compare and complement the primary data collected within the research project with secondary data. In fact, experts in social research recommend to conduct interpretations of results on two levels: interpretation of the results of one's own survey and comparative interpretation of results and conclusions of existing theories and research results cf. This analysis of complementing secondary data can help to ensure the quality of content analysis, especially validity MAYRING, , p. One of the key features of qualitative content analysis in contrast to classical quantitative content analysis is that the context is also central to the interpretation and analysis of the material. In fact, it is not only the manifest content of the material that is important but also the latent content as well as formal aspects need to be taken into consideration cf. This is again in order to achieve a holistic and comprehensive analysis of complex social phenomena. As we have seen in Section 3. Therefore, research questions about "how" and "why" rather than "what" or "how much" are best suited to the case study strategy ibid. As shown above Section 4. This means that in a comprehensive study which aims at analyzing different kinds of data material, the same method can be applied to different types of evidence—a major advantage not only from a pragmatic point of view, but also as far as quality criteria are concerned. Of course, case study research usually corresponds to such a comprehensive study. According to YIN a a major strength of case study data collection is the opportunity to use many different sources of evidence because the use of multiple sources of evidence in case studies allows an investigator to address a broader range of historical, attitudinal, and behavioral issues YIN, a, pp. In fact, GILLHAM states that case study "is a main method," within which different sub-methods are used: interviews, observations, document and record analysis, work samples etc p. Furthermore, qualitative or expert interviews are a very common field of application for qualitative content analysis cf. According to YIN a one of the most important sources of case study information is the interview: "most commonly, case study interviews are of an open-ended nature , in which you can ask key respondents about the facts of a matter as well as their opinions about events" YIN, a, p. Therefore, qualitative content analysis offers a rule-based, theory-guided method for analyzing interview transcripts, just in the way it is required by the principles of case study research. This is certainly a great advantage when dealing with various, heterogeneous types of data material. However, he fails to go into greater detail concerning this matter. As was discussed above Sections 4. These are especially important when trying to generalize results. They are predominant, but quantitative data and its analysis can add to the overall picture" p. According to JICK , "[q]ualitative data and analysis function as the glue that cements the interpretation of multimethod results" p. Moreover, the combination of qualitative and quantitative analyses has also been addressed in the field of case study research see above, Sections 3. As has already been mentioned, many experts in the field of socio-scientific research suggest using and combining several methods—so-called triangulation or cross-examination—in order to obtain more valid results see Sections 1. Especially the combination of qualitative methods and quantitative methods seems to be appropriate in order to gain deeper insight and a more general view of the object of research cf. JICK, pp. The procedures of qualitative content analysis seem less appropriate, if the research question is highly open-ended, explorative, variable and working with categories would be a restriction, or if a more holistic, not step-by-step ongoing of analysis is planned MAYRING, b, p. In fact, MAYRING recommends his qualitative content analysis in the case of theory-guided text analysis but rather not in the case of merely explorative-interpretive interpretation of the material p. Furthermore, due to the fact that qualitative content analysis first extracts the relevant parts of the text material and then analyzes them cf. Last but not least, when using qualitative content analysis in case study research, one should be aware of the fact that "[r]eplicating a mixed-methods package […] is a nearly impossible task" JICK, , p. This paper tried to explore and discuss the possibilities of using qualitative content analysis in case study research. It highlighted the strengths of qualitative content analysis as a method that achieves to respect the credos of openness and theory-guided analysis at the same time. In fact, with its rule-based logic and methodologically controlled step-by-step procedures of analysis it manages to combine the advantages of classical quantitative content analysis with a qualitatively oriented approach taking also context and other important points into consideration. Therefore, qualitative content analysis can be viewed as a comprehensive approach to data analysis, which seems to be especially suitable for case study research. It can certainly contribute to adding and enhancing rigor, validity and reliability of case study research. This page provides an overview of these criteria and a number of techniques that researchers can use to meet them. Ranney, M. Academic Emergency Medicine, 22, Gives an outline the specific steps necessary to conduct a valid and reliable qualitative research project, with a focus on interview-based studies. These elements include building the research team, preparing data collection guides, defining and obtaining an adequate sample, collecting and organizing qualitative data, and coding and analyzing the data. With a discussion on potential ethical considerations unique to qualitative research as it relates to emergency care research. Dutch references: Wester, F. Mortelmans, D. Tweede druk. Approaches There are many different approaches to qualitative data analysis, like content analysis, structural analysis or framework analysis. The choice is related to the aims of the study. The most basic form is content analysis, an approach in which the categorization of themes is central. Other approaches focus on, for instance, the context in which events are storied how and why, see Riessman , or the thematic framework in which data can be classified. Wertz et al. Read more: Braun, V. See chapter 8 on analysing qualitative data. Hodges, B. BMJ, a This article focuses on discourse analysis. It provides background information for those who will encounter this approach in their reading, rather than instructions for conducting such research. Riessman, C. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. Smith, B. Quest, The authors consider five ways in which narratives can be analysed to incorporate the hows and whats of their telling: an analysis of conversation, an analysis of discourse, an analysis of how narratives are performed, an analysis of content, and an analysis of structure. Includes strengths and weaknesses and exemplars of each approach.

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Saga of the Edible Scrolls - Part 1 At a time when many of God’s people were “waiting” in Babylon (literal and metaphorically spiritual) Ezekiel and John were independently commissioned to eat a scroll and then “witness.” - Ezekiel’s message was to go to the “house of Israel” (Ezekiel 3:5) regarding God’s judgments against them. - John’s was against “many peoples, and nations, and tongues, and kings” (Revelation 10:11). His was to be a judicial warning, destined to go to the whole earth (Revelation 10:11, 11:4, 6). Ezekiel’s messages detail what has displeased God through visions and living parables. John references the part of Daniel’s book that was sealed and is now open for study. Fascinating is the parallel warning mission of these edible books. A question beckons: Might both “documents” have a contemporary meaning for the end of time? In 605 B.C. Daniel and his companions were taken into Babylonian captivity by Nebuchadnezzar during his first of three attacks on Jerusalem. Jehoiakim then became the appointed vassal ruler over Judah and served Nebuchadnezzar for three years (II Kings 24:1). Ezekiel, a Jewish priest, received a prophetic call. After the second attack he observed: - In spite of these exploits, rebellion against God did not abate (Ezekiel 2:4, 3:7). - God’s people did not walk in His statutes (Ezekiel 5:6-7). - They were even defiling the sanctuary with brazen idolatrous practices (Ezekiel 5:11, chapters 8 and 22). During this era Jeremiah was also a prophet of warning – but his messages were rejected. False prophets predicted the yoke of Babylon would be broken within two years (Jeremiah 28:1-4). Rebellion deepened so much so that God told him that the people were like a basket of rotten figs (Jeremiah 24:8). Heaven permitted that second attack on Jerusalem in the early spring of 597 B.C. - It was then that Ezekiel was taken captive. - Later, in a third merciless attack in the summer of 586 B.C., the city was burned and the great temple of Solomon was destroyed. Circumstantial evidence suggests that Ezekiel was of the Zadokite line of priests (Ezekiel 40:66, 43:19, 44:15-16). This became a line of great spiritual leaders inaugurated in Solomon’s day (I Kings 2:35). The Zadokite priesthood, later in Ezekiel’s book, symbolizes the 144,000 in end-time imagery. - Details regarding his priestly activity before his captivity are not known. - Intriguingly, many of the expressions in his book are similar to Jeremiah’s, making scholars conclude that he was influenced by that prophet in his early years. Ezekiel’s work was divided into two great divisions: - He was a prophet of doom, warning his people to repent and countering any false hopes of quickly returning to the homeland. - Once Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed he became a prophet of deliverance and hope. He functioned as a watchman for God’s people while in Babylonian captivity. Though some of his messages were intended as a warning to other nations that had harmed Israel (chapters 25-32), the ultimate restoration of a people remained a golden thread in his writings. As is often the case with other prophets, preceding major revelations come resplendent visions of divine majesty (cf. Daniel 10:5-6, Revelation 1:13-16). Before warnings, threats, corrective action and even hopes, an orientation to things above is referenced. So it occurred with Ezekiel’s vision of the four living creatures and a being like a man seated on a moving throne. - It is from such a divine center that Ezekiel is commissioned (Ezekiel 1:28–3:11). - It was from Christ that John’s apocalypse was inaugurated (Revelation 1:1-2, 10:8-11). The mission of Ezekiel was unique. It became informative as to what brings displeasure to God, which forced them into Babylonian captivity. That did become a difficult “sell,” because he too was rejected and opposed. But his messages contained a promise of deliverance, designed to bring hope to those captive people. They are stunning missives, even for our day, as we await Christ’s return! - Fascinating – John was given corrective messages for the seven churches (Revelation 2 and 3) in a special outline for those who will also be part of the end-time body of believers. In Revelation 8 and 9 God’s global wrath, with mercy, Trumpets one through four reveal God’s displeasure against evil. Then the nature of Satan’s final work through his minions is opened in Revelation 13, 17 and 18, leading to a cry to get out of Babylon. - John’s Babylon became a symbol of last-day apostate Christianity, drawing on many parables from Ezekiel’s day. Yet, the unique messages destined for the world in Revelation 14 appeal to a time of decision because His wrath is pending. Of interest are two profound matters that led to this study: - The specific sins of Israel that led many into Babylonian captivity give insight into why God’s abhorrence of Babylon in John’s book is so profound! It annotates His deepest views of apostasy. - The preparation Ezekiel and John had to undergo to begin this prophetic work is provocative. - Both were required to eat a scroll before they “prophesied.” The “material” was to be fully understood. - Both experienced its sweetness. Both would describe a following bitterness. Its contents would then give varied experiences. The Call of Ezekiel Fascinating are many prophets’ personal comments regarding their body conditions/positions as God communicates with them: - Moses was to have bare feet (Exodus 3:5). - Daniel was lying in his bed (Daniel 7:1). - John was on the ground like a dead man (Revelation 1:17). - Of Ezekiel it is said: - “He said to me, ‘Son of man, stand up on your feet and I will speak to you.’ As he spoke, the Spirit came into me and raised me to my feet, and I heard him speaking to me” (Ezekiel 2:1-2 – NIV). - Not only did the Spirit lift him into an upright position but, later, would give him power and authority for his mission. - John was able to approach “the angel” (Jesus Christ) (Revelation 10:9). In Ezekiel’s commission, what “saith the Lord” is to go to Israel (in captivity) whether they listen or not (Ezekiel 2:5). His spirit was to be one of courage and fearlessness (Ezekiel 2:6). Such a demeanor will accompany the two witnesses in their final gospel work (Revelation 11:5-6). And they will succeed (vs 7a)! This now becomes fascinating. - Ezekiel was commissioned by God (reference the first chapter) before he ate the scroll. - The two witnesses were commissioned, symbolically, through John, “You must prophesy again,” after he ate a scroll. Both John and the two witnesses were referred to as prophets (Revelation 11:6, 10, 18; cf. Revelation 16:6; 18:20, 24; 22:6, 9). For those apostate people already in Babylon, this “book” contained detailed messages as to why they were there! For John it would become a message warning of the antichrist’s hatred, his time-limited power, the driving issues of apostasy and a plea to get out of Babylon because of its sins. All was to be given with urgency. - Jeremiah had similar “training” to warn this people before the Babylonian captivity began. - “Thy words were found, and I did eat them; and thy word was unto me the joy and rejoicing of mine heart: for I am called by thy name, O LORD God of hosts. I sat not in the assembly of the mockers, nor rejoiced; I sat alone because of thy hand: for thou hast filled me with indignation” (Jeremiah 15:16-17). The depth of God’s justice and care brought sweetness as John and Ezekiel ate their respective scrolls – but, the non-repentant response to those messages brought bitterness – even anguish. - Ezekiel’s scroll was filled with lamentations, mournings and woes (Ezekiel 2:10). John’s scroll was a “little open book,” the contents of which, after being eaten, prepares him/the two witnesses to warn of the arrival of the judgment hour, God’s standards and heaven’s restoration theme! - Within Ezekiel’s sacred narrative is a warning that is also to go to those in “Babylon” at the end of time. - The horrors of Babylon in John’s apocalypse are apparent – but details as to why Babylon is fallen are sparse! We know that it is the “habitation of devils” (Revelation 18:2), the harlot by that name gives abominations to the world (Revelation 17:2-4) and it is made up of three parts (Revelation 16:19). But – why is it fallen? The answer must be found elsewhere. Much is revealed in Jeremiah (not the focus in this study). Ezekiel’s exile message defines: “This is why you got here!” This is why you are in Babylon.” It encompasses what still exists in most hearts: They won’t change (Ezekiel 3:6-7). This, in turn, actually becomes a supplemental narrative to the three angels’ messages in Revelation! - When the cry goes out to “flee” or “get out of Babylon,” there must be a distinct “why” given. - Ezekiel’s information now becomes invaluable. God’s Warning Drama Following the eating of the scroll, Ezekiel is told to act out the final doom of the people remaining in Canaan and the City of Jerusalem (Ezekiel 4:1-3), detailing Israel’s sin (4:4-8), a projected famine (4:9-17) and the nation’s fate (5:1-4). - All this leads to a renewed focus on who God is and a deeper understanding of what He abhors (6:1-7). - Finally, the end will be desolation (6:14) – the ultimate terminus of God’s wrath against apostasy (Matthew 24:15, Mark 13:14). - This echoes what Daniel said of the end, where there will be an abomination that leads to desolation (Daniel 12:11). The path to desolation is filled with merciful counsel and admonitions. Through Ezekiel the results of persistent rebellion without repentance are frequently highlighted. - Then, in words of lamentations and woe, God explains His wrath and fury against Israel (Ezekiel 7). - “That is how rebellion will end.” The prophetic eschatological era, when Babylon has fallen, follows a similar pattern. - In Daniel 8 the focus on the Medo-Persia and Greece symbols suggests that Babylon has already fallen (Daniel 8:20-21). The leader (the little horn) of its apostasy is highlighted. He is destroyed (8:25). - In Daniel 11 the leader of apostasy is again described (vile person, king, king of the north). He, too, will come to an end (11:45). This leader’s “death” was already portrayed as from a burning flame (Daniel 7:11). In John’s apocalypse the term “Babylon” doesn’t show up until chapter 14. But a form of apostasy is seen within five of the Seven Churches and with Seals two and four. In the Trumpet rendition, God’s “tempered wrath” is seen in the first four Trumpets (Revelation 8:6-13); Satan and his minions are unleashed in the fifth Trumpet. - The antichrist beast is introduced in chapter 11, verse 7. - Its final hatred against God’s people, with the dragon’s support (13:2), is later depicted. But – in John’s saga, out of the “clear blue” comes the dire picture of a fallen Babylon. The student/expositor would be left with assumptions as to that meaning unless a God-inspired prophet, Ezekiel, revealed specifically why Israel went into Babylon! After a rendition of God’s perspective of Israel’s estrangement, God appears intent on riveting in greater detail His displeasure. It is as though He is saying: - “Maybe you didn’t get what I’ve been saying in the past. Let Me go into greater detail!” - “In fact, let Me describe how serious your rebellion really is!” - “Your end is in sight” (Ezekiel 7:1-9). Overflowing with emotion, God portrays the scourges of His people with: - Social disruption (7:10-13) - Military disarray (7:14) - Economic distress (7:19-22) - Political chaos (7:23-27) - Ineffective spiritual leaders (7:25-26) - All associated with something they do that God hates What Really is in God’s Mind In a new series of visions God shows why His final rejection and desolation are justified (chapters 8–11). This helps us understand the three angels’ messages, where His wrath is highlighted in relationship to a fallen Babylon. There, the symbols are changed, and Babylon is personified. The seer is transmigrated to Jerusalem in chapter 8, when God now unburdens His heart: “This is what is really on My mind!” The weight of evidence suggests that what Ezekiel now sees is stunning insight into the detestable rebellion of God’s people, leading up to the first captivity in 605 B.C. It would, in turn, characterize Babylon in John’s apocalypse. God gives Ezekiel a guided tour of the temple. At that time it would be reflective of the “first” or “Solomon’s Temple,” later destroyed in 587–586 B.C., during Nebuchadnezzar’s final attack. Intriguingly, God’s holy presence still resided there when these visions were given! Ezekiel is told that there are four abominations or things He hates – given in increasing intensity: - Image/idol of Jealousy (8:5-6) - In that entryway was an inanimate image that God called “jealousy.” - Who this “god” was is not certain – but – - Men were worshiping this image from within the sacred court of the temple of a Holy God. - Images were an outrage to God (Exodus 20:3-5). God even says, there, that He is a “jealous God.” - North was the symbolic “direction” of Mt. Zion (Psalm 48:2) and God’s throne. Anything, any idol, that impeded the communication between God’s presence to this court and temple was an abomination. - Secret Creature Cult (8:7-13) - Ezekiel was told to dig or enlarge a hole he noticed in the temple wall. He subsequently entered there, coming into a side chamber where there was a door. - He opened it and passed into the inner sanctums of the temple and saw firsthand secret animal worship practiced by the leaders of the nation! - There, he saw a myriad of creatures that were being venerated depicted on the walls. Many assume that these were representations of Egyptian animal worship. In prophecy “Egypt” symbolizes the wicked world. - Jaazaniah is a named leader of that group. - His father was apparently Shaphan, a scribe who previously played a major role in Josiah’s reforms (II Kings 22:12). - “Have you seen what the elders of Israel are doing in darkness?” They were practicing pagan rites. - At this time God’s presence was still in the Most Holy Place in Solomon’s Temple. But now God is creating a judicial argument as to why His presence must be vacated from the temple and Jerusalem (which was described in 10:4, 18-19; 11:23). - They know who the true God is. - Though God’s true presence must have been in their proximity in the Most Holy Place, they say that “He no longer sees us” – as they worship beasts in the dark (8:12), blindly thinking He won’t see them! That wrath is anticipated against ungodliness and unrighteousness who conceal, silence or quash the truth – suggested by this temple worship in darkness. The Spirit already told Ezekiel that this would be part of the “greater abominations” (8:6) that we later see brings divine retribution. Paul deepens the meaning of “creature worship.” - “Although they claimed to be wise, they became fools and exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images made to look like a mortal human being and birds and animals and reptiles” (Romans 1:22-23 – NIV). - People, even God’s people, have a terrible proclivity to corrupt the knowledge of God through nature worship (plants, creatures) and even in homosexual relationships. “Because of this [the latter], God gave them over to shameful lusts. Even their women exchanged natural sexual relations for unnatural ones” (Romans 1:26 – NIV; cf. I Corinthians 6:9, Ephesians 4:19). - “Therefore God gave them over in the sinful desires of their hearts” (Romans 1:24 – NIV). - “God gave them over to a depraved mind” (Romans 1:28 – NIV). - The Tammuz Cult (Ezekiel 8:14-15) Tammuz was an ancient “god of fertility.” Its history dates back close to the flood. By the time Ezekiel writes, it had become a god giving powers for new life to nature in the spring to what had been dead or dormant during the winter. This could be for plant life, especially the grains, but included animals. Intriguingly, one of the Babylonian/Jewish months is “Tammuz.” It relates to our July/August each year when their festival called “Tammuz” occurred. - Ezekiel expresses dismay at yet a greater abomination that is depicted! This mourning chant was a pagan practice associated with ritual prostitution in that festival. Life was “ebbing out” as summer moved forward. Sexual activity was to symbolize preservation of life. - Ezekiel saw them involved in a rite which mourned the death of this god, hoping it would come to life once again. This vision shows that paganism had deeply affected the women in Israelite society as well. God hates it! - “Great is the LORD, and greatly to be praised in the city of our God, in the mountain of his holiness. Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth, is mount Zion, on the sides of the north, the city of the great King” (Psalm 48:1-2 – KJV). - These women have adulterated the worship of the true God, played a part in licentious practices within the sacred precincts of the temple and defied truth regarding life and death. - Worshiping the Sun (Ezekiel 8:16) “And he brought me into the inner court of the LORD'S house, and, behold, at the door of the temple of the LORD, between the porch and the altar, were about five and twenty men, with their backs toward the temple of the LORD, and their faces toward the east; and they worshipped the sun toward the east” (Ezekiel 8:16). - This is apparently near where the laver was positioned. - The laver, or basin, was a large bowl filled with water, located halfway between the brazen altar and the Holy Place. Although God did not give specific measurements for the laver, it was to be made entirely of bronze. The priests were to wash their hands and their feet in it before entering the Holy Place (Exodus 30:19-20). - It stood as a reminder that people need cleansing before worshipping God. The priests atoned for their sins through a sacrifice at the brazen altar, but they cleansed themselves at the laver before serving in the Holy Place to perform their sacred duties. - The Neo-Babylonian Empire was just coming of age. It is not certain whether this honored the Assyrian god Ashur or the Babylonian sun got Shamish. - But it likely is a “sun-rise” service that mocks God. That celestial object rises in the east. The edible book of Ezekiel sweeps through the complex stories and sagas in his whole book, ending with the return of righteous leaders, restoration of land and a new temple or center of worship. All enemies will then have been removed. It morphs into an actual picture of the future kingdom of God. What about John’s open edible book? (detailed in Part 2) The unsealed “little book” (Revelation 10:2), contextually, is presented sequentially before the last three and a half years of earth’s history (Revelation 11:2-3). It is here open or unsealed. By way of reference, the seven-sealed scroll (Revelation 5) cannot be opened until after the Second Coming (the sixth Seal). This little book is opened long before that time. - The only sealed document that couldn’t be understood anciently was Daniel’s ha·hazon record (which is this open little book) – the selected visions and narratives found in chapters 8 through 12. - They weren’t to be unsealed until the “time of the end” (Daniel 12:4, 12:8). - It had to be eaten to symbolically be understood! When is that “time of the end?” Gabriel already informed Daniel that it would be at the “appointed time” (Daniel 8:17, 19). Habakkuk had recently shared that the “appointed time” would come after the tarrying time (Habakkuk 2:2-3) ends. We can see in a Revelation 10 study that Jesus will prophesy that a time delay (that “tarrying time”) is about to end (vs 6). - The evidence is unimpeachable that these prophecies of Ezekiel and Daniel contain detailed links. This “little book” is the unsealed ha·hazon prophecy of Daniel. - It is open in Christ’s hand, announcing that it can now be understood! - In John’s eating it, God announces that He is qualified to effectively witness – prophesying again. The seer becomes symbolic of God’s final remnant, witnessing church. Some relate this to the unsealing of the 2300-“day” prophecy of Daniel 8:14. - That simply cannot be correct. - That prophecy was part of Daniel’s mareh vision, which was never sealed. - Even Daniel finally understood that part (Daniel 10:1). What is the theme of the Danelic ha·hazon visions (scroll)? - They are a group of distinct prophecies of how the conflict between Christ (the “ram”) and Satan (the “rough he-goat”) will end. - And, amazingly, they include timed prophetic periods within which all will be accomplished! Daniel and Revelation are frequently linked to a three-and-a-half-year period (Daniel 12:7; Revelation11:2-3; 12:6, 14; 13:5). For the skeptical – the Hebrew linguistic expressions make pristine clear that they could not be understood until just recently, i.e., they were sealed until the “time of the end.” Expositor White understood that link between Daniel’s sealed visions and “the end.” “A wonderful connection is here seen between the universe of heaven and this world. The things revealed to Daniel were afterward complemented by the revelation made to John on the isle of Patmos. These two books should be carefully perused. Twice Daniel inquired, How long shall it be to the end of time? ‘And I heard, but I understood not: then said I, O my Lord, what shall be the end of these things? And he said, Go thy way, Daniel: for the words are closed up and sealed till the time of the end. Many shall be purified, and made white, and tried; but the wicked shall do wickedly: and none of the wicked shall understand; but the wise shall understand…. But go thou thy way till the end be: for thou shalt rest, and stand in thy lot at the end of the days’ [Daniel 12:8-10, 13].” “The book that was sealed was not the book of Revelation, but that portion of the prophecy of Daniel which related to the last days. The Scripture says, ‘But thou, O Daniel, shut up the words, and seal the book, even to the time of the end: many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased’ (Daniel 12:4). When the book was opened, the proclamation was made, ‘Time shall be no longer [delayed]’ (Revelation 10:6). The book of Daniel is now unsealed, and the revelation made by Christ to John is to come to all the inhabitants of the earth. By the increase of knowledge a people is to be prepared to stand in the latter days.” Did you note that? That little open book contains messages for every person on earth! It contains “time of the end” clocks! They represent distinct eschatological messages for those who will globally convey the gospel of Jesus Christ just before the eschaton! “The book of Daniel is unsealed in the revelation to John, and carries us forward to the last scenes of this earth’s history.” It is important to note that this little scroll/book is called biblaridion (G) (10:2, 9-10). The seven-sealed scroll was called biblion (5:1-5, 8-9). If they were the same, it would be expected that the biblaridion would be preceded by the article “the.” It is not! - The scroll of destiny (biblion) (Revelation 5–6) begins with the sequential opening of the seals and continues to the end of the Apocalypse. - “Within that scope [of time], the little scroll deals with … [events affecting] God’s people during the final days prior to the end.” – the “appointed time.” Thus – the setting invites our deeper understanding of the great prophecies in Daniel related to those ha·hazon visions. - This suggests that the continued details of John’s vision will be more easily interpreted through that Old Testament information. - It also reveals that Daniel’s “time of the end” relates to John’s eschatological end. Next month we will visit what John learned from Daniel. Prophecy Research Initiative – non-profit 501(c)3 © 2017 EndTime Issues…, Number 208, December 7, 2017 Click here to go to PRI’s website: endtimeissues.com

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A manual gas shut-off valve. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene, a stiff black plastic pipe and fittings used for drain, waste, and vent lines. Atmospheric pressure added to gauge pressure. A leech field engineered to receive septic tank sewage. Thermoplastic used on the surface of bathtubs and whirlpools. Usually comes in sheets and is combined with fiberglass to create shower walls. A fitting that joins two different types of pipes together. An adjustable strap/ bar, which forms a connection between the lift rod of a faucet and the ball lever of the drain A device screwed into a faucet spout, which mixes air into running water to control flow and reduce splashing Air Admittance Valve A mechanical valve used to replace a traditional vent to allow air to enter the waste pipe and equalize pressure. It also preserves the seal of water in the fixture trap. A vertical, air-filled pipe or spring coil, set above the water line to absorb pressure when water is turned off at the faucet. Used to eliminate water hammer. An air-filled space, which allows contaminated water to discharge freely while preventing the contaminated water from siphoning back into the potable water supply A blockage in the flow of liquid. Air Volume Control Maintains the air charge in a standard water storage tank. Note: Pre-charged tanks do not require an air volume control. The measurement of elements in a water supply, which determine alkaline conditions; the measure of its capacity to neutralize acids The average temperature of the atmosphere in the vicinity of an appliance. A patented process that uses a porcelain surface, an enameling grade steel material and a structural composite backing bonded together to create a sink that is similar to cast iron in durability but weighs considerably less Angle Seat Wrench Valve seat wrench with a handle that includes a 90 degree bend. A shutoff valve between the water pipes and a faucet. Usually used to shut off water to a fixture in case of an emergency repair. Angular Discharge Tube A discharge tube that changes the direction of water flow to approximately 90 degrees. A rod within a water heater, composed of one or more metals to protect the tank from corrosion; it helps prolong the life of the tank A whirlpool water recirculating system, which prevents clogging without restricting the water flow Used to prevent the backflow of liquid into a system. The apron, or skirting, a decorating portion of a bathtub that covers the rough-in area from the floor to the top rim of the tub. It is often sold separately from the tub. A thermostat that is submerged in water. A layer or zone below the surface of the earth which is capable of yielding a significant volume of water. The upper level of the aquifer is called the water table. A heavy duty auger cable tip. A flexible rod with a curved end used to access the toilet's built-in trap and remove clogs. The flow of water or other liquids, mixtures, or substances into the distributing pipes of a potable supply of water, from any sources other than its intended source. Pressure that resists the flow of fluid in a piping system. The negative pressure that causes backflow. Overflow of a plumbing fixture due to drain stoppage. Sewer line valve that prevents sewage from flowing back into the house. A water heater valve that controls water flow and balances heat distribution to different locations. Ball Check Valve A valve that uses a ball to seal against a seat to stop flow in one direction. This refers to the size of the ball that can pass through the trapway of a toilet. This also relates to trapway size. In general, the trap size will be 1/8 larger than the maximum size ball that can pass through it. The fill valve that controls the flow of water from the water supply line into a gravity-operated toilet tank. It is controlled by a float mechanism that floats in the tank water. When the toilet is flushed, the float drops and opens the ballcock, releasing water into the tank and/or bowl. As the water in the tank is restored, the float rises and shuts off the ballcock when the tank is full. Also known as a float valve. A flexible band made of a variety of materials that has a cinching device used to secure pipes. A circular vessel with sloping or curved sides that holds water for washing. A bathroom lavatory or sink. A wrench with a long handle with jaws mounted on a swivel that allows the jaws to reach and handle nuts to fasten faucets to a previously installed sink. Brake horse power. The actual amount of horsepower being consumed by a pump as measured on a dynamometer. Carbon steel pipe in which the outer diameter has been lacquered (as opposed to bare or galvanized pipe). To drain a pipe of excess air by opening a valve at the end of the pipe. A drain-cleaning device consisting of a rubber bladder with a hose fitting on one end and a nozzle on the other. The device attaches to a water hose and is inserted into a clogged drainpipe. As water is introduced, it expands to grip the pipe, and releases pulsating bursts of water through the nozzle, forcing water through the pipe to clear the obstruction. Partial venting or draining, under pressure, of the water side of a boiler to reduce or remove unwanted contaminants. Also the pressure drop after releasing a pressure-relief valve. A term given to a buildup of blue toilet cleanser of the type that hangs inside the toilet tank and gradually distributes blue cleanser into the bowl. Over time, it may actually clog the water jets under the rim of the bowl, impairing flush performance. A sealed tank where water is turned to steam for heating or power. The lowest point in a drainage system where the interior drainage pipes meet and are conveyed it to the sewer. A pipe fitting used to join two pipes of different sizes. A bushing is threaded inside and out. Also a cylindrical part used as a lining or guide A valve made of a square, rectangular, or round disk attached to a shaft inside a body of the same shape. Rotating the shaft 90 degrees opens or closes the valve Type of shower door that consists of two or more panels running in parallel tracks. A tubular structure intended to be watertight installed in the excavated or drilled hole to maintain the well opening and to prevent ground water from entering the well. Very durable and heavy metal made of casting on molds to make fixtures such as sinks, tubs and lavatories, covered with a porcelain enamel coating. Casting is made of a series of alloys primarily of iron, carbon, and silicon. Connectors used to hand-tighten faucets to lavatory Style of bathroom faucet having combined spout and handles, with handles 4 inches apart, center-to-center. Also a single-handle faucet installed on 4 inches center-to-center faucet holes A lined excavation in the ground which receives the discharges of a drainage system -designed to retain the organic matter and solids, but permitting the liquids to seep through the bottom and sides. Cubic feet per minute Hundred feet. A selling unit of measure for pipe. A type of backflow preventer installed in a pipe run that allows water to flow in only one direction. Plumbing drainage system vertical vent which is run from the last two traps on a horizontal drain line to the main vent stack of a building drainage system. Rainwater storage tank, often underground. Close Coupled Toilet Toilet with a separate tank and bowl, secured to each other, and with a separate tank cover. Also known as a 2-piece toilet A system where the incoming cold water supply has a device that will not allow water to expand when heated. (i.e. check valve, backflow preventer, pressure reducing valve, etc.) A faucet or valve for regulating the flow of water. A sewer system that carries both sanitary waste and storm water runoff. A kind of tubing or pipe connection where a nut, and then a sleeve or ferrule is placed over a copper or plastic tube and is compressed tightly around the tube as the nut is tightened, forming a positive grip and seal without soldering. Also a flexible connector that has a nut and gasket designed to attach directly to an SAE standard compression thread, without the use of a sleeve or ferrule. A type of valve that is often used for water faucets. It is opened or closed by raising or lowering a horizontal disk by a threaded stem. Concealed Arm Carrier One of a variety of common mechanisms to securely mount a wall-mount lavatory. Unlike a hanger which only supports the lavatory where it meets the wall, the carrier has long arms onto which the lavatory slides Continuous Hinge Door A shower door that has a full-length continuous metal hinge on the side of the door. Atmospheric venting that utilizes the natural convective rise of hot flue gases through the system to release the products of combustion. A water condition of low pH (acid condition) that can corrode metal pipes, pool fixtures and pumps. (Unbalanced water) Any connection or situation that may allow wastewater to enter the supply system. An air admittance valve attached to a drainpipe, protected by a check valve, designed to equalize pressure in the drain line and to protect the trap seal. A ditch sometimes filled with gravel or drainage tile which diverts storm water away from a structure The amount of time it takes a toilet to complete it's flush cycle, from the instant it is flushed until the water supply shuts off The barrier built into a trapway of a toilet that controls the water level in the toilet bowl. Describes a faucet that is mounted on the deck of the bathtub enclosure, rather than on the rim of the bathtub or on the wall. Also referred to as a Roman spout faucet. Also known as a sunken tub, the deck-mount tub is usually mounted on a platform and has no apron or decorative side. Difference between the starting water temperature and the ending temperature after heating is complete. A type of compression adapter that connects tubular brass fittings to pvc pipe Tube inside the water heater that sends cold water to the bottom of the tank. Difference in elevation between the liquid level of the discharge tank and the centerline of the pump. Also includes any additional pressure head that may be present at the discharge tank fluid surface. Outlet tube that connects a disposer or sump pump to the drain line. A series of trenches conveying the sewage from the septic tank laid in such a manner that the flow will be distributed with reasonable uniformity into natural soil. Valves which direct water to various outlets. They are used in showers, tub & shower combinations, bidets, Roman tub fillers and kitchen faucet sprayers. Double Suction Pump A pump where the rotor is suspended between two bearings with the fluid entering on either side of the impeller. Used at higher capacities. A shower base used in a corner application where one threshold is used as an entrance and the other has a glass wall. Double Wye Fixture A fitting that has branches coming in at an angle from each side of the main to join the main run. Any pipe that carries wastewater or water-borne waste. Drain Seal Gasket Gasket used to seal a drain to a sink to prevent leaks. Device designed to allow drainage of stored contents from a water heater. A metal channel that is designed to prevent water running down a shower door from dripping onto the floor when the door is opened. Dual Element Heater An electric water heater with an upper and lower elements for heating water. A twin valve (hot & cold) with a single on/off lever used for washing machine boxes Sink drain fitting consisting of a strainer body attached to the drain opening and a removable basket. Also called a strainer Drainage, Waste, and Vent systems, which remove wastewater. Not for drinking water. The pressure when the water is flowing A device utilizing a nozzle and throat, installed in a stream of water to create a partial vacuum to draw air or liquid into the stream; commonly used to draw regeneration chemicals into an ion exchange water treatment system, such a softener or deionizer A product's ability to utilize input energy, expressed as a percentage. Septic system liquid waste A mechanical device for pumping sewage from below the sewer line. A faucet valve body configuration in which both the inlet and outlet are at the end of the valve body. The side of a tub where the drain is found. When facing a tub, if the drain is on the right, this is a Right-Hand tub (RH). If on the left, it is a Left Hand tub (LH). On whirlpools, the pump is located opposite the drain. Energy Guide Label Label required by the FTC on water heaters that show 1) an estimated annual cost of operation and 2) how that unit's efficiency compares to all other comparable models. A decorative metal flange or trim shield beneath a faucet handle that covers the faucet stem and the hole in the fixture or wall. A tank designed to absorb excess pressure due to thermal expansion. (e.g. closed system) The proper slope or pitch of a pipe for adequate drainage. Special thread size for fittings that connect to faucets. A cone seal or gasket is usually included because straight threads will not have a complete seal without a gasket. A pump that supplies water to a boiler. Water introduced into a boiler during operation. It includes make-up and return condensate. Faucet threads that are in place on the inside of a fitting. The water valve inside a toilet tank that controls the water supply The rate at which the water is traveling through the filter, measured as GPM (gallons per minute) per sq. ft. A device that provides a supply of water or its disposal, e.g. sinks, tubs, toilets. Flush ball. the moving part of the flush valve that seals the water into the tank or allows water to exit the tank for the flush cycle. The most common replacement part used on conventional toilets. The part on the bottom of the toilet tank that opens to allow water to flow from the tank into the bowl. Float Ball Or Valve The floating ball connected to the ballcock inside the tank that rises or falls with changing water levels in the tank, and actuates or shuts off the ballcock as needed A battery-powered sensor device designed to sound an audible alarm at the first sign of water. Often placed near sump pumps, toilets and other fixtures that sometimes overflow and cause damage Flow Control Valve Device designed to reduce water flow to a plumbing fixture. Often used to improve efficiency and reduce operating costs. Also a check valve that prevents flow reversal when heater is turned off. A device to deflect, check, or regulate flow through a pipe. An open spout design that is also referred to as a waterfall spout. Toilet valve that automatically shuts off after it meters a certain amount of water flow. Flushometer Tank System Toilet flushing system that uses supply water pressure to compress water to provide a pressurized flush as opposed to a gravity flush. Flushometer,The valve located at the bottom of a gravity-operated toilet flush tank which opens when the trip lever is actuated and closes when the tank has drained to the desired level. Usually also contains an overflow tube. The area of floor space taken up by a water heater or other appliance. The process of applying a coating of zinc to the finished product to provide corrosion protection. The coating can be applied by hot dipping or electrolytic deposition. Flat device usually made of fiber or rubber used to provide a watertight seal between metal joints. A device that controls the flow in a conduit, pipe, or tunnel. The pop-up lever on a tub faucet that activates the diverter valve. Device for registering water level, discharge, velocity, pressure, etc. A number that defines the thickness of the sheet used to make steel pipe. The larger the number, the thinner the pipe wall. Gallons Per Flush used in toilets. Current law requires maximum of 1.6 gpf. Older styles were usually 3.5 gpf Gravity Operated Toilet A toilet that relies on the natural downward pressure of water in a toilet tank to flush the toilet effectively Waste water from sinks, showers, and bathtubs, but not toilets A device that captures grease entering a system before it reaches the sewer lines. Usually used in commercial applications such as restaurants or cafeterias A joint which consists of pressing two smooth mating surfaces together without a gasket or supplemental sealant Naturally occurring water rising from the water table of the surrounding land Valve which controls water flow into the toilet tank A device used to support pipes Natural water containing impurities in various proportions. Traditional hardness is a measure of calcium or dissolved solids in a solution, measured in parts per million. Hard water generally ranges from 100 to 250 ppm. The presence of a consistent concentration of hardness in the effluent from an ion exchange water softener, often due to high concentrations of hardness or sodium in the water being treated (see Leakage). Electrically-powered flexible cables that generate heat and may be wrapped around exposed pipes to prevent them from freezing Restriction of heat loss through water connections to a tank Lateral drain pipes that run from plumbing fixtures to the waste stack in a building or in the soil The horizontal distance between the point where fluid enters a pipe and the point at which it leaves An outside cold water faucet on the side of a structure that has a threaded spout which enables a garden hose to connect U-shaped fitting with two adjacent cleanout plugs visible at floor level if main drain runs under floor System of forced hot water The primary artery of supply of the water supply or drain system in which all the branches connect. In the case of drains, known as the Main Vent. Fitting that is inserted into another fitting A fitting that connects a number of branches to the main; serves as a distribution point An adapter connecting a water meter to the water supply line A special style of bathroom faucet having separate spout and handles, but small enough to fit 4 inch center-to-center faucet holes. Minimum Run Time The minimum length of time that the pump should run while refilling the pressure tank Mixes hot and cold water to achieve a specified delivery temperature A single-handle faucet, usually a lever A pump that has more than one impeller. Rotary type backwash valve. Can replace up to 6 regular gate valves. Serves various functions. P & T Relief Valve Pressure and Temperature Relief Valve - Same as T & P. Fibrous material that is used on faucets to prevent leaks. Two or more identical size heaters piped with water connections, that is, cold water travels equal distance into the inlets of the heaters from a T connection and hot water travels equal distance from the outlet of the heaters to a T connection. Pipe designed to discharge water through small, multiple, closely spaced orifices or nozzles, placed in a segment of its circumference for irrigation purposes A small faucet for draining liquids or relieving air pressure A small burner used to ignite the main burner Downward slope of a drain pipe in the direction of the water flow. A shower door that rotates on two metal pivots at the top and bottom of the door. Male threaded fitting which seals the end run of a pipe when fitted into a female threaded fitting. A waterproof putty that is used to seal around sink drains and other plumbing fittings A rubber suction cup attached to a wooden dowel handle used to create suction in a drain line or a toilet to push a clog through the line. The drain mechanism of a faucet installed on a lavatory. The drain stopper pops up and down. Type of drain assembly for lavatory and bath. When a lavatory lift rod or bath overflow plate lever is lifted, the pop-up drain closes so the lavatory or tub retains water Water suitable for drinking. A water storage tank pre-charged with air at factory featuring a vinyl bag to separate water from air which prevents waterlogging. This tank design provides greater drawdown than standard tanks. Pre-charged tanks do not require air volume control. Pressure Balance Valve Shower mixing valve that automatically maintains balance between incoming hot and cold water supplies by immediately regulating fluctuations in pressure. As a result, temperature remains constant, though the outlet pressure may drop. Also known as an anti-scald valve. Pressure Reducing Valve A valve that automatically reduces inlet water pressure to a specified value at its outlet under static cold water conditions. A valve that automatically cuts off the flow of a liquid or gas at a certain pressure. Regulators are used to allow high-pressure fluid supply lines or tanks to be reduced to safe and/or usable pressures for various applications. Device used to pump water from a well. Opening in bowl through which tank-supplied water flows, designed to propel waste up into the trapway. Pounds per square inch. Single-control kitchen faucet which offers a retractable hose and spray head to be used for food preparation and cleaning. A plumbing line in which the faucet has been opened and allowed to run for a specified length of time, usually 1-5 minutes. A rigid white, gray or cream-colored plastic pipe used in non-pressure systems, such as drainage, waste, and vent systems. Rated Storage Volume Quantity of water stored in a tank. A tub that has a decorative finish on one side only, and surrounded by three walls. The apron, or skirting, may not be included and must be ordered separately. The most popular style. The amount of water in gallons that can be heated in one hour. A fitting that connects pipes of different sizes together. A serviceable, magnetic sensing switch that triggers the water flow to stop when the neck jet pillow (with magnet) is removed from the whirlpool. The tube that directs water from a ballcock into the overflow tube to refill the bowl after a siphon break in order to refill the toilet. A valve that opens to relieve excess temperature. Sleeve type clamp used to repair a split pipe, held in place by bolts. Return Circulation System Tempered water from or near the point of usage which eliminates waste of hot water used for long runs and adds storage to the system. Pipe installed specifically to vent a fixture trap. Connects with the vent system above the fixture. Pipe designed to transmit the backfill load to the foundation beneath the pipe. Rigid pipe must be supported on the bottom portion of the pipe. A series of small holes in the underside of a toilet rim, around the circumference of the bowl. Incoming water flows down into the bowl through these holes, creating a rinse effect or wash over the entire inner surface of the bowl. A vertical assembly of pipe and fittings that generally distributes water upward. A vertical metal or plastic tube or assembly that connects a faucet to the water supply stop valve. Usually made of copper. Metal Flex Risers are corrugated to facilitate bending. Also a supply line that rises from one story to the next. Deck-mounted faucet spout. A drain installed at the low spot in a roof that channels water into a drainpipe to prevent pooling. Sheet metal installed at any break in a shingled roofline to prevent leaks. Also around sewer vents, fluepipes Round Front Bowl Standard shape of the front of a toilet bow, having dimensions of 14 wide by 16 ½ long from center of seat hinge holes to front outside rim edge. (about 2 shorter than an elongated bowl) A complete or secondary section of pipe that extends from supply to fixture or drain to stack. An in-line trap mounted in a horizontal drainpipe, where the inlet and outlet are parallel A valve mounted on a pipe run by a clamping device, or saddle tee to provide a water supply for a low-demand device Fitting that joins the assorted pipes in a drain, waste, and vent system, designed to allow solid material to pass through without clogging. Drain, normally located on a roof or deck that allows rain water to drain off Pipe with no weld in the circumference A fitting inside a faucet body where the base of the valve stem makes contact to control the water flow. A style of bathroom sink with a rolled and finished edge. Sink with no metal ring that has a built-in lip of the same material which supports it in the vanity top. System where a primary heater preheats water to a given desired general purpose temperature and feeds into another heater. A well with a pumping head of 25 feet or less, permitting use of a suction pump. A one-piece base (floor) unit used as a shower, for example, to catch water and direct it to a center drain. Color-matched component under a wall-mount lavatory that covers the drain outlet for aesthetic purposes Most commonly refers to angle stops installed under sinks and toilets, but also valves installed on branch lines and alongside the meter. A heavy duty auger tip for large diameter pipes Type of shower base used in a three wall installation with the threshold being the side with the door A pipe connecting two canals. A tube or pipe through which water flows over a high point by gravity The point in a toilet flush cycle when air is re-introduced into the trapway, breaking the siphonic action. This is characterized by the deep gurgling sound heard at the end of a flush. A toilet having a siphonic trapway at the rear of the bowl and an integral flushing rim and jet A toilet having a trapway at the rear of the bowl integral flushing rim and a water supply system with or without a jet, which does not feed directly into the trap. The suction or pulling effect that takes place in the trapway of a toilet as it is filled with outgoing water and waste Pipe which is passed through a wall for the purpose of inserting another pipe through it A stiff steel cable used to clear drains of obstructions and clogs. Sometimes called a plumber's snake, auger or a Roto-Rooter. Water that has a low calcium and magnesium content Largest vertical drain line to which all branch waste lines connect. This line carries waste to the sewer line The plain end of a cast-iron pipe. The spigot is inserted into the bell end of the next pipe to make a water tight joint Device sometimes required to form a mating connection between the splines of a valve stem and the splines inside a faucet handle. The vertical main in the drain, waste, and vent system, extending one or more stories. Open vertical pipe that receives water from a washing machine. Also the vertical pipe run supplying water to a fire sprinkler system; also large vertical pipe into which water is pumped in order to produce a desired pressure; a high vertical pipe or reservoir that is used to secure a uniform pressure in a water-supply system. The pressure when no water is flowing. Part of the faucet that holds the handle on one end and the washer on the other. The shutoff valve under sinks and toilets. Allows water supply to be cut off to one fixture without affecting the water supply to other fixtures. A tank used to hold a specific volume of water. A pit or pool for draining, collecting, or storing water. A chamber which provides water to the pump. The 2 anchor bolts that attach a toilet to the floor. Also known as toilet bolts. Section of pipe that runs between a fixture outlet and the trap. Fixture reservoir for flush water. On a conventional toilet, the ballcock, flush valve, and trip lever are installed in the tank. A tank lid closes the top tank opening. The moving part of the flush valve that seals water in or allows water out of the tank during the flush cycle. Also known as the flapper, flush ball, stopper and seal disk. Three bolts that hold together the tank, gasket and bowl of a 2-piece toilet A double-tee-shaped fitting installed between a shallow well pump and the bladder tank with integrated valve and gauge fittings, and an outlet for a pressure-relief valve Tankless Water Heater Instantaneous water heater. Fitting with one plain end and one threaded female end. Cast iron tee with a threaded female side inlet Water provided by a water company by way of the home's plumbing system Standard type of threads used on iron pipe and pipe fittings T-shaped fitting with three openings that allow another pipe to be joined at a 90 degree angle, used to create branch lines. A in-line hot/cold mixing valve A rubber plug that is used to seal off sections of pipe to allow testing for leakage Pressure-balancing shower mixing valve with automatic temperature control. When temperature or pressure fluctuations occur at the water inlets, a thermal actuator adjusts the hot and cold ratio to maintain the original temperature setting. A helical or spiral ridge on a screw, nut, or bolt. To ease installation and to prevent over-tightening this nut was designed to be tightened without tools Installation where the sink is fit flush with tile countertop Valve that changes the flow of water from one outlet to another Curved section of drain line that prevents sewer odors from escaping into the atmosphere. All fixtures that have drains must have a P trap installed. A toilet is the only plumbing fixture with an S trap Channel in a toilet that connects the bowl to the waste outlet. It is where the siphonic action takes place. The trapway is measured in terms of the largest diameter ball which can pass through it. Also called the passageway Horizontal bar that connects to the trip lever and trip chain in a toilet. Part of the flush mechanism Chain that connects the toilet trip arm and the flapper on the flush valve Handle attached to the outside of the toilet tank used to initiate the flush The thickness of the tubing wall. Waste & Overflow Drain assembly for a bathtub. The outlet at the top removes the overflow water during tub filling and the drain at the bottom removes wastewater when the tub is drained. Drain extension pipe, usually to extend a sink drain into a wall. A loud banging noise caused by the hydraulic shock of suddenly shutting off a water supply, where water moves against the side of containing pipe or vessel. Water Hammer Arrestor A device installed near a fixture to absorb the hydraulic shock caused by a sudden shutoff of water. Appliances for providing a more-or-less constant supply of hot water. A drain cleaning machine that relies on high water pressure, directed through a hose ans special nozzles to thoroughly clean the inside of a pipe. Sometimes called a jetter or hydro-jetter. Water surface in the toilet bowl once the flush is completed. Weak well application occurs when the pump lowers the water level in the well faster than the well can replenish itself. Drain or waste pipe that also acts for one or more fixtures on the same line. A style of bathroom faucet having separate spout and handles, usually 8 from center of handle to handle. Some widespread faucets can be set with handles up to 12 apart.

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The paper attempts to look at the plants of three major authors in the History of English Literature viz. John Keats, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Lloyd Fernando by utilizing the historical attack. The really popular historical attack based on Taine ‘s “ moment-milieu-race ” sees literature as both a contemplation and merchandise of the times and fortunes in which it was written. The attack takes into history the biographical and historical backgrounds when presenting a work besides set uping a literature class in chronological order. It is believed that the history of a state has some revealing effects on its literature and that it can be better understood and apprehended if one has the cognition about the times around its creative activity. ( http: //www.scribd.com/doc/27042364/APPROACHES-TO-LITERATURE ) . One therefore, one needs to hold an apprehension of the formative periods of a state and the impact of these periods on communities and persons because they will enable a thorough apprehension of a literary work Literary critics have frequently declared that great literature is dateless, and that great authors transcend the peculiar outward signifiers of history because their plants give us a universally valid history of human nature ( Selden,1988, p.419 ) . As such, if one intends to understand and grok a literary work, he must among others study deeper about assorted facets of the writer ‘s life including his experience, personality and the society during the clip of the creative activity. This is because these facets have of import functions to play in determining the writer ‘s personality and influenced his plants Selden, R. ( erectile dysfunction ) . ( 1988 ) . The Theory of Criticism From Plato To The Present. London and New York: Longman N.A. ( N.A ) . Approachs To Literature, In N.A, Retrieved December 15, 2012, from ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.scribd.com/doc/27042364/APPROACHES-TO-LITERATURE ) . John Keats ( 1795-1821 ) is known as one of the Big Six Romantic poets stand foring the Romanticism Movement in the History of English Literature, The first coevals of the Romantic poets are William Blake ( 1757-1827 ) , William Wordsworth ( 1770-1850 ) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( 1772-1834 ) . Keats belonged to the 2nd coevals together with Lord Byron ( 1788-1824 ) and Percy Shelley ( 1792-1822 ) . Born on October 31, 1795 to Thomas and Frances Jennings Keats, John Keats was the first kid of five siblings. He was sent to a school inA Enfield because his household could non afford to direct him to any other good school. Here Keats benefited non merely from the progressive ambiance which encouraged his independency of character but besides from his friendly relationship with the schoolmaster ‘s boy, Charles Cowden Clarke ( Garret, p.1 ) . There was so much unhappiness faced by Keats throughout his life which includes the decease of his male parent who was a stableboy in April 1804, when Keats was merely eight. The cause of the decease was a skull break when he fell from his Equus caballus. His female parent remarried merely after two months of his hubby ‘s decease, but left her new hubby shortly afterwards. Keats and his siblings went to populate with their grandma, Alice Jennings in the small town. In March 1810, when Keats was 14, his female parent died of TB, go forthing the kids in the detention of their grandma. Richard Abbey the defender of the kids subsequently took him out of the school and bound him learner to Thomas Hammond, a sawbones and pharmacist who was a neighbor and the physician of the Jennings household ( The Norton Anthology of English Literature, p.766 ) . Having finished his apprenticeship with Hammond, Keats joined Guy ‘s Hospital, London as a medical pupil in 1815. Within a month of get downing, he was accepted as a chest of drawers at the infirmary, helping sawboness during operations. He was instead hardworking at the beginning but easy began to lose involvement and eventually made up his head to wholly give up medical specialty for poesy. Charles Cowden Clarke who became Keats coach during his early old ages at Enfield was responsible in presenting him to great authors such as William Hazlitt, John Hamilton Reynolds, Leigh Hunt and Shelley. “ On First Looking into Chapman ‘s Homer ” published in 1817 became Keats first sonnet followed by “ Sleep ” every bit good as “ Poetry ” ( p.767 ) . Keats Tourss broadened his familiarity with the environment and assorted people and inspired his authorship. In 1818 for illustration, Keats went for a walking circuit through the Lake of Country up into Scotland and Ireland with his best friend Charles Brown. However, the circuit was really non a pleasant 1 and as such contributed to the Keats ‘ unwellness. Towards the terminal of 1818, Keats nursed his brother Tom, who had contracted TB while his other brother George got married and immigrated to America. For the first clip in their immature lives, the brothers were disconnected apart. A Keats felt the separation keenly because their orphaned upbringing had made them inordinately near before. Tom ‘s fatal unwellness added deepness to his perceptual experience of its sorrow ( Garret, p.4 ) Subsequently, Keats started on a long verse form Hyperion which he ne’er finished. Hyperion revealed that Keats had become a first category poet due to his house usage of linguistic communication. Domestic instability may account for Keats ‘s erratic disposition to the extent that he even attacked a maestro for some sensed unfairness to his brother George. His volatile personality found release subsequently in violent switches of temper from epicurean rapture to profound depression and besides in one of the most indispensable features of his poesy: a continual hesitation between the attraction of an escape-world, a Eden created by Li Although regarded as one of the “ Large Six ” of Romantic poesy and likely best known for his sequence of six lyric odes written in 1819, Keats was really looked down every bit belonging to the “ Cockney School ” of poets. Lord Byron for illustration saw the Cockney School to which Keats was said to belong as an “ under-Sect ” of the Lake School. Byron even ridiculed and called Keats “ a polliwog of the lakes, a immature adherent of the six or seven new schools. In fact Shelley besides shared portion of Byron ‘s position of Keats and criticized all his plants except “ Hyperion ” ( Dawson in Keach, p.204-205 ) . His “ deficiency of instruction ” as compared to any other major Romantic poets may take to the mistakes which were evidenced in his poesy “ On First Looking into Chapman ‘s Homer ” . Although the verse form Tells of his amazement at being able to read the plants of the ancientA GreekA poet HomerA as freelyA translatedA by the Elizabethan dramatist George Chapman, he had unwittingly mistaken the Cortez with the Balboa explorers- it was really the Balboa who caught his first sight of the Pacific Ocean from the highs of Darien inA Panama ( The Norton Anthology of English Literature, 2nd ed. , p.826 ) , non Cortez like what Keats had written. Boys who had been educated at the esteemed schools were all taught Latin and Greek, and they read the plants of Homer in the original Greek. It was a existent deficiency in one ‘s instruction at that clip if one did non read classical plants particularly in their original linguistic communication. Keats did non hold such an instruction, and he besides ne’er knew there was an English interlingual rendition of Homer ‘s plants done by Chapman, until his friend gave him a transcript. Another major mistake can be found in Keats ‘s “ Ode on Melancholy ” , in which he refers to the river Lethe when he really truly means Styx. The sonnet itself is a jubilation of instruction ; the poet is cognizant of his deficiency of instruction. He likens himself to an adventurer. Soon after his brother ‘s decease, Keats was running out of money and was in love with Fanny Brawne. He became on the side engaged to Fanny Brawne and produced some of his greatest plants like Ode to Psyche, Ode on Melancholy, Ode on Grecian Urn and Ode on Indolence ( 1819 ) . On the undermentioned twelvemonth he managed to compose his most perfect narrative verse form The Eve of St. Agnes. Subsequently, his friend Brown suggested that they write a calamity together. He worked on portion one ofA LamiaA andA Otho the Great, a drama which Brown encouraged as a manner for he and Keats to come in the playwriting concern. A It was their hope that dramas might be more profitable than poetry.A In August, Keats left the Isle of Wight for Winchester. A Here he wrote the 2nd portion ofA LamiaA and the beautiful odeA To Autumn. Unfortunately, Keats developed TB merely like his female parent and brother earlier. In February 1820, his physician advised him to go to a warmer clime state. Keats borrowed money and travelled to Italy with his friend Servern, where he died the undermentioned February at the age of 25. Keats was full of intense passion and desire, yet diffident and reserved. He was a immature adult male with all the finding and melancholy of a adolescent on a romantic pursuit to be among the English poets when he died. He wanted to be celebrated, and he has good and genuinely lived up to his dream. Ode to a Nightingale was written easy and rapidly, completed, harmonizing to Brown, in two or three hours ( KC 2, 65 ) aˆ¦ . Within a new auspicious signifier, Keats arranges a host of subjects, images and patterns from the work of old three old ages. P.90 The rich ambiguities of Nightingale are evident in the three characters of its unfolding play: the bird, the speaker-poet and the “ fancy ” . The theoretical account of fancy as a female agent of vision and flight, but besides as badly disobedient, a “ lead oning elf like Shakespeare ‘s Puck. Keats’influences on others Keats is considered as one of the “ Large Six ” of Romantic poesy, although he was looked down upon as belonging to the “ Cockney School ” of poets. He is likely best known for his sequence of six lyric odes written in 1819. Along with Shelley, Keats was a major influence on later poets, peculiarly the Victorian poet like Alfred Tennyson and the poet Wilfred Owen. He is considered one of the greatest of the Romantic poets and remains one of the most popular poets studied today. Like Shelley, Keats used poetic signifiers in nontraditional ways. For illustration, he uses the sonnet signifier in “ On First Looking into Chapman ‘s Homer ” -a verse form in which he talks about his experience of first being able to read a authoritative work for himself. Many of his verse forms, among them “ La Belle Dame sans Merci ” , are written to sound archaic. Keats is celebrated for his odes. However, unlike odes written before his clip which were frequently public statements, Keats ‘ odes distinguish themselves by being private speculations of the author refering his ideas and emotions, in line with Romantic attitudes. Subjects in Keats ‘s plants Most of Keats ‘ verse forms talk about life and decease, particularly the transiency of life. This subject runs particularly throughout his odes. This could be because so many of his household members died ( father died of accident, his female parent and brother suffered from TB and died and he himself is besides deceasing at a immature age due to the same disease ) Keats ‘s of import verse forms are related to, or turn straight out of… interior struggles. ” For illustration, hurting and pleasance are intertwined in “ Ode to a Nightingale ” and “ Ode on a Greek Urn ” ; love is intertwined with hurting, and pleasance is intertwined with decease in “ La Belle Dame Sans Merci, ” “ The Eve of St. Agnes, ” and “ Isabella ; or, the Pot of Basil. ” Cleanth Brooks defines the paradox that is the subject of “ Ode to a Nightingale ” slightly otherwise: “ the universe of imaginativeness offers a release from the painful universe of actuality, yet at the same clip it renders the universe of actuality more painful by contrast. “ hypertext transfer protocol: //academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/keats.html # subjects A A A A A Other struggles appear in Keats ‘s poesy: transeunt esthesis or passion / digesting art dream or vision / world joy / melancholy the ideal / the existent mortal / immortal life / decease separation / connexion being immersed in passion / wanting to get away passion Keats and Romanticism Romantic poets, because of their theories of literature and life, were drawn to lyric poesy ; they even developed a new signifier of ode, frequently called the romantic brooding ode. A A A A A The literary critic Jack Stillinger describes the typical motion of the romantic ode: “ The poet, unhappy with the existent universe, escapes or efforts to get away into the ideal. Disappointed in his mental flight, he returns to the existent universe. Normally he returns because human existences can non populate in the ideal or because he has non found what he was seeking. But the experience changes his apprehension of his state of affairs, of the universe, etc. ; his views/feelings at the terminal of the verse form differ significantly from those he held at the beginning of the poem. “ “ Negative Capability ” Keats was an supporter of Shakespeare, and his reading of Shakespeare ‘s work was insightful and challenging, exemplifying the mastermind of Shakespeare ‘s creativeness. In a missive to his brothers, Keats describes this mastermind as ‘Negative Capability ‘ : Excerpt from Keats ‘s missive to his brother: “ . . several things dovetailed in my head, & A ; at once it struck me, what quality went to organize a Man of Achievement particularly in Literature & A ; which Shakespeare possessed so tremendously — I mean Negative Capability, that is when adult male is capable of being in uncertainnesss, Mysteries, uncertainties, without any cranky stretch after fact & A ; ground — Coleridge, for case, would allow travel by a all right stray verisimilitude caught from the Penetralium of enigma, from being incapable of staying content with half cognition. This pursued through Volumes would possibly take us no further than this, that with a great poet the sense of Beauty overcomes every other consideration, or instead obliterates all consideration. It is the thought that adult male is capable of being in uncertainness or uncertainty without endeavoring to alter this status through seeking for decisions or grounds. the ability to contemplate the universe without the desire to seek and accommodate contradictory facets or suit it into closed and rational systems. ‘ For Keats, uncertainness or uncertainty is non a negative thing. Negative Capability ( the willingness to stay in uncertainty or non to decide struggles or ambiguities ) may be seen in his poesy ; for case, in the reasoning inquiries of “ Ode to a Nightingale. “ Was it a vision, or a wakeful dream? A A A A A A Fled is that music: – Do I wake or kip? ” What is an Ode? Odes: normally a lyric verse form of moderate length, with a serious topic, an elevated manner, and an luxuriant stanza pattern.There are assorted sorts of odes, which we do n’t hold to worry approximately in an introductiory class like this. The ode frequently praises people, the humanistic disciplines of music and poesy, natural scenes, or abstract constructs. The Romantic poets used the ode to research both personal or general jobs ; they frequently started with a speculation on something in nature, as did Keats in “ Ode to a Nightingale ” or Shelley in ” Ode to the West Wind. hypertext transfer protocol: //academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/lit_term.html # lyric Keats ‘ Odes are based on his relentless sort of experience which dominated his feelings, attitudes, and ideas during that clip. Each of them is non merely alone, but besides a aspect of his larger experience. This larger experience is an intense consciousness of both the joy and hurting, the felicity and the sorrow, of human life. It is a feeling and besides a idea, a sort of incubation as the poet sees them in others and experience them in himself. Harmonizing to him, human existences must fulfill their desire for felicity in a universe where joy and hurting are necessarily and inextricably tied together. This brotherhood of joy and hurting is the cardinal fact of human experience that Keats has observed and accepted as true. Keats ‘s odes are considered to be his chef-d’oeuvres and one of the major accomplishments in English literature. “ Ode to a Nightingale ” is normally taken to be the first ode written in this sequence of odes, while “ Ode to Melancholy ” is taken to be the last. “ Ode to a Nightingale ” shows how suffering and consciousness of beauty are inextricable linked. The “ Ode on a Greek Urn ” centres around the transiency of life and the permanency of Art. “ To Autumn ” and “ Ode to Melancholy ” show beauty at its purest. Both verse forms are extremely descriptive. Throughout the odes, the subject is that true beauty must be transient in order to be beautiful ; life is beautiful because it is transeunt. The usage of Imagination A A A A A Keats ‘s imagination ranges from physical esthesiss: sight, hearing, gustatory sensation, touch, odor, temperature, weight, force per unit area, hungriness, thirst, gender, and motion. Keats repeatedly combines different senses in one image, that is, he attributes the trait ( s ) of one sense to another, a pattern calledA synesthesia. Among others synesthetic imagination maps as a portion of the animal consequence, and the combine of senses usually experienced. “ Ode to a Nightingale ” In some MELODIOUS secret plan Of BEECHEN GREENA ( stanza I ) Combination of sound ( “ tuneful ” ) and sight ( “ beechen green ” ) But here here is no LIGHT, Salvage what from Eden is with the BREEZES BLOWNA ( stanza IV ) Combines sight ( “ visible radiation ” ) with touch/movement ( “ breezes blown ” ) . This image describes light filtrating through foliages moved by the air current. Ode on a Greek Urn by John Keats The verse form portrays the character ‘s effort to prosecute with the inactive stationariness of sculpture. The Greek urn, passed down through infinite centuries to the clip of the talker ‘s screening, exists outside of clip in the human sense-it does non age, it does non decease, and so it is foreign to all such constructs. In the character ‘s speculation, this creates an challenging paradox for the human figures carved into the side of the urn: They are free from clip, but they are at the same time frozen in clip. They do non hold to face aging and decease ( their love is “ for of all time immature ” ) , but neither can they hold experience ( the young person can ne’er snog the maiden ; the figures in the emanation can ne’er return to their places ) . 1 ) Thou still unravish ‘d bride of soundlessness, A A A A A Thou foster child of silence and slow clip, Sylvan historian, who canst therefore express A A A A A A flowery narrative more sweetly than our rime: What leaf-fring ‘d fable hangouts about thy form A A A A A Of divinities or persons, or of both, A A A A A A A A A A In Tempe or the dales of Arcady? A A A A A What work forces or Gods are these? What maidens loth? What mad chase? What battle to get away? A A A A A A A A A A What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy? The talker stands before an ancient Greek urn and addresses it. He is preoccupied with its word picture of images frozen in clip. -It is the “ still unravish ‘d bride of soundlessness, ” the “ foster-child of silence and slow clip. ” -describes the urn as a “ historian ” that can state a narrative. -wonders about the figures on the side of the urn and asks what legend they depict and from where they come. -looks at a image that seems to picture a group of work forces prosecuting a group of adult females and admirations what their narrative could be: “ What mad chase? What battle to get away? What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy? ” 2 ) Heard tunes are sweet, but those unheard A A A A A Are sweeter ; hence, ye soft pipes, drama on ; Not to the animal ear, but, more endear ‘d, A A A A A Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone: Fair young person, beneath the trees, 1000 canst non go forth A A A A A Thy vocal, nor of all time can those trees be bare ; A A A A A A A A A A Bold Lover, ne’er, ne’er canst thou buss, Though winning near the end yet, do non sorrow ; A A A A A She can non melt, though thou hast non thy cloud nine, A A A A A A A A A A For of all time wilt 1000 love, and she be just! *the talker looks at another image on the urn of a immature adult male playing a pipe, lying with his lover beneath a clearing of trees. *The talker says that the piper ‘s “ unheard ” tunes are sweeter than mortal tunes because they are unaffected by clip. *He tells the young person that, though he can ne’er snog his lover because he is frozen in clip, he should non sorrow, because her beauty will ne’er melt. 3 ) Ah, happy, happy boughs! that can non cast A A A A A Your leaves, nor of all time bid the Spring adios ; And, happy melodist, untired, A A A A A For of all time shrieking vocals for of all time new ; More happy love! more happy, happy love! A A A A A For of all time warm and still to be enjoy ‘d, A A A A A A A A A A For of all time heaving, and for of all time immature ; All take a breathing human passion far above, A A A A A That leaves a bosom high-sorrowful and cloy ‘d, A A A A A A A A A A A combustion brow, and a parching lingua. He looks at the trees environing the lovers and feels happy that they will ne’er cast their foliages. . He is happy for the piper because his vocals will be “ for of all time new, ” and happy that the love of the male child and the miss will last everlastingly, unlike mortal love, which lapses into “ take a breathing human passion ” and finally vanishes, go forthing behind merely a “ combustion brow, and a parching lingua. ” 4 ) Who are these coming to the forfeit? A A A A A To what green communion table, O cryptic priest, Lead’st 1000 that heifer mooing at the skies, A A A A A And all her satiny wings with Garlands drest? What small town by river or sea shore, A A A A A Or mountain-built with peaceable bastion, A A A A A A A A A A Is emptied of this common people, this pious forenoon? And, small town, thy streets for evermore A A A A A Will soundless be ; and non a psyche to state A A A A A A A A A A Why thou art desolate, can e’er return. The talker examines another image on the urn, this one of a group of villagers taking a heifer ( a immature cow ) to be sacrificed. He wonders where they are traveling ( “ To what green communion table, O cryptic priest… ” ) and from where they have come. He imagines their small town, empty of all its citizens, and tells it that its streets will “ for evermore ” be soundless, for those who have left it, frozen on the urn, will ne’er return 5 ) O Attic form! Fair attitude! with brede A A A A A Of marble work forces and maidens overwrought, With forest subdivisions and the trodden weed ; A A A A A Thou, soundless signifier, dost badger us out of idea As doth infinity: Cold Pastorale! A A A A A When old age shall this coevals waste, A A A A A A A A A A Thou shalt remain, in thick of other suffering Than ours, a friend to adult male, to whom 1000 say’st, A A A A A “ Beauty is truth, truth beauty, — that is all A A A A A A A A A A Ye know on Earth, and all ye need to cognize. ” The talker once more addresses the urn itself, stating that it, like Eternity, “ doth badger us out of idea. ” He thinks that when his coevals is long dead, the urn will stay, stating future coevalss its puzzling lesson: “ Beauty is truth, truth beauty. ” The talker says that that is the lone thing the urn knows and the lone thing it needs to cognize. Ode to Nightingale Stanza 1-The talker opens with a declaration of his ain grief. He feels numb, as though he had taken a drug merely a minute ago. He is turn toing a Luscinia megarhynchos he hears singing someplace in the wood and says that his “ drowsing numbness ” is non from enviousness of the Luscinia megarhynchos ‘s felicity, but instead from sharing it excessively wholly. Stanza 2- the talker longs for the limbo of intoxicant, showing his want for vino, “ a draft of vintage, ” that would savor like the state and like peasant dances, and allow him “ leave the universe spiritual world ” and vanish into the dim wood with the Luscinia megarhynchos. Stanza 3-he explains his desire to melt off, stating he would wish to bury the problems the Luscinia megarhynchos has ne’er known: “ the fatigue, the febrility, and the fret ” of human life, with its consciousness that everything is mortal and nil stopping points. Youth “ grows picket, and spectre-thin, and dies, ” and “ beauty can non maintain her bright eyes. Stanza 4- the talker tells the Luscinia megarhynchos to wing off, and he will follow, non through intoxicant ( “ Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards ” ) , but through poesy, which will give him “ viewless wings. ” He says he is already with the Luscinia megarhynchos and describes the forest clearing, where even the moonshine is hidden by the trees, except the visible radiation that breaks through when the zephyrs blow the subdivisions. Stanza 5-the talker says that he can non see the flowers in the clearing, but can think them “ in embalmed darkness ” : white Hawthorne, sweetbrier, violets, and the musk-rose, “ the rustling hangout of flies on summer Eves. Stanza 6-the talker listens in the dark to the Luscinia megarhynchos, stating that he has frequently been “ half in love ” with the thought of deceasing and called Death soft names in many rimes. Surrounded by the Luscinia megarhynchos ‘s vocal, the talker thinks that the thought of decease seems richer than of all time, and he longs to “ discontinue upon the midnight with no hurting ” while the nightingale pours its psyche rapturously away. If he were to decease, the Luscinia megarhynchos would go on to sing, he says, but he would “ hold ears in vain ” and be no longer able to hear. Stanza 7- , the talker tells the Luscinia megarhynchos that it is immortal, that it was non “ born for decease. ” He says that the voice he hears singing has ever been heard, by ancient emperors and buffoons, by homesick Ruth ; he even says the vocal has frequently charmed unfastened thaumaturgy Windowss looking out over “ the froth / Of parlous seas, in faery lands forlorn. Stanza 8-the word forlorn tolls like a bell to reconstruct the talker from his preoccupation with the Luscinia megarhynchos and back into himself. As the nightingale flies farther off from him, he laments that his imaginativeness has failed him and says that he can no longer remember whether the Luscinia megarhynchos ‘s music was “ a vision, or a wakeful dream. ” Now that the music is gone, the talker can non remember whether he himself is awake or asleep Charles Brown, a friend with whom Keats was populating when he composed this verse form, wrote, “ In the spring of 1819 a Luscinia megarhynchos had built her nest near my house. Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her vocal ; and one forenoon he took his chair from the breakfast tabular array to the grass-plot under a plum-tree, where he sat for two or three hours. When he came into the house, I perceived he had some garbages of paper in his manus, and these he was softly thrusting behind the books. On enquiry, I found those garbages, four or five in figure, contained his poetic feeling on the vocal of our Luscinia megarhynchos. A major concern in “ Ode to a Nightingale ” is Keats ‘s perceptual experience of the conflicted nature of human life, i.e. , the interconnectedness or mixture of pain/joy, strength of feeling/numbness or deficiency of feeling, life/death, mortal/immortal, the actual/the ideal, and separation/connection. A Keats focuses on immediate, concrete esthesiss and emotions, from which the reader can pull a decision or abstraction. Keats describes early fall, when all the merchandises of nature have reached a province of perfect adulthood. Autumn is personified and is perceived in a province of activity. Season of mists and laid-back fecundity, A A A Close bosom-friend of the maturating Sun ; ConspiringA with him how to lade and bless A A A With fruit the vines that round theA thatch-evesA tally ; To flex with apples the moss ‘d cottage-trees, A A A And make full all fruit with ripeness to the nucleus ; A A A A A A To swell the calabash, and plummet the Pomaderris apetala shells A A A With a sweet meat ; to put budding more, And still more, ulterior flowers for the bees, Until they think warm yearss will ne’er discontinue, A A A A A A For summer has o’er-brimm ‘d their clammy cells. In the first stanza, fall is a friendly plotter working with the Sun to convey fruits to a province of perfect comprehensiveness and ripeness. Who hath non seen thee frequently amid thy shop? A A A Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may happen Thee sitting careless on a granary floor, A A A Thy hair soft-lifted by theA winnowingA air current ; Or on a half-reap ‘d rut sound asleep, A A A Drows ‘d with the smoke of poppies, while thyA hook A A A A A A Spares the following swath and all its twined flowers: And sometimes like aA gleanerA 1000 dost maintain A A A Steady thyA ladenA caput across a creek ; A A A Or by a cyder-press, with patient expression, A A A A A A Thou watchest the last seepages hours by hours. In the 2nd stanza, fall is a thrasher sitting on a granary floor, a reaper asleep in a grain field, a gleaner traversing a creek, and, in conclusion, a cyder shaper. Where are the vocals of spring? Ay, A Where are they? A A A Think non of them, thou hast thy music excessively, – While barred cloudsA bloomA the soft-dying twenty-four hours, A A A And touch theA stubble-plainsA with rose-colored chromaticities ; Then in a lamenting choir the little gnats mourn A A A Among the riverA sallows, borne aloft A A A A A A Or sinking as the light air current lives or dies ; And adult lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn ; A A A Hedge-crickets sing ; and now with soprano soft A A A The red-breast whistlings from aA garden-croft ; A A A A A A And assemblage sups chirrup in the skies In the concluding stanza, fall is seen as a instrumentalist, and the music which fall produces is every bit pleasant as the music of spring – the sounds of gnats, lambs, crickets, redbreasts and sups.

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Richard Montgomery (2 December 1736 – 31 December 1775) was an Irish-born soldier who first served in the British Army. He later became a brigadier-general in the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War and he is most famous for leading the 1775 invasion of Canada. Montgomery was born and raised in Ireland. In 1754, he enrolled at Trinity College, Dublin, and two years later joined the British army, to fight in the French and Indian War. He steadily rose through the ranks, serving in North America and then the Caribbean. After the war he was stationed in in Fort Detroit during Pontiac’s Rebellion, following which he returned to Britain for health reasons. In 1773, Montgomery returned to the Thirteen Colonies and married Janet Livingston. He was elected to the New York Provincial Congress of 1775. After war broke out, Montgomery took up the Patriot cause becoming a Brigadier General in the Continental Army. After Phillip Schuyler became too ill to lead the invasion of Canada, Montgomery took over. He captured St. Fort Johns and then Montreal in November 1775. He advanced to Quebec City where he met up with another force under the command of Benedict Arnold. On 31 December he led the attack, but was killed during the battle. His body was found by the British and buried honourably. Montgomery was born in Swords, County Dublin. His father, Thomas Montgomery, was a former British Army Officer and a representative of Irish Parliament. He spent most of his childhood near Donegal, where he learned to hunt, ride, shoot, and fence. Thomas Montgomery made sure that Richard received a good education; he learned French, Latin, and rhetoric, and attended a school outside of Belfast. In 1754, Montgomery enrolled in Trinity College. In 1754, the French and Indian War began in North America. Despite his great love of knowledge Richard did not receive a degree. He was urged by his father and his oldest brother Alexander, to join the military. He did so on 21 September 1756. Thomas purchased an ensign’s commission for Richard, and Richard joined the 17th Foot. Seven Years War: On February 3, 1757, the British government ordered the 17th Foot to march from its garrison at Galway and prepare to be deployed overseas. On May 5, Montgomery and the 17th Foot left Cork and arrived at New York City. The 17th Foot was stationed at Fort George where Montgomery served on a court martial in October 1757. In 1758, the 17th Foot was sent to Halifax, Nova Scotia. The British commanders began to draw up a plan to assault the French at Louisbourg, which was north of Halifax. The French garrison consisted of only 800 men, while the British force had 13,142 troops supported by 23 ships of the line and 13 frigates. On June 8, 1758, the attack began. Montgomery landed on the beach under heavy fire and ordered his troops to fix bayonets. The outer French defenses withdrew back towards the city. Montgomery’s unit and the rest of the British force chased the French back to a point just outside of the Fort’s guns. At this point, the British prepared to siege the city. Due to bad weather, artillery and other materials needed for the siege took several weeks to arrive onshore. Montgomery had his men dig entrenchments and build breastworks. He also ordered that his men stay aware of a possibility of a French attack. On July 9, the French attempted a breakout, but it failed. On July 26, the French surrendered. General Amherst was impressed by Montgomery’s action during the siege, and promoted him to Lieutenant. On July 8, 1758, General Abercromby attacked Fort Carillon, but was repelled and suffered heavy losses. In August, Montgomery and the 17th foot sailed to Boston, marched to join with Abercromby’s forces in Albany and then moved to Lake George. On November 9, Abercromby was recalled; Amherst replaced him as commander-in-chief. The British high command developed a three-pronged attack into Canada, in which the 17th foot would assault Fort Carillon and capture Crown Point. Under Amherst’s command, Montgomery and the 17th Foot combined with other units and, in May 1759, traveled towards the French Fort. Montgomery ordered that his men remain vigilant for the French and Indian ambushing parties. On May 9 his suspicions proved correct, when 12 men from the 17th were attacked. Montgomery and the 17th met stiff resistance at first. Montgomery ordered that his men were not to fire at night, fearing they would shoot their comrades. Several days later, the French withdrew most of their force to Crown Point. On July 26, the French blew up their own fort, as well as the rest of Crown Point, before the British could reach it. On May 15, 1760, Montgomery was appointed regimental adjutant, a position given to whom the commanding officer believed to be the most promising Lieutenant in the regiment. In August, the 17th Foot joined with the Lake Champlain Division, and set out from Crown Point to participate in a three-pronged attack on Montreal. The 17th Foot captured the Isle aux Noix and Fort Chambly before meeting with the two other divisions outside of Montreal. The French Commander, seeing that the city could not be defended, surrendered the city without a fight. With the fall of Montreal, all of Canada fell into British hands. In the summer of 1761, Montgomery and the 17th Foot marched from Montreal to Staten Island. After conquering Canada, the British government put together a plan to defeat the French in the West Indies. In November of 1761, Montgomery and the 17th set sail for Barbados, where they joined other units from North America. On January 5, 1762, the force left Barbados and headed towards the French island of Martinique. The French had received word of an impending attack, and had built up their defenses. The invasion force arrived in the middle of January. A beachhead was quickly established, and the main offensive began on January 24. The French outer defences were overrun and the survivors fled to the capital, Fort Royal. The British prepared to launch an assault on the Fort, but the French Commander, seeing his situation was hopeless, surrendered his force. On February 12, the entire island surrendered. After the fall of Martinique, the rest of the French West Indies, Grenada, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent, fell to the British without a fight. Spain entered the war in 1761 as an ally of France. The British high command believed that capturing Havana would destroy the lines of communication from Spain to its colonial empire. On May 6, 1762, in reward for his actions in Martinique, Montgomery was given command of one of the ten companies of the 17th Foot and promoted to Captain. On June 6, the assaulting British forces arrived seven miles off the shore of Havana. The 17th Foot, including Montgomery’s company, was to capture Moro Fort, the key to the Spanish defense of the city. British battleships bombarded the fort, silencing all but two Spanish guns. On July 30, Montgomery and the 17th Foot stormed and captured the fort. In late August 1762, Montgomery and the 17th Foot were sent to New York where they remained for the rest of the war. The conflict was ended by the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763. Between the wars: Montgomery’s service in the Caribbean took a toll on his health. In 1764, his family became so concerned with his health that they requested that the British government permit him to return home; however, Montgomery chose to remain for the duration of the crisis. Angered by the French surrender, an Ottawa Chief named Pontiac organized 18 Native American tribes, and revolted. The Tribes captured eight British forts and forced the evacuation of two more. In response, the British organized two expeditions, one of which the 17th Foot and Montgomery were in. The expedition was commanded by John Bradstreet. Bradstreet led his force to Fort Niagara in July, where they were stationed for a month. They then marched to Fort Detroit, where they arrived in August. For several weeks, Montgomery stayed at the Fort, helping improve it’s defenses. The 17th Foot proved to be instrumental in preventing the native tribes from taking the fort. In September, Bradstreet left to negotiate with several Native tribes, and Montgomery chose to accompany him. On October 3, Montgomery and several other officers interviwed a Oneida Chief and two days later he attented a conference with the Iroquois Confederacy. Afterwords, he left and took his leave of absence, returning to Britain. Becoming a patriot: In Britain, Montgomery recuperated. He associated with the Whig Members of Parliament, who generally supported the colonists in their demands for more political freedom. Montgomery became friends with several prominent Whigs, among them Isaac Barre, Edmund Burke, and Charles James Fox. While stationed in Britain, Montgomery spent much of his time discussing politics with these three men. He began to question the British Government’s policies, and after being passed over for promotion in 1771 because of his political affiliations, he sold his commission and left the military in 1772. In late 1772 or early 1773, Montgomery moved to America. Montgomery promised to never marry or take up arms again, and to become a gentleman farmer. He bought a farm at King’s Bridge, 13 miles north of New York City. While adjusting to his surroundings, Montgomery met Janet Livingston, whom he had briefly met during his service in America decades before. Janet was the sister of Robert R. Livingston, a prominent New Yorker who was later on the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence. After receiving permission from her father, Montgomery married Janet on July 24, 1773. After their marriage, Montgomery leased his farm to a tenant and moved to a small house in Rhinebeck, New York. Montgomery bought some surrounding land and set to work fencing, ploughing fields, building a grain mill, and laying the foundation for a larger home. He said that he was “Never so happy in all my life”, but followed that up by saying “This cannot last; it cannot last.” Three months after their marriage, Janet told Montgomery of a dream she had in which Montgomery was killed in a duel by his brother. Richard replied by saying “I have always told you that my happiness is not lasting…Let us enjoy it as long as we may and leave the rest to God.” Because Montgomery was now tied to the Livingston family, who supported the Patriot cause, he began to turn against the British government, seeing himself as an American instead of an Englishman. He believed that the British government was being oppressive and was acting like a tyrannical parent-state. New York Provincial Congress: On May 16, 1775, Montgomery was elected as one of the ten deputies to represent Dutchess County in the New York Provincial Congress. Although Montgomery had only lived in New York for two years and had not sought political involvement, he was well known and respected in the area and he felt obliged to attend. He was reluctant to go, but nonetheless went to New York City, 80 miles south of Rhinebeck. The first session began on May 22 On May 26, 97 delegates, including Montgomery, signed a resolution legitimizing its authority. Montgomery’s views were those of a moderate Patriot. He believed that the British Government was wrong, but hoped for an honourable reconciliation. Gradually, the faction of the Congress that remained loyal to the King lost its influence. Some of them did not participate on a regular basis. Montgomery was selected to serve in a site selection committee to decide the placement of military defensive positions in New York, and was also involved in or-ganizing the New York Militia and securing the militia’s supplies. After the appointment of George Washington as Commander-in-Chief of the newly formed Continental Army on June 15, 1775, the Continental Congress asked the New York Provincial Government to select two men for service in the army. One would be a Major General, the other a Brigadier General. The assembly favoured Philip Schuyler as the Major General. Montgomery expressed concern over this, as he did not believe that Schuyler had enough combat experience for such an appointment. Montgomery wrote of Schuyler “Phil Schuyler was mentioned to me…..His consequence in the province makes him a fit subject for an important trust-but has he strong nerves? I could wish to have that point well ascertained with respect to any man so employed.” Although Montgomery knew he was under consideration for Brigadier General, he did not publicly show any desire for the appointment. Nonetheless, Schuyler was appointed Major General, and Montgomery Brigadier General, on June 22. Montgomery was ranked 2nd in command of all the Brigadier Generals. On June 25, George Washington passed through New York City on his way to Boston. Washington assigned Montgomery as deputy commander under Schuyler. A few days later, Schuyler received orders from the Continental Congress to invade Canada. The idea was that the army was to invade Quebec, where the Hudson River and the northern lakes could supply the army. A force was quickly assembled at Fort Ticonderoga and Schuyler left to take command of the army on July 4. Montgomery stayed for several more weeks making the final arrangements for the operation. His wife folowed him as far north as Saratoga. On departing his wife at Saratoga, he told her “You shall never have cause to blush for your Montgomery.” For the next couple of months, Montgomery and Schuyler continued to organize the invasion force. While they continued to organize, Washington decided to expand the invasion. He ordered that another invasion force would invade across Maine and then meet up with the other army outside of Quebec City to launch a joint attack on to the city. Invasion of Canada: In August, Schuyler left to meet with representatives from the Iroquois Confederacy in order to keep them neutral during the invasion. He left Montgomery in command of the Fort. While Schuyler was away, Montgomery received intelligence that the British were building two gunboats on Lake Champlain, which threatened to give the British control of the lake. Without asking permission from Schuyler, he moved 1,200 men north on the schooner Liberty and the sloop Enterprise. Montgomery wrote a letter to Schuyler, explaining the situation. Schuyler returned to Fort Ticonderoga on August 30. He ordered 800 men to reinforce Montgomery. Schuyler then set out to catch up with Montgomery, despite being ill, and caught up with him on September 4 on Isle La Motte.umed command and ordered the advance to continue to Isle aux Noix, in the Richelieu River. Schuyler’s health continued to deteriorate, but he drafted a proclamation in which he called the Canadians “Friends and Countrymen”, asking them to help expel the British from Canada. On September 6, Montgomery led a probing force to Fort St. Johns, the key to the British defense of Montreal. Montgomery led the main body of troops towards the Fort through a marshy and heavily wooded area. The flanking party, led by Captain Matthew Mead, was ambushed by 100 Native Americans allied to the British. The party held its ground, forcing the ambushing Indians to fall back to the fort. Montgomery, fearing that the British force was larger than he had anticipated, called off operations for the rest of the day and withdrew his force to a spot outside the range of the British guns. Believing that the fort could not be captured quickly, Schuyler recalled Montgomery’s force and fortified Isle aux Noix. Schuyler’s health continued to worsen. Montgomery assumed command of the daily functions of the army. On September 4, a larger force of 1,700 men led by Montgomery moved towards the fort. In the swampy area around the fort, it was pitch black, which caused two parties of Americans to run into each other; each feared the other to be the British, and both fled. Montgomery ran to intercept them and ended the flight. As they advanced towards the fort, the force came under British grapeshot fire. One party of Americans attacked the British breastworks, inflicting 2 casualties. Following this, the Americans fell back. The next morning, Montgomery called a council of war, in which it was agreed to make another attack onto the fort. However, word spread that a British warship was advancing down the river, and half of the New England troops fled of fright. Montgomery, believing his force could no longer take the fort, retreated back to Isle aux Noix. Montgomery, furious at the flight of the New England troops, asked Schuyler to appoint a court-martial board. Meanwhile, Schuyler’s health had not improved and thus he left to Ticonderoga, where he hoped to recover. He gave control of the operation to Montgomery. Siege of St. Johns: Outside of Fort St. Johns, Montgomery continued to receive reinforcements. He granted leaves to commanders who he felt were not fit for their position. He said “I hope we shall have none left but fighting men on whom I can rely.” On September 16, Montgomery organized another expedition against the British fort. In total, he had 1,400 men. He sent a naval component, with 1 schooner, 1 sloop and 10 bateaux with 350 troops to counter any move by the British warship, Royal Savage. Montgomery took the rest of his force and sailed up the river, landing near St. Johns on September 17. The British garrison was commanded by Major Charles Preston, who had received a Major’s commission, in the British Army, over Montgomery 3 years before. He commanded 725 men. Montgomery and his troops spent the first night near the landing area, under light fire from the British guns. The next morning, he ordered Major Bedel to occupy a position north of the fort, but when Montgomery saw that his men were apprehensive, he chose to lead the mission himself. As Montgomery led his troops, they came upon a fight between British troops and another American party. Montgomery took command of the skirmish and forced the British party back into the fort. Montgomery sent Bedel with a force to entrench themselves about a mile north of the fort. Montgomery then put other troops around the Fort and began a siege. Preston and the British forces had many more guns and much more ammunition than the Americans and thus achieved a 10-to-1 firepower advantage for the first few weeks. Montgomery concentrated his forces on improving the siege works. Within several days they had erected 2 batteries under consistent fire from the fort. On September 22, Montgomery was nearly killed while inspecting the breastworks. A cannonball from the fort shot past him, ripping his skirt and knocking him off the breastwork, although he landed on his feet. The troops observed that this “did not seem to hurt or frighten him.” The Americans continued to receive new guns from Ticonderoga. More guns arrived on September 21 and then on October 5. However, the artillery were are too far of a range to do much damage to the fort. With the arrival of the new guns, Montgomery planned to move the emphasis of the bombardment from the east side of the fort, to the north side, where they would be closer. However, his officers unanimously rejected the plan, fearing that many men would desert due to it being more dangerous. Montgomery ordered that a new battery be built where the Royal Savage could be threatened. On October 14, the battery was complete and the artillery sunk the British ship. In mid-October, a suggestion was made to Montgomery that he might have better success attacking Fort Chambly which was weaker than St. Johns. It lay north of Fort St. Johns. Montgomery approved of the idea and ordered 350 men to take Chambly. On the night of October 16, two American guns slipped past Fort St. Johns and moved towards Chambly. The next morning, the American guns opened fire on Chambly. After two days of bombardment, holes were driven into the fort’s walls and the chimmney had been knocked down. The British commander surrendered the Fort. Montgomery captured 6 tons of gun powder, 83 men and sent the colors of the 7th Royal Fusiliers, who had been defending the fort, to Schuyler, the first standards of a British regiment captured in the war. Washington sent a letter of congratulations to Montgomery and commented that he hoped “that his next letter be dated from Montreal.” The capture of Chambly improved moral in the ranks of Montgomery’s army, so much so that he went through with his plan to establish a battery north of Fort St. Johns. There was no opposition to the plan. While the Americans were constructing the batteries, the British heavily bombarded the American workers, but this resulted in few casualties. Guy Carleton commander of the British forces in Canada, realized that the situation at Fort St. Johns was becoming desperate. He personally led a relief force at the end of October, but it was repulsed south of Montreal. On November 1, the new batteries erected north of the fort were complete. The Americans began to fire at the fort and continued to do so throughout the rest of the day. The British guns fired back, but were less effective. The American guns caused few casualties, but inflicted heavy structural damage inside of the fort. However, moral amongst the garrison fell, as well as rations. At sundown, Montgomery ordered the firing to stop and sent a prisoner captured at Chambly inside with a letter asking for the garrison’s surrender. A messenger sent from Carleton to Preston was captured during the night, in which Carleton ordered that Preston continue to hold out. On November 2, the British agreed to surrender with full military honors. They marched out of the fort on November 3, and were sent into the colonies where they would be interned. The British had suffered 20 killed and 23 wounded and the American casualties were 5 killed and 6 wounded. Montreal to Quebec: Montgomery then turned towards Montreal and began his march there. When the army reached the outskirts of the city, Montgomery sent a messenger in demanding the surrender of the city or they would suffer bombardment. While negotiations for the city’s surrender took place, Carleton fled up the St. Lawrence River. The next day, the city surrendered and Montgomery and his army marched into the city without a shot being fired. On November 19, the British ships sailing up the river to Quebec City were captured, but Carleton escaped to the city. Montgomery’s kind treatment towards the captured British prisoners caused several officers to express their concern. Montgomery saw this as a challenge this his authority and this, along with the lack of discipline in the army, caused Montgomery to threaten resignation. Letters from Washington in which Washington also expressed his troubles with the discipline of troops convinced Montgomery to continue his command. On November 28, Montgomery and 300 men went aboard several ships and began to sail to Quebec City. On December 2, Montgomery joined Benedict Arnold’s force which was located 18 miles north of Quebec. Upon his arrival, Arnold turned over command of the army to Montgomery. On December 3, Montgomery began to give Arnold’s men, who had marched through the Maine wildreness, much-needed supplies. The next day, the army moved towards the city and Montgomery ordered that it surround the city. On December 7, Montgomery sent an ultimatum to Carleton, demanding the surrender of the city. Carleton burned the letter. Several days later, Montgomery sent a letter into the city appealing the merchants telling them that they had come to liberate the civilians of Quebec. However, Carleton discovered the plan and quickly had the messenger arrested. Montgomery then sent the proclamation over the wall with bow and arrows, however, this met with no success. Attack and Death: Unknown to Montgomery, he was promoted to Major General on December 9 for his victories at St. Johns and Montreal. After Montgomery was unable to convince Carleton to surrender, he placed several mortars a few hundred yards outside the walls of the city. The shelling of the city began on December 9, but several days of it failed to make a serious impact on the walls, the garrison or the civilian population. With the shelling having little effect, Montgomery ordered the emplacement of another battery closer towards the city walls, on the Plains of Abraham, despite the fact it offered little natural cover from returning fire. On December 15, the new batteries were ready and Montgomery sent a party of men under the flag of truce to ask for the city’s surrender, however, they were turned away. Montgomery then resumed firing on the city, but the effect was little better. When the new batteries were hit by more effective fire from the British, Montgomery ordered their evacuation. As the bombardment of the city proved to be unsuccessful, Montgomery then began to plan for an assault. Montgomery was to assault the Lower Town district, the part of the city that was lying near the river shore, while Arnold was to attack and take Cape Diamond Bastion, a strong part of the city walls on the highest point of the rocky promontory. Montgomery believed that they should attack during a stormy night, therefore the British would not be able to see them. On December 27, the weather became stormy, and Montgomery ordered that the men prepare to attack, however, the storm soon subsided and Montgomery called off the attack. As Montgomery waited for a storm, he revised his plans. Montgomery would attack the Lower Town from the south and Arnold would attack the Lower Town from the north. After breaking through the walls, Montgomery and Arnold would meet up in the city and then attack and take the Upper Town, causing resistance to collapse. To increase their chance of surprise, Montgomery planned two feints. One group of Americans would set fire to one of the gates while another would engage the guard at Cape Diamond Bastion and fire rockets to signal the start of the attack. While the feints were conducted, artillery would fire into the city. Although Montgomery was reluctant to attack, he knew he must as the enlistments for Arnolds men would be up on January 1. On the night of December 30, a snowstorm struck. Montgomery issued the order to attack and the Americans began to move towards their designated positions. At 4:00 Am, Montgomery saw the rocket flares and began to move his men around the city towards the lower town. Although the rockets were to signal the attack, they alerted the British of the impending attack and the soldiers rushed to their posts. Montgomery personally led the march to the Lower Town, as the descended down the steep slippery cliffs. At 6:00 Am, Montgomery’s force reached a palisade at the edge of the Lower Town, which was sawed through. Another palisade was reached and also sawed through. After the advance party had passed the palisades, Montgomery heard noise from a two-story blockhouse guarding the entry. The blockhouse was guarded by thirty Canadian Militiamen and several British seamen. Montgomery chose to attack before the Canadians had more time to prepare themselves. Montgomery drew his sword and shouted to his men “Come on, my good soldiers, your General calls upon you to come on.” Montgomery led the charge but when he came within 50 yards of the blockhouse, cannon, musket and grapeshot fire opened on to the Americans. Montgomery was killed with grapeshot through the head and both thighs. With the death of Montgomery, the attack fell apart. The next in command ordered a retreat. Without Montgomery’s assistance, Arnold’s attack, after initial success, fell apart and Arnold was wounded. On 1 January 1776, the British began to gather the deceased and soon found the body of a high ranking officer of the American colonial army. After being brought to Guy Carleton, an American prisoner confirmed that the body was that of Richard Montgom-ery. Once Montgomery’s death was announced, Benedict Arnold assumed command of the American colonial forces. Montgomery was a well respected man on both sides of the battlefield, Guy Carleton ordered that he be buried with dignity. At sunset on 4 January 1776, Montgomery’s remains were put to rest. During his burial, American prisoners acknowledged Montgomery as a “beloved general” with “heroic bravery” and “suavity of manners” who held the “confidence of the whole army.” Both Schuyler and Washington were devastated upon hearing of Montgomery’s death. Schuyler believed that without Montgomery, victory in Canada was not possible. Schuyler wrote to Congress and Washington “My amiable friend, the gallant Montgomery, is no more; the brave Arnold is wounded; and we have met a severe check, in an unsuccessful attempt on Quebec, May Hevan be graciously pleased that the misffortune may terminate here.” Washington wrote to Schuyler, “In the death of this gentleman, America has sustained a heavy loss, as he had approved himself a steady friend to her rights and of ability to render her the most essential services.” Congress reacted to Montgomery’s death by trying to keep the loss as quiet as possible. They feared is would lower the moral of the troops and civilians. On January 25, 1776, Congress approved that a monument be established in memory of Montgomery. A state memorial service was also scheduled and carried out on February 19, 1776. Throughout the colonies, Montgomery was viewed as a hero and patriots tried to use his death to promote their cause in the war. Montgomery’s name was used very often in literature among the authors who used his name was Thomas Paine. Montgomery was also mourned in Britain. Whigs attempted to use his death to show the failure of the British policies on the American Colonies. Prime Minister Lord Fredrick North, acknowledged Montgomery’s military ability but said “I cannot join in lamenting the death of Montgomery as a public loss. Curse on his virtues! They’ve undone his country. He was brave, he was able, he was humane, he was generous, but still, he was only a brave, able, humane, and generous rebel.” Newspapers in London paied tribute to Montgomery, the Evening Post bordered their March 12 edition in black as a sign of mourning. Remains moved to New York: In 1818, Stephen van Rensselaer, Governor of New York, obtained permission for Montgomery’s remains to be moved from Quebec to New York. In June of 1818, Montgomery’s remains set off for New York City. On July 4 they arrived in Albany and took a boat down the Hudson to New York City. Janet, Montgomery’s widow, stood out on her porch and watched the boat bring Montgomery’s remains down the river and she fainted. When his remains arrived in New York City, 5,000 people came to attend. His remains were interred on July 8, next to his monument at St. Paul’s Church, which had been built many years earlier. Ships named after Richard Montgomery include: USS Montgomery (1776), was a frigate never completed during the American Revolutionary War USS Montgomery (1813), was a sloop or schooner in service from 1813 to 1815 USS Montgomery (1861), was a screw steamer in service from 1861 to 1865 USS Montgomery (C-9), was a protected cruiser in service between 1891 and 1918 USS Montgomery (DD-121), was a destroyer commissioned in 1918 and later converted to a minelayer and sold for scrap in 1946 USS Elmer Montgomery (FF-1082), was a destroyer escort launched in November 1970 and decommissioned in June 1993 SS Richard Montgomery, was a Liberty ship wrecked off Sheerness with thousands of tons of ammunition on board Richard Montgomery has several places named after him. Many counties include New Jersey, Missouri, Alabama’s state capital, Montgomery, Minnesota, Arkansas, Montgomery County, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, New York, Virginia, and Montgomery County, Kentucky. There is also a school, a village, and a mansion named after him. Fort Montgomery, a massive masonary fortification mounting 125 guns on Lake Champlain was also named for the General. It’s construction began in 1844, designed to guard the strategically important frontier be-tween Canada and the United States. Only ruins remain today.

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Thomas William Hoffman |Born||July 21, 1839| |Died||April 18, 1905 65) (aged| Pomfret Manor Cemetery, Sunbury, Pennsylvania |Rank||Brevet Lieutenant Colonel (United States)| |Unit||1.) Company E, 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry (1861–1863)| 2.) 143rd Company, 2nd Battalion, U.S. Veteran Reserve Corps (1863) 3.) Company A, 208th Pennsylvania Infantry (1864–1865) |Battles/wars||American Civil War| Thomas William Hoffman (July 21, 1839 – April 18, 1905) was a United States soldier who fought with the Union Army as a member of the 208th Pennsylvania Infantry during the American Civil War. He was recognized with his nation's highest military honor, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for his display of "extraordinary heroism" when preventing the retreat of a regiment during the Third Battle of Petersburg, Virginia on April 2, 1865. That award was conferred on July 19, 1895. The United States of America (USA), commonly known as the United States or America, is a country comprising 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories, and various possessions. At 3.8 million square miles, the United States is the world's third or fourth largest country by total area and is slightly smaller than the entire continent of Europe, which is 3.9 million square miles. With a population of over 327 million people, the U.S. is the third most populous country. The capital is Washington, D.C., and the most populous city is New York City. Most of the country is located contiguously in North America between Canada and Mexico. During the American Civil War, the Union Army referred to the United States Army, the land force that fought to preserve the Union of the collective states. Also known as the Federal Army, it proved essential to the preservation of the United States as a working, viable republic. The American Civil War, one of the most studied and written about episodes in U.S. history, was a civil war fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865, between the North and the South. The Civil War began primarily as a result of the long-standing controversy over the enslavement of black people. War broke out in April 1861 when secessionist forces attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina shortly after Abraham Lincoln had been inaugurated as the President of the United States. The loyalists of the Union in the North, which also included some geographically western and southern states, proclaimed support for the Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States in the South, who advocated for states' rights to uphold slavery. Born in Berrysburg, Pennsylvania on July 21, 1839, Thomas William Hoffman was a son of Amos Hoffman (1809–1897) and Amanda (Harper) Hoffman (1815–1897). He was reared and educated in Dauphin County with siblings: Jacob Franklin (1841–1916), Edwin (born circa 1845), Henrietta C. (1849–1932), and Adeline H. (1853–1943). His younger brother, Oscar A. (1857–1857), was just two weeks old when he died on May 2, 1857. Berrysburg is a borough in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 368 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Harrisburg–Carlisle Metropolitan Statistical Area. Dauphin County is a county in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 268,100. The county seat and the largest city is Harrisburg, Pennsylvania's state capital and tenth largest city. The county was created ("erected") on March 4, 1785, from part of Lancaster County and was named after Louis-Joseph, Dauphin of France, the first son of king Louis XVI. In 1850, Thomas Hoffman resided with his parents and siblings, John, Edwin, and Henrietta, on the family's farm in Lykins Township. Lykens Township is a township in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 1,618 at the 2010 census, up from 1,095 at the 2000 census. At the age of 25, Hoffman enlisted for Civil War military service. After enrolling at Philadelphia on August 10, 1861, he then officially mustered in that same day as a private with Company E of the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry (also known as the "Fire Zouaves").Transported with his regiment to Virginia, he saw action in the Battle of Ball's Bluff (October 21, 1861), participated in the advances by the Union troops of Major-General Nathaniel P. Banks on Winchester and Yorktown, and fought in the Seven Days Battles of Seven Pines (also known as Fair Oaks, May 31 to June 1, 1862), Savage's Station (June 29, 1862), and Malvern Hill (July 1, 1862) before engaging in the battles of Antietam (September 17, 1862), Fredericksburg (December 12–15, 1862), and Chancellorsville (April 30 to May 6, 1863). On October 1, 1863, he was transferred to the 143rd Company of the 2nd Battalion, U.S. Veteran Reserve Corps (also known as the invalid corps), and was subsequently honorably mustered out. The Battle of Ball's Bluff in Loudoun County, Virginia on October 21, 1861, was one of the early battles of the American Civil War, where Union Army forces under Major General George B. McClellan, suffered a humiliating defeat. Nathaniel PrenticeBanks was an American politician from Massachusetts and a Union general during the Civil War. The city of Winchester, Virginia, and the surrounding area were the site of numerous fights during the American Civil War as both contending armies strove to control that portion of the Shenandoah Valley. Returning home to Dauphin County, Hoffman then helped to raise a new regiment, the 208th Pennsylvania Infantry. Re-enrolling for Civil War military service and commissioned as a captain by Pennsylvania Governor Andrew Gregg Curtin in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania on September 7, 1864, he was then placed in charge that same day of Company A of that regiment.His younger brother, Jacob, served under him in Company A. Andrew Gregg Curtin was a U.S. lawyer and politician. He served as the Governor of Pennsylvania during the Civil War. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, during the American Civil War, was the capital of the second largest state in the Union. Located at the intersection of important railroads, Harrisburg was an important supply and logistics center for the dissemination and transportation of materiel for Northern armies. Tens of thousands of new recruits were mustered into service and/or drilled at a series of Harrisburg-area United States Army training camps, including the sprawling Camp Curtin. Confederate forces under Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell threatened Harrisburg during the June 1863 Gettysburg Campaign, but did not launch any serious efforts to take the city due to being recalled towards Gettysburg by General Robert E. Lee. Pennsylvania Governor Andrew Curtin ordered local workers to erect a series of forts and earthworks to protect the city of 13,000 residents. Attached to the Provisional Brigade, Defenses of Bermuda Hundred, U.S. Army of the James, from September to November 1864, Hoffman and his fellow 208th Pennsylvanians performed fatigue and picket duties in the vicinity of Bermuda Hundred, Virginia as part of the operations related to the Siege of Richmond. Reassigned to the Provisional Brigade, 9th U.S. Army Corps' Army of the Potomac for December of that year, they supported the Union's Weldon Railroad Expedition. Reassigned to the 9th Corps' 1st Brigade, 3rd Division, they then fought in the battles of Dabney's Mill and Hatcher's Run (February 5–7, 1865), Fort Stedman (March 25), and in the Appomattox Campaign (March 28 to April 9). The Army of the James was a Union Army that was composed of units from the Department of Virginia and North Carolina and served along the James River during the final operations of the American Civil War in Virginia. Bermuda Hundred was the first administrative division in the English colony of Virginia. It was founded by Sir Thomas Dale in 1613, six years after Jamestown. At the southwestern edge of the confluence of the Appomattox and James Rivers opposite City Point, annexed to Hopewell, Virginia in 1923, Bermuda Hundred was a port town for many years. The terminology "Bermuda Hundred" also included a large area adjacent to the town. In the colonial era, "hundreds" were large developments of many acres, arising from the English term to define an area which would support 100 homesteads. The port at the town of Bermuda Hundred was intended to serve other "hundreds" in addition to Bermuda Hundred. The Battle of Hatcher's Run, also known as Dabney's Mill, Armstrong's Mill, Rowanty Creek, and Vaughn Road, fought February 5–7, 1865, was one in a series of Union offensives during the Siege of Petersburg, aimed at cutting off Confederate supply traffic on Boydton Plank Road and the Weldon Railroad west of Petersburg, Virginia. During the opening days of this latter campaign, Hoffman was detailed, on April 1, as acting engineer officer with the 3rd Division, 9th U.S. Army Corps. The next day, he performed the act of "extraordinary heroism" for which he would later be awarded his nation's highest honor for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor.Interviewed later in life, Hoffman described what happened that day: During the week that we were stationed at Steadman our division was ordered to capture Lee’s works. I was detailed on General Hartranft’s staff as engineer officer of the division. The troops were ordered out in the middle of the night and deployed inside our picket lines. When daylight began to show on the eastern horizon a signal gun was fired. This was the signal for the attack and our troops advanced to the fray. They rushed across the space between the two lines, tore down the obstructions, jumped into the moat from whence they scaled the walls of the fort, capturing four forts with twenty-five guns in a space of five minutes. We also captured a large number of prisoners. The rebels made a great effort to retake the forts, making numerous charges, but we succeeded in holding them back during the entire day. Sometime during the afternoon I was sent out by General Hartranft to the commanding officer of the second brigade to ascertain if it were possible for him to hold the forts captured. Just as I came to the forts it happened that my own regiment, the Two Hundred and Eighth was deployed.... When I was but a short distance away I heard the lieutenant-colonel of my regiment call to the men to retreat, and that they were being surrounded. Presently he and the major of the regiment started on the run for the rear, expecting the regiment to follow. I took the situation at a glance and drawing my sword called to the men at the top of my voice, "Don’t a man of you run; they can’t drive you out of here." When the line officers discovered that there was some one to take charge of the regiment they immediately rallied the men and kept them in position. Recognized for his valor that day, Hoffman was promoted by brevet to the rank of major on March 25.Afterward, the 208th Pennsylvania moved on in pursuit of Confederate General-in-Chief Robert E. Lee's army (April 3–9) and, following Lee's surrender to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox, was involved in Union Operations at Nottaway Court House (April 9–20), City Point (April 20–28), and Alexandria from late April until mid-May when then regiment headed to Washington, D.C. in order to participate in the Union's Grand Review of the Armies (May 23). On June 1, 1865, Hoffman was honorably when his regiment was mustered out of service.On August 2, 1865, he was recognized for his service to the nation with a brevet promotion to the rank of lieutenant colonel of volunteers. In response, he penned a thank you note from his home at Port Trevorton. Following his honorable discharge from the military, Hoffman returned home to Pennsylvania. Less than a month later, on June 27, 1865, he wed Sallie F. Shindel (1843–1890) at Saint John's Lutheran Church near Berrysburg in Lykens Township, Dauphin County. A native of Gratz in Dauphin County, she was a daughter of Solomon Shindel, who had served in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives in 1843.Shortly thereafter, Hoffman and his wife welcomed the births of three children: Susan, Mary (also known as "Mamie"), and Elizabeth, who were born, respectively, circa 1866, 1868, and 1876. By 1890, Hoffman had relocated to Northumberland County, Pennsylvania, and was residing in the community of Mount Carmel. That year, he became a widower when his wife, Sallie, passed away in Mount Carmel on April 2, and was laid to rest at the Pomfret Manor Cemetery in Sunbury, Pennsylvania.Nearly a year to the day later, he remarried, taking Helen Delucia Fisk, M.D. (1848–1941) as his second wife in a wedding ceremony which was held on April 5, 1892 in Dansville, New York, where Fisk, a graduate of the New York Medical College, was employed as a physician by the Jackson Sanitarium. By the turn of the century, Hoffman was working as a bookkeeper for the Meadow Brook Coal Company, and residing with his second wife at the boarding house operated by Margaret Kries and Marion Cantner at 124 Adams Avenue in Scranton, Pennsylvania. Hoffman died at the age of 65, on April 18, 1905 in Scranton, Pennsylvania. His remains were carried by train from Lackwanna County to Northumberland County via the Delaware and Hudson Railroad, where he was then laid to rest at the Pomfret Manor Cemetery in Sunbury, Pennsylvania. The President of the United States of America, in the name of Congress, takes pleasure in presenting the Medal of Honor to Captain Thomas W. Hoffman, United States Army, for extraordinary heroism on April 2, 1865, while serving with Company A, 208th Pennsylvania Infantry, in action at Petersburg, Virginia. Captain Hoffman prevented a retreat of his regiment during the battle. John Frederick Hartranft was the United States military officer who read the death warrant to the individuals who were executed on July 7, 1865 for conspiring to assassinate American President Abraham Lincoln. Previously having achieved the rank of major general of the Union Army during the American Civil War, he had also been awarded the U.S. Medal of Honor for his actions in the First Battle of Bull Run. The 11th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment was a Union army regiment that participated in the American Civil War. It had the distinction of being the oldest unit in continuous service from Pennsylvania. The 105th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment which served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Among the regiment's early recruits was future United States Congressman Albert C. Thompson. Sylvester Bonnaffon Jr. was a United States soldier who fought with the Union Army during the American Civil War as a first lieutenant with Company G of the 99th Pennsylvania Infantry. He received his nation's highest award for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for his gallantry and leadership against Confederate troops during the Battle of Boydton Plank Road, Virginia on October 27, 1864. That award was conferred on September 29, 1893. John Lilley was a United States soldier who was recognized with his nation's highest award for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for his gallantry during the American Civil War. While fighting with Company F of the 205th Pennsylvania Infantry as part of the Union Army engaged in the Third Battle of Petersburg, Virginia on April 2, 1865, he captured the flag of the Confederate States Army by single-handedly rushing, and forcing the surrender of, that army's color-bearer, along with several additional CSA soldiers. Cyrus B. Lower was a United States soldier who fought with the Union Army during the American Civil War as a private in the 13th Pennsylvania Reserve Regiment. He received his nation's highest award for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for his display of gallantry during the Battle of the Wilderness on May 7, 1864 and afterward when he rejoined his regiment after having been wounded in action and held as a prisoner of war by Confederate States Army troops. That award was conferred on July 20, 1887. Jacob Gellert Frick Sr. was a United States infantry officer who fought with several Union Army regiments during the American Civil War, including as lieutenant colonel of the 96th Pennsylvania Infantry and as colonel of the 129th Pennsylvania Infantry. He received his nation's highest award for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for his gallantry during the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, Virginia. Grabbing the American flag from his regiment's color-bearer at Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, he inspired his men to move forward "through a terrible fire of cannon and musketry"; at Chancellorsville, he personally engaged in hand-to-hand combat on May 3, 1863 to retrieve his regiment's flag which had been captured by the enemy. He was 67 years old when his Medal of Honor was conferred on June 7, 1892. George W. Harris was a United States soldier who fought with the Union Army during the American Civil War as a private with Company B of the 148th Pennsylvania Infantry, a regiment which "was present in every battle of the Army of the Potomac from Chancellorsville to the surrender at Appomattox and was in the hottest fighting of all of them except the Wilderness". John Wainwright was a United States military officer during the American Civil War. A native of Syracuse, New York, he was awarded his nation's highest award for valor, the Medal of Honor, for his "gallant and meritorious conduct" while serving in the Union Army as a first lieutenant with the 97th Pennsylvania Infantry during the Second Battle of Fort Fisher, North Carolina on January 15, 1865. James Wheeler Fuller Jr. was an American industrialist known for manufacturing railroad axles and wheels. Born in Catasauqua, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania on March 16, 1843, he was the second oldest son of James Wheeler Fuller, Sr. and Clarissa (Miller) Fuller. Alexander C. Elliott was a United States soldier who fought with the Union Army during the American Civil War as a sergeant with Company A of the 1st Pennsylvania Cavalry. He received his nation's highest award for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for his actions at Paines Crossroads, Virginia on April 5, 1865. That award was conferred on May 3, 1865. John Wallace Scott, also known as "J. Wallace Scott", was a United States soldier who fought with the Union Army as a member of several Pennsylvania infantry units during the American Civil War. Severely wounded during the Siege of Petersburg in 1864, he was recognized for his meritorious service less than eight months later with his nation's highest award for bravery, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for capturing the enemy's flag while serving as captain of Company D of the 157th Pennsylvania Infantry during the Battle of Five Forks, Virginia on April 1, 1865. That award was conferred on April 27, 1865. Andrew Jackson Young was a United States soldier who fought with the Union Army during the American Civil War as a member of Company F of the 1st Pennsylvania Cavalry. He received his nation's highest award for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for capturing a Confederate flag at Paines Crossroads, Virginia, on April 5, 1865. That award was conferred on May 3, 1865. The 1st Pennsylvania Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War that served for three months at the beginning of the war. William Henry Egle was a physician, author and historian who served as the State Librarian of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania from 1887 to 1889. A practicing physician at the dawn of the American Civil War, he was initially commissioned as an assistant surgeon, and then served as a surgeon with several different Union Army regiments during the course of the conflict, including the 116th Regiment Infantry, U.S. Colored Troops (USCT). The 157th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry was a Union infantry regiment which fought in multiple key engagements during the final years of the American Civil War, including the Battle of Cold Harbor, Siege of Petersburg, and Appomattox Campaign. One of two military units raised at roughly the same time in the Philadelphia area during the fall of 1862, the 157th Pennsylvania was stationed initially at Fort Delaware, beginning in December 1862, and remained there on garrison duty until it was reassigned to the defense of Washington, D.C. during the early winter of 1863. It was then assigned to the Army of the Potomac during the spring of 1864, and sent to the front lines of the war's Eastern Theater, where it remained for the duration of the war. During a reorganization of Union Army units in the spring of 1865, its men were merged with those of the 191st Pennsylvania Infantry. Alexander H. Mitchell was a United States military officer who fought with the Union Army during the American Civil War as captain of Company A of the 105th Pennsylvania Infantry. Wounded multiple times in combat during the war, he was awarded the Kearny Cross for his distinguished service in the Battle of Chancellorsville, Virginia in May 1863, and was then also awarded his nation’s highest award for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor for his capture of a Confederate flag in hand-to-hand combat with the color-bearer of the 18th North Carolina Infantry during the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House on May 12, 1864. James George Mitchell was a Pennsylvania State Senator and United States soldier who fought with the Union Army during the American Civil War as a drummer boy and private with Company A of the 105th Pennsylvania Infantry. He served under his older brother, Alexander H. Mitchell (1840–1913), who was later awarded the U.S. Medal of Honor for valor. William H. Paul was a United States soldier who fought with the Union Army during the American Civil War as a member of Company E of the 90th Pennsylvania Infantry and, later, the 11th Pennsylvania Infantry's E Company. He was awarded his nation's highest honor for valor in combat, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for saving and protecting the regimental flag of the 90th Pennsylvania Volunteers during the intense fighting of the Battle of Antietam in Maryland on September 17, 1862. That award was conferred on November 3, 1896. William Sands was a United States soldier who fought with the Union Army during the American Civil War as a principal musician with the 88th Pennsylvania Infantry and, later, as a first sergeant with that same regiment. He received his nation's highest award for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for capturing an enemy flag and carrying it from behind Confederate States Army lines to those of the Union Army during the Battle of Dabney's Mill/Hatcher's Run, Virginia. That award was conferred on November 9, 1893.

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These are the definitions as described in Oklahoma State Statues and not necessarily the definition the university has for these terms. These definitions can be found in the Protection from Domestic Abuse Act and in the Domestic Abuse Reporting Act. - Assault: Assault is any willful and unlawful attempt or offer with force or violence to do a corporal hurt to another. - Domestic Abuse: Any act of physical harm, or threat of imminent physical harm which is committed by an adult, emancipated minor, or minor child thirteen (13) years of age or older against another adult, emancipated minor or minor child who are family or household members or who are or were in a dating relationships. - Harassment: A knowingly and willful course or pattern of conduct by a family or household member or an individual who is or has been involved in a dating relationship with the person, directed at a specific person which seriously alarms or annoys the person, and which serves no legitimate purpose. The course of conduct must be such as would cause a reasonable person to suffer substantial emotional distress, and must actually cause substantial distress to the person. “Harassment” shall include, but not be limited to, harassing or obscene telephone calls in violation of Section 1172 of Title 21 of the Oklahoma Statutes and fear of death or bodily harm - “Family of household members” means: - present spouses of ex-spouses, - parents, including grandparents, stepparents, adoptive parents and foster parents, - children, including grandchildren, stepchildren, adoptive children and foster children, - persons otherwise related by blood or marriage, - persons living in the same household or who formerly lived in the same household, and - persons who are the biological parents of the same child, regardless of their marital status, or whether they have lived together at any time. This shall include the elderly and handicapped - “Dating relationship” means a courtship or engagement relationship. For purposes of this act, [FN1] a casual acquaintance or ordinary fraternization between persons in a business of social context shall not constitute a dating relationship - “Family of household members” means: - Stalking: The willful, malicious, and repeated following or harassment of a person by an adult, emancipated minor, or minor thirteen (13) years of age of older, in a manner that would cause a reasonable person to feel frightened, intimidated, threatened, harassed, or molested and actually causes the person being followed or harassed to feel terrorized, frightened, intimidated, threatened, harassed or molested. Stalking also means a course of conduct composed of a series of two or more separate acts over a period of time, however short, evidencing a continuity of purpose or unconsented contact with a person that is initiated or continued without the consent of the individual or in disregard of the expressed desire of the individual that the contact be avoided or discontinued. Unconsented contact or course of conduct includes, but is not limited to: - following or appearing within the sight of that individual, - approaching or confronting that individual in a public place or on private property, - appearing at the workplace or residence of that individual, - entering onto or remaining on property owned, leased, or occupied by that individual, - contacting that individual by telephone, - sending mail or electronic communications to that individual, or - placing an object on, or delivering an object to, property owned, leased or occupied by that individual - Rape is an act of sexual intercourse involving vaginal or anal penetration accomplished with a male or female who is not the spouse of the perpetrator and who may be of the same or the opposite sex as the perpetrator under any of the following circumstances: 1. Where the victim is under sixteen (16) years of age; 2. Where the victim is incapable through mental illness or any other unsoundness of mind, whether temporary or permanent, of giving legal consent; 3. Where force or violence is used or threatened, accompanied by apparent power of execution to the victim or to another person; 4. Where the victim is intoxicated by a narcotic or anesthetic agent, administered by or with the privity of the accused as a means of forcing the victim to submit; 5. Where the victim is at the time unconscious of the nature of the act and this fact is known to the accused; 6. Where the victim submits to sexual intercourse under the belief that the person committing the act is a spouse, and this belief is induced by artifice, pretense, or concealment practiced by the accused or by the accused in collusion with the spouse with intent to induce that belief. In all cases of collusion between the accused and the spouse to accomplish such act, both the spouse and the accused, upon conviction, shall be deemed guilty of rape; 7. Where the victim is under the legal custody or supervision of a state agency, a federal agency, a county, a municipality or a political subdivision and engages in sexual intercourse with a state, federal, county, municipal or political subdivision employee or an employee of a contractor of the state, the federal government, a county, a municipality or a political subdivision that exercises authority over the victim; or 8. Where the victim is at least sixteen (16) years of age and is less than twenty (20) years of age and is a student, or under the legal custody or supervision of any public or private elementary or secondary school, junior high or high school, or public vocational school, and engages in sexual intercourse with a person who is eighteen (18) years of age or older and is an employee of the same school system. Rape is an act of sexual intercourse accomplished with a male or female who is the spouse of the perpetrator if force or violence is used or threatened, accompanied by apparent power of execution to the victim or to another person. While legal definitions of stalking vary from one jurisdiction to another, stalking generally refers to a course of conduct that involves a broad range of behavior directed at the victim. The conduct can be varied and involve actions that harass, frighten, threaten and/or force the stalker into the life and consciousness of the victim. Stalking behavior may be difficult to identify, since some can seem kind, friendly or romantic (e.g. sending cards, candy or flowers). However, if the object of the abuser’s attention has indicated s/he wants no contact, these behaviors may constitute stalking. It is important to examine the pattern of behavior in the apparent stalking incidents – type of action, frequency, consistency, if the behavior stops when the stalker is told to cease contact, etc. Indicators of Stalking Behavior The following actions are some behaviors stalkers use. This is not an exhaustive list, and it is important to consider the intensity of each behaviors in deciding if stalking is the intent. - Persistent phone calls despite being told not to make contact in any form - Waiting for the victim at workplace, in the neighborhood/residence hall, after class, and where the stalker knows the victim goes - Threats to family, friends, property or pets of the victim. (Threats or actual abuse toward pets is a particularly strong indicator of potential to escalate to more or lethal violence) - Manipulative behavior (e.g. threatening to commit suicide in order to get a response). - Defamation: The stalker often lies to others about the victim (e.g. reporting infidelity to the victim's partner) - Sending the victim written messages, such as letters, email, graffiti, text messages, IMs, etc - Objectification: The stalker demeans the victim, reducing him/her to an object, allowing the stalker to feel angry with the victim without experiencing empathy - Sending unwanted gifts What to do if someone is stalking you. - Don’t answer the phone or door unless you know who it is. - End all communication with the person who is stalking you. Don’t get into arguments with them or pay attention to them – that’s what they want! - Let family, friends, and your employer know you are being stalked. Show them a picture of the stalker. - Talk to a teacher, friend, administrator or counselor who can help you decide how to deal with the situation. - Write down the times, places, and detailed summaries of each incident. Keep all emails or texts. - Contact the police if stalking persists despite your efforts to end it. - Consider obtaining a restraining order, but evaluate the pros and cons of doing so. Sometimes it can escalate the violence. - Change your routine so the stalker is less able to predict your whereabouts. - Keep any written messages (including electronic) and recorded voice communications What to do about cyber stalking - Do not meet anyone you've met on the internet in person. - Don’t share personal information (name, phone numbers, addresses, etc.) in online public places. - Consider creating separate email accounts for social networking sites or other sites that require personal logins. (Good way to reduce your spam too!) - Use filters and blockers to block unwanted emails. - Send a clear message to a cyber stalker that you do not want further communication and will contact authorities if messaging continues. - Save all communications from a cyber stalker. If you are a victim of stalking: Know it is not your fault and there are numerous On and Off Campus Resources Intimate Partner Violence Intimate Partner violence is a pattern of behavior in which one partner uses fear and intimidation to establish power and control over the other partner. This often includes the threat or use of violence. This abuse happens when one person believes they are entitled to control another. It may or may not include sexual assault. Intimate Partner violence can occur in straight/heterosexual relationships, same-sex/gender relationships and in intimate relationships that do not involve romantic feelings. Intimate partner violence can happen with roommates, friends, classmates, or teammates. Intimate Partner violence impacts people of all ethnicities, races, classes, abilities and nationalities. Although there are some general patterns in intimate partner violence, there is no typical abusive behavior. To wear down and control his/her victim, an abuser may use emotional harassment, physical contact, intimidation, or other means. The controlling behavior usually escalates, particularly if the object of the abuse tries to resist or leave. Types and Forms of Intimate Partner Violence Intimate Partner violence is a crime. Behaviors that are used to maintain fear, intimidation, and power over another person may include threats, economic abuse, sexual abuse or taking advantage of male privilege. These behaviors may take the form of physical, sexual, emotional, and/or psychological violence. General descriptions of the types of domestic and dating violence are as follows: Physical violence: The abuser’s physical attacks or aggressive behavior can range from bruising to murder. It often begins with what is excused as trivial contacts, which escalate into more frequent and serious attacks. Physical abuse may include, but is not limited to, pushing, shoving, hitting, kicking, choking, restraining with force, or throwing things. Sexual abuse: Physical attack is often accompanied by or culminates in some type of sexual intercourse with the victim, or forcing her/him to take part in unwanted sexual activity. Sexual violence may include, but is not limited to, treating the victim and other people as objects via actions and remarks, using sexual names, insisting on dressing or not dressing in a certain ways, touching in ways that make a person uncomfortable, rape, or accusing the victim of sexual activity with others. Emotional or Psychological violence: The abuser’s psychological or mental attack may include constant verbal abuse, harassment, excessive possessiveness, isolation from friends and family, deprivation of physical and economic resources, and destruction of personal property. Emotional or psychological abuse may include, but is not limited to, withholding approval, appreciation, or affection as punishment; ridiculing her/his most valued beliefs, religion, race, or heritage; humiliating and criticizing her/him in public or private; or controlling all her/his actions and decisions. It Could Be Intimate Partner Abuse If…. - Constantly blames his/her partner for everything - including his/her own abusive behavior/temper. - Makes mean and degrading comments about a partner's appearance, beliefs or accomplishments. - Controls money and time. - Gets extremely jealous. - Loses his/her temper. - Physically and/or sexually assaults another. Or the other person: - Gives up things that are important to her/him. - Cancels plans with friends. - Becomes isolated from family and/or friends. - Worries about making her/his partner angry. - Shows signs of physical abuse like bruises or cuts. - Feels embarrassed or ashamed about what's going on in her/his relationship. - Consistently makes excuses for her/his partner’s behavior If You are Experiencing Intimate Partner Abuse... Know it is not your fault and there are numerous On and Off Campus Resources. The concept of consent is often misunderstood in comprehending the issues around sexual misconduct. Learning how to talk about consent, gain consent or refuse consent can help clarify each person’s responsibility which can minimize the risk of unwanted sexual contact. Effective Consent is: - freely and actively given; - mutually understandable words or actions; - words which indicate a willingness or non willingness to participate in mutually agreed upon sexual activity. A person cannot give consent, regardless of what he or she might verbalize, if: - The person is incapacitated or unconscious as a result of alcohol and/or drugs - The person is physically or mentally disabled - The person is not of age to give consent - Once a person says “no.” It does not matter if or what kind of sexual behavior has happened previously in the current event, earlier that day, or daily for the previous six months. It does not matter if it is a current long-term relationship, a broken relationship, or marriage. If one partner says, “NO,” and the other forces penetration it is rape. What does consent mean in intimate relationships? Consent is when one person agrees to or gives permission to another person to do something. Consent means agreeing to an action based on your knowledge of what that action involves, its likely consequences and having the option of saying no. The absence of “no” does not mean “yes”. Consent is a very important part of a sexual relationship. Each person is responsible for their own comfort and safety. Consent is an important part of healthy sexuality and both people should be involved in the decision to participate in sexual activity. - A voluntary, sober, imaginative, enthusiastic, creative, wanted, informed, mutual, honest, and verbal agreement. - An active agreement: Consent cannot be coerced. - A process, which must be asked for every step of the way; if you want to move to the next level of sexual intimacy, just ask. - Never implied and cannot be assumed, even in the context of a relationship. Just because you are in a relationship does not mean that you have permission to have sex with your partner. Kissing Doesn’t Always Need to Lead to Sex Everyone has the right to say “no” and everyone has the right to change their mind at any time regardless of their past experiences with other people or the person they are with. The Perks of Consent - Shows that you have respect for both yourself and your partner. - Enhances communication, respect, and honesty. - Having the ability to know and be able to communicate the type of sexual relationship you want. - The opportunity to acknowledge that you and your partner have sexual needs and desires. - The opportunity to identify your personal beliefs and values and respecting your partner’s personal beliefs and values. - Building confidence and self-esteem. - Challenging stereotypes that rape is a women’s issue. - Challenging sexism and traditional views on gender and sexuality. - Gaining positive views on sex and sexuality are empowering. - Eliminates the entitlement that one partner might feel over another. Neither your body nor your sexuality belong to anyone else. What if the person you’re with is unable to give consent? Drugs and alcohol can affect people’s ability to make decisions, including whether or not they want to be sexual with someone else. This means that if someone is really out of it, they cannot give consent. Being with them in a sexual way when they don’t know what is going on is the same as rape. If you see a person who is unable and is being intimate with someone, you should pull them aside and try your best to make sure that person is safe and knows what he or she is doing. If it’s the opposite situation, and your friend is trying to engage in a sexual encounter with someone who is out if it, you should try to pull them aside and stop them from continuing their behavior. Responsibility with Consent Giving consent is not the sole responsibility of one person. An initiator of sexual activity is also responsible for obtaining effective consent before engaging in sexual behavior. How do you know if the person you are with has given their consent? The only way to know for sure if a person has given consent is if they tell you. It’s not always easy to let people know that you are not happy about something. Sometimes the person you’re with might look like they are happy doing something, but inside they are not. They might not know what to say or how to tell you that they are uncomfortable. The best way to determine if someone is uncomfortable or unwilling in any situation, especially a sexual one, is to simply ask. Here are some examples of the questions you might ask: - Is there anything you don’t want to do? - Are you comfortable? - Do you want to stop? - Do you want to go further? However, if the person incapacitated (as described above) even if consent is verbalized, it is not consent! Recognizing Non-Verbal Communication There are many ways of communicating. The look on a person's face or their body language are also a way of communicating. Often non verbal communication has more meaning than the words that come out of their mouth. Some examples of non verbal communication that signal a person is uncomfortable with the situation are: - Not responding to your touch - Pushing you away - Holding their arms tightly around their bodies - Turning away from you or hiding their face - Stiffening muscles Asking questions and being aware of body language helps you to determine if the person is consenting and feeling comfortable, or not consenting and feeling uncomfortable. If you get a negative or non-committal answer to any of the questions above, or if the person's body language resembles any of the above examples, you should stop what you are doing and talk to them about it. Slowing Things Down Take your time. Making sure you are both comfortable and want the same thing, talk about how far you want to go. This will make the time you spend together more satisfying and enjoyable for you both. Things can move very quickly. Below are ways to say "slow down" if you feel that things are moving too quickly. - I don’t want to go any further than kissing, hugging, touching. - Let's just stay like this for a while. - Let's slow down. You always have the right to say “no”. You always have the right to change your mind at any time regardless of your past experience with the person or others. Below are some things you can say or do if you want so stop: - Say “No” - Say “I want to stop” - Say “I need to go to the bathroom/toilet” - In a situation where the other person isn’t listening to you and you feel unsafe, say you are going feeling sick and might vomit. If someone has attempted or completed a sexual act without your consent... Know it is not your fault and there are numerous On and Off Campus Resources.

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John D. Rockefeller Jr. John Davison Rockefeller Jr. (January 29, 1874 – May 11, 1960) was an American financier and philanthropist who was a prominent member of the Rockefeller family. He was the only son among the five children of Standard Oil co-founder John D. Rockefeller and the father of the five famous Rockefeller brothers. In biographies, he is commonly referred to as "Junior" to distinguish him from his father, "Senior". His sons included Nelson Rockefeller, the 41st Vice President of the United States; Winthrop Rockefeller, the 37th Governor of Arkansas; and banker David Rockefeller. John D. Rockefeller Jr. John Davison Rockefeller Jr. January 29, 1874 |Died||May 11, 1960 (aged 86)| Tucson, Arizona, U.S. |Alma mater||Brown University (A.B.)| Abigail Greene Aldrich (m. 1901; died 1948) Martha Baird (m. 1951) |Children||Abigail, John III, Nelson, Laurance, Winthrop, and David| |Parent(s)||John Davison Rockefeller Sr.| Laura Celestia Spelman |Awards||Public Welfare Medal (1943)| Rockefeller was the fifth and last child of Standard Oil co-founder John Davison Rockefeller Sr. and schoolteacher Laura Celestia "Cettie" Spelman. His four older sisters were Elizabeth (Bessie), Alice (who died an infant), Alta, and Edith. Living in his father's mansion at 4 West 54th Street, he attended Park Avenue Baptist Church at 64th Street (now Central Presbyterian Church) and the Browning School, a tutorial establishment set up for him and other children of associates of the family; it was located in a brownstone owned by the Rockefellers, on West 55th Street. His father John Sr. and uncle William Avery Rockefeller Jr. co-founded Standard Oil together. Initially he had intended to go to Yale University but was encouraged by William Rainey Harper, president of the University of Chicago, among others, to enter the Baptist-oriented Brown University instead. Nicknamed "Johnny Rock" by his roommates, he joined both the Glee and the Mandolin clubs, taught a Bible class, and was elected junior class president. Scrupulously careful with money, he stood out as different from other rich men's sons. In 1897, he graduated with the degree of Bachelor of Arts, after taking nearly a dozen courses in the social sciences, including a study of Karl Marx's Das Kapital. He joined the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. After graduation from Brown, Rockefeller joined his father's business in October 1897, setting up operations in the newly formed family office at 26 Broadway where he became a director of Standard Oil. He later also became a director at J. P. Morgan's U.S. Steel company, which had been formed in 1901. Junior resigned from both companies in 1910 in an attempt to "purify" his ongoing philanthropy from commercial and financial interests after the Hearst media empire unearthed a bribery scandal involving John Dustin Archbold (the successor to Senior as head of Standard Oil) and two prominent members of Congress. In April 1914, after a long period of industrial unrest, the Ludlow Massacre occurred at a tent camp occupied by striking miners from the Colorado Fuel and Iron (CF&I) company. Junior owned a controlling interest in the company (40% of its stock) and sat on the board as an absentee director. At least 20 men, women, and children died in the slaughter. This was followed by nine days of violence between miners and the Colorado State Militia. Although he did not order the attack that began this unrest, there are accounts to suggest Junior was mostly to blame for the violence, with the awful working conditions, death ratio, and no paid dead work which included securing unstable ceilings, workers were forced into working in unsafe conditions just to make ends meet. In January 1915, Junior was called to testify before the Commission on Industrial Relations. Many critics blamed Rockefeller for ordering the massacre. Margaret Sanger wrote an attack piece in her magazine The Woman Rebel, declaring, "But remember Ludlow! Remember the men and women and children who were sacrificed in order that John D. Rockefeller Jr., might continue his noble career of charity and philanthropy as a supporter of the Christian faith." He was at the time being advised by William Lyon Mackenzie King and the pioneer public relations expert, Ivy Lee. Lee warned that the Rockefellers were losing public support and developed a strategy that Junior followed to repair it. It was necessary for Junior to overcome his shyness, go personally to Colorado to meet with the miners and their families, inspect the conditions of the homes and the factories, attend social events, and especially to listen closely to the grievances. This was novel advice, and attracted widespread media attention, which opened the way to resolve the conflict, and present a more humanized version of the Rockefellers. Mackenzie King said Rockefeller's testimony was the turning point in Junior's life, restoring the reputation of the family name; it also heralded a new era of industrial relations in the country During the Great Depression, he was involved in the financing, development, and construction of the Rockefeller Center, a vast office complex in midtown Manhattan, and as a result became one of the largest real estate holders in New York City. He was influential in attracting leading blue-chip corporations as tenants in the complex, including GE and its then affiliates RCA, NBC and RKO, as well as Standard Oil of New Jersey (now ExxonMobil), Associated Press, Time Inc, and branches of Chase National Bank (now JP Morgan Chase). The family office, of which he was in charge, shifted from 26 Broadway to the 56th floor of the landmark 30 Rockefeller Plaza upon its completion in 1933. The office formally became "Rockefeller Family and Associates" (and informally, "Room 5600"). In 1921, Junior received about 10% of the shares of the Equitable Trust Company from his father, making him the bank's largest shareholder. Subsequently, in 1930, Equitable merged with Chase National Bank, making Chase the largest bank in the world at the time. Although his stockholding was reduced to about 4% following this merger, he was still the largest shareholder in what became known as "the Rockefeller bank." As late as the 1960s, the family still retained about 1% of the bank's shares, by which time his son David had become the bank's president. In the late 1920s, Rockefeller founded the Dunbar National Bank in Harlem. The financial institution was located within the Paul Laurence Dunbar Apartments at 2824 Eighth Avenue near 150th Street, servicing a primarily African-American clientele. It was unique among New York City financial institutions in that it employed African Americans as tellers, clerks and bookkeepers as well as in key management positions. However, the bank folded after only a few years of operation. In a celebrated letter to Nicholas Murray Butler in June 1932, subsequently printed on the front page of The New York Times, Rockefeller, a lifelong teetotaler, argued against the continuation of the Eighteenth Amendment on the principal grounds of an increase in disrespect for the law. This letter became an important event in pushing the nation to repeal Prohibition. Rockefeller was known for his philanthropy, giving over $537 million to myriad causes over his lifetime compared to $240 million to his own family. He created the Sealantic Fund in 1938 to channel gifts to his favorite causes; previously his main philanthropic organization had been the Davison Fund. He had become the Rockefeller Foundation's inaugural president in May 1913 and proceeded to dramatically expand the scope of this institution, founded by his father. Later he would become involved in other organizations set up by Senior: Rockefeller University and the International Education Board. In the social sciences, he founded the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial in 1918, which was subsequently folded into the Rockefeller Foundation in 1929. A committed internationalist, he financially supported programs of the League of Nations and crucially funded the formation and ongoing expenses of the Council on Foreign Relations and its initial headquarters building in New York in 1921. He established the Bureau of Social Hygiene in 1913, a major initiative that investigated such social issues as prostitution and venereal disease, as well as studies in police administration and support for birth control clinics and research. In 1924, at the instigation of his wife, he provided crucial funding for Margaret Sanger (who ironically had previously been an opponent of his because of his mistreatment of workers) in her work on birth control and involvement in population issues. He donated five thousand dollars to her American Birth Control League in 1924 and a second time in 1925. In the arts, he gave extensive property he owned on West 54th Street in Manhattan for the site of the Museum of Modern Art, which had been co-founded by his wife in 1929. In 1925, he purchased the George Grey Barnard collection of medieval art and cloister fragments for the Metropolitan Museum of Art. He also purchased land north of the original site, now Fort Tryon Park, for a new building, The Cloisters. In November 1926, Rockefeller came to the College of William and Mary for the dedication of an auditorium built in memory of the organizers of Phi Beta Kappa, the honorary scholastic fraternity founded in Williamsburg in 1776. Rockefeller was a member of the society and had helped pay for the auditorium. He had visited Williamsburg the previous March, when the Reverend Dr. W.A.R. Goodwin escorted him — along with his wife Abby, and their sons, David, Laurance, and Winthrop — on a quick tour of the city. The upshot of his visit was that he approved the plans already developed by Goodwin and launched the massive historical restoration of Colonial Williamsburg on November 22, 1927. Amongst many other buildings restored through his largesse was The College of William & Mary's Wren Building. In 1940, Rockefeller hosted Bill Wilson, one of the original founders of Alcoholics Anonymous, and others at a dinner to tell their stories. "News of this got out on the world wires; inquiries poured in again and many people went to the bookstores to get the book, "Alcoholics Anonymous." Rockefeller offered to pay for the publication of the book, but in keeping with AA traditions of being self-supporting, AA rejected the money. Through negotiations by his son Nelson, in 1946 he bought for $8.5 million - from the major New York real estate developer William Zeckendorf - the land along the East River in Manhattan which he later donated for the United Nations headquarters. This was after he had vetoed the family estate at Pocantico as a prospective site for the headquarters (see Kykuit). Another UN connection was his early financial support for its predecessor, the League of Nations; this included a gift to endow a major library for the League in Geneva which today still remains a resource for the UN. A confirmed ecumenicist, over the years he gave substantial sums to Protestant and Baptist institutions, ranging from the Interchurch World Movement, the Federal Council of Churches, the Union Theological Seminary, the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York's Riverside Church, and the World Council of Churches. He was also instrumental in the development of the research that led to Robert and Helen Lynd's famous Middletown studies work that was conducted in the city of Muncie, Indiana, that arose out of the financially supported Institute of Social and Religious Research. As a follow on to his involvement in the Ludlow Massacre, Rockefeller was a major initiator with his close friend and advisor William Lyon Mackenzie King in the nascent industrial relations movement; along with major chief executives of the time, he incorporated Industrial Relations Counselors (IRC) in 1926, a consulting firm whose main goal was to establish industrial relations as a recognized academic discipline at Princeton University and other institutions. It succeeded through the support of prominent corporate chieftains of the time, such as Owen D. Young and Gerard Swope of General Electric. In the 1920s, he also donated a substantial amount towards the restoration and rehabilitation of major buildings in France after World War I, such as the Reims Cathedral, the Château de Fontainebleau and the Château de Versailles, for which in 1936 he was awarded France's highest decoration, the Grand-Croix de la Legion d'honneur, which was awarded decades later to his son David Rockefeller. He also liberally funded the notable early excavations at Luxor in Egypt, and the American School of Classical Studies for excavation of the Agora and the reconstruction of the Stoa of Attalos, both in Athens; the American Academy in Rome; Lingnan University in China; St. Luke's International Hospital in Tokyo; the library of the Imperial University in Tokyo; and the Shakespeare Memorial Endowment at Stratford-on-Avon. In addition, he provided the funding for the construction of the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem – the Rockefeller Museum – which today houses many antiquities and was the home of many of the Dead Sea Scrolls until they were moved to the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum. He had a special interest in conservation, and purchased and donated land for many American National Parks, including Grand Teton (hiding his involvement and intentions behind the Snake River Land Company), Mesa Verde National Park, Acadia, Great Smoky Mountains, Yosemite, and Shenandoah. In the case of Acadia National Park, he financed and engineered an extensive Carriage Road network throughout the park. Both the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway that connects Yellowstone National Park to the Grand Teton National Park and the Rockefeller Memorial in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park were named after him. He was also active in the movement to save redwood trees, making a significant contribution to Save the Redwoods League in the 1920s to enable the purchase of what would become the Rockefeller Forest in Humboldt Redwoods State Park. In 1951, he established Sleepy Hollow Restorations, which brought together under one administrative body the management and operation of two historic sites he had acquired: Philipsburg Manor House in North Tarrytown, now called Sleepy Hollow (acquired in 1940 and donated to the Tarrytown Historical Society), and Sunnyside, Washington Irving's home, acquired in 1945. He bought Van Cortland Manor in Croton-on-Hudson in 1953 and in 1959 donated it to Sleepy Hollow Restorations. In all, he invested more than $12 million in the acquisition and restoration of the three properties that were the core of the organization's holdings. In 1986, Sleepy Hollow Restorations became Historic Hudson Valley, which also operates the current guided tours of the Rockefeller family estate of Kykuit in Pocantico Hills. He is the author of the noted life principle, among others, inscribed on a tablet facing his famed Rockefeller Center: "I believe that every right implies a responsibility; every opportunity, an obligation; every possession, a duty". In 1935, Rockefeller received The Hundred Year Association of New York's Gold Medal Award, "in recognition of outstanding contributions to the City of New York." He was awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1943. In August 1900, Rockefeller was invited by the powerful Senator Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich of Rhode Island to join a party aboard President William McKinley's yacht, the USS Dolphin, on a cruise to Cuba. Although the outing was of a political nature, Rockefeller's future wife, philanthropist/socialite Abigail Greene "Abby" Aldrich, was included in the large party; the two had first met in the fall of 1894 and had been courting for over four years. Rockefeller married Abby on October 9, 1901, in what was seen at the time as the consummate marriage of capitalism and politics. She was a daughter of Senator Aldrich and Abigail Pearce Truman "Abby" Chapman. Moreover, their wedding was the major social event of its time - one of the most lavish of the Gilded Age. It was held at the Aldrich Mansion at Warwick Neck, Rhode Island, and attended by executives of Standard Oil and other companies. Abby died of a heart attack at the family apartment at 740 Park Avenue in April 1948. Junior remarried in 1951, to Martha Baird, the widow of his old college classmate Arthur Allen. Rockefeller died of pneumonia on May 11, 1960, at the age of 86 in Tucson, Arizona, and was interred in the family cemetery in Tarrytown, with 40 family members present. His sons, the five Rockefeller brothers, established an extensive network of social connections and institutional power over time, based on the foundations that Junior - and before him Senior - had laid down. David became a prominent banker, philanthropist and world statesman. Abby and John III became philanthropists. Laurance became a venture capitalist and conservationist. Nelson and Winthrop Rockefeller later became state governors; Nelson went on to become Vice President of the United States under President Gerald Ford. Junior's principal residence in New York was the 9-story mansion at 10 West 54th Street, but he owned a group of properties in this vicinity, including Nos. 4, 12, 14 and 16 (some of these properties had been previously acquired by his father, John D. Rockefeller). After he vacated No. 10 in 1936, these properties were razed and subsequently all the land was gifted to his wife's Museum of Modern Art. In that year he moved into a luxurious 40-room triplex apartment at 740 Park Avenue. In 1953, the real estate developer William Zeckendorf bought the 740 Park Avenue apartment complex and then sold it to Rockefeller, who quickly turned the building into a cooperative, selling it on to his rich neighbors in the building. Years later, just after his son Nelson become Governor of New York, Rockefeller helped foil a bid by greenmailer Saul Steinberg to take over Chemical Bank. Steinberg bought Junior's apartment for $225,000, $25,000 less than it had cost new in 1929. It has since been called the greatest trophy apartment in New York, in the world's richest apartment building. Honors and legacyEdit - Rockefeller Archive Center: Extended Biography - Details of Brown University days – see Bernice Kert, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller: The Woman in the Family. New York: Random House, 1993. (pp.62–63) - Resignation from Standard Oil and U.S. Steel boards - see Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller Sr., London: Warner Books, 1998. (pp.548-551) - Zinn, Howard (1990). The Politics of History (2nd ed.). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-252-06122-6. - In the Hot Seat: Rockefeller Testifies on Ludlow, New York Times, May 21, 1915. Retrieved December 26, 2017. - The Public Papers of Margaret Sanger: Web Edition. Nyu.edu. Retrieved on September 5, 2013. - Baker, Jean H. Margaret Sanger: A Life of Passion Hill and Wange New York 2011 page 79 - Robert L. Heath, ed.. Encyclopedia of public relations (2005) 1:485 - The Ludlow massacre and the turning point in Junior's life - Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller Sr., London: Warner Books, 1998. (pp.571-586) - Largest shareholder in Chase Bank - see David Rockefeller, Memoirs, New York: Random House, 2002. (pp.124-25) - Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt, ed. (September 1930). "Along the color line". Crisis. 37 (9): 309. - Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt, ed. (August 1933). "Along the color line". Crisis. 40 (8): 186. - Harvey, Chester D.; Reed, James, eds. (1939). "The Harlems". New York City Guide. New York, New York: Random House. p. 265. - Letter on Prohibition - see Daniel Okrent, Great Fortune: The Epic of Rockefeller Center, New York: Viking Press, 2003. (pp.246/7). - The Philanthropy Hall of Fame, John Rockefeller Jr. - Rockefeller Archive Center - Agenda for Reform - Laura Spelman Memorial - see Chernow, op.cit. (p.596) - Funding of the CFR and other international institutions - Ibid., (p.638); John Ensor Harr and Peter J. Johnson, The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America's Greatest Family, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988. (p.156) - The Bureau of Social Hygiene and social issues; funding for Margaret Sanger - see Harr & Johnson, op.cit. (pp.113-15, 191, 461-2) - Katz, Esther Sanger, Margaret The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger Volume 1: The Woman Rebel University of Illinois Press 2003 page 430 - Barnet, Peter; Wu, Nancy (2005). The Cloisters: Medieval Art and Architecture. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 11–13. ISBN 1-58839-176-0. - "The Cloisters Museum and Gardens". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. - Colonial Williamsburg Journal, 2004 - Forward to the 2nd Edition of Alcoholics Anonymous, p. xviii - Family estate vetoed as site for the UN headquarters - Ibid., (pp.432-3) - Endowment of UN library - Ibid., (p.173) - Key involvement in the Industrial Relations movement - Ibid., (pp.183-4) - Restorations and constructions in France, Egypt, Greece and Jerusalem - see David Rockefeller, Memoirs, op.cit. (pp.44-8). - "Mesa Verde National Park Receives Gift Of Artworks From The Estate Of David Rockefeller". www.nationalparkstraveler.org. Retrieved July 24, 2019. - Life principle - see John Donald Wilson, The Chase: The Chase Manhattan Bank, N.A., 1945-1985, Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1986. (p.328) - "Public Welfare Award". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on December 29, 2010. Retrieved February 14, 2011. - Details of the 1901 wedding - Harr & Johnson, op.cit., (pp.81-5) - Michael Gross: 740 Park Avenue - Chernow, Ron. Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. New York: Warner Books, 1998., Detailed biography of his father - Hallahan, Kirk. "Ivy Lee and the Rockefellers' response to the 1913-1914 Colorado coal strike." Journal of Public Relations Research 14#4 (2002): 265-315. - Harr, John Ensor, and Peter J. Johnson. The Rockefeller Century (1988) - Harvey, Charles E. "John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and the Interchurch World Movement of 1919–1920: A Different Angle on the Ecumenical Movement." Church History 51#2 (1982): 198-209. - Harvey, Charles E. "John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and the social sciences: An introduction." Journal of the History of Sociology 4#2 (1982): 1-31. - Manchester, William. A Rockefeller Family Portrait: From John D. to Nelson (1959) - Rees, Jonathan H. Representation and Rebellion: The Rockefeller Plan at the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, 1914–1942 (2011) - Schenkel, Albert F. The rich man and the kingdom: John D. Rockefeller Jr., and the Protestant establishment (Augsburg Fortress Pub, 1995) - Ernst, Joseph W., and John Davison Rockefeller. Dear Father/dear Son: Correspondence of John D. Rockefeller and John D. Rockefeller Jr. (Fordham Univ Press, 1994) |Wikiquote has quotations related to: John D. Rockefeller Jr.| - Rockefeller Archive Center: Extended Biography - The Architect of Colonial Williamsburg: William Graves Perry, by Will Molineux An article from the Colonial Williamsburg Journal, 2004, outlining Rockefeller's involvement - Newspaper clippings about John D. Rockefeller Jr. in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |Awards and achievements| Prince Albert, Duke of York | Cover of Time Magazine January 19, 1925 Charles B. Warren

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Since antiquity, mathematics has been an integral part of our everyday lives. Our understanding of math, and the constant desire to enlarge the extent of our knowledge about the world has taken us far, so that today, the world as we know it would not be possible without maths. Mathematics is an application of matter and contributes to all of our methodical and systematic behaviours. It is Maths, for instance, that has brought order to the communities across this planet and prevented chaos and catastrophes. Many of our inherited human qualities are nurtured and developed by Maths theories, like our spatial awareness, our problem-solving skills, our power to reason (which involves calculated thinking) and even our creativity and communication. Things that you wouldn’t expect to bear any relation to Maths do in fact come down to an underlying need for mathematics and the structure it brings to our everyday lives. Wait, this all sounds a bit deep and rather daunting, doesn’t it? Saying that maths governs almost everything in this world and that its importance to life is immeasurable? Don’t worry, here comes the fun part! Maths has a reputation with many, usually those who encounter difficulty when faced with it, for being a boring subject. But that really isn’t the case! What’s more, by introducing some fun elements to the way students are taught mathematical theories and concepts, then far more pupils would be excelling in this area! It’s so easy to just switch off and omit to take in any information when we are just not that interested. But, the way to retain and process that important information and to not let it just go straight back out is to enjoy working things out. Did you know, that you can have loads of fun while learning maths and the many tricks and puzzles it presents? Most of us can’t resist a good riddle and solving difficult logic puzzles is a fantastic brain teaser. Making subjects such as algebra, fractions, and probability more entertaining isn’t as hard it sounds! If you don’t believe us, then try out these gratifying maths puzzles! That’s right, it is possible to practice maths while enjoying yourself! Whether an optical illusion, a picture puzzle or logic games, figuring out the answer to a tricky puzzle is a great way to improve your problem solving skills. The mathematical pioneer Alan Turing broke the toughest of codes (Source: Wikipedia.org – Jon Callas) In a quest to understand the world around him, man has employed maths in an effort to tease out tangible proofs. The history of mathematics is punctuated by great minds wrestling with the great enigmas of their time. Mathematical puzzles and brainteasers combine reasoning with numbers, calculations and figures. To solve such puzzles, one needn’t have the brain of a mathematical genius, but it is important to take a logical approach and apply the maths skills one has learnt during the curriculum of their maths revision GCSE, from simple multiplication and division, quadratic equations and calculus. So get ready to channel your inner mathematician with these 5 challenging puzzles that may be encountered in maths classes. Let’s consider how and why these brainteasers are so useful to us. It’s not all in your head! Brain training is equally good for your entire body and wellbeing. The NHS itself states that “keeping the mind active may have various benefits, including a reduced risk of dementia. In general, it would seem sensible to keep the mind as well as the body active.” There are various things that keeping your mind active with cognitive training can do for you, such as: Also, have you ever considered the fact that everything changes your brain? Each new person you meet, each new story you read, each new flower you smell… there are so many ‘firsts’ that continue to take place throughout our lives that we probably don’t even give a second thought to. However, when you sit back and think about it, your brain is constantly developing and being influenced by surroundings. So, if you are still dubious about how a bit of brain training can help you, then just think about this: if, like many others, one single image of a celebrity looking your idea of perfection can trigger a powerful sense of motivation to go to the gym/buy some new clothes/change the way you do your hair/etc, then can’t one tiny mathematical game also have the force to change your mindset and make something inside click? Who knows what regular brain training could do in the sense of how you approach maths and how you think about things in general! Here is a formula that you might like the look of which could apply to you if you learn math. Maths = Control = Self-Improvement = Satisfaction There are 100 prisoners, sentenced to death, in a prison. Out of the blue, the prison’s director proposes a challenge He assigns each prisoner a number between 1 and 100, then installs in his office a cabinet with 100 drawers, each containing a random number between 1 and 100, corresponding to those assigned to the prisoners. Each number appears only once. He asks each prisoner to open 50 drawers and check the number in each. Once each prisoner has entered the office, he is forbidden from communicating with his fellow prisoners, nor to change the sequence of draws or leave any clues. No prisoner will know what numbers the other inmates have seen. The prison director gives two possible outcomes: What is the chance that each prisoner finds the drawer corresponding to his number? According to the law of mathematical probability, the chance that all would be pardoned is (1/2)100, or 0.0000000000000000000000000000008. There is a clever strategy that offers the prisoners the chance to increase these odds, and live. What is it? Matrices like those in the Raven’s test: A nonverbal group test used in educational settings (Source: Frontiers in Psychology – Daniel Little et. al.) Behind three characters called A, B and C hide 3 gods known as ‘true’, ‘false’ and ‘random’. The ‘true’ god always responds with the truth, the ‘false’ god always lies and the ‘random’ one alternates unpredictably between the two. The challenge is ‘simple’!: Discover the respective identities of A, B and C by asking only three questions to which the answer is either true or false. Each question can only be asked of one god, but if you decide to question a single god more than once (a maximum of three times), the other gods will not be able to answer. Your questions may be unrelated to each other. When preparing his class for a mathematics competition, a teacher decides to offer his students a cake in the form of a triangle with three unequal sides. He places an order with a cake shop, giving the measurements of the cake’s three sides. The baker orders a box for the cake, giving the same measurements. When the cake is done, however, he finds that while the measurements have been respected, the shape is symmetrical, rather than identical, to that of its cake. He calls the maths teacher to ask how he should cut the cake such that it fits in the box. The teacher replies that two cuts will suffice. How should these be made? A cat and a mouse decide to play “heads or tails”. To liven up the game, they decide to change the rules: Each player must choose a combination of 3 results (e.g. heads, tails, heads). They toss the coin many times, and the first to see one of his combinations appear in three consecutive coin tosses wins the game. The two players cannot choose the same combination. The cat, feeling himself to be the stronger player, starts first. The mouse, the smarter of the two, decides to let him go ahead. How can the chance of winning be increased, for each player? There is a duck in the middle of a circular pond. At the edge of this pond is an impatient cat. While the duck would like to taste the grass at the edge of the pond, the cat would very much like to taste the duck! The cat doesn’t know how to swim, and is too afraid of water to enter the pond. The duck, meanwhile, has wings which are too small to let him fly away. Knowing that the cat can run four times faster than the duck can swim, is it possible for the duck to reach the edge of the pond without getting caught by the cat? A brain teaser is a question whose answer should be fun to come by. Granted, no everyone enjoys brain teasers – in which case they would be frustrating rather than fun but, once you get the hang of them, you too will find them amusing. There are all types of brain teasers; some involving conditions or situations; others predicated on a certain sequence. For example: Mary’s father has five daughters: Nana, Nene, Nini and Nono. What is the name of the fifth daughter? Some might follow the vowel pattern and proclaim Nunu to be the fifth daughter but, as so often is the case in brain teasers, the answer is in the question. If Mary’s father has five daughters, then Mary must be one of them… right? Maths brain teasers can also have such obvious answers but sometimes require more thought. For example: If three birds lay three eggs in three days, how many eggs does one bird lay in one day? The answer to this one is ambiguous. From a mathematical perspective, one bird lays 1/3 of an egg in one day. However, as no bird known to man can lay just one-third of an egg, the logical answer is either one or none. See what we mean by frustrating? To our knowledge, all birds lay whole eggs; no bird known to man can lay a fraction of an egg! Source: Pixabay Credit: Pamjpat Brain teasers should be level-appropriate; naturally, we would not want to torture any math students with puzzles that require some knowledge of higher algebraic functions when they’re not at that learning stage! Some addition required: using only 8 eights, how can you add them together to equal 1000? Answer: 888+88+8+8+8 = 1000 I’m thinking of a three-digit number. The second digit is four times as big as the third and the first is three less than the second. Which three numbers yield the same result whether they are added or multiplied together? Answer: 1, 2 and 3 Liam made four snowballs on Monday. On Tuesday, he made nine and on Wednesday, 14. How many did he make on Thursday and Friday? Answer: increase the amount by five each day. The highest temperature recorded at Heathrow on January 1st was -1 degree. On January 2nd, it was 4 degrees. What was the temperature on January 3rd if the average temperature for the first three days of January was 2 degrees? Answer: 3 degrees A hot dog vendor wants to buy equal amounts of sausages and buns but the buns come in packs of 10 and sausages in packs of 8. How many packs of each would the vendor need to buy to achieve his goal? Answer: 10 packs of sausages and eight packs of buns. All of these statements are true: AxB=12; A+B+C=12; and B-A=1. What sequential numbers are represented by A, B and C? Answer: A=3, B=4, C=5 Many people make no distinction between these two types of mind benders. After all, they are both questions designed to make you think… right? The difference between brain teasers and riddles lies in their intent. A riddle sometimes uses double meanings or other phrasing that demand ingenuity and non-linear thinking to solve. Here is an excellent example of such: What starts with T, ends with T and has T in it? A teapot! A brain teaser, on the other hand, generally does not employ tricky construction or multiple meanings: I am an odd number. Take away one letter and I become even. What number am I? The answer, seven, is twice true: 7-1=6, which is an even number, added to the fact that removal of the S leaves the word even! Brain teasers are generally for amusement purposes so they would be effective as a warm-up or icebreaker at the start of a maths lesson. If you are a tutor, you might keep a stock of these brain teasers in reserve to lighten the mood and get your tutee mentally prepared to learn. Caregivers: you too can cultivate your charges’ thinking by launching the occasional brain teaser. Stuck in traffic? Waiting at the doctor’s office? Perfect time to exercise the mind! Just like traditional puzzles whose interlocking pieces form a complete picture, logic puzzles embrace the same principle – minus the pieces. Logic puzzles require the participant to put those figurative pieces together correctly using only their thought processes… and perhaps a pencil to make notes. Some of the more popular logic puzzles involving numbers include Sudoku and KenKen. One particular logic puzzle that swept the globe and was even a central theme to the Hollywood blockbuster movie The Pursuit of Happyness is… Can you put the pieces together to come up with the right answer? Rubik’s cube is one of the best-known logic puzzles! Source: Pixabay Credit: Croisy Rubik’s Cube, the brainchild of architect Erno Rubik, captivated the world immediately upon its premiere in 1980. Since then, several iterations have evolved from the initial cuboid concept: Rubik’s Snake and Rubik’s Magic, as well as a host of custom-built puzzles and even digital versions. Today, nearly 40 years after the cube’s debut, countries all around the world host speed-cubing competitions. Some of the challenges involve blind cubing, cubing with your feet and, of course, solving cube puzzles in the least amount of time. The World Cubing Association regulates and sponsors these events. Mr Rubik devised the cube puzzle as a challenge for his students – he was a professor of architecture at the time. The device, made of wood and held together by rubber bands, was meant to give his pupils hands-on experience manipulating a 3-dimensional object. He had not intended to create a logic puzzle and, indeed, was unaware that it was one until he attempted to restore it to its initial condition – all colours on their respective sides. So, if you find yourself with idle time and your hands are just twitching for something to do, pick up a Rubik’s cube and see if you can devise a new algorithm to solve it! In the meantime, here are a few other logic puzzles to try your hand at. Unfortunately, they are not the kind you can physically manipulate! You have a bag containing 10 apples. You encounter 10 friends, each who want an apple. You distribute the apples – one to each friend and have one left in the bag. How can that be? Answer: you gave the last friend the bag containing the last apple. You have three small bags, each containing two marbles. Bag 1 has two blue marbles, bag 2 has two green marbles and bag 3 has one green and one blue marble. Reaching into one bag, you extract a blue marble; how probable is it that the marble remaining in that bag is blue? Answer: there is a 2/3 probability that the remaining marble will also blue. How can you add two 3-digit numbers to always equal 1089? Answer: pick a 3-digit number and then reverse it. Subtract your original number from the reversed number and reverse that result. Add that number to the subtraction result to obtain 1089 A 4-inch, solid cube of wood is painted red on all 6 sides. And then, it is cut 1-inch cubes. How many of those cubes will have 3 red sides, how many will have 2 red sides or 1 red side and how many will have no red at all? Answer: 8 cubes will have 3 red sides, 24 will have 2 red sides, 24 will have 1 red side and 8 will have no red at all. Some of these puzzles seem to defy logic, as in the case of #2: how can one have a 2/3 probability of the second marble being blue if green marbles outnumber the blue after your first draw? This phenomenon is known as the Monte Hall Problem and relies on intuition and elimination. 1. You can eliminate the bag containing only green marbles; you obviously didn’t pick from it. That leaves 2 bags, each containing a blue marble. 2. Now that you have (figuratively) eliminated 2 green marbles, the number of blue marbles still in the bags is double the number of green marbles… 3. As the total number of marbles to select from is 3 and two of them are blue, you have a 2-in-3 chance of again selecting blue. Most aver that you would have a 50% chance of choosing blue again but, now that we’ve done the math, we see that assumption is not correct! Likewise with the red-painted cube. Many seem to assume the cube is hollow and neglect to add the eight unpainted cubes that make up the core of the larger cube. Finally, the bag of apples and all of those greedy friends: many intuit that each apple will be removed from the bag to be given away but that is only necessary for the first nine apples. Let the tenth greedy friend dispose of the apple bag for you! As for the three digits always totalling 1089? It’s actually quite interesting to see how much fun playing with algebra can really be… If you like fun maths games, word problems, mah-jong or brain-teasers, you’ll love these puzzles: There are two possibilities: 3 + 3 = 6 and 8 – 3 = 5 (Source: Preplounge.com) Answer: 100 (Source: 9gag.com) Hint: the second digit is not important for the result. Result = first digit * first digit, third digit * third digit 398 = 964 (3*3 8*8) 118 = 164 (1*1 8*8) 356 = 936 (3*3 6*6) 423 = 169 (4*4 3*3) Man has always sought to understand the world in which he evolved. He has researched untiringly, consulted countless tomes and debated with his contemporaries, to better understand the world of maths. Each answer has lead to more questions. The desire to solve riddles is part of our genetic heritage: We are born to seek answers. Why are we here, on Earth? Is there life after death? Who were the first humans? How did they live? Since antiquity, some of the great mysteries rooted in maths and physics have eluded our understanding: Breaking the Enigma code: The Imitation Game (Source: Flickr.com – Bagogames) Becoming absorbed in maths problems can be a very good way for someone to forget their troubles. To do so, you may need to use: Should we all love maths and mathematical equations? Why do they matter? Why do some people turn off when it comes to this topic? An Enigma decryption machine, called a “bombe” (Source: media.defense.gov – U.S. Air Force) According to the specifications set out by the government, a GCSE in mathematics should enable students to: 1. develop fluent knowledge, skills and understanding of mathematical methods and 2. acquire, select and apply mathematical techniques to solve problems 3. reason mathematically, make deductions and inferences and draw conclusions 4. comprehend, interpret and communicate mathematical information in a variety of forms appropriate to the information and context. During a GCSE course, the primary topics that you will encounter in your maths studies are: Surely there’s some room to have fun among these modules? Of course, much of it depends on your teacher, their teaching style and the time you have to cover the content in lessons so don’t go giving your tutor a hard time of it when they have a class that won’t settle quickly. That said, there’s no harm in asking if your teacher has heard of these cool math games and if you might be able to try some similar puzzles and games during class! As for A Level and AS students, the government thinks it’s important for them to: The overarching themes of an A-Level math course are, therefore, the following, with numerous sub-topics making up each section. At degree level, you can choose to study towards a basic Maths qualification (no less demanding than a more specialised course, we’ll add!) but you can also choose to focus on a specialism like mathematical finance, mathematical physics, mathematical biology, actuarial maths, history of maths, special relativity, quantum theory or medical statistics, though many of these are available as modules in later years of a Maths bachelor of science degree. The topics you’ll study during your introductory year on a Maths degree include: Of course, even if you like maths and think you are quite good at it (and you certainly will after all these brain teaser games!) then you don’t have to study Maths, per say. Why not consider economics, engineering, computer science, physics or theoretical physics, another science subject such as chemistry, biology or psychology, or accounting or finance as ideas? If you’re seeking a career in Finance, then some level of math qualification is required, but you may not necessarily need a degree. Areas you might want to consider are accountancy, actuarial work, investment management, investment banking, and retail banking. Aside from the financial sector, there are industries such as engineering and information technology that can benefit from someone who is good with numbers. Alternatively, different avenues that maths graduates follow include roles like defence and intelligence officer, statistician, operational researcher, academic mathematician, teacher of Maths in a primary or secondary school, or positions within the law, media, business or public sectors. You can see what jobs are out there for maths enthusiasts by visiting a job website. By now, hopefully, you’ll have seen, that maths lessons get your neurones firing and can take you in many places! So, why not find an online maths tutor with Superprof? Equally as important, they provide us with a better understanding of our world. Finally, when you know where to look, it’s easy to see the imprint of maths in our daily lives! Share your maths riddles and answers in the comments!

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The BNSF Railway Company is the largest freight railroad network in North America. One of eight North American Class I railroads, BNSF has 44,000 employees, 32,500 miles of track in 28 states, more than 8,000 locomotives, it has three transcontinental routes that provide rail connections between the western and eastern United States. BNSF trains traveled over 169 million miles in 2010, more than any other North American railroad; the BNSF and Union Pacific have a duopoly on all transcontinental freight rail lines in the Western U. S. and share trackage rights over thousands of miles of track. The BNSF Railway Company is the principal operating subsidiary of parent company Burlington Northern Santa Fe, LLC. Headquartered in Fort Worth, the railroad's parent company is a wholly owned subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway, Inc. According to corporate press releases, the BNSF Railway is among the top transporters of intermodal freight in North America, it hauls bulk cargo, including enough coal to generate around ten per cent of the electricity produced in the United States. The creation of BNSF started with the formation of a holding company on September 22, 1995. This new holding company purchased the Atchison and Santa Fe Railway and Burlington Northern Railroad, formally merged the railways into the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway on December 31, 1996. On January 24, 2005, the railroad's name was changed to BNSF Railway Company using the initials of its original name. On November 3, 2009, Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway announced it would acquire the remaining 77.4 percent of BNSF it did not own for $100 per share in cash and stock — a deal valued at $44 billion. The company is acquiring $10 billion in debt. On February 12, 2010, shareholders of Burlington Northern Santa Fe Corporation voted in favor of the acquisition. BNSF's history dates back to 1849, when the Aurora Branch Railroad in Illinois and the Pacific Railroad of Missouri were formed; the Aurora Branch grew into the Chicago and Quincy Railroad, a major component of successor Burlington Northern. A portion of the Pacific Railroad became the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway; the Atchison and Santa Fe Railway was chartered in 1859. It built one of the first transcontinental railroads in North America, linking Chicago and Southern California; the Interstate Commerce Commission denied a proposed merger with the Southern Pacific Transportation Company in the 1980s. The Burlington Northern Railroad was created in 1970 through the consolidation of the Chicago and Quincy Railroad, the Great Northern Railway, the Northern Pacific Railway and the Spokane and Seattle Railway, it absorbed the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway in 1980, its main lines included Chicago-Seattle with branches to Texas and Montgomery and access to the low-sulfur coal of Wyoming's Powder River Basin. On June 30, 1994, BN and ATSF announced plans to merge. S. Class I railroads; the long-rumored announcement was delayed by a disagreement over the disposition of Santa Fe Pacific Gold Corporation, a gold mining subsidiary that ATSF agreed to sell to stockholders. This announcement began the next wave of mergers, as the "Super Seven" were merged down to four in the next five years. The Illinois Central Railroad and Kansas City Southern Railway, two of the five "small" Class Is, announced on July 19 that the former would buy the latter, but this plan was called off on October 25; the Union Pacific Railroad, another major Western system, started a bidding war with BN for control of the SF on October 5. The UP gave up on January 1995, paving the way for the BN-ATSF merger. Subsequently, the UP acquired the Southern Pacific Transportation Company in 1996, Eastern systems CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern Railway split Conrail in 1999. On February 7, 1995, BN and ATSF heads Gerald Grinstein and Robert D. Krebs both announced shareholders had approved the plan, which would save overhead costs and combine BN's coal and ATSF's intermodal strengths. Although the two systems complemented each other with little overlap, in contrast to the Santa Fe-Southern Pacific merger, which failed because it would have eliminated competition in many areas of the Southwest, BN and ATSF came to agreements with most other Class Is to keep them from opposing the merger. UP was satisfied with a single segment of trackage rights from Abilene, Kansas to Superior, which BN and ATSF had both served. KCS gained haulage rights to several Midwest locations, including Omaha, East St. Louis, Memphis, in exchange for BNSF getting similar access to New Orleans. SP requesting far-reaching trackage rights throughout the West, soon agreed on a reduced plan, whereby SP acquired trackage rights on ATSF for intermodal and automotive traffic to Chicago, other trackage rights on ATSF in Kansas, south to Texas, between Colorado and Texas. In exchange, SP assigned BNSF trackage rights over the former Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad between El Paso and Topeka and haulage rights to the Mexican border at Eagle Pass, Texas. Regional Toledo and Western Railway obtained trackage rights over BN from Peoria to Galesburg, Illinois, a BN hub where it could interchange with SP; the Interstate Commerce Commission approved the BNSF merger on July 20, 1995, less than a month before UP announced on August In geography, a confluence occurs where two or more flowing bodies of water join together to form a single channel. A confluence can occur in several configurations: at the point where a tributary joins a larger river. Confluences are studied in a variety of sciences. Hydrology studies the characteristic flow patterns of confluences and how they give rise to patterns of erosion and scour pools; the water flows and their consequences are studied with mathematical models. Confluences are relevant to the distribution of living organisms as well; the United States Geological Survey gives an example: "chemical changes occur when a stream contaminated with acid mine drainage combines with a stream with near-neutral pH water. According to Lynch, "the color of each river is determined by many things: type and amount of vegetation in the watershed, geological properties, dissolved chemicals and biologic content – algae." Lynch notes that color differences can persist for miles downstream before they blend completely. Hydrodynamic behaviour of flow in a confluence can be divided into six distinct features which are called confluence flow zones. These include Stagnation zone Flow deflection zone Flow separation zone / recirculation zone Maximum velocity zone Flow recovery zone Shear layers Since rivers serve as political boundaries, confluences sometimes demarcate three abutting political entities, such as nations, states, or provinces, forming a tripoint. Various examples are found in the list below. A number of major cities, such as Chongqing, St. Louis, Khartoum, arose at confluences. Within a city, a confluence forms a visually prominent point, so that confluences are sometimes chosen as the site of prominent public buildings or monuments, as in Koblenz and Winnipeg. Cities often build parks at confluences, sometimes as projects of municipal improvement, as at Portland and Pittsburgh. In other cases, a confluence is an industrial site, as in Mannheim. A confluence lies in the shared floodplain of the two rivers and nothing is built on it, for example at Manaus, described below. One other way that confluences may be employed by humans is as a sacred place in a religion. Rogers suggests that for the ancient peoples of the Iron Age in northwest Europe, watery locations were sacred sources and confluences. Pre-Christian Slavic peoples chose confluences as the sites for fortified triangular temples, where they practiced human sacrifice and other sacred rites. In Hinduism, the confluence of two sacred rivers is a pilgrimage site for ritual bathing. In Pittsburgh, a number of adherents to Mayanism consider their city's confluence to be sacred. At Lokoja, the Benue River flows into the Niger. At Kazungula in Zambia, the Chobe River flows into the Zambezi; the confluence defines the tripoint of Zambia and Namibia. The land border between Botswana and Zimbabwe to the east reaches the Zambezi at this confluence, so there is a second tripoint only 150 meters downstream from the first. See Kazungula and Quadripoint, Gallery below for image; the Sudanese capital of Khartoum is located at the confluence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile, the beginning of the Nile. 82 km north of Basra in Iraq at the town of Al-Qurnah is the confluence of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, forming the Shatt al-Arab. At Devprayag in India, the Ganges River originates at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda. Near Allahabad, the Yamuna flows into the Ganges. In Hinduism, this is a pilgrimage site for ritual bathing. In Hindu belief the site is held to be a triple confluence, the third river being the metaphysical Sarasvati. Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaysia, is where the Gombak River flows into the Klang River at the site of the Jamek Mosque; the Kolam Biru, a pool with elaborate fountains, has been installed at the apex of the confluence. The Nam Khan River flows into the Mekong at Luang Prabang in Laos; the Jialing flows into the Yangtze at Chongqing in China. The confluence forms a focal point in the city, marked by Chaotianmen Square, built in 1998. In the Far East, the Amur forms the international boundary between Russia; the Ussuri, which demarcates the border, flows into the Amur at a point midway between Fuyuan in China and Khabarovsk in Russia. The apex of the confluence is located in a rural area, part of China, where a commemorative park, Dongji Square, has been built. Washington State Route 970 State Route 970 is a 10.31-mile-long state highway serving rural Kittitas County in the U. S. state of Washington. The highway connects Cle Elum to Blewett Pass and begins at an interchange with Interstate 90 in Cle Elum. Traveling east, SR 970 intersects SR 903 north of the interchange and SR 10 in Teanaway before ending at U. S. Route 97 in Virden; the highway was first added to the state highway system in 1909 as part of the Snoqualmie Pass Road and State Road 7. It was signed as the Sunset Highway in 1913 and State Road 2 in 1923 before becoming part of US 97 and US 10. State Road 2 became Primary State Highway 2 in 1937 and was replaced by US 97 during the 1964 highway renumbering. US 97 was realigned onto SR 131 between Thorp and Virden in 1975 and SR 970 was created on the former route. SR 970 begins at a diamond interchange with I-90 southeast of Cle Elum; the highway travels northeast and crosses over a BNSF rail line before intersecting SR 903, another highway that travels into Downtown Cle Elum. SR 970 turns southeast to intersect SR 903 Spur and continues out of Cle Elum and towards Teanaway, following the rail line and the Yakima River upstream. The highway intersects SR 10 south of De Vere Field and continues as a two-lane roadway northeast following the Teanaway River to Virden known as Lauderdale Junction, where SR 970 ends at an intersection with US 97; every year, the Washington State Department of Transportation conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume. This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic, a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. In 2011, WSDOT calculated that between 2,800 and 5,600 vehicles per day used the highway in the Cle Elum area. SR 970 is designated as a part of the National Highway System and as a Highway of Statewide Significance, which includes principal arterials that are needed to connect major communities in the state. SR 970 was first defined under law to be built and paved by the state of Washington in 1909 as part of the Snoqualmie Pass Road, signed as State Road 7, between Snoqualmie Pass and Blewett Pass. The highway was renamed to the Sunset Highway in 1913 and became State Road 2 during a 1923 restructuring of the state highway system. State Road 2 became concurrent with US 10 from Cle Elum to Teanaway and US 97 from Cle Elum to Virden after the creation of the United States Numbered Highways in 1926. State Road 2 became PSH 2 during the creation of the Primary and secondary state highways in 1937 and US 10 was moved onto US 97 over Blewett Pass in the late 1930s. US 10 was moved to its original route in 1946. After the 1964 highway renumbering, PSH 2 was removed from the highway system and replaced with US 97. US 10 was replaced with SR 10 in 1970 and US 97 was moved east on SR 131 in 1975, constructed two years prior to the realignment. SR 970 was established on the former route of US 97 in 1975 and repairs to the highway were needed with WSDOT deciding against dropping the designation from the state highway system and turning over the highway to Kittitas County in 1985. No major revisions to the route of SR 970 have occurred since 1975. The entire highway is in Kittitas County. Highways of Washington State Washington State Department of Transportation The Washington State Department of Transportation was established in 1905. The agency, led by a Secretary and overseen by the Governor, is a Washington governmental agency that constructs and regulates the use of the state's transportation infrastructure. WSDOT is responsible for more than 20,000 lane-miles of roadway, nearly 3,000 vehicular bridges and 524 other structures; this infrastructure includes rail lines, state highways, state ferries and state airports WSDOT was founded as the Washington State Highway Board and the Washington State Highways Department on March 13, 1905, when then-governor Albert Mead signed a bill that gave $110,000 USD to fund new roads that linked the state. The State Highway Board was managed by State Treasurer, State Auditor, Highway Commissioner Joseph M. Snow and the Board first met on April 17, 1905 to plan the 12 original state roads; the first state highway districts, each managed by a District Engineer, were established in 1918. During this period, the construction of highways began. In 1921, the State Highway Board was replaced by the Washington Highway Committee and the Washington State Highways Department became a division of the Washington State Department of Public Works. The first gas tax was levied and Homer Hadley started planning a pontoon bridge across Lake Washington, which would become the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge, which opened on July 2, 1940. In 1923, the State Highways Department separated from the Public Works Department and organized the first official system of highways, Washington's state road system. In 1926, the U. S. government approved the U. S. route system. 11 U. S. Routes entered Washington at the time. In 1929, the Highway Committee was merged with the State Highways Department; the Lake Washington Floating Bridge and the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge opened in 1940. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapsed because of winds on November 7, 1940, earning it the name Galloping Gertie. On June 29, 1956, President Dwight Eisenhower signed the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, which started the Interstate Highway System. 2 Interstates entered Washington. Starting in 1961, the Interstate Highways started to be built. There were 2 more Interstates to build and most work was not completed until the 1970s. In 1964, the Highways Department was renamed to WSDOT and the state highways were renumbered to the current system. Metro Transit was created in 1972 and work on highways continued fast; the North Cascades Highway was completed in 1972 and the first HOV lanes in Washington were installed on SR 520 in 1972. The Washington State Transportation Commission was established in 1977 and the first meeting was held on September 21, 1977. On February 13, 1979, the western pontoons of the Hood Canal Bridge were swept away by a wind storm. In 1980, Mount St. Helens erupted and caused damage to many state highways SR 504; the Hood Canal Replacement Bridge opened on October 3, 1982 and the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge collapsed on November 25, 1990. In 1991, a smaller renumbering of state highways occurred; the renumbering produced either realigned or removed highways from the system. In 1996, Sound Transit was formed and in the same year, the Washington State Transportation Commission adopted its first 20-year transportation plan. Throughout the 1990s, WSDOT focused more and more on rail systems and partnered with Amtrak to make a train route that went from Canada to Oregon, which would become the Amtrak Cascades; the 2001 Nisqually earthquake damaged most state highways around the Seattle metropolitan area and most of the budget was turned over to the Puget Sound region to help rebuild and repair roads and bridges. WSDOT divides Washington into 6 regions, the Olympic, Northwest Southwest, North Central, South Central, Eastern; the Northwest Region is further divided into 3 more regions, which are King County, Snohomish County, Baker. WSDOT is overseen by the Governor of Washington, who appoints a Secretary of Transportation, confirmed by the state legislature; the last Secretary of Transportation was Lynn Peterson, who served on an interim basis until February 5, 2016, when her appointment under Governor Jay Inslee was rejected by the Washington State Senate during the confirmation process. Deputy Secretary of Transportation Roger Millar was appointed as Acting Secretary of Transportation by Governor Inslee on February 10, 2016. WSDOT manages the official ferry service in Washington. WSDOT's ferry service, called Washington State Ferries, is the largest in the United States and third largest in the world. Ferries had been in the Puget Sound since the 1950s. There are 10 routes and 22 ferries operating. WSDOT began operating the Travel Washington intercity Bus program in 2007. There are four lines: Grape Line, from Pasco to Walla Walla, operated by Airporter Shuttle/Bellair Charters Dungeness Line, from Port Angeles to Seattle, operated by Olympic Bus Lines. Apple Line, from Omak to Ellensburg via Wenatchee, operated by Northwestern Trailways Gold Line, from Kettle Falls to Spokane, operated by Airporter Shuttle/Bellair Charters There are about 250 projects that WSDOT is planning or constructing; some of the most notable projects that were finished include the Tacoma Narrows Bridge project, which built a second bridge adjacent to the original bridge, the SR 167 HOT lanes project, which added HOT lanes over SR 167's existing HOV lanes from the SR 18 area to 180th Street, the I-5 HOV extensions project, which extended the HOV lanes in Everett from the I-5/SR 99/SR 526/SR 527 interchange to the I-5/US 2/SR 529 Spur interchange. Some of th Blewett Pass, at an elevation of 4,124 feet, is a mountain pass in the Wenatchee Mountains of Washington state, crossed by U. S. Route 97. Named for Edward Blewett, a Seattle mining promoter of the 1880s, it lies on the route of the historical Yellowstone Trail. Unlike the many well known passes that lie on the spine of the Cascades, Blewett Pass lies on the divide between the Wenatchee River to the north and the Yakima River to the south; the highway over the pass connects Interstate 90 between Seattle and Ellensburg, Washington with US 2 between Monroe and Wenatchee. The route from Seattle to Wenatchee over Snoqualmie Pass and Blewett Pass is a reasonable alternative to the more northerly route over Stevens Pass. What is now called Blewett Pass was known as Swauk Pass, it should not be confused with Old Blewett Pass, about 5 miles west of the current summit at the lower elevation of 4,064 feet. Swauk was renamed to Blewett Pass in the 1960s after the completion of a new highway alignment for US 97, with locals preferring to keep the old name. The old pass road is Forest Road 9715 and Forest Road 7320. The road closes for the winter. Notify the Forest Service in the Wenatchee National Forest before taking the road upon re-opening in the warmer months. Blewett Pass road conditions International Road Trip Enthusiasts Association: Old Blewett Pass Toure de Old Blewett Road U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Blewett Pass Interstate 90 in Washington Interstate 90 is a transcontinental Interstate Highway that runs from Seattle, Washington, to Boston, Massachusetts. It crosses Washington state from west to east, traveling 298 miles from Seattle across the Cascade Mountains and into Eastern Washington, reaching the Idaho state line east of Spokane. I-90 intersects several major north–south highways, including I-5 in Seattle, I-82 and U. S. Route 97 near Ellensburg, US 395 and US 2 in Spokane. I-90 is the only Interstate to cross the state from west to east, the only one to connect the state's two largest cities and Spokane, it incorporates two of the longest floating bridges in the world, the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge and the Homer M. Hadley Memorial Bridge, which cross Lake Washington from Seattle to Mercer Island. I-90 crosses the Cascades at Snoqualmie Pass, one of the busiest mountain pass highways in the United States, uses a series of viaducts and structures to navigate the terrain; the freeway travels across various landscapes, including suburban bedroom communities in the Seattle metropolitan area, forests of the Cascade Range, the high plains of the Columbia Plateau. The crossing at Snoqualmie Pass was established as a wagon road in 1867 and incorporated into a cross-state auto trail, known as the Sunset Highway, in the early 1910s. The Sunset Highway was incorporated into the national highway system in 1926 as part of US 10, which I-90 replaced when it was designated in 1957; the first segments of the freeway, located in Spokane and Spokane Valley, opened at around the same time and the state government completed upgrades of US 10 to Interstate standards for most of the route by the late 1970s. The section of I-90 between Seattle and I-405 in Bellevue was delayed for decades because of environmental concerns and lawsuits by local groups over the freeway's potential impact on nearby neighborhoods. A compromise agreement was reached by the federal and local governments in 1976 to build a second floating bridge across Lake Washington and include extensive parks above tunneled sections of I-90, which were completed in the early 1990s; the new floating bridge opened in 1989 and carried bi-directional traffic while the original floating bridge was renovated. The old bridge's center pontoons sank during a November 1990 windstorm due to a contractor error and were rebuilt over the following three years, reopening to traffic on September 12, 1993, marking the completion of the transcontinental highway. Interstate 90 is the longest freeway in Washington state, at nearly 298 miles in length, is the only Interstate to traverse the state from west to east across the Cascade Mountains, it is listed as part of the National Highway System, classifying important to the national economy and mobility, the state's Highway of Statewide Significance program, recognizing its connection to major communities. A 100-mile section of I-90 between Seattle and Thorp named the Mountains to Sound Greenway was designated in 1998 as a National Scenic Byway, in recognition of its scenic views. I-90 is maintained by the Washington State Department of Transportation, who conduct an annual survey of traffic volume, expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic, a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. A section of I-90 in Bellevue's Eastgate neighborhood carries a daily average of 150,000 vehicles, making it the highway's busiest. The highway's least busiest section, near SR 21 west of Ritzville, carried 11,000 vehicles in 2016; the freeway has a maximum speed limit of 60 miles per hour in urban areas, 65 mph in mountainous areas, 70 mph in rural areas. Several proposals to raise the speed limit of the rural section between Vantage and Spokane to 75 mph have been submitted and denied by the state government due to safety concerns. I-90 begins at the intersection of Edgar Martinez Drive South and 4th Avenue South in the SoDo neighborhood south of Downtown Seattle; the interchange is adjacent to T-Mobile Park, home to the Seattle Mariners baseball team, includes a pair of ramps to SR 519 and an additional offramp to 4th Avenue South north of Royal Brougham Way and near CenturyLink Field. The ramps converge over the Stadium light rail station adjacent to King County Metro's bus bases and are joined by the bus-only express lane ramps from the Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel and 5th Avenue in the International District. I-90 travels east through a major interchange with I-5 at the northwest corner of Beacon Hill and passes under the Jose Rizal Bridge. The freeway wraps around the north end of Beacon Hill and intersects Rainier Avenue at the site of the future Judkins Park light rail station, joined by a multi-use bicycle and pedestrian trail that forms part of the Mountains to Sound Greenway; the express lanes terminate after Rainier Avenue, having been permanently closed for East Link light rail construction, I-90 travels east into the Mount Baker Tunnel under the Central District. The tunnels, which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, run under Sam Smith Park and the Mount Baker Ridge neighborhood to Lake Washington, where traffic continues onto a pair of floating bridges; the eastbound lanes are carried by the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge, while the westbound lanes, multi-use trail, future light rail tracks are carried by the wider Homer M. Hadley Memorial Bridge; the two floating bridges connect Seattle to the Eastside suburbs and are among the longest in the world, at 5,811 feet and 6,603 feet in length, respectively. From the east end of the bridge, I-90 continues onto Mercer Island and travels under the Mercer Island Lid, a landscaped park built atop a curved section of the freeway between West Mercer Way

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The Mathematics department aims to promote the appreciation of the power and beauty of Mathematics within each student and to enable each student to develop their mathematical skills and understanding to the limit of their capability. As mathematics is an essential prerequisite for many other subjects within the school curriculum, the department aims to provide each student with the mathematical background that they require to be able to apply their mathematics successfully in other areas. Also it aims to ensure that all students are aware of the power of a mathematical argument and the need for clear, logical arguments. In an academic school, the need for each student to attain the highest exam result possible for their ability is very important. With this in mind the department tries to ensure that all students are fully aware of the demands of the subject and have experienced a variety of teaching styles to facilitate their learning and can apply their mathematics in examination situations. - Dr. D. M. Crawford, M.A., D.Phil (Oxon: Jesus), M.Ed. (Bristol), M.A. Ed. (O.U.) M.Sc. (O.U.) Head of Mathematics - Miss. R.S. Burfoot - M.D. Eastmond - Miss. L. Howd - G. Inchley - R.A. Jacobs - C.S. James - N. Murray - Mrs. K.G. Pollard - S.J.R. Radford - Mrs. Z. Village Pupils in Year 6 are taught in a mixed ability form group (or groups). They follow the KS2 National Curriculum in general with an emphasis on formal written methods. The aim of the year is to bridge the gap from the mathematics they have studied in their many different primary schools to the rigour required in the senior school. They are prepared for a SATs style exam at the end of the year. The following material will be covered: - Number - Using and applying number through problem solving and communicating using precise mathematical language and reasoning. Understanding of numbers and the number system including place value, factors, multiples, prime numbers, fractions, ratios, percentages, integers and negative numbers. Calculations using the four rules of arithmetic with whole numbers and decimals. - Algebra - Using formulae in words and symbols. Introduction to simple linear equations. - Shape and Space - Names of 2D and 3D shapes. Correct use of geometrical notation and vocabulary. Properties of shapes including parallel and perpendicular lines and knowledge of basic angle facts. Use of a protractor to draw and measure angles accurately. Reflective and rotational symmetry and simple transformations. Finding the perimeter and area of simple 2D shapes. Understand the concept of volume. Units of measurement including units of length, mass, capacity and time. - Handling Data - Interpreting data from charts and graphs. Collection and display of data using frequency tables, bar charts and pie charts. Calculation of mean, mode, median and range for a set of numbers. Introduction to probability. Pupils in Year 7 are taught in mixed ability form groups. The aim of the year is to ensure that all pupils have covered the basic building blocks of mathematics in a rigorous way. The following material will be covered: - Number - Four rules of arithmetic with positive whole numbers, negative numbers, fractions and decimals. Converting between fractions and decimals. Finding the Highest Common Factor and Lowest Common Multiple of sets of numbers. - Algebra - Solution of linear equations (including those with the variable on both sides). Simplification of additive expressions. Substitution of whole numbers into simple formulae. Introduction to set notation. - Shape and Space - Plane geometry (including angle problems involving triangles, quadrilaterals and parallel lines). Construction of triangles using ruler, compasses and protractor. Co-ordinates in 4 quadrants. Area of rectangles, triangles, parallelograms and compound shapes. - Handling Data - Creating and interpreting bar charts and pie charts. Finding the mean and range of a set of numbers. Pupils in Year 8 (and upward) are taught in 6 or 7 ability sets. The initial setting arrangement is based on performance in Year 7 but is reviewed regularly to ensure that all pupils are being taught at a level and pace appropriate to their individual needs with extension/revision as required. The following material will be covered: - Number - Evaluation of terms in index form involving positive and negative integral indices. Multiplication and division of terms in index form. Conversion of numbers to and from standard form. Percentages (including simple percentage increase and decrease). Simple calculations involving ratio and proportion. - Algebra - Multiplication of a bracket by a single term. Linear equations involving brackets. Multiplication of two brackets. Substitution into formulae. Drawing straight line graphs from a formulae. Finding the gradient of a line between two points. - Shape and Space - Angle properties of polygons. Pythagoras’ Theorem. Construction of angle and line bisectors and special angles using compasses and ruler. Area and circumference of a circle and of simple sectors. Volumes of cuboids and compound cuboids. Volumes of prisms (including cylinders). Similar triangles. - Handling Data - Probability (including sample space diagrams and simple tree diagrams). Mean, median and mode of a set of values. Problems involving means. The following material will be covered: - Number - Evaluation of terms in index form involving fractional and negative indices. Manipulation of terms in index form. Standard form and calculations involving standard form. Percentage increase and decrease and inverse percentages. - Algebra - Solving linear equations involving brackets. Creating and rearranging formulae. Solving a pair of linear simultaneous equations. Factorisation of quadratic expressions. Solution of quadratic equations by factorisation. Solving linear inequalities. - Shape and Space - Trigonometry – finding lengths and angles in right-angled triangles. Circle theorems. - Handling Data - Calculating means from frequency tables and grouped frequency tables. Drawing histograms. In Years 10 and 11, pupils study for the Edexcel IGCSE in Mathematics. All pupils take Higher Level and achieve great success with an average of 58.6% of all pupils obtaining A* (or 8/9) grades and 85.6% obtaining at least an A (or 7) grade over the last 5 years. As well as extending the ideas covered during Years 7 to 9, the following new material will be covered over the course of the two years: - Number - Set Theory. Simplification and manipulation of surds. Upper and lower bounds. - Algebra - Solution of quadratic equations using different methods. Simplification and manipulation of algebraic fractions. Drawing and using graphs to solve equations. Sequences. Introduction to calculus. Function notation and finding composite and inverse functions. Vectors. Solving quadratic inequalities. - Shape and Space - Calculation of Volumes and Surface areas of common solid shapes. Tangent properties of circles. Areas and Volumes of similar shapes. Trigonometry in non right-angled triangles. Transformations. - Handling Data - Cumulative frequency curves and calculations. For the last eight years, the pupils in the top two sets have also had the chance to sit the AQA Level 2 Certificate in Further Mathematics which provides greater challenge for able mathematicians without accelerating pupils into A level work. The results they have achieved have been very pleasing with 110/315 obtaining A** grades and 147/315 obtaining A* grades. Those taking this qualification also cover the following material: - Algebra - Quadratic identities. Completing the square. The factor theorem. Drawing piecewise continuous graphs and using such graphs to solve equations. Algebraic proof. Limiting values of sequences. Further calculus. Introduction to matrices and matrix transformations. - Shape and Space - Equations of circles. Solving geometric problems involving circles and straight lines. Geometric proof. Three dimensional trigonometry. Graphs of trigonometric functions. Solving trigonometric equations. Simplification and application of trigonometric identities. Mathematics is the most popular subject in the Sixth Form with between 60 and 90 students opting to study it every year. It is also one of the most successful with an average of 29.7% of students obtaining A* grades and 82.4% A* to B grades over the last five years. An A Level in Mathematics is a very valuable qualification and is highly rated by both university tutors and employers. Any student who has enjoyed IGCSE (or GCSE) Mathematics and who feels they would benefit from being challenged by the more in-depth material of A Level Mathematics should consider taking the subject in the Sixth Form. As with any other A Level subject, it should be noted that A Level Mathematics requires hard work and dedication and students should not opt for the subject unless they are prepared to apply themselves fully. An A grade/ grade 7 at IGCSE/GCSE is a minimum requirement, along with a very good level of fluency with algebra. All students taking Mathematics at A-level will have 8 or 9 lessons in the Lower Sixth and 9 lessons in the Upper Sixth split between Pure Maths (6 lessons) and Applied Maths (2/3 lessons). The course followed at Leicester Grammar School is the Edexcel A-level. From September 2017, A-level Mathematics is a linear course with three equally weighted exams taken at the end of the Upper Sixth determining the grade a student obtains. Unlike previous A-level specifications, there is now no longer any choice in the Applied Mathematics that a student will study. AS Mathematics is a stand-alone qualification, the results of which do not contribute to a final A-level qualification. However, a coherent course towards an A-level in Mathematics at the end of the Upper Sixth necessitates covering the material that makes up an AS in Mathematics during the Lower Sixth. With this in mind, the Mathematics Department, in consultation with the Headmaster, has decided that students taking A-level Mathematics take external AS examinations in May/June of their Lower Sixth. This allows students to gain some external validation of their progress and allows more reasoned decisions about whether to continue studying Mathematics into the Upper Sixth to be made. However, students should note that there will be no examination leave prior to these AS exams in the summer and that lessons in Mathematics, as well as other subjects, will continue right through this period and so students will be expected to continue to attend school throughout. An AS in Mathematics requires a student to take two papers – the first being a 2 hour paper on Pure Mathematics worth 62.5% of the overall marks and the second being a 1 hour 15 minute paper on both Mechanics and Statistics worth 37.5% of the overall marks. The tables below show some details of the topics that are in each of the three A-level exam papers, with the topics that are also in the AS exam papers being indicated by being underlined. Pure Papers 1 & 2 The underlined content forms the Pure Mathematics component of AS. Proof – Proof by deduction and exhaustion, disproof by counter example. Further proof by deduction, proof by contradiction. Algebra and Functions – Indices, surds, quadratic equations and graphs, discriminants, simultaneous equations and inequalities, graphs and graph transformations, factor theorem. Simplifying rational functions, modulus function, composite and inverse functions, partial fractions, modelling using functions. Co-ordinate Geometry – Equations of lines and circles, parallel and perpendicular lines. Parametric and Cartesian equations of curves, modelling using parametric equations. Sequences and Series – Binomial theorem for integer n. Binomial theorem for rational n, arithmetic and geometric sequences, sigma notation, iterative formulae. Trigonometry – Sine and cosine rules, graphs of the 3 basic trigonometric functions, simple equations and identities. Radian measure, small angle approximations, exact values of trigonometric functions, reciprocal and inverse trigonometric functions, compound and double angle formulae, further equations and identities, trigonometric proofs. Exponentials and Logarithms – Graphs of exponential functions and their transformations, logarithms and the laws of logarithms, solving exponential equations, using logarithmic graphs to estimate parameters, modelling using exponential growth/decay. Differentiation – Differentiation from first principles, differentiation of powers of x and constant multiples, sums and differences, application of differentiation to tangents and normals, maxima and minima, increasing and decreasing functions. Differentiation from first principles for trigonometric functions, differentiation of exponential functions, the product and quotient rules, related rates of change, parametric and implicit differentiation, forming simple differential equations. Integration – Indefinite integration of xn (n ≠ - 1) and constant multiples, sums and differences, definite integration and link to areas under curves. Integration of exponential and trigonometric functions, finding the area between two curves, integration by substitution and by parts, integration using partial fractions, solution of first order differential equations and interpretation. Numerical Methods – Root location using change of sign, root location using iteration, Newton-Raphson method, numerical integration. Vectors – 2-dimensional vectors, magnitude and direction, vector addition/subtraction and scalar multiplication, use of vectors to solve problems (including in Mechanics). 3 dimensional vectors. Statistical Sampling – Different sampling techniques and their limitations. Data Presentation and Interpretation – Histograms, skew, scatter diagrams and correlation. Measures of central tendency and spread, outliers. Probability – Mutually exclusive events, independent events, conditional probability, use of tree diagrams and Venn diagrams, modeling with probability. Statistical Distributions – Discrete probability distributions, the binomial distribution, the Normal distribution, approximation of a binomial by a Normal. Statistical Hypothesis Testing – Binomial hypothesis testing, Normal hypothesis testing. Quantities and Units in Mechanics – Use of S.I. units and conversions. Kinematics – Travel graphs, constant acceleration formulae, calculus in kinematics, motion in a vertical plane including projectiles. Forces and Newton’s laws – Use of Newton’s second law in a straight line, resolving forces, motion under gravity, equilibrium and Newton’s third law, resultant forces, friction. Moments – Equilibrium of rigid bodies. Calculators may be used for all three papers. The exam board has specified that calculators used for A-level must include an iterative function and the ability to compute summary statistics and access probabilities from standard statistical distributions. Mathematics is fortunate in that all classes occur in the same option block. Hence it is possible to set by ability. It is likely that 6 (or 7) ability sets will be used in each year, usually with between 8 and 14 students in each. To study Further Mathematics in the Sixth Form, a student needs to have real enthusiasm for the subject as twice as much lesson time (and twice as much self-study time) will be spent on Mathematics as compared to other subjects. The most able mathematicians who have found IGCSE/GCSE Mathematics straightforward and who are considering taking university courses in Mathematics, Engineering, Computer Programming or the Physical Sciences should consider this option. As a large part of the Sixth Form timetable will be spent on Mathematics, the coverage of material is very rapid and so a firm grasp of the algebraic skills learnt at IGCSE/GCSE is needed. An A* grade/grade 8 or 9 at IGCSE/GCSE should be a requirement for anyone wishing to follow a course in Further Mathematics. Students opting for Further Mathematics at Leicester Grammar School with have 16 lessons in the Lower Sixth split between Pure Maths (11 lessons) and Applied Maths (5 lessons). The intention is that Further Mathematics students will take A-level mathematics at the end of the Lower Sixth. In the Upper Sixth, students will have 18 lessons split between Pure Maths (13 lessons) and Applied Maths (5 lessons), although this may depend on any options chosen. Unlike A-level Mathematics, while half of the course content is compulsory, there is an element of choice in A-level Further Mathematics. It may be the case that students within the class (or classes) have some firm ideas about the areas they wish to pursue and, if this is possible from a timetabling standpoint, there will be the possibility of different students studying different topics. However, this will always be at the discretion of the Head of Mathematics, the Curriculum Deputy and the Headmaster in consultation with the subject teachers. The table below shows some details of the topics that will be in the two compulsory exam papers together with a brief outline of the most likely optional papers to be taken. Further Mathematics Core Pure 1 Proof – Proof by induction, including series sums and divisibility. Complex Numbers – Arithmetic with complex numbers, conjugate pairs, Argand diagrams, modulus argument form, loci in Argand diagrams, solving quadratic, cubic and quartic equations. Matrices – Addition, subtraction and multiplication by a scalar, matrices and transformations, invariant points and lines, determinants, inverse matrices, using matrices to solve simultaneous equations. Further algebra and functions – Relationships between roots and coefficients of polynomial equations, linear transformations of polynomial equations, summation of series using standard formulae. Further calculus – Volumes of revolution using Cartesian or parametric equations. Further vectors – Vector and Cartesian equations of lines and planes in 3D, scalar product, intersection of lines and planes. Further Mathematics Core Pure 2 Complex numbers – De Moivre’s theorem and applications, complex roots of unity and application to geometric problems. Further algebra and functions – Method of differences for summation of series, Maclaurin series. Further calculus – Mean value of a function, integration of partial fractions with irreducible quadratic denominators, differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions, integration using trigonometric substitutions. Polar co-ordinates – Conversion between polar and Cartesian co-ordinates, sketching curves expressed in polar for, finding the area enclosed by a polar curve. Hyperbolic functions – Graphs of hyperbolic functions, differentiation and integration of hyperbolic functions, inverse hyperbolic functions. Differential equations – Integrating factors, general and particular solutions, modeling using differential equations, second order differential equations and auxiliary equations, simple harmonic motion, damped oscillations, coupled first order differential equations. Further Mathematics Further Pure 1 Further calculus – Taylor series, series expansion and limits, Leibnitz’ theorem, Weierstrass substitution for integration. Further differential equations – Taylor series and differential equations, reducible differential equations. Co-ordinate systems – Parametric and Cartesian equations of the parabola, ellipse and hyperbola, focus and directrix, eccentricity, tangents and normals, loci. Further vectors – Vector product, triple scalar product, applications of vectors to 3-D geometry. Further numerical methods – Numerical solution of first and second order differential equations, Simpson’s rule. Inequalities – Solution of inequalities involving fractions and modulus. Momentum and Impulse – Conservation of momentum in direct contacts, impulse. Collisions – Direct impact of elastic particles, Newton’s law of restitution, energy loss in impact, repeated impacts. Centres of mass – Centre of mass of a discrete mass distribution, centre of mass of plane figures, centre of mass of a framework, equilibrium of a lamina or a framework. Work and energy – Kinetic and potential energy, work and power, the work-energy principle, conservation of mechanical energy. Elastic strings and springs – Hooke’s law, energy stored in an elastic string or spring. Linear regression – Least squares regression lines, residuals. Statistical distributions (discrete) – Mean and variance of a discrete probability distribution, Mean and variance of functions of a variable, the Poisson distribution and its additive properties, mean and variance of the binomial and Poisson distribution, use of the Poisson distribution as an approximation to the binomial. Statistical distributions (continuous) – Random variables, probability distribution functions and continuous distribution functions, mean and variance of continuous variables and functions of continuous variables, the continuous uniform distribution. Correlation – Calculation of correlation coefficients, coding, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. Hypothesis testing – Hypothesis test for the mean of a Poisson distribution, hypothesis test for zero correlation. Chi squared tests – Goodness of fit tests and contingency tables, degrees of freedom. The Mathematics Department believes that all pupils should be able to think about how to apply their knowledge of mathematical topics to solve problems. All pupils have the chance to take part in the UKMT Mathematics Challenges (All Year 8 and selected Year 7 in the Junior Challenge, all Year 10 and top set Year 9 in the Intermediate Challenge and all Lower Sixth Maths students and any Upper Sixth Maths students who opt to take it in the Senior Challenge). The department also sends teams to the Team Maths Challenge competitions and in 2012/13 our Junior Team qualified for the National Final and our Year 10 team qualified for the Midlands Final, in 2013/14 our Senior Team qualified for the National Final and our Year 10 team won the Midlands Final and in 2015/16, our Senior Team again qualified for the National Final. In 2018/19 our Junior Team qualified for the National Final. The department organises a Year 6 Team Maths Challenge for local primary schools each November. The department is an Institutional member of the Mathematical Association and is represented on both the UKMT Council and the UKMT Challenges Committee.

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Presentation Speech by Mrs. Aase Lionaes*, Chairman of the Nobel Committee In the will and testament drawn up by Alfred Bernhard Nobel on November 27, 1895, he laid down the conditions to be fulfilled by a recipient of the Nobel Prize. Paragraph One states, inter alia, that the award of the prize shall be made to the person who, during the preceding year, “shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind”. The Nobel Committee of the Norwegian Parliament must bear this criterion in mind in selecting the prizewinner from among the many candidates proposed. What might be a “benefit” to humanity today? Many answers could be given, just as varied, as many-sided, and as interesting as man himself. Does history not offer one signpost indicating and for all time identifying the basic needs of man which it would be a “benefit” to satisfy? One of the great historical events in Europe during the course of our dramatic century, the Russian Revolution of 1917, had this inscription on its banner: “Bread and Peace.” Bread and peace present a combination of the vital needs mankind has always set as a goal vital to the development of its potential. Freedom from starvation was furthermore one of the freedoms our first global peace organization, the United Nations, recognized in 1945 as a basic human right to be secured for all people. On October 16, 1945, FAO – that is to say, the United Nations Organization for Food and Agriculture, the first of UNO’s specialized agencies – was established. In 1949 FAO’s secretary-general, the nutrition expert Lord Boyd Orr, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. This year the Nobel Committee of the Norwegian Parliament has awarded Nobel’s Peace Prize to a scientist, Dr. Norman Ernest Borlaug, because, more than any other single person of this age, he has helped to provide bread for a hungry world. We have made this choice in the hope that providing bread will also give the world peace. Who is this scientist who, through his work in the laboratory and in the wheat fields, has helped to create a new food situation in the world and who has turned pessimism into optimism in the dramatic race between population explosion and our production of food? Norman Borlaug, a man of Norwegian descent, was born on March 25, 1914, on a small farm in Cresco, Iowa, in the United States, and originally studied forestry at the University of Minnesota. It was as an agriculturalist, however, that he was to make his greatest contribution. In 1944 Borlaug was appointed to a post as a genetics expert with the Rockefeller Foundation. In 1942 this Foundation, in cooperation with the Mexican government, had launched an agricultural program in Mexico. This project was directed by two outstanding plant pathologists, Professors Stakman and J. George Harrar1. Its aim was research into and a better exploitation of agricultural know-how, with a view to developing Mexico’s agriculture and in this way increasing and improving local food supplies. For the outstanding contribution to peace this agricultural program represented, the Rockefeller Foundation was proposed in 1962 as a candidate for Nobel’s Peace Prize by ten members of the Swedish Parliament. It is interesting to note that the Norwegian Academy of Sciences in Oslo, as far back as 1951, elected the leader of this project, Professor Stalman, a member of its Mathematical Natural Science class. Twenty years later, in 1970, his pupil, Dr. Norman E. Borlaug, was made an honorary doctor by the Norwegian Agricultural College at Ås. The rector of this institution, Professor Jul Låg, declared that this honor had been awarded for the following reason: “The basis for the award of the honorary doctoral degree to Dr. Borlaug is the impressive result he has achieved in wheat improvement, and the organization of the exploitation of the results of this improvement in agriculture, particularly in the developing countries. The new breeds of grain evolved by Dr. Borlaug and his assistants have resulted in improvements in harvest, quantitatively and qualitatively, that previously were considered hardly possible.” This distinction is only one of a great many academic honors conferred on Dr. Borlaug by universities and similar institutions in the USA, Pakistan, India, and Canada. Dr. Borlaug went to the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center in 1944. Today he is director of the Wheat Improvement Program in Mexico. Ever since that day, twenty-five years ago, when Dr. Borlaug started his work on the improvement of grain, and right up to the present, he has devoted all his energy to achieving the historical result which today is referred to all over the world as the “green revolution.” This revolution will make it possible to improve the living conditions of hundreds of millions of people in that part of the globe which today might be called as the “non-affluent world.” Nations with ancient cultures, which right up to modern times have suffered the scourge of recurrent hunger crises, can now be self-supporting in wheat. A long and humiliating dependence on the so-called rich nations of the world for their daily bread will have been brought to an end. Behind the outstanding results in the sphere of wheat research of which the dry statistics speak, we sense the presence of a dynamic, indomitable, and refreshingly unconventional research scientist. Dr. Borlaug is not only a man of ideals but essentially a man of action. Reading his publications on the green revolution, one realizes that he is fighting not only weeds and rust fungus but just as much the deadly procrastination of the bureaucrats and the red tape that thwart quick action. The following warning reminds us of this: “a strangulation of the world by exploding, well-camouflaged bureaucracies is one of the great threats to mankind.”2 Dr. Borlaug cannot afford to wait: there is an important cause weighing on his mind, something that must be carried out and must be carried out now. He puts it like this: “I am impatient and do not accept the need for slow change and evolution to improve the agriculture and food production of the emerging countries. I advocate instead a ‘yield kick-off’; or ‘yield blast-off’. There is no time to be lost, considering the magnitude of the world food and population problem.”3 Apart from his work as a scientist and as an outstanding organizer in exploiting the results of research, Dr. Borlaug has also been an inspiring leader for the many young scientists who have been trained at the Wheat Institute in Mexico. Dr. Borlaug prefers to teach his pupils out in the fields. Many people, we are told, who ask him to lecture or write a paper, get the following reply: “What would you rather have – bread or paper?” In 1944, when Dr. Borlaug started work on the Mexican agricultural project, there were not so many people concerned with the relationship between the trends in population growth and the increase in food production in the world. After the war, when most colonial empires were gradually dismantled, and sixty to seventy developing areas emerged as independent national states, it was primarily the incredibly poor standard of health in these countries that appealed to our conscience. Through its World Health Organization, the United Nations launched a formidable attack in the 1950s on the major national diseases in these new states. One of the results of the preventive medical measures set afoot was a drastic decrease in the mortality rate of the developing countries. And it was not until the 1960s that the prospects of a population explosion constituted a menace, not only to the developing countries but to the whole world. The population explosion is being attacked essentially from two angles: by information on family planning and by an increased effort, first and foremost through research, to increase the agricultural yield. When Borlaug and other scientists initiated their work at the Wheat Center in Mexico, the Mexican authorities had little faith in their country’s potential as an agricultural country. It was assumed that the country had neither the climate nor the soil required for advanced agriculture. The country spent a great deal of its foreign currency importing the necessary wheat. Wheat researchers attached to the Rockefeller Foundation’s project were set the task of helping Mexico, in as short a time as possible, to help herself. The scientists were to play the role not of consultants entrenched behind their documents in their offices, but of active participants in the practical manual labor and toil in the fields. For many young scientists this last principle may have entailed a somewhat unpalatable reassessment of their social status, but it was undoubtedly a wholesome maxim. In his writings on the green revolution, Dr. Borlaug relates that the Mexican wheat program aimed to analyze all the factors that hampered production. Furthermore, the idea was to train young scientists in all scientific disciplines associated with production. The purpose of this research, Dr. Borlaug continues, was to endeavor to develop a variety of wheat with greater yields, with a great degree of resistance to diseases, and with qualities that rendered it suitable for use in connection with improved agronomic methods, that is to say, the use of artificial fertilizers, improved soil culture, and mechanization. The result of the concerted attack launched by the team of scientists on all these problems was the new Mexican breeds of wheat, which are now generally known, which produce astonishingly large yields, which are resistant to disease, and which facilitate intensive use of fertilizers. Unlike previously known breeds of wheat, the new types can be transferred to remote parts of the world that differ in climate. The most important event in the Mexican Wheat Improvement Program was the development of the so-called “dwarf varieties”. After years of research on the part of Dr. Borlaug and his collaborators to develop, by crossing and selection, the so-called Japanese breed of wheat, they evolved the now world-famous “dwarf variety”. These are breeds of wheat which, unlike previously known long-bladed varieties, have short blades. The long-bladed varieties of wheat, on which work was done in the 1950s, gave increased yields but snapped when they were given more than a certain amount of artificial fertilizer. The new dwarf varieties were able to stand two or three times more artificial fertilizer and to provide an increase of yield per decare from the previous maximum of 450 kilos to as much as 800 kilos per decare. These varieties can be used in various parts of the world because they are not affected by varying lengths of daylight. They are better than all other kinds in both fertilized and non-fertilized soil, and with and without artificial irrigation. In addition they are highly resistant to the worst enemy of wheat, rust fungus or oromyces. Thanks to these high-yield breeds of wheat, Mexico was self-supporting in this grain in 1956, and in recent years this country has exported several hundred thousand tons annually. At the invitation of FAO, Dr. Borlaug visited Pakistan in 1959. He was instrumental in having a number of Pakistani wheat experts sent to Mexico to study the wheat research center there. After striving hard to convince Pakistani authorities and other foreign experts, Dr. Borlaug persuaded the political leaders of Pakistan to recognize the advantages of introducing the new Mexican breeds of wheat into their country. At that time the agriculture of West Pakistan was producing a steady annual deficit in relation to national needs. Wheat yields were low, approximately 100 kilos per decare on an average. Farming methods were primitive, the soil had been overcropped, and artificial fertilizer was a rarity. After a successful struggle to overcome bureaucracy, prejudice, and even rumors to the effect that Dr. Borlaug’s variety of wheat would produce sterility and impotence among the population, it was finally decided that Pakistan should import a certain quantity of Mexican seed corn of the new breed. Once the seed corn had been introduced and had yielded superb results in the form of increased crops, the triumphal march of the green revolution was ushered in. Pakistan’s present-day wheat production amounts to seven million tons, and the country is self-supporting in wheat. That this could be achieved in the course of three or four years was due in no small measure to the fact that the President of Pakistan had personally supported the program very strongly, and to the fact that the results achieved in Mexico could be used as a basis, thus saving the country a great many years of research and experiment. Dr. Borlaug was in India in 1963 in order to find out whether the breed of wheat he had developed in Mexico could be used in this country too, and history repeated itself. The highest results in the history of India were achieved in 1968 with a crop of seventeen million tons. This event was celebrated in India with the issue of a new postage stamp bearing the inscription “The Indian Wheat Revolution 1968.” After the successful results achieved in Mexico, India, and Pakistan, the new varieties of wheat were introduced into certain parts of Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Tunisia, Morocco, and Lebanon. The Soviet Union, too, is now interested in establishing contacts with the International Maize and Wheat Research Center in Mexico. This occasion is neither the time nor the place to give a detailed account of Dr. Borlaug’s great results in wheat research during the last twenty-five years. But it has been established beyond doubt that his efforts have made possible an unequaled increase in wheat production and an improvement in quality that have postponed a crisis that a great many scientists have predicted would be the result of the growing gap between the population explosion and food production. An assessment of the effects of Dr. Borlaug’s great contribution makes obvious the fact that a whole series of factors is involved, affecting not only economic, social, cultural, and political affairs -and these not solely in the various developing countries – but also affecting international relations. Problems of major importance such as the aid given by the industrialized countries to the developing countries must also be basically reassessed. It is obvious that we can no longer count on the export of grain to the developing countries. Loans for the purchase of industrial equipment and technical know-how must be given greater priority. The new variety of wheat will be able to effect a total transformation of the economic picture in the developing countries. Society will be richer and industry will be more varied if the politicians at the same time pursue an economic policy which aims at general economic growth. The increased earnings of agriculture will ensure “ring-effects” in the form of growth impulses in all the activities created by more productive agriculture. It will be possible to increase employment: sowing, fertilizing, hoeing, harvesting, marketing will have to be carried out several times a year. Seasonal unemployment will be reduced: a balanced economic policy, correctly pursued, should make it possible to provide work for the large surplus of available manpower in the developing countries. It is maintained, for example, by Lester Brown in his book Seeds of Change that there might be a shortage of labor on a local basis. The new technology in agriculture could also stimulate such branches of the economy as industry, building and construction work throughout the social economy. For instance, the increase in crop yields will require the building of artificial fertilizer factories, roads, irrigation works, railways, warehouses, silos, and mills. Outlying districts will be able to receive the economic pollination necessary for the building of schools and hospitals. From whatever angle we consider them, the effects of the green revolution will entail increased total production that will make the developing countries economically better off and more independent of the aid provided by the affluent countries, as far as foodstuffs are concerned. In an article published in Foreign Affairs, the agricultural expert Lester Brown states that the new breed of grain in our age will have the same inpact on the agricultural revolution in Asia that the steam engine had on the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the eighteenth century.4 Or, as Eugene Black puts it, the new grain varieties will be “engines of change.”5 Not least, these “engines of change” will transform the position of the peasant in the community and the peasant’s attitude to his own situation in life. A new policy of income distribution, socially oriented, will enable the peasant to break out of the vicious circle of poverty and the apathy which is a natural consequence of penury that offers no future prospects. Many writers who have dealt with the peasant population of developing countries have maintained that the peasants are conservative, in the sense that they do not want change. But Dr. Borlaug – who is a great admirer of the peasant – maintains that when changes involve a rise in the standard of living, the Asiatic peasant, too, will accept change. To quote Dr. Borlaug: “Although the peasant farmer may be illiterate, he can figure.”6 The new varieties of grain and the capital input required will increase the peasants’ demands on the authorities for education, transport, agricultural credits, and the like. The capital-hungry peasants could constitute a political pressure group which the authorities would have to take into consideration in framing their economic policy. There would thus be an increase in political activity. Dr. Borlaug realizes, however, that even though the new varieties of grain will involve a considerable increase in the crop harvested by the peasants, the green revolution may also create social problems of a negative kind. Social injustices may well occur if politicians in the developing countries should fail to ensure the requisite conditions by means of equitable taxation, a system of agricultural credits at reasonable rates of interest, a properly adjusted price policy, and a defensible employment policy. In his speech on August 20 of this year at the Agricultural College at Ås, Dr. Borlaug expressed his social views as follows: “I’ve worked with wheat, but wheat is merely a catalyst, a part of the picture. I’m interested in the total economic development in all countries. Only by attacking the whole problem can we raise the standard of living for all people in all communities, so that they will be able to live decent lives. This is something we wish for all people on this planet.” But this will be the responsibility and challenge to be faced by the political authorities in the countries concerned. Through his scientific contribution and his tremendous talent for organization, Dr. Borlaug has introduced a dynamic factor into our assessment of the future and its potential. He has enlarged our perspective; he has given the economists, the social planners, and the politicians a few decades in which to solve their problems, to introduce the family planning, the economic equalization, the social security, and the political liberty we must have in order to ensure everybody – not least the impoverished, undernourished and malnourished masses – their daily bread and thus a peaceful future. And this is precisely where Dr. Borlaug has made his great contribution to peace. During the twenty-five years that have elapsed since the end of the war, those of us who live in the affluent industrialized societies have debated in almost panic-stricken terms the race between the world’s population explosion and the world’s available food resources. Most experts who have expressed an opinion on the issue of this race have been pessimistic. The world has been oscillating between fears of two catastrophes – the population explosion and the atom bomb. Both pose a mortal threat. In this intolerable situation, with the menace of doomsday hanging over us, Dr. Borlaug comes onto the stage and cuts the Gordian knot. He has given us a well-founded hope, an alternative of peace and of life – the green revolution. * Mrs. Lionaes, president of the Lagting (a section of the Norwegian Parliament), delivered this speech on December 10, 1970, in the auditorium of the University of Oslo. The laureate responded to her presentation of the prize with a brief speech of acceptance. This English translation of Mrs. Lionaes’ speech is, with minor editorial changes made after comparison with a tape recording of the speech in Norwegian, that appearing in Les Prix Nobel en 1970. 1. Elvin C. Stakman (1885- ), professor of plant pathology (1918-1953), now emeritus professor, University of Minnesota; special consultant to Rockefeller Foundation (1953- ). J. George Harrar (1906- ), formerly professor of plant pathology; president of Rockefeller Foundation (1961- ). Their work and discoveries range from how cells adapt to changes in levels of oxygen to our ability to fight global poverty. See them all presented here.

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This section will cover many of the nutrition basics that we have taught to thousands of our personal training clients. Nutrition can seem overly complex at times. And there is much room for customized individual plans. But if you follow these basic guidelines, you will have taken the most important big steps to great nutrition. Tip #11 – Choose the right fats The preferred choice of healthy fat is saturated fat. This may come as a surprise to many readers, but if you consider the chemistry of the fats, it makes a lot of sense. Unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils and even the famous fish oils, tend to go bad easily at the high temperature of the human body – 36-37 degrees centigrade. Unsaturated fats have unstable bonds between the carbon molecules in the fat so they are highly reactive and cause many problems in the body when they go bad. You will notice that plants and animals that are high in unsaturated fats live in cold climates (salmon in the near-freezing Atlantic ocean for example. At low temperatures unsaturated fats do not cause problems. When there is lots of fat going bad in the body, it is a stressful situation and the body responds by lowering your metabolism to minimize the damage to your body. This makes it harder to reach your fitness goals of weight loss, fat burning or muscle building. If your body needs unsaturated fats it is actually able to produce it from saturated fat. So there is no worry there. So a major nutrition tip is to lower unsaturated fat intake and leave only saturated fats in their place. In practice, this means eating less overall fat, and using butter and coconut oil in your cooking. Tip #12 – Make sure you get enough protein daily As you age, you are at increased risk of osteoporosis (bone loss), sarcopenia (muscle loss) and weakening of your immune system. Low protein intake accelerates all these degenerative effects. Older people also seem to require more protein to build and maintain lean muscle. Studies of older men seem to indicate that they require about 50% more protein to achieve the same levels of muscle growth as men in their 20s and 30s. This is probably due to lower levels of male sex hormones. If you look around, you’ll find a lot of advice about how much protein you should eat each day. The low-end recommendations come in at about 50g per day for women and 65g per day for men. On the other hand, professional athletes and very physically active people may need four or five times that amount. The low-end estimates are enough to prevent serious disease. But I almost always recommend more than that. We are trying to be as healthy and energetic as possible, not just trying to prevent disease. Those low-end numbers make some assumptions that I do not believe are true for most of us. They assume: - That you are under minimal physical stress. However, if you are going to do the training suggested in the section above, protein is required for recovery. - That you have a minimal toxic load. Protein is required for detoxification. If you live in a modern city, you likely have a toxic burden that is not ideal. - That you live with minimal disease. Protein is required for a proper immune system function. While there will still be variations in the protein requirements among people, a good starting point is at least 1.5g of protein per kilo of body weight. So a 50kg woman would need at least 75g of protein per day, and an 80kg man would need at least 120g. What does that look like in terms of “real food”? One palm-sized serving of lean meat like chicken, pork loin, white fish, lean beef mince or steak is about 25g. So that’s a good way to approximate your protein intake. Tip #13 – Get enough plant nutrients One of the few things on which almost all nutritionists and medical professionals agree is that we should eat more plant nutrients. The benefits of plant nutrients come in many forms. In fact, many of the underlying reasons for these benefits are not even well-studied yet. We just know that they work. The general guideline we give is that women should try to hit four fist-sized servings of veggies and fruits per day, and that men should aim for six to eight servings. Try to get a variety of types and colors of plants, as they have different concentrations of nutrients. The more overweight you are, the less of these servings should be fruit and the more should be veggies. For example, a very overweight man should have perhaps one serving of fruit and six servings of veggies each day. But a lean, active man would be probably be fine with five fruits and three servings of veggies. With these approximations, you should be well on your way to getting enough antioxidants, fiber and phytonutrients. The following few tips are all related to plant nutrients. Tip #14 – Get enough antioxidants Rusting is oxidative stress on metals. An apple turning brown once it’s inside and exposed to air is oxidative stress on the apple. A similar reaction happens in our bodies, damaging our cells and DNA. Stress, pollutants and even excessive exercise cause oxidative stress to build up in our bodies. As we age, we accumulate more stress on our bodies’ defense systems, and therefore we need more antioxidants. Plant-based foods are much higher in antioxidants than animal-based foods. Do not be fooled by media hype or fancy advertising. Every so often a news report will say that “magic fruit X” has the highest amount of antioxidants. Or that you only need one teaspoon of “super juice extract Z” for all your antioxidants requirements. These claims ignore the basics of how antioxidants work. They work by giving away their own electrons to neutralize the bad guys known as “free radicals.” These bad guys would otherwise take electrons from healthy cells, damaging them. So once an antioxidant has donated its electron, it loses its usefulness and needs to be “recharged.” By what? By other antioxidants. So you need more than one type. Also, different antioxidants are effective on different molecules. Some work on fat-soluble targets, and some on water-soluble targets. For example, vitamin E is an excellent antioxidant to protect us when we eat too many unsaturated fats. Thats why I eat 400IU of it whenever I eat a meal outside. It almost surely has too many unsaturated fats. Vitamin D is effective on DNA. Vitamin C acts on the water-based parts of cells. And alpha-lipoic acid is a recycling agent for antioxidants, restoring them to their potent form after they have done their job. Because of this interplay between different antioxidants, there is no single magic one. Your best bet is to make sure you have a good variety of them from food and supplement sources. Tip #15 – Get enough phytonutrients We currently know about more than 25,000 different phytonutrients (natural chemicals found in plants). And we don’t even know their full benefits, or how exactly all of them work. Phytonutrients are not essential to life the way vitamins are, but their benefits make them worth taking. They are especially beneficial as we pass age 40 because they have protective benefits for many forms of cancer. Almost all plant foods have phytonutrients. And like antioxidants, it’s best to get a wide variety from natural sources because we don’t really know yet how they all work together. It’s also best to take them in natural form so that you are getting all the synergistic components in the package nature intended. Extracting individual phytonutrients is unlikely to be as beneficial. All of the following contain phytonutrients: - Whole grains It’s best to get a variety of types and colors of each of these. Tip #16 – Get enough fiber (both soluble and insoluble) Fiber has properties that defend us against the common ailments of aging. Foods high in fiber help to: - Manage blood sugar to lower diabetes risk - Help bowel movements to clear toxins and excess hormones, lowering cancer risk and obesity - Reduce risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke - Improve overall digestive health – especially soluble fiber, which acts as food for the “good” gut bacteria Generally you should aim for 20g-35g of fiber per day, depending on your size. Women should shoot for about 20g, and 35g is a good target for larger men. A combination of varied fruits and veggies along with natural starches should help you reach this target. If you are on a lower carbohydrate diet due to diabetes or obesity, you will need to supplement with insoluble fiber because it is mainly found in starchy foods. My suggestion is a tablespoon of potato starch in cold water twice per day. Tip #17 – Get enough sodium Many “healthy” people choose not to eat salt because they are afraid they will get high blood pressure. However, sodium is extremely important for cell energy production. Low sodium results in overall lower metabolism over the long run. Sodium also lowers stress hormone production so its great for many people who are feeling anxious all the time. It is especially useful to combat excess adrenaline so if you find yourself nervous with a high heart rate, low sodium may be a problem. Also sodium helps to retain the other minerals that I will be talking about in the next few tips so you will need to supplement less of them. And will retain more of what you do intake. The increase in blood pressure is only temporary and as your body gets used to more sodium, blood pressure normalizes. Usually within a few days in our experience. Finally, something that many people don’t know is that our kidneys are able to clear out A LOT of sodium. Estimates are that we can clear many times the RDA amount of sodium daily in a safe way. So make sure your food has some saltiness to it. Plain salads with boiled chicken will definitely lead to sodium deficiency! Tip #18 – Match your carbohydrate intake to your needs Few nutrition topics bring up more confusion that carbohydrate intake. And there are indeed many variables that determine how many carbohydrates you should eat. People over the age of 40 tend to need to be more careful what types and what amounts of carbohydrates they eat because they are less physically active. Tend to have poorer metabolism due to long term stress, and have less lean muscle. But like I explained in this blog post, everyone is unique. And if you are active and use strength training to maintain all your healthy lean muscle, you are not that different from a younger person. Here are some of the more significant considerations that Genesis Gym’s personal trainers use when determining a person’s carbohydrate intake, especially when we are dealing with an older person. - Genetics. Different races tend to have different requirements and tolerances for carbohydrates. Asians tend to do well with more, and northern Europeans need less. Some races like Native Americans and Eskimos do well with very little. - Current body fat level. The leaner you are, the more carbohydrates you need. For a person who is fat, the increased blood sugar from carbohydrate intake tends to make them store even more fat. But for a lean person, the blood sugar rise tells their body not to break down muscle, thus preserving lean tissue. - Stress level. If someone is under a lot of stress, it’s best not to put them on a low-carb diet. Carbohydrates increases serotonin, a relaxing brain chemical. Low-carbohydrate diets plus high stress usually equals terrible sleep quality. Not a good idea. - Amount of daily activity. A person with a highly active daytime job can tolerate more carbohydrates in general. If you sit in an office, you certainly don’t need as much as a person who is walking around or lifting things all day. - Type of exercise. The more hard training you do, the more carbohydrates you need. Lots of hard gym workouts, sprints, high-speed canoeing, etc. mean you need more carbohydrates. If you only go for a light jog, you don’t need much. In fact some endurance athletes do as well, if not better, on a low-carb diet with high fats. It’s the people who do short bouts of intense work that benefit the most from more carbohydrates. Tip #19 – Get enough magnesium If I had to choose one mineral supplement to recommend first, it would likely be magnesium, because I have seen so many signs of magnesium deficiency in people. At least half the personal training clients at Genesis Gym start out with signs of magnesium deficiency. This is not a surprise, as magnesium is involved in more than 320 reactions in the body. And probably more that we don’t know of yet. Some of the more obvious and common signs of magnesium deficiency include: - Poor bone health and/or low calcium (magnesium is required for calcium absorption) - High blood pressure (magnesium helps relax arteries to lower blood pressure) - Muscle cramps/eye twitches (magnesium is a muscle relaxant) - Poor sleep quality/anxiety (magnesium is a buffer against stress hormones which disturb sleep) - Poor blood sugar/Type 2 diabetes (magnesium is part of the process that makes insulin, which regulates blood sugar) - Age over 55 (lower digestive strength and poorer kidney function result in less magnesium absorption) - Low vitamin D (magnesium is required for vitamin D absorption) - Constipation (magnesium relaxes everything, including the bowels) Restoring your magnesium levels almost always improves quality of life. Improved sleep, better bowel movements and less anxiety are the first things that usually improve. And those benefits are priceless for most people I have consulted with. There are many types of magnesium supplements. I like any form that ends with the suffix “-ate” (e.g., magnesium glycinate, citrate, orotate, malate). The different forms have somewhat different uses in the body, but they all add to your magnesium intake. Try out a few forms and see which one gives you the most benefits. Everyone differs in this, and getting a variety is a good choice. But if in doubt, I have seen the glycinate form have the best overall result for many people. Just don’t bother with magnesium oxide. It does not end with “-ate,” has terrible absorbability and often leads to loose stools. As far as dosage, taking two capsules after dinner and another two before bed is a good start. In addition, you can try a magnesium drink like Natural Calm, a healthy and pleasant-tasting fizzy drink which helps add even more magnesium to your diet. The only thing that you may want to take note of is slightly loose stools. This is a sign that you may be taking in a bit too much magnesium at one time, and your digestive system may not be able to adapt. Cut back slightly for a few days, then slowly increase the dosage. You can also try to add a bit more salt to your diet to help magnesium absorption. Tip #20 – Get enough zinc Just like magnesium, signs of zinc deficiency are pretty common in our clients when they start their personal training programs. These mineral deficiencies are largely due to the way food is grown. Food used to be grown in topsoil that was naturally fertilized and up to two meters deep. Now food is grown in topsoil that is artificially fertilized and less than half a meter deep. These farming methods are great for crop yield, but each gram of produce has fewer micronutrients and minerals. This is because artificial fertilizer only contains the “big three” – nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. We are often missing the remaining 25-30 nutrients that make up a healthy, naturally grown plant. That’s why it’s possible to be well-fed but still malnourished! Lots of calories, but not enough nutrition. Zinc, like magnesium, is one of the minerals that is usually missing. Signs of zinc deficiency include: - Weight gain (zinc is required to effectively shuttle nutrients into cells to be used as fuel instead of being stored as fat) - Lower metabolism (zinc prevents excessive copper absorption, which causes lower thyroid function and more oxidative stress) - Higher risk of Alzheimer’s disease (zinc protects the nervous system and brain) - Poor sexual function (zinc increases sperm quality and prevents the conversion of male hormones to female ones) - Low omega-3 and omega-6 fats (zinc helps convert omega-3 and omega-6 into forms that our bodies can use) - Increased desire for savory/sweet foods (low zinc status results in less sensitive taste buds, making you crave tastier – and usually less healthy! – foods) - Acne, brittle nails with white spots and/or deep ridges (zinc is required for healthy nails and skin) There is a simple and cheap test for zinc status. Get a bottle of zinc sulphate solution. Take a teaspoonful of the stuff and note the taste in your mouth. In functional medicine, there are four levels of findings from this test: - Level 1 – Very deficient – tastes like water - Level 2 – Mildly deficient – minimal taste that develops slightly over time - Level 3 – Adequate – some initial taste that gets stronger over time - Level 4 – Great – very strong, unpleasant and immediate taste – tastes like you just chewed a piece of your car door To increase your zinc status, you have the “whole food” choice, which is to eat about twenty oysters per day. Oysters are nature’s best source of zinc. Or you can go the supplement route, which is about 25g-50mg of a good zinc supplement for six to eight weeks. You can re-test your zinc status every four weeks. Also be aware that illness, stress and poor digestion will bring your zinc status down. So you will need even more if you have those in your life. Tip #21 – Make sure you get enough water daily I’m sure this tip comes as no surprise. But I do include it because I hardly ever observe people getting the ideal amount of water each day. Water is especially important as we get older because the tissues in our bodies are more prone to dehydration. Did you know that most of our connective tissue is “hollow” and full of water? It’s no wonder that joints tend to get stiffer as we age and dehydrate. But what is the ideal amount of water? The “eight glasses” recommendation is a good place to start. But can this possibly be the correct recommendation for everyone? A petite woman working in an air-conditioned office doesn’t have the same water requirements as a large man working in an active outdoor job – especially in the heat and humidity of Singapore. So if we can’t give a fixed recommendation for everyone, what do we recommend at Genesis Gym? We actually suggest a pee target. We want a client to have five lightly colored urinations per day. Number 2 on the chart below. Hitting this target will require more water intake for a large, active man, and less for a petite, sedentary woman. We have found this kind of goal-setting more relevant to our clients’ personal situations than giving them a flat amount or “liters per kilo of weight” type of suggestion. Why not number 1? Totally clear? If you are always having totally clear urine, there is a high chance that you are hydrated too much and urinating too much that you lose too many minerals in your urine. Why only 5 times per day? Why not more? Excessive urination is a sign of a poor metabolism. Low metabolism means lower body temperature and less sweat production. This leads to excessive urine production. Tip #22 – Filter your water Now that you are getting enough water, it’s best to get good quality water. Most bottled water is no better than tap water, so that is probably not the best choice for daily drinking. My current recommendation is a good water filter to remove any impurities and pesticides. A good particle and carbon filter does this quite well. If you really want to go all the way you can get a reverse osmosis kit, but that is quite wasteful of water. One thing to note is that you don’t need to purchase the alkalizing feature on whichever filter you choose. Yes, there are stories of how people “magically” lost weight because they drank alkaline water. But I believe it’s because they actually started drinking enough water. And they also likely replaced their former sweet and high-calorie drinks with water. Why no alkalizing function? Remember that stomach acidity is very important for digestion. And is too low in many people, causing them to be unable to absorb minerals and nutrients as well as they, should. Yeah . . . alkaline water makes this problem worse. (See the next tip for more details) Tip #23 – Make sure your digestion works “You are what you eat” is an incomplete statement. More accurately, it should state, “You are what you eat, digest, absorb and eliminate.” In short, your entire digestive tract needs to work properly. All the best veggies, fruits and healthy proteins that you eat aren’t very useful if you cannot break them down and absorb them. This is where the health of your digestive tract becomes important. Once you learn how many important functions your digestive tract has, you will have even more motivation to keep it in good order. - Your digestive tract runs from your mouth to your anus, and it is the largest organ that is exposed to the outside world. When spread out, it is the size of a football field. This large exposed area means that it is an important part of your immune system. Immunity weakens as we age, and keeping the digestive tract healthy will help prevent this weakening. - About two-thirds of your brain chemicals are produced in the digestive tract. So a healthy digestive tract improves your mood, concentration and feelings of well-being. Conversely, a damaged, weak, infected digestive tract is implicated in depression and poor mental health. - The digestive tract has a big role in detoxification. Bad stuff needs to come out somewhere! Feces and urine are the preferred methods of clearing toxins. Good digestive tract function accomplishes this, reducing the risks of cancer, diabetes and hypertension. And let’s not forget the actual digestion of food. The digestive tract is amazing at this as well. Imagine how difficult it is to turn a piece of food into energy using fire. You would need to barbeque it for about an hour to totally burn it up and turn it into heat energy. Your digestive tract can do this without the heat. It does need acidity and enzymes, though. That’s why your stomach is about 3 million times more acidic than the rest of your body. When it’s healthy, its can keep its acidity at the correct levels. Good digestion of food means more nutrients absorbed, less bloating, no acid reflux and no constipation. So how healthy is your digestive tract? Take this quick quiz and score yourself for each symptom: - 0 – if this is never a problem for you - 1 – if you rarely experience this - 2 – if you sometimes get this - 3 – if you get this often or always Section 1: Stomach (low acid) [good <10; bad >20] - Excessive belching or burping - Gas immediately following a meal - Offensive breath - Difficult bowel movements - Sense of fullness during and after meals - Difficulty digesting fruits and vegetables - Undigested foods found in stool - Pass large amounts of foul-smelling gas - More than three bowel movements daily - Frequent use of laxatives Section 2: Stomach (high acid) [good <7; bad >14] - Stomach pain, burning or aching 1-4 hours after eating - Frequent use of antacids - Feeling hungry an hour or two after eating - Heartburn when lying down or bending forward - Temporary relief from antacids, food, milk, carbonation - Digestive problems subside with rest and relaxation - Heartburn due to spicy foods, chocolate, citrus, peppers, alcohol and caffeine Section 3: Large intestines [good <10; bad >20] - Feeling that bowels do not empty completely - Lower abdominal pain relief by passing stool or gas - Alternating constipation and diarrhea - Hard, dry or small stools - Coated tongue or “fuzzy” debris on tongue - Pass large amount of foul-smelling gas - More than three bowel movements daily - Frequent use of laxatives Section 4: Small intestines [good <9; bad >19] - Roughage and fiber cause constipation - Indigestion and fullness last 2-4 hours after eating - Pain, tenderness, soreness on left side under ribcage - Excessive passage of gas - Nausea and/or vomiting - Stools undigested, foul-smelling, mucous-like, greasy or poorly formed - Frequent urination - Increased thirst and appetite - Difficulty losing weight I hope you scored well. But if not, here are some things you can do to improve your digestion. - Lower your stress levels (see Tip #36). Long-term stress, which many people over 40 have experienced, creates gaps in your digestive tract walls. These allow unprocessed food particles into the body, overstimulating your immune system and decreasing food absorption. - High stress also reduces stomach acidity levels, leading to poor food breakdown and bloating. It is hard work for your body to keep the environment of the stomach sufficiently acidic. And when you are stressed, resources are sent to other parts of the body, making low stomach acid more likely. - Remove commonly allergenic foods. Wheat, dairy and soy are the most common. - Take a low-dose hydrochloric acid supplement (if you have no history of ulcers) to boost stomach acid levels. - Take a blend of digestive enzymes to improve nutrient absorption. - Add in probiotics, especially if you have recently been on antibiotics. - Add in prebiotics to feed your good gut bacteria, especially if you have been on a low-carbohydrate diet for a long time. A tablespoon of potato starch in cold water twice a day should do the trick. Tip #24 – Measure your salivary pH regularly Some people are skeptical of the relevance of alkalinity to health. After all the snake oil that is sold in the “alternative health” world, they have a right to feel that way. But the argument they put forward is that your body has many systems to keep you at the right pH. This is only partially true. Yes, your body is amazing at keeping your blood within a very narrow pH range of about 7.35-7.45 – just slightly alkaline. Anything outside this range and you die. Very quickly. But nothing is free. The way your body keeps your blood in the right range is by taking alkalizing minerals from the rest of your body. And these minerals are stored mostly in bone and muscle. That means weaker bones and muscles. So how do you know if your body is under a heavy acidic load? Use pH paper. The kind I use has a range of 5.5-9. Using pH paper is cheap and you can find it online easily. To test, simply lick the paper until it is wet with saliva. Wait a minute or so for the reaction to take place, then compare the color of the paper to the chart provided on the box. I aim for a minimum pH of 7, and ideally 7.5. Anything less than 7 is cause for concern. I have seen readings as low as 5.5 or 6. They came from people who were having pretty severe lifestyle problems. Things to do if you score low on this test are: - Increase your vegetable and fruit intake. You are getting at least four to six servings per day, right? - Increase your alkaline mineral intake, especially magnesium (see Tip #19). - Reduce your stress load. - Improve your sleep quality. We typically see stressed, tired, sick people who eat a lot of processed, sweet foods score low on this test. When they change their lifestyle, they score higher and feel better as well. No test is perfect, even those from the most expensive lab. They are all just pieces of the puzzle that give you different information. The pH strip test is affordable, can be done at home without any inconvenience, and gives a good overall indicator of health. So that is why I recommend you do it every two to four weeks, first thing in the morning before eating or drinking anything. Tip #25 – Manage food cravings with good food choices A large body of research shows that total calorie intake is one of the most important factors in weight loss. This means that from a strictly caloric point of view, if you eat 100 calories of sugar, it’s not that different from eating 100 calories of sweet potatoes. (There are other longer-term health issues to consider, of course, but this tip is about more direct, short-term impact.) This is all well and good in lab studies where people are fed controlled amounts of food, but out in the real world there is this thing called hunger! As a former fat boy who loves to eat (and whose favorite dessert is ice cream and waffles), I totally understand hunger and a love for food. This is where healthy, whole food choices make a big difference. For example, seven oranges have the same amount of calories as a hot chocolate drink at Starbucks – around 400. Which of these choices is more filling, has more nutrients and is able to keep you full longer? It’s no contest, right? (The only problem is that the oranges are harder to eat.) When you want to keep hunger cravings under control, it’s best to eat foods that give your brain a sense of fullness. Your brain gets a greater “full” signal from unprocessed foods. The other benefit is that unprocessed foods help you avoid sudden spikes and crashes in blood sugar. Unstable blood sugar is another reason that you can have hunger cravings. Sweet foods tend to give you a big blood sugar surge, then a big crash, signaling hunger. That’s why very sweet foods tend to increase your cravings for even more sweet foods. In general, you want to eat foods that help you feel full because of their nutrient content, as well as their ability to stabilize blood sugar. See the chart below.

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News and Analysis of scarce coins, markets, and coin collecting #53 A Weekly Column by Greg Reynolds …… More than 20 years ago, there was a rage for Three Cent Nickels. During the rare coin boom from 2002 to 2008, however, hardly anyone mentioned Three Cent Nickels. Sure, many Three Cent Nickels quietly increased in value during the 2000s. It is also true that the number of people collecting circulated Three Cent Nickels has increased markedly. Even so, it is a series that is rarely discussed and no longer receives media attention. Even when PCGS- or NGC-certified Three Cent Nickels that grade 67 or 68 become available, many people yawn. For coin buyers who are thinking about future collecting plans, are Three Cent Nickels a good choice? There is only one type of Three Cent Nickels and there are no Great Rarities in the series. Completing a set is not difficult. Collectors like to complete sets, and complete sets have a special meaning in the history of coin collecting. Nevertheless, the ease at which a set can be completed is both a positive and a negative factor. While it is great that it can be done, some collectors think that completing such a set is just too easy. No date is particularly rare. Despite the lack of extreme rarities in the series, Three Cent Nickels are a fascinating denomination and I find the obverse (front) design to be particularly attractive. There were Three Cent Nickels before there were five-cent nickels. Three Cent Nickels were minted from 1865 to 1889. Shield Nickels, which were denominated at five cents, were first minted for circulation in 1866. Joseph Wharton had a very large financial interest in the nickel industry. As the U.S. Civil War was decided in 1864 and formally came to an end in early 1865, Wharton realized that there would then be less military demand for the metal nickel and he was aiming to encourage other industries to utilize nickel. Having the U.S. Mint feature nickel in coinage was a ‘dream come true’ for Wharton. Undoubtedly, Joseph Wharton was disappointed by the decision to drop nickel from the composition of small cents, which were 12% nickel from 1856 to 1864. Three Cent Nickels and five cent nickels consisted of 25% nickel and tend to look like they are composed of a much higher percentage of nickel, due to the way nickel dominates copper in copper-nickel alloys. “Until March 1865,” Walter Breen wrote in his comprehensive encyclopedia, “Wharton’s supporters” placed “unceasing pressure on Rep. John Adam Kasson (R.- Iowa), their chief opponent, finally convincing him that anything, even Wharton’s latest proposal for coins of 25% nickel, would be better than further” use of three cent fractional currency notes, which were very small, unpopular items of paper money (See Breen’s Encyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins, 1988, p. 242). I acknowledge that most collectors now are not concerned about Joseph Wharton. Few know that he was responsible for the founding of the Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania. Although I find the history of Three Cent Nickels to be very curious, collectors think more about nickels as objects. In regards to collecting Three Cent Nickels, buyers usually choose one of three grade ranges. Three Cent Nickels that grade less than 55 are not expensive, except for issues in which few (if any) business strikes were produced. Additionally, some collectors focus on coins in the 55 to 64 grade range, ‘Choice’ AU, uncirculated or Proof coins. Collectors who focus on ‘gems’ buy only coins that grade 65 or higher. Three Cent Nickels of all dates are available in 65 and higher grades. First, I discuss circulated Three Cent Nickels, as most coin collectors can easily afford to buy a few of these. Circulated Three Cent Nickels Many thousands of people collect Three Cent Nickels that grade below 55. Lower prices are not the only reason why some collectors prefer circulated Three Cent Nickels. Some collectors are attracted to circulated coins because these were actually used in commerce. Proof Three Cent Nickels were sold, by the U.S. Mint, directly to collectors and to non-collectors who bought them for a variety of reasons. Moreover, business strikes Three Cent Nickels that are currently of gem quality now were not spent or abused in more than 120 years. Undoubtedly, many gem quality business strikes were obtained by collectors or by coin dealers very soon after these were minted. Three Cent Nickels that circulated have very different histories. A set of Three Cent Nickels in Good condition, would cost around $1,800, according to NGCcoin.com. A set in Good condition is usually defined such that it does not include the so called “Proof-only” dates of 1877, 1878, 1886 and 1887/6. Some coins of these four dates did, however, circulate, though it would be especially rare to find them in Good to Fine grades. Plus, some Three Cent Nickels of two or more “Proof-only” dates are not very convincing Proofs. In any event, collectors who seek Three Cent Nickels in Good to Fine grades should ignore the 1877, 1878, 1886 and 1887/6 issues. For Three Cent Nickels minted before 1877, coins in Good-04 grade could be obtained for amounts from $14 to $20. In this same date range, Three Cent Nickels that grade Fine-12 probably retail for prices from $18 to $30. I believe that Extremely Fine-40 grade Three Cent Nickels dating from 1865 to 1876 are excellent values at market prices of $40 to $50 or so, provided that coins with natural toning are selected. It makes sense to be careful about collecting Three Cent Nickels with extensive U.S. Mint caused imperfections, including excessive clash marks, very weak strikes, or substantial problems relating to the prepared blanks (planchets) on which the designs were stuck. Neat, circulated Three Cent Nickels, with few imperfections, are available. John Albanese suggests that “Three Cent Nickels in Very Fine and Extremely Fine grade are good values for collectors.” Generally, as John points out, “for many 19th-century [series], coins in Good and Very Good grades have gone up a lot in value over the last five years or so. During the same time period, Very Fine and Extremely grade coins of the same types have not gone up at all or have lagged … So, the difference in price between a Very Fine grade Three Cent Nickel and a Very Good coin of the same date is “not that much, while there is a big difference in detail and overall quality,”. As already mentioned, Three Cent Nickels dating 1877 and 1878 are typically regarded as “Proof-only” issues. Quite a few of these, however, are characterized by noticeable wear. According to Numismedia.com, a ’40’ grade 1878 is worth $506. In November 2010, Stack’s auctioned a PCGS-certified Proof-65 1878, with a CAC sticker, for $862.50. It is likely that a collector should be able to obtain an 1878 which grades from 40 to 63 for a price in the $450 to $650 range. Likewise, a 55 grade 1877 in the price range of its Numismedia.com value of $1,230 may be a reasonable and sensible acquisition. In September 2005, an NGC-graded ’58’ 1877 was auctioned by Heritage for $1,380. Circulated Three Cent Nickels in the 1882 to 1887 date range are much scarcer than those struck from 1865 to 1876. During the mid-1880s, there was little demand for Three Cent Nickels among merchants and the general public. An 1882 may cost more than $100 in Good-04 grade and an 1885 may be priced as high as $500 in Good grades. Even an 1887 Three Cent Nickel, which is not really rare, is usually valued at above $235 in Good-04 grade. Proofs among Business Strikes For some Three Cent Nickels in the 1882 to 1887 date range, Proofs are less expensive than business strikes. A Proof-60 to -62 1885 certainly could be acquired for less than $250, perhaps less than half the price of an 1885 in Very Good-08 grade. I suggest that, for each date where a business strike Three Cent Nickels is priced higher than a Proof of the same or higher numerical grade, collectors should buy the corresponding Proof Three Cent Nickel. This same advice applies to Shield Nickels as well. There is more than one reason to mix Proofs and business strikes in the same sets. First, before 1980, it was the rule for great collections to include mixtures of Proofs and business strikes. When Louis Eliasberg or Emily May Holden Norweb acquired a Proof of a coin issue, a business strike of the same type and date was usually not acquired or, at least, not deemed necessary. Eliasberg, Mrs. Norweb, and many others who assembled phenomenal collections incorporated Proofs and business strikes in the same sets, and regarded a Proof as a superior alternative to a business strike. Indeed, from the 1860s to the 1970s, the standard practice among collectors of coins that lacked wear, 60 or higher grade in current terminology, was to include business strikes and Proofs in the same sets. The acquisition of a Proof would negate the need for the presence in a collection of a business strike of the same type, date and mint location. In regard to a substantial number of Three Cent Nickels and Shield Nickels, of several dates, there is not a consensus in the coin collecting community regarding the distinction between Proofs and business strikes. Of course, most nickels are definitely business strikes and many nickels are definitely Proofs. There are a shocking number of 19th century nickels, however, for which there are differences of opinion among influential experts regarding their respective Proof or business strike status. In regards to 1878 Shield Nickels, “It is interesting to debate whether pieces should be called Proofs because they were called that by the Mint,” Q. David Bowers wonders, “or whether they should be called Uncirculated for they appear to be” business strikes (Guide Book of Shield and Liberty Head Nickels (2006), p. 116). Bowers adds that 1880 business strike “Mint State” Shield Nickels “closely parallel Proofs in appearance and are easily confused, even by professional graders.” QDB goes on to discuss complex criteria that relate to determining whether specific 1880 Shield Nickels are Proofs or business strikes. QDB makes clear that there is much disagreement among experts. I am aware of more than one instance where the graders at one of the two major grading services were in unanimous agreement that a specific Three Cent Nickel is a business strike and then were over-ruled by someone at a higher level, at the same grading service, who insisted that the Three Cent Nickel in question must be certified as a Proof, because similar coins had been certified as Proofs in the past. In countless instances, grading experts argue with each other over whether particular nickels are Proofs or business strikes. Nickels that were previously certified as Proofs have, in many instances, been later certified as business strikes, or vice versa. Suppose that a mid- to late 19th-century coin is characterized by two or more of the following characteristics: a few mushy design details, rich mint luster, noticeable Mint caused surface imperfections, weakly reflective or non-reflective surfaces, and/or is in relatively low relief in most respects. It is thus probably not a Proof, even if it is of a so called ‘Proof-only’ date. There are coins of so called ‘Proof-only’ dates and other dates that are certified as Proofs, which meet few of the criteria for a Proof. It does not make sense to rely upon the data published by the grading services as such data relates to the relative scarcity of Proofs and business strikes of some nickel issues. As most career coin dealers are confused by the differences between Proof and business strike 19th-century coins, few collectors will be able to make sound determinations in complex or borderline cases. For emphasis, I wish to restate my point in this passage. When a certified 19th-century Proof nickel, Three Cent or five cents, costs less than a certified business strike of the same type, date and grade from the same service, it makes logical sense for a collector to purchase a certified Proof. For 19th-century nickels that cost more than $150 each, collectors should only buy coins that have been certified by the PCGS or the NGC. It is common for raw coins to be deliberately misrepresented or be coins that were previously judged to be un-gradable by experts at the PCGS or the NGC. Frequently, nickels that cost less than $150 each can be found in PCGS or NGC holders as well. Many of these were submitted to the PCGS or the NGC at times when they were worth considerably more than their current respective values. Certification fees were thus then a lower percentage of the market values of these same nickels. Prices for many Three Cent Nickels and Shield Nickels are lower now than prices were in the late 1980s or early ’90s. Choice AU, MS or Proof Nickels Many collectors contend that coins in the 55 to 64 range are excellent values and tend to focus on Three Cent Nickels in this grade range. These are usually less costly than those that grade 65 or higher. In AU-55 grade, Three Cent Nickels dating from 1865 to 1876, and 1881s, could be priced anywhere from $50 to $100, depending upon the specific date and characteristics of the individual coin. Three Cent Nickels of the same respective dates that are certified as grading MS-65 would cost from $500 to $1,500 each. According to Numismedia.com, a business strike AU-55 1883 Three Cent Nickel is worth $570, while a “Proof” -55 1883 is worth $210. As I explained already, this is a case where it may make more sense for a collector to buy an 1883 in ’55’ grade that is designated as being a Proof. Even if the certified Proof-55 1883 is definitely a true Proof, an attractive Proof-55 1883 is a better value, in my view, than an attractive AU-55 business strike 1883. In regards to 1883, 1884 and 1885 Three Cent Nickels that grade 63 and 64, coins that are certified as business strikes (“MS”) are much more expensive, generally four to 10 times as much, as those that are certified as Proofs. In this context, I suggest that collectors acquire certified Proof-64 Three Cent Nickels. Consider a PCGS- or NGC-certified MS-64 1885 Three Cent Nickel. It is valued at $5,000 to $7,500 in MS-64 grade, while a PCGS- or NGC-certified Proof-64 is valued at less than $700. In August 2010 in Boston, Heritage auctioned a PCGS-certified MS-64 1885 for $6,900. In November 2010, Stack’s sold a PCGS-certified Proof-64 1885, with a CAC sticker, for $402.50. I strongly suggest that a certified Proof-64 1885 is a better value than a corresponding certified MS-64 business strike. As for 1877 and 1878 Three Cent Nickels, I suggest that these be considered by all collectors building sets of Three Cent Nickels. Yes, I realize that most 1877 and 1878 Three Cent Nickels did not circulate. Even so, 1877 and 1878 Three Cent Nickels that grade from 50 to 58 are around and are not extremely expensive. In sum, a set of Three Cent Nickels that grades from 55 to 64 is a good value for collectors. Consider that all the dates from 1865 to 1876 and from 1879 to 1882, in AU-55 grade, would total around $1,800, $2,100 at most. Adding an 1888 and an 1889, also in AU-55 grade, would probably amount to another $400 or so. As for the 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, and 1887/6 dates, these are very expensive or unobtainable in certified AU-55 grade. If PCGS- or NGC-certified Proof-61 or -62, however, all six of these may be acquired for an average of less than $325 each, perhaps $2000 for all six. A 55 or higher grade 1878 could probably be purchased for less than $600. Certainly, a PCGS- or NGC-certified 1877, of 55 or higher grade, could be found for less than $1,700. A truly complete set of Three Cent Nickels in 55 or higher grade could thus be assembled for less than $6,800. If such a project was completed over a period of four years, the average annual expenditure would be $1,700 per year. I realize that this is a significant amount for most people. In the realm of scarce and rare U.S. coins, though, $1,700 is not a huge amount. Besides, completing a whole set of a 19th-century U.S. coin series, in 55 or higher grade, for $6,800 seems reasonable, from a logical perspective. Plus, Three Cent Nickels are a one-type denomination. While Three Cent Silvers have the same face value, these are considered to be a different denomination, as Three Cent Silvers are a different kind of coin. Therefore, a collection of a whole denomination, in 55 or higher grade, could be completed for $6,800! Gem Three Cent Nickels By tradition, coins that grade 65 or higher are termed gems, such as ‘Gem BU’ and ‘Gem Proof’! So, collectors who wish for gems buy Three Cent Nickels that grade 65 or higher. As Three Cent Nickels are graded a little more liberally than most other 19th-century series, I maintain that collectors who wish for true gems tend towards Three Cent Nickels that grade 66 or higher. In my view, there is a considerable difference in quality between a typical mid-range 65 grade and a typical mid-range 66 grade Three Cent Nickel. John Albanese figures that “Gem Proof Three Cent Nickels are bargains compared to what they used to be in 1980 or 1990. In late 1978, you could buy Gem Proof Three Cent Nickels for $175.” At a major coin show in February 1980, “Gem Proofs, sixes or sevens by today’s standards, were selling for $3,500 each,” Albanese exclaims. In April 1980, prices for these were “cut in half practically overnight.” John adds that prices fell further over the following two years. Demand for Gem Proof Three Cent Nickels sharply increased in 1989 and increased to an even greater extent in early 1990. Prices for Gem Proof Three Cent Nickels are lower now than such prices were in early 1990. In my column of Feb. 23rd, Albanese revealed that “there has been very little grade-inflation” regarding Proof Three Cent Nickels. Usually, “Three Cent Nickels that graded 66 or 67 in 1990 are graded the same now,” according to John. Albanese was the sole founder of the NGC in 1987 and he started the CAC in 2007. Prices for many gem business strike Three Cent Nickels are also lower now than these prices were in 1990. While 66 and 67 grade business strike Three Cent Nickels are not as exciting, in my view, as many of the Proofs, such business strikes are interesting and often very attractive. Even so, I find that some of them are controversially graded. Collectors who buy MS-66 and -67 Three Cent Nickels should seek advice from leading experts and/or learn how to grade by examining a large number of them while asking questions of grading experts. For those who can afford to do so, the completing of a set of gem business strikes, Gem Proofs, or a mix of Gem Proofs and business strikes, is likely to be a fulfilling endeavor. Such sets are often captivating. Buyers who are unable or unwilling to build sets of Three Cent Nickels can enjoy them as type coins. A Good grade, problem free, naturally toned Three Cent Nickel can easily be found for less than $20. One in Very Fine Grade would not cost much more. John Albanese reports that PCGS- or NGC-certified Proof-66 Three Cent Nickels, of the least scarce dates “wholesale for around $700.” It would, in my view, be fair for a retail dealer to offer a nice one for $800 to $900. “I get $50 more for Proof-66 Cameo Three Cent Nickels,” Albanese reveals. A ‘cameo’ designation refers to a contrast of white design elements (devices) against relatively dark fields. This contrast is often exaggerated by dipping a coin in an acidic solution. “The Cameo designation is sometimes just a sales tool. It is psychological,” Albanese relates. “Maybe pay a little premium for a cameo designation if you like the coin. If a non-cameo Proof has smooth surfaces and pretty original colors, it might be more desirable than one with a cameo [contrast]. Don’t always pay a premium for a cameo. There always are other attributes [to consider]. I would rather have an original non-cameo with pretty colors than a dipped cameo,” Albanese asserts. I agree with John. Further, I would recommend naturally toned Three Cent Nickels that show little or no evidence of ever having been dipped. In my view, the premiums that are frequently paid for “Deep Cameo” or “Ultra Cameo” coins are illogical and are not consistent with the traditions of coin collecting in the U.S. Besides, a large part of the ‘Deep Cameo’ contrast, when found on 19th century coins, is often (though not always) due to acidic dipping solutions. In conclusion, whether a collector has $50 to spend or $50,000, he or she can appreciate Three Cent Nickels in actuality. Naturally toned, attractive Three Cent Nickels of most dates in many grades are not hard to find. Besides, these are cute and are conversation pieces. In everyday life, I find that many people are intrigued when informed that there were Three Cent Nickels before there were five-cent nickels. ©2016 Greg Reynolds Three Cent Nickels Currently Available on eBay

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This article possibly contains original research. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |Born||c. 13th century| |Cause of death||Sentenced to death by burning at the stake| |The Mirror of Simple Souls| Marguerite Porete (c. 13th century – 1 June 1310) was a French-speaking mystic and the author of The Mirror of Simple Souls, a work of Christian mysticism dealing with the workings of agape (divine love). She was burnt at the stake for heresy in Paris in 1310 after a lengthy trial, refusing to remove her book from circulation or recant her views. Today, Porete's work has been of interest to a diverse number of scholars. Those interested in medieval mysticism, and more specifically beguine mystical writing, cite The Mirror of Simple Souls in their studies. The book is also seen as a primary text regarding the medieval Heresy of the Free Spirit. Study of Eckhart has shown a similarity between his and Porete's ideas about union with God.[b] Porete has also been of interest to those studying medieval women's writing. |Part of a series on| Porete's life is recorded only in accounts of her trial for heresy, at which she was condemned to be burnt at the stake. Porete's biography is probably biased and certainly incomplete. She was said to come from the County of Hainaut, a French-speaking principality in the Holy Roman Empire, though this is uncertain. Her high level of education means she is likely to have had upper-class origins. She is associated with the beguine movement and was therefore able to travel fairly freely. Trial and death Marguerite appears to have written the first version of her book in the 1290s. Sometime between 1296 and 1306 it was deemed heretical, and the Bishop of Cambrai condemned it to be publicly burned in her presence at Valenciennes. One of the taboos Porete had broken was writing the book in Old French rather than in Latin and she was ordered not to circulate her ideas or the book again. Nevertheless, she continued to do so. It has recently been suggested that she was caught in Châlons-en-Champagne in 1308, after she gave her book to the local bishop. She was then handed to the Inquisitor of France, the Dominican William of Paris, also known as William of Humbert) on grounds of heresy, in spite of claims in the book that she had consulted three church authorities about her writings, including the highly respected Master of Theology Godfrey of Fontaines, and gained their approval. Marguerite refused to speak to William of Paris or any of her inquisitors during her imprisonment and trial. In 1310 a commission of twenty-one theologians investigated a series of fifteen propositions drawn from the book (only three of which are securely identifiable today), judging them heretical. Among those who condemned the book were the ecclesiastical textual scholar, Nicholas of Lyra. Three Bishops passed final judgement upon her. Porete had been arrested with a Beghard, Guiard de Cressonessart, who was also put on trial for heresy. Guiard declared himself to be Porete's defender. After being held in prison in Paris for a year and a half, their trial began. Guiard, under tremendous pressure, eventually confessed and was found guilty. Porete, on the other hand, refused to recant her ideas, withdraw her book or cooperate with the authorities, refusing to take the oath required by the Inquisitor to proceed with the trial. Guiard, because he confessed, was imprisoned. Porete, because she did not, was found guilty and sentenced to be burnt at the stake as a relapsed heretic. Porete died on 1 June 1310 in Paris at the Place de Grève. The Inquisitor spoke of her as a pseudo-mulier "fake woman" and described the Mirror as 'filled with errors and heresies.' A record of the trial was appended to the chronicle begun by Guillaume de Nangis; despite the negative view taken towards Marguerite by Nangis, the chronicle reports that the crowd was moved to tears by the calmness of how she faced her end. After her death extracts from the book were cited in the bull Ad Nostrum, issued by the Council of Vienne in 1311, to condemn the Free Spirit movement as heretical. The Mirror of Simple Souls The title of Porete's book refers to the simple soul which is united with God and has no will other than God's own. Some of the language, as well as the format of a dialogue between characters such as Love, Virtue and the Soul, reflects a familiarity with the style of courtly love which was popular at the time, and attests to Porete's high level of education and sophistication. Much of the book resembles a rational Boethian style argument between several parties, but also works similarly to the medieval French poem, the Romance of the Rose. Writing in beautifully elegant, flowing poetic prose and occasionally poetry, Marguerite ultimately says that the Soul must give up Reason, whose logical, conventional grasp of reality cannot fully comprehend God and the presence of Divine Love. The "Annihilated Soul" is one that has given up everything but God through Love. For Porete, when the Soul is truly full of God's Love it is united with God and thus in a state of union which causes it to transcend the contradictions of this world. In such a beatific state it cannot sin because it is wholly united with God's Will and thus incapable of acting in such a way - a phenomenon which the standard theology describes as the effect of Divine grace, which suppresses a person's sinful nature. In fact, one of the main targets of her book is to teach to readers or listeners how to get this simple state though devices, for instance images. It is in this vision of Man being united with God through Love, thus returning to its source, and the presence of God in everything that she connects in thought with the ideas of Eckhart. Porete and Eckhart had acquaintances in common and there is much speculation as to whether they ever met or had access to each other's work. Beloved, let us love one another, for love cometh of God. And every one that loveth, is born of God, and knoweth God. He that loveth not, knoweth not God; for God is love. .. [and] he that dwelleth in love dwelleth in God, and God in him. (First Epistle of John 4: 7-16) Porete herself references these in her own writing: I am God, says Love, for Love is God and God is Love,[c] and this Soul is God by the condition of Love. I am God by divine nature and this Soul is God by righteousness of Love.[d] Thus this precious beloved of mine is taught and guided by me, without herself, for she is transformed into me, and such a perfect one, says Love, takes my nourishment. (Chapter 21: Love answers the argument of Reason for the sake of this book which says that such Souls take leaves of the Virtues) Porete's vision of the Soul in ecstatic union with God, moving in a state of perpetual joy and peace, is a repetition of the Catholic doctrine of the Beatific Vision, albeit experienced in this life and not in the next. Where Porete ran into trouble with some authorities was in her description of the Soul in this state being above the worldly dialectic of conventional morality and the teachings and control of the earthly church. Porete argues that the Soul in such a sublime state is above the demands of ordinary virtue, not because virtue is not needed but because in its state of union with God virtue becomes automatic. As God can do no evil and cannot sin, the exalted/Annihilated soul, in perfect union with Him, no longer is capable of evil or sin. Although this concept is found in the catechism, certain Church authorities nevertheless claimed that it smacked of amorality. Two hundred years later, John of the Cross expressed an almost identical view of the nature of the Soul's union with God in his Ascent of Mount Carmel, that once united with God, the Soul's will becomes that of God, However, John was not denounced as a heretic. Although The Mirror is now embraced as an important piece of Christian mysticism it is unlikely Porete will ever enjoy the renown or acceptance John now receives from the Catholic Church. The book was originally written in Old French, but was translated into Latin, Italian, and Middle English and circulated widely. In spite of its reputation as a heretical work it remained popular in Medieval times and in some ecclesiastical centres was embraced as an almost canonical piece of theology. After Porete's death, however, the Mirror was circulated as an anonymous work, Porete's name having been struck from it. Curiously, as an anonymous work it caused less controversy and in some instances was embraced as an acceptable part of Christian literature and thought (at one point it was thought that John of Ruusbroec had written it). This perhaps says something interesting about the complexities surrounding the nature of the book and the way it was received in its day. It is possible that Porete's femininity or the timing of the Mirror's publication at the height of the Free Spirit controversy lent weight to its persecution. Only in 1946 was the authorship of the Mirror recognised again, when Romana Guarnieri identified Latin manuscripts of the Mirror in the Vatican as the supposedly lost book of Marguerite. The Middle French manuscript of the text, probably made after 1370, was published for the first time in 1965. There is much speculation as to why Porete became such a target and why so much effort was made to put her on trial (the number of consultants gathered to draw up the case against her was unprecedented). Growing hostility to the Beguine movement among Franciscans and Dominicans, the political machinations of Philip IV of France, who was also busy suppressing the Knights Templar, ecclesiastical fear at the spread of the anti-hierarchical Free Spirit movement have all been suggested, as has the popularity of Porete's book which gave her a profile other writers did not have. There were numerous female mystics of the Middle Ages who claimed direct mystical contact with God, some working from within the framework of the Church, some not; and yet most — such as Hildegard of Bingen, Catherine of Siena, Bridget of Sweden, Julian of Norwich, etc. — were not viewed as suspect. Nevertheless, the leader of her trial, the Dominican Inquisitor William of Paris gathered together a formidable array of academics and lawyers to assess the case against Porete. Some also associated her with the Brethren of the Free Spirit, a group which was considered heretical because of their antinomian views. The connection between Porete and the Free Spirits is somewhat tenuous, though, as further scholarship has determined that they were less closely related than some Church authorities believed. Porete’s status as one of the greatest of Medieval Mystics has grown in recent decades, placing her alongside Mechthild of Magdeburg and Hadewijch as one of the most visionary exponents of the Love Mysticism of Beguine spirituality. In 2006 poet Anne Carson wrote a poetic libretto entitled Decreation, the second part of which takes as its subject Marguerite Porete and her work, The Mirror of Simple Souls as part of exploration of how women (Sappho, Simone Weil and Porete) "tell God." - Anne Carson - Hildegard of Bingen - Julian of Norwich - Margery Kempe - Sister Catherine Treatise - Compare Augustine, De Trinitate 8.14 with Porete, ch. 113 - Eckhart's favorite description of the spiritual life as living "without a why" is utilized by Porete consistently. For example, in Porete ch. 81, 86, 89, 91, 93, 100, 111, 134, 135 - I John 4:16 - William of St-Thierry, The Golden Epistle 2.263. This phrase describes the transformative power of divine love. - Babinsky, Ellen L. (1993). "Introduction". The Mirror of Simple Souls. Mahwah: Paulist Press. p. 30. ISBN 0-8091-3427-6. - Babinsky 1993, p. 30 n. 122 - Babinsky 1993, p. 32 n. 133 - Babinsky 1993, p. 29 n. 112, 114 - Ruh, Kurt (1977). "Beginenmystik: Hadewijch, Mechthild von Magdeburg, Marguerite Porete". Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur. 106: 265–77. - Ruh, Kurt (1975). "'Le Miroir des Simples Ames' der Marguerite Porete". In Fromm, H.; Harms, W.; Ruberg, U. (eds.). Verbum et Sugnum. Munich: W. Fink. pp. 365–87. - Babinksky 1993, p. 5 - Thysell, Carol (2000). The Pleasure of Discernment: Marguerite de Navarre as Theologian. Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0-19-513845-7. - Ruh, Kurt (1985). "6: Meister Eckhart und die Beginenspiritualität". Meister Eckhart: Theologe, Prediger, Mystiker. Munich: C.H. Beck. - Colledge, Edmund; Marler, J.C. (1984). "'Poverty of the Will': Ruusbroec, Eckhart and The Mirror of Simple Souls". In Mommaers, P.; Paepe, N. de (eds.). Jan van Ruusebroec: The Sources, Content and Sequels of His Mysticism. Leuven: Leuven University Press. - Babinsky 1993, p. 5 n. 7 - These accounts were first edited in Paul Fredericq, Corpus Documentorum Inquisitionis Haereticae Pravitatis Neerlandicae, vol 1. A more complete edition, though, can be found in Paul Verdeyen, ‘Le process d’Inquisition contre Marguerite Porete et Guiard de Cressonessart (1309-1310)’, Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique 81, (1986), 48-94. - In chapter 122 of the Mirror she includes beguines among those who attack her, but it is likely she was referring to the enclosed beguines, who felt uncomfortable with the wandering and mendicant beguine lifestyle she appears to have practiced.(See Bernard McGinn, The Flowering of Mysticism, p244.). - Piron, Sylvain (2017). "Marguerite in Champagne". Journal of Medieval Religious Cultures. 47: 135–156. - Medieval manuals on "discretio spirituum" — the clerical judgement of mystical visions — called for the clergy to serve in an advisory role but nevertheless cautioned them about their own ultimate inability to make a definitive judgement on such matters (see late-medieval manuals such as Gerson's "De probatione spirituum" and "De distinctione verarum visionum a falsis"). Such manuals tell the clergy to provide learned guidance, not ultimate judgement, warning them that they might make a mistake and end up opposing the Divine Will. - McGinn, p245 - Sells, Michael A. (1994). Mystical Languages of Unsaying. University of Chicago Press. p. 117. ISBN 0-226-74786-7. - Hanning, Robert W. (1977). The Individual in Twelfth-Century Romance. New Haven: Yale University Press. - Babinksy 1993, p. 27 n. 97 - Babinsky 1993, p. 27 n. 96 - García Acosta, P., Poética de la visibilidad en Le Mirouer des simples ames de Marguerite Porete (Un estudio sobre el uso de la imagen en la religiosidad medieval), Universidad Pompeu Fabra, 2009, http://tdx.cat - Babinksy 1993, p. 104 n. 19 - Porete, Marguerite; Babinsky, Ellen (1993). The Mirror of Simple Souls. Paulist Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-8091-3427-4. - The text survives in six versions in four languages with thirteen manuscripts, making it among the more widely disseminated of the vernacular mystical texts of the Middle Ages. (McGinn, Flowering, p246, and n251 on p438). - McGinn, Flowering, p436. - Romana Guarnieri, ‘Il movimiento del Libero Spirito: II, Il Miroir des simples ames di Margherita Porete’, Archivio italiano per la storia della pieta 4, (1965), 501-708. This was reprinted, along with an edition of the Latin text, in Paul Verdeyen, Marguerete Porete: Le Mirouer des Simples Ames, CCCM 69, (Turnhout: Brepols, 1986). - Ellen Babinsky, Introduction in Porete, The Mirror of Simple Souls, p. 13 - "The Mirror of Simple Souls: An Opera Installation Libretto". JSTOR 4338292. Cite journal requires - Field, Sean L. "The Master and Marguerite: Godfrey of Fontaines' praise of The Mirror of Simple Souls," Journal of Medieval History, 35,2 (2009), 136-149. - Field, Sean L. The Beguine, the Angel, and the Inquisitor: The Trials of Marguerite Porete and Guiard of Cressonessart (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2012). ISBN 0268028923 - Sean L. Field, Robert E. Lerner, Sylvain Piron (dir.), Marguerite Porete et le “Miroir des simples âmes”: Perspectives historiques, philosophiques et littéraires, Paris, Vrin, 2013. ISBN 978-2-7116-2524-6 - Michael Frassetto, "Marguerite Porete: Mysticism, Beguines and Heretics of the Free Spirit," in idem, Heretic Lives: Medieval Heresy from Bogomil and the Cathars to Wyclif and Hus (London, Profile Books, 2007), 135-150. - P. García Acosta, Poética de la visibilidad en el Mirouer des simples ames de Marguerite Porete (Un estudio sobre el uso de la imagen en la enseñanza religiosa medieval), Universidad Pompeu Fabra, 2009 . - S. [Zan] Kocher, Allegories of Love in Marguerite Porete’s 'Mirror of Simple Souls'. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2009. ISBN 2-503-51902-4. - R. Lahav, "Marguerite Porete and the Predicament of her Preaching in Fourteenth Century France," in Laurence Lux-Sterritt and Carmen Mangion (eds), Gender, Catholicism and Spirituality: Women and the Roman Catholic Church in Britain and Europe, 1200-1900 (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), - Bernard McGinn, The Flowering of Mysticism, (1998), pp. 244–265. - Miller, Tanya Stabler. “What’s in a Name? Clerical Representations of Parisian Beguines, 1200-1327,” The Journal of Medieval History, 33:1 (2007): 60-86. - Miller, Tanya Stabler. The Beguines of Medieval Paris: Gender, Patronage, and Spiritual Authority (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014) ISBN 9780812224115 - Marguerite Porete, The Mirror of Simple Souls, ed. Ellen Babinsky. Paulist Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8091-3427-6. - J. M. Robinson, Nobility and Annihilation in Marguerite Porete's 'Mirror of Simple Souls'. SUNY Press, 2001. ISBN 0-7914-4968-8. . - Swan, Laura, The Wisdom of the Beguines: the Forgotten Story of a Medieval Women's Movement, BlueBridge, 2014 - Paul Verdeyen, Marguerete Porete: Le Mirouer des Simples Ames, CCCM 69, (Turnholt: Brepols, 1986) [contains the text of the one surviving Middle French manuscript, and an edition of the Latin text] - International Bibliography on Marguerite Porete

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Cross-country skiing (sport) The sport of cross-country skiing encompasses a variety of formats for cross-country skiing races over courses of varying lengths according to rules sanctioned by the International Ski Federation and by various national organizations, such as the U. S. Ski and Snowboard Association and Cross Country Ski Canada. International competitions include the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, the FIS Cross-Country World Cup, at the Winter Olympic Games; such races occur over homologated, groomed courses designed to support classic and freestyle events, where the skiers may employ skate skiing. It encompasses cross-country ski marathon events, sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation, cross-country ski orienteering events, sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation. Related forms of competition are biathlon, where competitors race on cross-country skis and stop to shoot at targets with rifles, paralympic cross-country skiing that allows athletes with disabilities to compete at cross-country skiing with adaptive equipment. Norwegian army units were skiing for sport in the 18th century. Starting in the latter part of the 20th century, technique evolved from the striding in-track classic technique to include skate-skiing, which occurs on courses that have been groomed with wide lanes for those using the technique. At the same time, equipment evolved from skis and poles that were made of wood and other natural materials to comprising such man-made materials as fiberglass, carbon fiber, polyethylene plastics. Athletes train to achieve endurance, speed and flexibility at different levels of intensity. Offseason training occurs on dry land, sometimes on roller skis; the organization of cross-country ski competitions aims to make those events accessible both to spectators and television audiences. As with other sports that require endurance and speed, some athletes have chosen to use banned performance-enhancing drugs. In 1767 Danish-Norwegian general, Carl Schack Rantzau, codified four classes of military skiing contests and established prizes for each: Shooting at prescribed targets at 40–50 paces while skiing downhill at "top speed". "Hurling" themselves while racing downhill among trees "without falling or breaking skis". Downhill racing on large slopes without "riding or resting on their stick" or falling. "Long racing" with full military kit and a gun on the shoulder over ca. 2.5 km of "flat ground" within 15 minutes. An early record of a public ski competition was for an 1843 event in Tromsø; the announcement called the event a "wagering race on skis". A distinct alpine technique emerged around 1900 from how skiing was practiced up until when Mathias Zdarsky advocated the "Lilienfelder Ski Method" as an alternative to the Norwegian technique. In Norwegian, langrenn refers to "competitive skiing where the goal is to complete a specific distance in pre-set tracks in the shortest possible time". Alpine skiing competitions existed in Norway during the 18th and 19th centuries, but were discontinued when the main ski festival in Oslo focused on long races and ski jumping; the alpine disciplines reemerged in Central Europe around 1920. Ski touring competitions are long-distance cross-country competitions open to the public, competition is within age categories. In the 1800s racers used a single, wooden pole, longer and stronger than modern poles, could be used for braking downhill, as well. In Norway, racing with two poles met with resistance, starting in the 1880s, when some race rules forbade them; as the use of pairs of pole became the norm, materials favored lightness and strength, starting with bamboo, which gave way to fiberglass, used at the 1968 Winter Olympics, used at the 1972 Winter Olympics, carbon fiber, introduced in 1975. Skate skiing was introduced to competition in the 20th Century. At the first German ski championship, held at the Feldberg in the Black Forest in 1900, the Norwegian Bjarne Nilssen won the 23 km cross-country race and was observed using a skating motion while skiing—a technique unknown to the spectators. Johan Grøttumsbråten used the skating technique at the 1931 World Championship in Oberhof, one of the earliest recorded use of skating in competitive cross-country skiing. This technique was used in ski orienteering in the 1960s on roads and other firm surfaces. Finnish skier Pauli Siitonen developed a variant of the style for marathon or other endurance events in the 1970s by leaving one ski in the track while skating outwards to the side with the other ski. American skier Bill Koch further developed the marathon skate technique in the late 1970s. Skate skiing became widespread during the 1980s after Koch's success with it in the 1982 Cross-country Skiing Championships drew more attention to the technique. Norwegian skier, Ove Aunli, started using the technique in 1984, when he found it to be much faster than classic style. Skating is most effective on wide, groomed trails, using fiberglass skis that glide well. Athletes adopted skating to both sides by the time of the 1985 world championship and it was formally adopted by the FIS in 1986—despite initial opposition from Norway, the Soviet Union and Finland—while preserving events using only classic technique. Snow refers to forms of ice crystals that precipitate from the atmosphere and undergo changes on the Earth's surface. It pertains to frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle, starting when, under suitable conditions, the ice crystals form in the atmosphere, increase to millimeter size and accumulate on surfaces metamorphose in place, melt, slide or sublimate away. Snowstorms develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air. Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets, which freeze in hexagonal-shaped crystals. Snowflakes take on a variety of shapes, basic among these are platelets, needles and rime; as snow accumulates into a snowpack, it may blow into drifts. Over time, accumulated snow metamorphoses, by sintering and freeze-thaw. Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation, a glacier may form. Otherwise, snow melts seasonally, causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater. Major snow-prone areas include the polar regions, the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture and cold temperatures. In the Southern Hemisphere, snow is confined to mountainous areas, apart from Antarctica. Snow affects such human activities as transportation: creating the need for keeping roadways and windows clear. Snow affects ecosystems, as well, by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold. Snow develops in clouds; the physics of snow crystal development in clouds results from a complex set of variables that include moisture content and temperatures. The resulting shapes of the falling and fallen crystals can be classified into a number of basic shapes and combinations, thereof; some plate-like and stellar-shaped snowflakes can form under clear sky with a cold temperature inversion present. Snow clouds occur in the context of larger weather systems, the most important of, the low pressure area, which incorporate warm and cold fronts as part of their circulation. Two additional and locally productive sources of snow are lake-effect storms and elevation effects in mountains. Mid-latitude cyclones are low pressure areas which are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild snow storms to heavy blizzards. During a hemisphere's fall and spring, the atmosphere over continents can be cold enough through the depth of the troposphere to cause snowfall. In the Northern Hemisphere, the northern side of the low pressure area produces the most snow. For the southern mid-latitudes, the side of a cyclone that produces the most snow is the southern side. A cold front, the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, can produce frontal snowsqualls—an intense frontal convective line, when temperature is near freezing at the surface; the strong convection that develops has enough moisture to produce whiteout conditions at places which line passes over as the wind causes intense blowing snow. This type of snowsquall lasts less than 30 minutes at any point along its path but the motion of the line can cover large distances. Frontal squalls may form a short distance ahead of the surface cold front or behind the cold front where there may be a deepening low pressure system or a series of trough lines which act similar to a traditional cold frontal passage. In situations where squalls develop post-frontally it is not unusual to have two or three linear squall bands pass in rapid succession only separated by 25 miles with each passing the same point in 30 minutes apart. In cases where there is a large amount of vertical growth and mixing the squall may develop embedded cumulonimbus clouds resulting in lightning and thunder, dubbed thundersnow. A warm front can produce snow for a period, as warm, moist air overrides below-freezing air and creates precipitation at the boundary. Snow transitions to rain in the warm sector behind the front. Lake-effect snow is produced during cooler atmospheric conditions when a cold air mass moves across long expanses of warmer lake water, warming the lower layer of air which picks up water vapor from the lake, rises up through the colder air above, freezes and is deposited on the leeward shores; the same effect occurs over bodies of salt water, when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow. The effect is enhanced when the moving air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores. This uplifting can produce narrow but intense bands of precipitation, which deposit at a rate of many inches of snow each hour resulting in a large amount of total snowfall. The areas affected by lake-effect snow are called snowbelts; these include areas east of the Great Lakes, the west coasts of northern Japan, the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia, areas near the Great Salt Lake, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Baltic Sea, parts of the northern Atlantic Ocean. Orographic or relief snowfall is caused when masses of air pushed by wind are forced up the side of elevated land formations, such as large mountains; the lifting of air up the side of a mountain or range results in adiabatic cooling, condensation and precipitation. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier, warmer air on the leeward side; the resulting enhanced productivity of snow fall and the decrease in temperature with elevation means that snow depth Nordic skiing encompasses the various types of skiing in which the toe of the ski boot is fixed to the binding in a manner that allows the heel to rise off the ski, unlike Alpine skiing, where the boot is attached to the ski from toe to heel. Recreational disciplines include Telemark skiing. Olympic events are cross-country skiing, ski jumping and nordic combined—competition in which athletes both cross-country ski and ski jump; the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships host these sports, plus Telemark skiing, at the championship level in the winter of every odd numbered year. Biathlon combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting, but is not included as a Nordic discipline under FIS rules. Instead, it is under the jurisdiction of the International Biathlon Union; the biomechanics of competitive cross-country skiing and ski jumping have been the subject of serious study. Cross-country skiing requires strength and endurance and ski jumping requires aerodynamic efficiency, both of which requirements translate into specific skills to be optimized in training and competition Modern competitive archery Modern competitive archery involves shooting arrows at a target for accuracy from a set distance or distances. This is called target archery. A form popular in Europe and America is field archery, shot at targets set at various distances in a wooded setting. There are several other lesser-known and historical forms, as well as archery novelty games; the World Archery Federation, composed of 156 national federations and other archery associations, is the governing body recognized by the International Olympic Committee. Various other large organizations exist with different rules. Modern competitive target archery is governed by the World Archery Federation, abbreviated as WA. Olympic rules are derived from WA rules. Target archery competitions outdoors. Indoor distances are 18 m. Outdoor distances range from 25 m to 90 m. Competition is divided into ends of 3 or 6 arrows. After each end, the competitors retrieve their arrows. Archers have a set time limit in. 3 arrows are shot in 2 minutes, 6 in 4 minutes. Targets are marked with 10 evenly spaced concentric rings, which have score values from 1 through 10 assigned to them. In addition, there is an inner 10 ring, sometimes called the X ring; this becomes the 10 ring at indoor compound competitions. Outdoors, it serves. Archers score each end by summing the scores for their arrows. Line breakers, an arrow just touching a scoring boundary line, will be awarded the higher score. In the past, most targets in competitive archery use some kind of stalks of grain or grass and may be constructed of marsh grass woven into a rope wrapped around into a target. However, in modern times, most archery targets are made of synthetic foam, or woven plastic bags stuffed with cloth. Different rounds and distances use; these range from 40 cm to 122 cm. Field archery involves shooting at targets of varying distance in rough terrain. Three common types of rounds are the field and animal. A round consists of 28 targets in two units of 14. Field rounds are at'even' distances up to 80 yards, using targets with a black bullseye, a white center ring, black outer ring. Hunter rounds use'uneven' distances up to 70 yards, although scoring is identical to a field round, the target has an all-black face with a white bullseye. Children and youth positions for these two rounds are closer, no more than 30 and 50 yards, respectively. Animal rounds use life-size 2D animal targets with'uneven' distances reminiscent of the hunter round; the rules and scoring are significantly different. The archer shoot their first arrow. If it hits, they do not have to shoot again. If it misses, they advance to station two and shoots a second arrow to station three for a third if needed. Scoring areas are nonvital with points awarded depending on which arrow scored first. Again and youth shoot from reduced range. One goal of field archery is to improve the technique required for bowhunting in a more realistic outdoor setting, but without introducing the complication and guesswork of unknown distances; as with golf, fatigue can be an issue as the athlete walks the distance between targets across sometimes rough terrain. IFAA Field and International rounds are used in European Professional Archery competition. The following are listed on the WA website; these competitions are not as popular as the two listed above, but they are competed internationally. 3D archery is a subset of field archery focusing on shooting at life-size models of game and is popular with hunters. It is most common to see unmarked distances in 3D archery, as the goal is to recreate a hunting environment for competition. Though the goal is hunting practice, hunting broadheads are not used, as they would tear up the foam targets too much. Normal target or field tips, of the same weight as the intended broadhead, are used instead. In the past 10 years 3D archery has taken new light with a competitive edge. There is a whole new group of competitions. Competitions are held in many U. S. states with the totals from each state being added together to crown a single winner within each division. Some competitors will travel thousands of miles a year to compete to try and claim the world title in 3D archery. This competitive style has been growing in many other countries and should continue with strong support for many years to come. The major 3d archery groups are the IBO and the ASA are based in Eastern United States, they each have scoring methods. They host a number of competitive shoots across the Eastern United States. There are several classes in each organization that range from hunter all the way up to professional classes; each class shoots at maximum yardages. Similar to target archery, except that the archer attempts to drop arrows at long range into a group of concentric In plane geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane. Angles are formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces; these are called dihedral angles. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the spherical angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation; this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of a geometric angle, the arc is delimited by the sides. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation; the word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning "corner". Both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning "to bend" or "bow". Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, do not lie straight with respect to each other. According to Proclus an angle must be a relationship; the first concept was used by Eudemus. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle. Lower case Roman letters are used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples. In geometric figures, angles may be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB and AC is denoted ∠BAC or B A C ^. Sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to by its vertex. An angle denoted, say, ∠BAC might refer to any of four angles: the clockwise angle from B to C, the anticlockwise angle from B to C, the clockwise angle from C to B, or the anticlockwise angle from C to B, where the direction in which the angle is measured determines its sign. However, in many geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant, no ambiguity arises. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the anticlockwise angle from B to C, ∠CAB to the anticlockwise angle from C to B. An angle equal to 0° or not turned is called a zero angle. Angles smaller than a right angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle. Two lines that form a right angle are said to be orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than a right angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle. Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles. An angle equal to 1 turn is called complete angle, round angle or a perigon. Angles that are not right angles or a multiple of a right angle are called oblique angles; the names and measured units are shown in a table below: Angles that have the same measure are said to be equal or congruent. An angle is not dependent upon the lengths of the sides of the angle. Two angles which share terminal sides, but differ in size by an integer multiple of a turn, are called coterminal angles. A reference angle is the acute version of any angle determined by subtracting or adding straight angle, to the results as necessary, until the magnitude of result is an acute angle, a value between 0 and 1/4 turn, 90°, or π/2 radians. For example, an angle of 30 degrees has a reference angle of 30 degrees, an angle of 150 degrees has a reference angle of 30 degrees. An angle of 750 degrees has a reference angle of 30 degrees; when two straight lines intersect at a point, four angles are formed. Pairwise these angles are named according to their location relative to each other. A pair of angles opposite each other, formed by two intersecting straight lines that form an "X"-like shape, are called vertical angles or opposite angles or vertically opposite angles, they are abbreviated as vert. opp. ∠s. The equality of vertically opposite angles is called the vertical angle theorem. Eudemus of Rhodes attributed the proof to Thales of Miletus. The proposition showed that since both of a pair of vertical angles are supplementary to both of the adjacent angles, the vertical angles are equal in measure. According to a historical Note, w Skijoring is a winter sport in which a person on skis is pulled by a horse, a dog or a motor vehicle. It is derived from the Norwegian word skikjøring meaning ski driving. Skijoring with a dog is a sport in which a dog assist a cross-country skier. One to three dogs are used; the cross-country skier provides power with skis and poles, the dog adds additional power by running and pulling. The skier wears a skijoring harness, the dog wears a sled dog harness, the two are connected by a length of rope. There are no other signaling devices to control the dog. Many breeds of dog participate in skijoring; the only prerequisite is a desire to run down a trail and pull, innate in many dogs. Small dogs are seen skijoring, because they do not assist the skier. Athletic dogs such as Pointers and herding breeds take to skijoring with glee, as do the northern breeds, such as Siberian and Alaskan huskies, malamutes and Inuit dogs. Golden retrievers, giant schnauzers, Labrador retrievers, many cross-breeds are seen in harness. Pulling breeds work well such as American bull terriers, Staffordshire terriers, American bulldogs, mastiffs. The sport is practiced recreationally and competitively, both for long distance travel and for short distances. Since many leashed dogs tend to pull a skier with no training, the sport cannot claim a single country of origin; as a competitive sport, however, it is believed that the first races were held in Scandinavia as an offshoot of the older sport of Pulka. Competitive racing has been taken up in North America while its older cousin Pulka racing has not yet become popular. Skijor races are held in many countries. Most races are between 20 kilometers in length; the longest race is the Kalevala held in Kalevala, Russia, with a distance of 440 kilometres. Next is the River Runner 120 held in Whitehorse, with a distance of 120 miles. In the United States and Canada, skijoring races are held in conjunction with sled dog races. In Scandinavia, skijor racing is associated with the older Scandinavian sport of Pulka. Skijoring races are not limited to purebred Northern breed dogs such as the Siberian husky. On the contrary, the top-ranked racing teams in the world are German shorthaired pointers, pointer/greyhound mixes, Alaskan huskies, or crosses between these breeds. Although some races are unsanctioned, held under the sole guidance of a local club, many races fall under one of three international organizations. In the United States and Canada, ISDRA sanctions many races. In Europe ESDRA provides sanctioning, the IFSS sanctions World Cup races all over the world, as well as a world championship race every two years. At the IFSS World championship event, skijoring races are separated into men's and women's, one-dog and two-dog categories; the USA held the world's largest Skijoring event in February 2011 at the City of Lakes Loppet in Minneapolis. 200 Skijoring teams raced in this event which included the first-ever National Skijoring Championship. The skijoring belt worn by the skier is a wide waistband, clipped around the skier's waist, which may include leg loops to keep it in position. Rock climbing harnesses are commonly used as skijoring belts. The sled dog harness can be any of the several types of dog harness used for dogsled racing; the skijoring line is at least 2.5 metres long. A longer line is used for a three-dog team. A section of bungee cord is incorporated into the line to absorb the impact of the dog's forward motion or a quick stop by the skier. Special quick-release hitches or hooks are available, used so that the skijorer may unhook the dog's lead rapidly; the skier uses either a classic diagonal stride cross-country technique, or the faster skate skiing technique. In races, the skate-skiing technique is exclusively used; the skis are hot. Classic skis with grip wax are not used for races but are used for extended back-country travel. Skijoring dogs are taught the classic dog sledding commands to start running, turn, to stop and to pass distractions. Training is best done on foot, before the person straps on their skis, to avoid being pulled into objects, like trees or half-frozen creeks. To participate in races, skijoring dogs must be taught to pass, or be passed by, other teams without interfering with them. An overly friendly attempt by one dog to stop and greet another team passing at high speed can be as problematic as a dog that attempts to nip other dogs in passing. A top skijor racing team can pass other teams head-on, without turning to look at them. Equestrian skijoring consists of a team of a single horse guided by a rider, pulling a person on skis who carries no poles and hangs onto a tow rope in a manner akin to water skiing. In Saint Moritz, competitions involve a riderless horse, guided by the skier. In all cases, the horses have to be trained to accept the presence of ropes and skier behind them and to remain calm in racing conditions. Skijoring behind a horse is said to have originated as a method of winter Ski orienteering is a cross-country skiing endurance winter racing sport and one of the four orienteering disciplines recognized by the IOF. A successful ski orienteer combines high physical endurance and excellent technical skiing skills with the ability to navigate and make the best route choices while skiing at a high speed. Standard orienteering maps are used, but with special green overprinting of trails and tracks to indicate their navigability in snow. Navigation tactics is similar to mountain bike orienteering. Standard skate-skiing equipment is used, along with a map holder attached to the chest. Compared to cross-country skiing, upper body strength is more important because of double poling needed along narrow snow trails. Ski orienteering events are designed to test both physical strength and navigation skills of the athletes. Ski orienteers use the map to navigate a dense ski track network in order to visit a number of control points in the shortest possible time; the track network is printed on the map, there is no marked route in the terrain. The control points must be visited in the right order. The map gives all information the athlete needs in order to decide which route is the fastest, including the quality and width of the tracks; the athlete has to take hundreds of route choice decisions at high speed during every race: a slight lack of concentration for just a hundredth of a second may cost the medal. Ski orienteering is objective; the clock is the judge: fastest time wins. The electronic card verifies. International competitions The World Ski Orienteering Championships is the official event to award the titles of World Champions in Ski Orienteering; the World Championships is organized every odd year. The programme includes Sprint and Long Distance competitions, a Relay for both men and women; the World Cup is the official series of events to find the world's best ski orienteers over a season. The World Cup is organized every year. Junior World Ski Orienteering Championships and World Masters Ski Orienteering Championships are organized annually. World-wide sport Ski orienteering is practiced on four continents. The events take place in the natural environment, over a variety of outdoor terrains, from city parks to countryside fields and mountain sides - wherever there is snow; the leading ski orienteering regions are Asia and North America. National teams from 35 countries are expected to participate in the next World Ski Orienteering Championships to be held in Sweden in March 2011. Ski orienteering is on the programme of the Asian Winter Games and the CISM World Military Winter Games; the IOF has applied for inclusion of ski orienteering in the 2018 Olympic Winter Games and will apply to FISU for inclusion in the 2013 Winter Universiades. A person taking part in competitions in ski orienteering is equipped with: Clothing adequate for cross-country skiing and skis and ski poles. An orienteering map provided by the organizer, showing the control points which must be visited in order; the map is designed to give all the information the competitor needs to decide which route is the fastest, such as the quality of the tracks and distance. Green lines on the map show a trail suited to race on skis. Depending on the thickness and continuity of the lines, the competitor makes decisions about which route is the fastest between control points. Map holder: a map holder attached to the chest makes it possible to view the map while skiing at full speed. Optionally lighter type of compass is attached to the skier's arm. An electronic punching chip; the International Orienteering Federation had applied for ski orienteering to be included in the programme of the 2018 Olympic Winter Games. However this was unsuccessful. In the past few years, ski orienteering has grown in terms of global spread; the growth has been boosted by the inclusion of ski orienteering into the Asian Winter Games and the CISM World Military Winter Games. Media related to Ski orienteering at Wikimedia Commons International Orienteering Federation Ski orienteering presentation Ski orienteering presentation on YouTube

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Summary Report for: 19-3091.02 - Archeologists Conduct research to reconstruct record of past human life and culture from human remains, artifacts, architectural features, and structures recovered through excavation, underwater recovery, or other means of discovery. Sample of reported job titles: Archaeologist, Associate Director, Curator, Director of Research Center, Principal Archaeologist, Project Director, Research Archaeologist Tasks | Technology Skills | Tools Used | Knowledge | Skills | Abilities | Work Activities | Detailed Work Activities | Work Context | Job Zone | Education | Credentials | Interests | Work Styles | Work Values | Related Occupations | Wages & Employment | Job Openings | Additional Information - Study objects and structures recovered by excavation to identify, date, and authenticate them and to interpret their significance. - Research, survey, or assess sites of past societies and cultures in search of answers to specific research questions. - Write, present, and publish reports that record site history, methodology, and artifact analysis results, along with recommendations for conserving and interpreting findings. - Describe artifacts' physical properties or attributes, such as the materials from which artifacts are made and their size, shape, function, and decoration. - Present findings from archeological research to peers and the general public. - Compare findings from one site with archeological data from other sites to find similarities or differences. - Record the exact locations and conditions of artifacts uncovered in diggings or surveys, using drawings and photographs as necessary. - Assess archeological sites for resource management, development, or conservation purposes and recommend methods for site protection. - Create a grid of each site and draw and update maps of unit profiles, stratum surfaces, features, and findings. - Collect artifacts made of stone, bone, metal, and other materials, placing them in bags and marking them to show where they were found. - Consult site reports, existing artifacts, and topographic maps to identify archeological sites. - Teach archeology at colleges and universities. - Develop and test theories concerning the origin and development of past cultures. - Lead field training sites and train field staff, students, and volunteers in excavation methods. - Create artifact typologies to organize and make sense of past material cultures. - Clean, restore, and preserve artifacts. - Analytical or scientific software — IBM SPSS Statistics - Computer aided design CAD software — Autodesk AutoCAD - Data base user interface and query software — Archeological Sites Management Information System ASMIS; Automated National Catalog System ANCS; Microsoft Access - Document management software — Adobe Systems Adobe Acrobat - Electronic mail software — Microsoft Outlook - Graphics or photo imaging software — Adobe Systems Adobe Photoshop ; Graphics software - Internet browser software — Web browser software - Map creation software — ESRI ArcGIS software ; Geographic information system GIS software ; Golden Software Surfer; Trimble Pathfinder Office (see all 7 examples) - Office suite software — Microsoft Office - Presentation software — Microsoft PowerPoint - Spreadsheet software — Microsoft Excel - Web page creation and editing software — Facebook - Word processing software — Microsoft Word Hot Technology — a technology requirement frequently included in employer job postings. - Augers — Bucket augers - Bench scales - Calipers — Dial calipers; Digital calipers; Vernier calipers - Cold chisels - Compressed air gun — Pneumatic airscribes - Conductivity meters — Conductance meters; Conductivity probes - Dental burs - Dental probes — Dental picks - Desktop computers - Digital camcorders or video cameras — Digital video cameras - Digital cameras - Diving instruments or accessories — Scuba diving equipment - Drying cabinets or ovens — Drying ovens - Electron microscopes — Electron microprobes - Floor or platform scales — Platform scales - Forestry increment borers — Tree ring sampling kits - Freeze dryers or lyopholizers — Vacuum freeze-drying chambers - Fume hoods or cupboards — Fume hoods - Geological compasses — Directional compasses - Global positioning system GPS receiver — Global positioning system GPS receivers - Goggles — Safety goggles - Hammers — Crack hammers - Heating or drying equipment or accessories — Drying racks - Inductively coupled plasma ICP spectrometers — Inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopes ICP-ES - Laboratory balances — Laboratory precision balances - Laboratory beakers — Glass beakers - Laboratory burets — Glass burets - Laboratory scalpels - Laboratory separators — Water screening devices - Laboratory sifting equipment — Mesh sifting screens; Shaker screens - Land drilling rigs — Hydraulic drilling rigs - Levels — Digital levels; Laser line levels - Loupes — Pocket loupes - Magnetic stirrers — Magnetic stirring bars - Magnetometer geophysical instruments — Geophysical magnetometers - Mass spectrometers — Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopes ICP-MS - Measuring tables — Alidades - Metal detectors - Metallurgical microscopes - Notebook computers — Laptop computers - Personal computers - Personal digital assistant PDAs or organizers — Personal digital assistants PDA - Picks — Rock picks - Plotter printers — Plotters - Plumb bobs - Pneumatic hammer — Pneumatic chisels - Pneumatic sanding machines — Sandblasters - Polarizing microscopes — Petrographic microscopes - Pullers — Slide hammers - Radarbased surveillance systems — Ground penetrating radar GPR - Resistivity geophysical instruments — Electrical resistivity instruments - Rulers — Precision rulers - Scanners — Flatbed scanners; Slide scanners - Scanning electron microscopes — Scanning electron microscopes SEM - Shovels — Flat-ended shovels; Round point shovels - Soil core sampling apparatus — Soil probes; Soil samplers - Sonars — Side scan sonars - Spectrofluorimeters or fluorimeters — X ray fluorescence XRF spectrometers - Stereo or dissecting light microscopes — Stereo zoom microscopes - Still cameras — 35 millimeter cameras - Tablet computers - Tape measures — Lufkin tape measures - Theodolites — Total stations - Triple beam balances - Trowels — Marshalltown trowels; Plains trowels - Ultrasonic cleaning equipment — Ultrasonic cleaning machines - Underwater cameras — Underwater digital cameras; Underwater still cameras - X ray diffraction equipment — X ray diffractometers - History and Archeology — Knowledge of historical events and their causes, indicators, and effects on civilizations and cultures. - Sociology and Anthropology — Knowledge of group behavior and dynamics, societal trends and influences, human migrations, ethnicity, cultures and their history and origins. - English Language — Knowledge of the structure and content of the English language including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition, and grammar. - Geography — Knowledge of principles and methods for describing the features of land, sea, and air masses, including their physical characteristics, locations, interrelationships, and distribution of plant, animal, and human life. - Foreign Language — Knowledge of the structure and content of a foreign (non-English) language including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition and grammar, and pronunciation. - Computers and Electronics — Knowledge of circuit boards, processors, chips, electronic equipment, and computer hardware and software, including applications and programming. - Education and Training — Knowledge of principles and methods for curriculum and training design, teaching and instruction for individuals and groups, and the measurement of training effects. - Administration and Management — Knowledge of business and management principles involved in strategic planning, resource allocation, human resources modeling, leadership technique, production methods, and coordination of people and resources. - Mathematics — Knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus, statistics, and their applications. - Writing — Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the audience. - Active Listening — Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not interrupting at inappropriate times. - Reading Comprehension — Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work related documents. - Speaking — Talking to others to convey information effectively. - Critical Thinking — Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems. - Active Learning — Understanding the implications of new information for both current and future problem-solving and decision-making. - Complex Problem Solving — Identifying complex problems and reviewing related information to develop and evaluate options and implement solutions. - Coordination — Adjusting actions in relation to others' actions. - Science — Using scientific rules and methods to solve problems. - Judgment and Decision Making — Considering the relative costs and benefits of potential actions to choose the most appropriate one. - Instructing — Teaching others how to do something. - Learning Strategies — Selecting and using training/instructional methods and procedures appropriate for the situation when learning or teaching new things. - Management of Personnel Resources — Motivating, developing, and directing people as they work, identifying the best people for the job. - Mathematics — Using mathematics to solve problems. - Monitoring — Monitoring/Assessing performance of yourself, other individuals, or organizations to make improvements or take corrective action. - Social Perceptiveness — Being aware of others' reactions and understanding why they react as they do. - Systems Analysis — Determining how a system should work and how changes in conditions, operations, and the environment will affect outcomes. - Systems Evaluation — Identifying measures or indicators of system performance and the actions needed to improve or correct performance, relative to the goals of the system. - Time Management — Managing one's own time and the time of others. - Persuasion — Persuading others to change their minds or behavior. - Written Comprehension — The ability to read and understand information and ideas presented in writing. - Oral Expression — The ability to communicate information and ideas in speaking so others will understand. - Written Expression — The ability to communicate information and ideas in writing so others will understand. - Deductive Reasoning — The ability to apply general rules to specific problems to produce answers that make sense. - Inductive Reasoning — The ability to combine pieces of information to form general rules or conclusions (includes finding a relationship among seemingly unrelated events). - Oral Comprehension — The ability to listen to and understand information and ideas presented through spoken words and sentences. - Information Ordering — The ability to arrange things or actions in a certain order or pattern according to a specific rule or set of rules (e.g., patterns of numbers, letters, words, pictures, mathematical operations). - Speech Clarity — The ability to speak clearly so others can understand you. - Category Flexibility — The ability to generate or use different sets of rules for combining or grouping things in different ways. - Flexibility of Closure — The ability to identify or detect a known pattern (a figure, object, word, or sound) that is hidden in other distracting material. - Fluency of Ideas — The ability to come up with a number of ideas about a topic (the number of ideas is important, not their quality, correctness, or creativity). - Near Vision — The ability to see details at close range (within a few feet of the observer). - Originality — The ability to come up with unusual or clever ideas about a given topic or situation, or to develop creative ways to solve a problem. - Problem Sensitivity — The ability to tell when something is wrong or is likely to go wrong. It does not involve solving the problem, only recognizing there is a problem. - Speech Recognition — The ability to identify and understand the speech of another person. - Far Vision — The ability to see details at a distance. - Selective Attention — The ability to concentrate on a task over a period of time without being distracted. - Visualization — The ability to imagine how something will look after it is moved around or when its parts are moved or rearranged. - Finger Dexterity — The ability to make precisely coordinated movements of the fingers of one or both hands to grasp, manipulate, or assemble very small objects. - Mathematical Reasoning — The ability to choose the right mathematical methods or formulas to solve a problem. - Speed of Closure — The ability to quickly make sense of, combine, and organize information into meaningful patterns. - Analyzing Data or Information — Identifying the underlying principles, reasons, or facts of information by breaking down information or data into separate parts. - Getting Information — Observing, receiving, and otherwise obtaining information from all relevant sources. - Identifying Objects, Actions, and Events — Identifying information by categorizing, estimating, recognizing differences or similarities, and detecting changes in circumstances or events. - Documenting/Recording Information — Entering, transcribing, recording, storing, or maintaining information in written or electronic/magnetic form. - Processing Information — Compiling, coding, categorizing, calculating, tabulating, auditing, or verifying information or data. - Interpreting the Meaning of Information for Others — Translating or explaining what information means and how it can be used. - Interacting With Computers — Using computers and computer systems (including hardware and software) to program, write software, set up functions, enter data, or process information. - Updating and Using Relevant Knowledge — Keeping up-to-date technically and applying new knowledge to your job. - Thinking Creatively — Developing, designing, or creating new applications, ideas, relationships, systems, or products, including artistic contributions. - Making Decisions and Solving Problems — Analyzing information and evaluating results to choose the best solution and solve problems. - Communicating with Supervisors, Peers, or Subordinates — Providing information to supervisors, co-workers, and subordinates by telephone, in written form, e-mail, or in person. - Training and Teaching Others — Identifying the educational needs of others, developing formal educational or training programs or classes, and teaching or instructing others. - Communicating with Persons Outside Organization — Communicating with people outside the organization, representing the organization to customers, the public, government, and other external sources. This information can be exchanged in person, in writing, or by telephone or e-mail. - Establishing and Maintaining Interpersonal Relationships — Developing constructive and cooperative working relationships with others, and maintaining them over time. - Organizing, Planning, and Prioritizing Work — Developing specific goals and plans to prioritize, organize, and accomplish your work. - Coordinating the Work and Activities of Others — Getting members of a group to work together to accomplish tasks. - Developing Objectives and Strategies — Establishing long-range objectives and specifying the strategies and actions to achieve them. - Guiding, Directing, and Motivating Subordinates — Providing guidance and direction to subordinates, including setting performance standards and monitoring performance. - Developing and Building Teams — Encouraging and building mutual trust, respect, and cooperation among team members. - Estimating the Quantifiable Characteristics of Products, Events, or Information — Estimating sizes, distances, and quantities; or determining time, costs, resources, or materials needed to perform a work activity. - Scheduling Work and Activities — Scheduling events, programs, and activities, as well as the work of others. - Judging the Qualities of Things, Services, or People — Assessing the value, importance, or quality of things or people. - Handling and Moving Objects — Using hands and arms in handling, installing, positioning, and moving materials, and manipulating things. - Monitor Processes, Materials, or Surroundings — Monitoring and reviewing information from materials, events, or the environment, to detect or assess problems. - Performing Administrative Activities — Performing day-to-day administrative tasks such as maintaining information files and processing paperwork. - Monitoring and Controlling Resources — Monitoring and controlling resources and overseeing the spending of money. - Performing General Physical Activities — Performing physical activities that require considerable use of your arms and legs and moving your whole body, such as climbing, lifting, balancing, walking, stooping, and handling of materials. - Coaching and Developing Others — Identifying the developmental needs of others and coaching, mentoring, or otherwise helping others to improve their knowledge or skills. - Provide Consultation and Advice to Others — Providing guidance and expert advice to management or other groups on technical, systems-, or process-related topics. - Performing for or Working Directly with the Public — Performing for people or dealing directly with the public. This includes serving customers in restaurants and stores, and receiving clients or guests. - Evaluating Information to Determine Compliance with Standards — Using relevant information and individual judgment to determine whether events or processes comply with laws, regulations, or standards. Detailed Work Activities - Conduct anthropological or archaeological research. - Prepare scientific or technical reports or presentations. - Advise others about environmental management or conservation. - Inspect condition of natural environments. - Record research or operational data. - Prepare maps. - Collect archival data. - Instruct college students in social sciences or humanities disciplines. - Direct scientific activities. - Train personnel in technical or scientific procedures. - Clean objects. - Electronic Mail — 88% responded “Every day.” - Duration of Typical Work Week — 79% responded “More than 40 hours.” - Face-to-Face Discussions — 64% responded “Every day.” - Importance of Being Exact or Accurate — 48% responded “Extremely important.” - Freedom to Make Decisions — 48% responded “Some freedom.” - Contact With Others — 39% responded “Constant contact with others.” - Telephone — 48% responded “Once a week or more but not every day.” - Work With Work Group or Team — 42% responded “Extremely important.” - Structured versus Unstructured Work — 39% responded “Some freedom.” - Indoors, Environmentally Controlled — 36% responded “Once a week or more but not every day.” - Letters and Memos — 42% responded “Once a month or more but not every week.” - Level of Competition — 39% responded “Highly competitive.” - Physical Proximity — 50% responded “Moderately close (at arm's length).” - Impact of Decisions on Co-workers or Company Results — 42% responded “Moderate results.” - Coordinate or Lead Others — 44% responded “Important.” - Outdoors, Exposed to Weather — 30% responded “Once a month or more but not every week.” - Responsibility for Outcomes and Results — 42% responded “Moderate responsibility.” - Spend Time Sitting — 48% responded “More than half the time.” - Time Pressure — 55% responded “Once a month or more but not every week.” - Spend Time Using Your Hands to Handle, Control, or Feel Objects, Tools, or Controls — 42% responded “Less than half the time.” - Frequency of Decision Making — 36% responded “Once a year or more but not every month.” - Public Speaking — 42% responded “Once a week or more but not every day.” - Indoors, Not Environmentally Controlled — 42% responded “Once a year or more but not every month.” - Responsible for Others' Health and Safety — 27% responded “High responsibility.” - Very Hot or Cold Temperatures — 38% responded “Once a year or more but not every month.” - Deal With External Customers — 44% responded “Important.” - Importance of Repeating Same Tasks — 30% responded “Important.” - Work Schedules — 63% responded “Irregular (changes with weather conditions, production demands, or contract duration).” |Title||Job Zone Five: Extensive Preparation Needed| |Education||Most of these occupations require graduate school. For example, they may require a master's degree, and some require a Ph.D., M.D., or J.D. (law degree).| |Related Experience||Extensive skill, knowledge, and experience are needed for these occupations. Many require more than five years of experience. For example, surgeons must complete four years of college and an additional five to seven years of specialized medical training to be able to do their job.| |Job Training||Employees may need some on-the-job training, but most of these occupations assume that the person will already have the required skills, knowledge, work-related experience, and/or training.| |Job Zone Examples||These occupations often involve coordinating, training, supervising, or managing the activities of others to accomplish goals. Very advanced communication and organizational skills are required. Examples include pharmacists, lawyers, astronomers, biologists, clergy, neurologists, and veterinarians.| |SVP Range||(8.0 and above)| Percentage of Respondents |Education Level Required| Interest code: IRA Want to discover your interests? Take the O*NET Interest Profiler at My Next Move. - Investigative — Investigative occupations frequently involve working with ideas, and require an extensive amount of thinking. These occupations can involve searching for facts and figuring out problems mentally. - Realistic — Realistic occupations frequently involve work activities that include practical, hands-on problems and solutions. They often deal with plants, animals, and real-world materials like wood, tools, and machinery. Many of the occupations require working outside, and do not involve a lot of paperwork or working closely with others. - Artistic — Artistic occupations frequently involve working with forms, designs and patterns. They often require self-expression and the work can be done without following a clear set of rules. - Attention to Detail — Job requires being careful about detail and thorough in completing work tasks. - Analytical Thinking — Job requires analyzing information and using logic to address work-related issues and problems. - Integrity — Job requires being honest and ethical. - Persistence — Job requires persistence in the face of obstacles. - Cooperation — Job requires being pleasant with others on the job and displaying a good-natured, cooperative attitude. - Dependability — Job requires being reliable, responsible, and dependable, and fulfilling obligations. - Achievement/Effort — Job requires establishing and maintaining personally challenging achievement goals and exerting effort toward mastering tasks. - Adaptability/Flexibility — Job requires being open to change (positive or negative) and to considerable variety in the workplace. - Initiative — Job requires a willingness to take on responsibilities and challenges. - Stress Tolerance — Job requires accepting criticism and dealing calmly and effectively with high stress situations. - Independence — Job requires developing one's own ways of doing things, guiding oneself with little or no supervision, and depending on oneself to get things done. - Self Control — Job requires maintaining composure, keeping emotions in check, controlling anger, and avoiding aggressive behavior, even in very difficult situations. - Leadership — Job requires a willingness to lead, take charge, and offer opinions and direction. - Concern for Others — Job requires being sensitive to others' needs and feelings and being understanding and helpful on the job. - Innovation — Job requires creativity and alternative thinking to develop new ideas for and answers to work-related problems. - Social Orientation — Job requires preferring to work with others rather than alone, and being personally connected with others on the job. - Achievement — Occupations that satisfy this work value are results oriented and allow employees to use their strongest abilities, giving them a feeling of accomplishment. Corresponding needs are Ability Utilization and Achievement. - Recognition — Occupations that satisfy this work value offer advancement, potential for leadership, and are often considered prestigious. Corresponding needs are Advancement, Authority, Recognition and Social Status. - Working Conditions — Occupations that satisfy this work value offer job security and good working conditions. Corresponding needs are Activity, Compensation, Independence, Security, Variety and Working Conditions. Wages & Employment Trends Median wages data collected from Anthropologists and Archeologists. Employment data collected from Anthropologists and Archeologists. Industry data collected from Anthropologists and Archeologists. |Median wages (2018)||$30.01 hourly, $62,410 annual| |Employment (2018)||7,000 employees| |Projected growth (2018-2028)||Faster than average (7% to 10%)| |Projected job openings (2018-2028)||800| |Top industries (2018)| Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 2018 wage data and 2018-2028 employment projections . "Projected growth" represents the estimated change in total employment over the projections period (2018-2028). "Projected job openings" represent openings due to growth and replacement. Job Openings on the Web Sources of Additional Information Disclaimer: Sources are listed to provide additional information on related jobs, specialties, and/or industries. Links to non-DOL Internet sites are provided for your convenience and do not constitute an endorsement. - American Anthropological Association - American Association for the Advancement of Science - American Cultural Resources Association - American Quaternary Association - American Schools of Oriental Research - Archaeological Institute of America - International Council for Archaeozoology - Occupational Outlook Handbook: Anthropologists and archeologists - Register of Professional Archaeologists - Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Honor Society - Society for American Archaeology - Society for Historical Archaeology - Society of Africanist Archaeologists - Southeastern Archaeological Conference - The Geological Society of America - World Archaeological Congress

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Understanding some fundamentals of radiation counting systems is essential to prudent selection of the equipment that will be purchased and deployed for these applications. This section of the catalog is intended to present some fundamental concepts to non-expert users about radiation measurement systems. It will help you understand the basic theory of radiation measurement and in selecting the type of detectors and options that will best meet your application requirements. Nucsafe is committed to solving problems with our clients. Whether in advising about instrument capability and suitability, after-sales support, service or training, Nucsafe is here to help you get the most out of the equipment and to make its operation simple and reliable for the user. Radiation is energy traveling in the form of particles or waves in bundles of energy called photons. Some everyday examples are microwaves used to cook food, radio waves for radio and television, light, and x-rays used in medicine. Radiation is energy that is either ionizing or non-ionizing. Ionizing radiation – invisible waves and particles emitted from radioactive atoms include alpha, beta, x-ray, gamma and neutron radiation. Some atoms (e.g., uranium and thorium) are naturally radioactive, whereas others (e.g., tritium and iodine-131) can be made radioactive in reactors or accelerators. Radioactivity is a natural and spontaneous process by which the unstable atoms of an element emit or radiate excess energy in the form of particles or waves. These emissions are collectively called ionizing radiations. Depending on how the nucleus loses this excess energy either a lower energy atom of the same form will result, or a completely different nucleus and atom can be formed. Ionization is a particular characteristic of the radiation produced when radioactive elements decay. These radiations are of such high energy that when they interact with materials, they can remove electrons from the atoms in the material. This effect is the reason why ionizing radiation is hazardous to health, and provides the means by which radiation can be detected. Background radiation is radiation from our natural environment. It comes primarily from cosmic rays, radioactive material in the earth, naturally occurring radionuclides (such as potassium-40) in food, and radon gas that is in the air we breathe. In the United States, the average background radiation dose is about 300 mrem/year. Manufactured sources of radiation contribute an additional dose of approximately 60 mrem/year, of which approximately 54 mrem/year is from medical procedures (e.g., x-rays and certain diagnostic tests). Consumer products (e.g., lantern mantles and smoke detectors) contribute roughly 6 mrem/year. Fallout radiation (still present in our environment from the era of above-ground nuclear testing) contributes less than 1 mrem/year. Figure 2 shows typical annual radiation doses in the United States. When radiation deposits energy in a person, he or she receives a radiation dose. Radiation doses are measured in units of rem or millirem (mrem). One thousand millirem is equal to one rem (1000 mrem = 1 rem). The primary risk associated with radiation exposure is an increased risk of cancer. The degree of risk depends on the amount of radiation dose received, the time period in which the dose is received, and the body parts that receive the radiation dose. Although scientists assume that low-level radiation doses increase one’s risk of cancer, studies have not demonstrated any adverse health effects in individuals who are chronically exposed to small radiation doses over a period of many years (e.g., a total of up to 10,000 mrem above the average background dose). The increased risk of cancer from occupational radiation exposure is small when compared to the normal cancer rate in today’s society. For example, the current risk of dying from all types of cancer in the United States is approximately 25 percent – while a person who receives a whole-body radiation dose of 25,000 mrem over his or her lifetime has a risk of dying from cancer of 26 percent – a one percent increase. This table shows the likely effects of total body radiation doses (measured in rem) to the humans. Likely effects from total body radiation dose |1000 rem||An acute dose would cause immediate illness and subsequent death within weeks.| |100 rem||Acute dose could cause illness such as nausea, and cancer in 5% of persons within several years.| |5 rem||MPD allowed by the NRC for occupational exposure over one year. No likely effects at this level.| |0.3 rem||Estimated yearly exposure to all individuals from natural sources such as radon and cosmic rays, commonly referred to as background radiation. There are no likely effects at this exposure level.| Gross counting is used to determine the presence of absence of radioactivity in an object. Once it has been determined that radiation is present above the ambient background levels, it is necessary to determine the specific radionuclides that are present. Specific gamma emitting radionuclides are determined by gamma spectroscopy, for example. This allows the person monitoring or searching for radiation to determine if it is natural, medical or industrial radionuclides or a radioactive source that should be detained and further investigated. Gross counting measurements are used to screen samples for relative levels of radioactivity. Gross counting is generally performed first to determine the presence or absence of either gamma-ray or neutron radiation. Both portable and stationary systems first measure the background radiation as a count rate. Background may be measured for a preset number of seconds or a continuous moving average of the background may be calculated. If a gross count rate measurement is determined to be above the previously measured background level, an alarm is issued as a visible, audible and/or vibration indication. Data Acquisition Rates – Over-sampling Systems used for search or continuous monitoring for homeland security applications must be able to find radioactivity in very short times compared to laboratory counting measurements. Typically, measurements are made in less than a few seconds an in the case of moving objects, one second or less. Over-sampling the counting interval provides fewer missed alarms. In the picture below, two data reporting frequencies are shown, 1 second and 100 milliseconds. If a vehicle, person or other object is moving in front of the detector, it may only be present for a second or less as shown in the previous table and graph of speed versus measurement time. If the system is sampling at 1 second intervals and the interval exactly corresponds to time and the object is in front of the detection system, then an alarm would occur. If, on the other hand, the 1 second sampling interval occurs such that one ends and another begins just as the object is centered on the detector, then 50% of the counts will be in the first interval and 50% in the second interval. This situation may result in the net counts not exceeding the alarm threshold setting. To overcome this possibility, the sampling interval can be reduced to a 100 milliseconds or less. We can then integrate the counts in each sampling interval such that the sum of 10 intervals equals a second of data. 100 milliseconds later we sample again and subtract the data from the oldest interval and add the new counts to the total. This moving average ensures that no more than 10% of the counts will be missed and in general, less than this amount. Over-sampling, by rapid polling of the counting data, thereby reduces missed alarms while allowing the sensitivity and precision of the measurements to be retained. When a source is moving, the length of time it is in front of a radiation monitor and its detectors. The table here shows the distance traveled in feet per second (fps) related to the speed in miles per hour (mph). As 88 fps corresponds to 60 mph, a 10cm, 30cm and 50 cm wide sensor would have a source in front of them only 4, 11 and 19 thousandths of a second or milliseconds (ms) respectively. At more reasonable speeds such as those required in the ANSI N42.35 standard of 5mph, a vehicle would be moving 7.3 fps. In this case the time in front of a detector would be 45, 134 and 224 ms respectively. Although some radiation would hit the detector before and after the source the was directly in front of the detectors, these times are minimum to collect data. For moving sources, the over-sampling data acquisition of a system is essential. Nucsafe was the first commercial company to implement this method during the IAEA ITRAP assessments. |3He 10cm = 3000cm2 5000cm2| |2″ tube with 1″ moderator on each side| The graph displays the data in the table and indicates that there is a large change in the available measurement time especially at low speeds. Ideally systems measuring moving objects should sample at no more than 100ms. Selecting Gamma Detector The choice of gamma ray detector depends on a number of factors including their efficiency (determined in part by their density) and their peak resolution (determined in part by their light outut). In addition, other detector material properties are important to consider such as whether the detector is rugged to thermal and mechanical shock and whether it is hygroscopic (absorbs water). Of course, price may also be a consideration in selecting a detector type. For gross counting only, there are several choices of detectors. Some applications require large area detectors such as large stationary systems. Here, the only choices are PVT plastic scintillator or NaI(Tl). A smaller NaI(Tl) detector can provide equivalent sensitivity to a PVT detector at higher energies because of the NaI(Tl) detectors better energy resolution allowing the use of regions of interest to improve the signal to background. However, at lower energies, the larger area detector will always provide a better sensitivity. As NaI(Tl) is more expensive than PVT, to have the same geometric efficiency may be cost prohibitive. On the other hand, if nuclide identification is needed, the NaI(Tl) detector will be required. Nucsafe can provide recommendations for the type and size of gamma ray detector needed for your application. For portable systems, Nucsafe uses NaI(Tl), BGO and CsI detectors. Each has advantages and disadvantages. Detector resolution and intrinsic efficiency are the most important considerations if size is equal. Energy resolution of a scintillator detector is a function of the intrinsic crystal resolution which is related to its light output, but is also affected by the photomultiplier tube and its photocathode which has a variable probability that a visible photon will produce a photoelectron that can be collected in first dynode stage of the PMT. Detector Selection Table |Portable Radiation Search Tool||ü||ü||ü||ü| |PRST with nuclide ID||ü| |Transportable Radiation Monitors||ü||ü||ü| |TRMS with nuclide ID||ü| |Continuous Radiation Monitors||ü| |CRMS with Nuclide ID||ü| |Handheld Gamma Spec||ü| NaI(Tl) is recommended for all nuclide identification applications because it provides the best currently available energy resolution for gamma rays in a room temperature detector that is relatively inexpensive and available in a wide variety of sizes. BGO is heavier and thereby has higher intrinsic efficiency at higher energies, useful for measuring the 2.6 MeV gamma ray associated with highly enriched Uranium (HEU). CsI has good light output but poorer resolution than NaI, however it can be used with electronics that provide very low power consumption for portable applications. The detector selection table provides some physical parameters for these detectors. Detector Parameters Table |Melting point [k]||924||1050||894||894||75| |Wavelength of emission max. [nm]||415||480||565||420||423| |Refractive index at emission max.||1.85||2.15||1.80||1.80||1.58| |Primary decay time 1/e [µs]||0.23||0.30||1.00||0.63||0.0024| |Afterglow (after 6 ms) [%]||0.3-0.5||0.005||0.5-5.0||0.5-5.0||0.01| |Typical resolution % FWHM 137Cs||6||10||8||9||180| |Light yield [photons/MeVy]||38,000||8200||52,000||39,000||10,000| For gross counting applications only, the following table provides a comparison of NaI(Tl) and BGO for varying gamma ray energies of interest for 1” and 2” thick detectors. Note the biggest difference is in the higher energy gamma rays because both types of detectors are nearly 100% efficient at lower gamma ray energies. Calculated Photopeak Efficiency for NaI(Tl) vs BGO |NaI(Tl) 1″thick||BGO 1″thick||NaI(Tl) 2″thick||BGO 2″thick| Organic Plastic Scintillator Polyvinyl Toluene (PVT) is a type of organic scintillator. PVT is not the only organic plastic scintillator, but clearly the most commonly employed for radiation measurement systems. It is dissolved in a solvent and subsequently polymerized forming the equivalent of a solid solution. These “plastic” scintillators are easy to shape and fabricate and are often the only practical choice if very large volume solid scintillators are required. When making very large detectors, the self-absorption of light may no longer be negligible and must be accounted for in the design of the system. For good quality PVT, detectors of more than a meter in length can be made as a single detector. Some designs requiring uniform response to radiation over a given height and width may require designs using more than one detector to ensure constant count rates independent of the radiation source position. Photon production in organic scintillator is a molecular process in which the energy deposited by a charged particle or photon, not dissipated as heat, results in an excited state in which the excess energy is carried away as an emitted photon. This fluorescent emission produces approximately 1 photon per every 100 eV of the energy deposited. Because the energy required to produce an excited state exceeds that carried away by photons, the probability for re-absorption of the emitted photon is small; i.e., the scintillator is transparent to the light that it generates. Secondary scintillators are frequently used to “shift” this emitted light to longer wavelengths, near the peak of a Photomultiplier (PMT) spectral-response curve. These secondary fluors have a high absorption cross section at the wavelengths generated by the primary scintillator, and respond to the energy deposited in exactly the same manner as described above, except that all energy levels are somewhat lower (wavelengths are longer) making the emitted light more compatible with the response of the PMT. PVT plastic scintillator has a polyvinyl toluene base with characteristics as follows: Density – 1.032 g/cm3 Electrons/cc – 3.39 x 1022 H atoms/cc – 5.28 x 1022 C atoms/cc – 4.78 x 1022 Index of refraction – 1.581 Attenuation length (l/e) – ~ 43 cm Wavelength of emission – 423 nm Rise time – 0.9 ns Decay time – 2.4 ns Luminescent efficiency – ~15% of NaI(Tl) Scintillation in inorganic materials depends on the crystal lattice of the detector material.In order to scintillate (create light in response to energy deposited from radiation interactions), electrons in the material must be able to move from their discrete energy bands. In some cases the energy difference between these bands is too large and the emitted photon would not be in the visible wavelengths. The two energy bands are called the valence band in which electrons are essentially bound to the lattice atoms and the conduction band where electrons are free to move through the material. There exist intermediate bands of energies called the forbidden band. Electrons in the inorganic lattice cannot be in these bands in a pure crystal. To enhance the efficiency of light emission and to ensure the emitted photon is of the appropriate wavelength, small amounts of an impurity element can be added to the crystal, these impurities are called activators. Activators create special sites in the lattice at which the normal energy band gap is modified allowing energy states in the forbidden band through which an electron can de-excite back to the valence band emitting a visible flash of light ( a scintillation). An important aspect of a g -ray spectrometer is the ability to discriminate between g-rays with slightly different energy. This quality is characterized by the so-called energy resolution which is defined as the width (FWHM) of the photopeak at certain energy. Besides by the g -ray energy, the energy resolution is influenced by: The light output of the scintillator, The size of the scintillator (light collection), Photomultiplier characteristics (quantum efficiency and photocathode homogeneity) At low energies where photoelectron statistics dominate the energy resolution, the energy resolution is roughly inverse proportional to the square root of the g-ray energy. The energy resolution of a scintillation detector is a true detector property, limited by the physical characteristics of the scintillator and the PMT or other readout device. A typical energy resolution for 662 keV g-rays absorbed in small NaI(Tl) detectors is 7.5 % FWHM. At low energies, e.g. at 5.9 keV, a typical value is 45 % FWHM. At these low energies, surface treatment of the scintillation crystal strongly influences the resolution. It is clear that especially at low energies, scintillation detectors are low resolution devices unlike Si(Li) or HPGe detectors. A sensitive way to check the energy resolution of a scintillation detector is to define a so-called peak-to-valley (P/V) in the energy spectrum. This criterion does not depend on any possible offsets in the signal. Either the peak-to-valley between two gamma peaks is taken or the ratio between a low energy peak and the PMT / electronics’ noise. A good P/V ratio for a 76 x 76 mm NaI (Tl) crystal is 10 : 1. This is equivalent to an energy resolution of7.0 % at 662 keV. Sodium Iodide( Nal(Tl)) Detectors NaI is an alkali halide inorganic scintillator with a relatively high Z from iodine (53). This results in high efficiency for gamma-ray detection. A small amount of TI is added in order to activate the crystal, so that its formula is typically shown as Nal(TI)l. Energy resolution of about 6% for the 662-keV gamma ray from 137Cs is achievable for a 3-in.-diameter by 3-in.-long crystal and slightly worse for smaller or larger sizes. The light decay time constant in Nal is about 0.23 µs. Typical charge-sensitive preamplifiers translate this into an output pulse rise time of about 0.5 µs. Fast coincidence measurements cannot achieve the very short resolving times that are possible with plastic, especially at low gamma-ray energies. Nucsafe offers various sizes of Nal(TI) detectors from 2×2” to 4x4x16” arrays depending on your application. Bismuth germanate (BGO) BGO is a scintillation crystal that features high density due to the high Z of Bismuth (83). Its high intrinsic efficiency at high gamma ray energies make it an excellent alternative to NaI for gross counting applications. BGO (bismuth germanate oxide) has a very fast response and little or no afterglow. Because of its speed of response and high density it is ideal for high energy and high rate gamma ray measurements. The only disadvantage of BGO is its low conversion efficiency (i.e. low light output) which results in poorer energy resolution than NaI detectors; making it less desirable for nuclide identification applications. Cesium (CsI) Iodide Like NaI, CsI is another alkali halide inorganic scintillator. CsI also requires a small amount of thallium or sodium activator for proper operation. Each activator results in a scintillation detector with varying properties. CsI has a higher intrinsic efficiency than NaI but less than BGO. Csl has poorer energy resolution than NaI. However, CsI has much faster pulse light decay and finds use in timing applications but the wavelength of its light is poorly matched to most PMTs. It is also less brittle than NaI and thereby may be subjected to more severe shock and vibration conditions than NaI detectors. It is less hygroscopic than NaI but more than BGO. Gross counting systems measure a fraction of the total radiations in such a way as to allow the determination of the presence of radioactivity above ambient background. In a laboratory, where the source to detector geometry is well characterized, the activity of the sample can be determined for many types of radiation. Gross counting of gamma rays will determine the presence or absence of this radiation, but can only be used to determine activity if a single gamma ray is present or if a simple mixture is known and multiple measurements are made at different times. (Gross counting systems consist of the detector, preamplifier, amplifier, discriminator and counter) The function of the detector is to convert radiation energy into an electrical signal. There are two basic mechanisms for converting this energy: excitation and ionization. In ionization, an electron is stripped from an atom and the electron and resulting ion are electrically charged. These charged particles can be influenced by an electric field to induce a current that can be measured directly or converted into a voltage pulse. 3He neutron detectors, Geiger Mueller, and other gas proportional detectors are examples of ionization detectors. In excitation, electrons are excited to a higher energy level and when the vacant electron is filled, electromagnetic radiation is emitted. Scintillation detectors such as NaI, BGO, CsI, Polyvinyl toluene (PVT) plastic scintillator and the neutron sensitive glass fibers are examples of scintillation detectors. Gas Filled Radiation Detectors The most common type of instrument is a gas filled radiation detector. He-3 neutron detectors are an example of a gas filled detector. This instrument works on the principle that as radiation passes through air or a specific gas, ionization of the molecules in the air occurs. When a high voltage is placed between two areas of the gas filled space, the positive ions will be attracted to the negative side of the detector (the cathode) and the free electrons will travel to the positive side (the anode). These charges are collected by the anode and cathode which then form a very small current in the wires going to the detector. By placing a very sensitive current measuring device between the wires from the cathode and anode, the small current measured and displayed as a signal. The more radiation which enters the chamber, the more current displayed by the instrument. Scintillation Radiation Detectors The second most common type of radiation detecting instrument is the scintillation detector. Sodium iodide, NaI(Tl), cesium iodide, CsI, and bismuth germanate, BGO are all examples of scintillation detectors. The basic principle behind this instrument is the use of a special material which glows or “scintillates” when radiation interacts with it. The most common type of material is a type of salt called sodium-iodide. The light produced from the scintillation process is reflected through a clear window where it interacts with device called a photomultiplier tube. A scintillator is a material that converts energy lost by ionizing radiation into pulses of light. In most scintillation counting applications, the ionizing radiation is in the form of X-rays, g-rays and a- or b-particles ranging in energy from a few thousand electron volts to several million electron volts (keVs to MeVs). Pulses of light emitted by the scintillating material can be detected by a sensitive light detector, usually a photomultiplier tube (PMT). The photocathode of the PMT, which is situated on the backside of the entrance window, converts the light (photons) into so-called photoelectrons. The photoelectrons are then accelerated by an electric field towards the dynodes of the PMT where the multiplication process takes place. The result is that each light pulse (scintillation) produces a charge pulse on the anode of the PMT that can subsequently be detected by other electronic equipment, analyzed or counted with a scaler or a rate meter. The combination of a scintillator and a light detector is called a scintillation detector. The first part of the photomultiplier tube is made of another special material called a photocathode. The photocathode has the unique characteristic of producing electrons when light strikes its surface. These electrons are then pulled towards a series of plates, called dynodes, through the application of a positive high voltage. When electrons from the photocathode hit the first dynode, several electrons are produced for each initial electron hitting its surface. This “bunch” of electrons is then pulled towards the next dynode, where more electron “multiplication” occurs. The sequence continues until the last dynode is reached, where the electron pulse is now millions of times larger then it was at the beginning of the tube. At this point the electrons are collected by an anode at the end of the tube forming an electronic pulse. The pulse is then detected and displayed or counted by the system. Scintillation detectors are very sensitive radiation instruments and are used in both portable and stationary systems by Nucsafe. Since the intensity of the light pulse emitted by a scintillator is proportional to the energy of the absorbed radiation, the latter can be determined by measuring the pulse height spectrum. This is called spectroscopy. To detect nuclear radiation with a certain efficiency, the dimension of the scintillator should be chosen such that the desired fraction of the radiation is absorbed. For penetrating radiation, such as g-rays, a material with a high density is required. Furthermore, the light pulses produced somewhere in the scintillator must pass the material to reach the light detector. This imposes constraints on the optical transparency of the scintillation material. When increasing the diameter of the scintillator, the solid angle under which the detector “sees” the source increases. This increases detection efficiency. Ultimate detection efficiency is obtained with so-called “well counters” where the sample is placed inside a well in the actual scintillation crystal. The thickness of the scintillator is the other important factor that determines detection efficiency. For electromagnetic radiation, the required thickness to stop say 90 % of the incoming radiation depends on the X-ray or g -ray energy. For electrons (e.g. b-particles) the same is true but different dependencies apply. For larger particles (e.g. a-particles or heavy ions) a very thin layer of material already stops 100 % of the radiation. The thickness of a scintillator can be used to create a selected sensitivity of the detector for a distinct type or energy of radiation. Thin (e.g. 1 mm thick) scintillation crystals have a good sensitivity for low energy X-rays but are almost insensitive to higher energy background radiation. Large volume scintillation crystals with relatively thick entrance windows do not detect low energy X-rays but measure high energy gamma rays efficiently. More than any other part of the system determines the overall response function and therefore the sensitivity and minimum detectable count rate of the system. For any detector, there are two important parameters that affect the overall efficiency of the system, geometric efficiency and intrinsic efficiency. By multiplying these values, one can calculate the total efficiency. Efficiency is like a batting average, it is a ratio of how many are hit relative to how many are thrown. In radiation measurements, the geometric efficiency is the ratio of the number of radiation particles or photons that hit the detector divided by the total number of radiation particles or photons emitted from the source in all directions. Total Efficiency = Geometric Efficiency x Intrinsic Efficiency Counts/Emitted Radiations = (Incident Radiations/Emitted Radiations) x (Counts/Incident Radiations) The intrinsic efficiency is the ratio of counts detected to the number of photons or particles incident on the detector and is a measure of how many photons or particles result in a gross count. Some radiation is not energetic enough and does not reach the detector because it is attenuated or scattered before it can interact in the detector. Some radiation is so energetic it passes through the detector or is scattered out of the detector without depositing its energy. As a result, the actual counts measured by the system is a fraction of the radiation emitted in the direction of the detector. The intrinsic efficiency of various detectors may range from 100% to very small values such as 0.01%, but are typically around 10 to 50%. Using the example for the plastic scintillator 6×30” detector above, only 1 count might occur from nearly 2 million gamma rays emitted from a source at a distance of 4 meters. εintrinsic = γcounts / γincident The product of these two efficiencies is the total efficiency, or the number of counts detected, relative to the total number of radiations emitted from the source. εtotal = (γcounts / γincident) / (γincident / γemitted) εtotal = γcounts / γemitted Once the radiation deposits it energy in the detector and the detector converts the energy into an electrical pulse, the system electronics process the information into a useable form, either as a count rate for gross counting systems or as an energy spectrum for nuclide identification and spectroscopy. The basic components in the electronics include the preamplifier, the main amplifier and either one or more discriminators and counters (for gross counting) or an analog to digital converter and histogram memory (for spectroscopy). The functions of the preamplifier are: - conversion from current to voltage - linear amplification - providing circuitry close to the diode to minimize the capacitive loading of the diode - allowing matching of diode impedances. The purposes of the amplifier are: - pulse shaping The input pulse to the amplifier is the voltage output from the preamplifier and the output from the amplifier is an amplified and shaped pulse. The gain of the amplifier is defined as: gain = output voltage / input voltage, so a gain of 100 would result in an output of 10 V from an input of 0.1 V. The purpose of the discriminator is to create a logic signal output only if the input signal is between a lower and upper discriminator setting corresponding to a low and high reference voltage. A counter is incremented by one for each output signal from the discriminator. For gross counting of gamma rays, a total count of an energy range may be reported, for example from 25 to 3000 keV for gamma rays. However, because gamma rays associated with a given radionuclide have specific energy and because some gamma ray detectors can measure this energy more precisely than others, it is possible to look at specific energy intervals and improve the sensitivity. Sensitivity is determined by the signal to background ratio. This is true for radiation measurements as it is true for many electronic measurements. Nucsafe gross counting systems for gamma rays utilize at least 6 separate regions of interest (ROI) plus a total of all 6 ROI.

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Gamelan: The Traditional Sounds of Indonesia, includes Music CD by Henry Spiller, Michael Bakan (World Music Series: ABC-CLIO) This is an introduction to the familiar music of Indonesia - both as sounds and cultural phenomena. It examines the meaning and significance of traditional Indonesian musical expressions and explores the agricultural roots of modern day dangdut dancing. The mysterious islands of Java and Bali have produced appropriately exotic musical ensembles: the bronze percussion orchestras called gamelan. This complex music, with instruments and scales unfamiliar to Western ears, is an integral part of the culture of Indonesia. Wilting in an engaging style, the author speaks both as scholar and performer to untwine the complicated strands of gamelan and make the music accessible to students and fans of world music. Covering the history, cultural significance, and present form of gamelan, this book is a comprehensive treatment of the music of Indonesia, with emphasis on the music of the Cirebonese of North Java and the Sundanese of West Java. Numerous photographs of instruments, performances, and people, along with a CD of richly annotated musical examples, bring the music to life. This scholarly yet accessible book is valuable as a course text or as an addition to a comprehensive library collection. Excerpt: In the World Music series, top ethnomusicologists take the reader behind the scenes to explore everything relating to some of the world's most infectious music—traditions, composers, musicians, instruments, genres, studios, record labels, and audiences. Standard features include: What are the "traditional sounds" of Indonesia? Ever since contact between the Indonesian archipelago and the West began many centuries ago, the Western imagination has been captivated by the region's seemingly endless supply of exotic, even miraculous, things—spices, coffee, and rubber; orangutans and Komodo dragons; the name of the mysterious spy Matahari ("matahari" means "sun" in Indonesian; its literal translation is "eye of the day") and a convenient word to describe lunatic behavior ("running amok"); unusual social practices ranging from matrilineal descent reckoning and headhunting to tooth-filing and ritual homosexual acts; the list goes on and on. Is it any wonder that the West expects—even demands—that "traditional" Indonesian music be similarly exotic? And in many cases it is. Westerners have long found the bronze percussion ensemble music of Java and Bali—gamelan music—to meet and exceed expectations of exoticism. It has been almost thirty years since I first heard the exotic sounds of a gamelan ensemble emanating from somewhere in the performing arts building at the University of California at Santa Cruz, where I was a first-year music major. I was sitting in an ear-training class, practicing singing and identifying intervals with my classmates, when all of a sudden an unearthly, ponderous, utterly unidentifiable noise penetrated the walls. It wasn't particularly loud, but it was quite distinctive and strangely compelling; it certainly made a startling contrast with the weak singing sounds my fellow students and I were making. "It sounds like they got the gamelan going," the teacher commented, and I wondered to myself, "what on earth could a gamelan be?" I made it a point to search out the room in which this strange thing was kept, where I discovered that a "gamelan" was a collection of strange-looking percussion instruments. (Somehow, I knew instinctively that the term referred to the whole collection of instruments; I never asked the question I have since heard countless first-timers ask—"which one is the gamelan?") Unlike the musical instruments to which I was accustomed, such as pianos and guitars, with their neat symmetry and manufactured perfection, there was a sort of Fred Flintstone qual- ity about these gamelan instruments—each key and pot was irregularly shaped and sized and attached to the intricately hand-carved stands with uneven nails or rustic-looking ropes. The golden metal from which the keys and pots were made seemed to glow mysteriously. I found the whole package to be invitingly inscrutable; it looked timelessly ancient, mystical, and most definitely exotic. While I thought the gamelan was quite fascinating, I didn't succumb to its exotic appeal until many months later, when I discovered that a number of fellow students with whom I wanted to be friends played in the University's gamelan ensemble. I didn't realize it at the time, but socializing is also the motivation for many Indonesians who become involved in playing gamelan music. Of course, gamelan instruments don't strike Indonesians as particularly exotic, nor do they find the sounds unfamiliar or strange, but since Indonesians tend to value gregariousness, they often find themselves attracted to the social aspects of playing gamelan. The parts I learned were not really very difficult, and at first I quickly became bored with them. It gradually dawned on me, however, that the most important question to ask when I learned a new part was not "how interesting can I make my own part?" but rather "how does my part affect all the others?" Over time, I began to conceive my role in the gamelan ensemble as somebody who "fits in" rather than some-body who "stands out." Gamelan music of all sorts is about playing together with other people in a unified group in which mutual cooperation is rewarded with harmonious, music. Expert gamelan musicians use their knowledge and skill not so much to stand out and shine in the group, but to blend seamlessly into the complex musical texture and make everybody shine—an approach to exerting power in all social interactions which Indonesians tend to value highly. I did not realize it at the time, but even from the very beginning of my involvement with gamelan music, the musical processes required to play it were retraining my body and mind to think and act in accordance with these values. Thirty years later, gamelan music no longer sounds especially exotic to me. In fact, I can't imagine my own life without it. Studying gamelan has taken me around the world, introduced me to a host of fascinating people, and led me to hear and play music in new ways. It is humbling to realize that the musical processes that undergird gamelan music—the conventions and techniques by which it is conceived, composed,played, and heard have so profoundly formed and shaped my own personality and values. Of course, music and musical activities are among the most meaningful expressions human beings can produce—it should come as no surprise that the music we hear and play affects who we are, what we think, and how we perceive the world around us. To my mind, what qualifies music as traditional is not how old it is, but rather how well it teaches, reinforces, and creates the social values of its producers and consumers. Traditional music is not something that is stuck in the past; it grows and changes, just as the people who make and listen to it grow and change, just as the values they share with those close to them change (albeit a bit more slowly). Truly traditional music, then, exploits new resources, acknowledges new requirements, and responds to new situations. Traditional music provides a place for people to try out new approaches to their existing values, to experiment with new ideas, and to synthesize the new with the old. Traditional music is rooted in trenchant musical processes—the general ideas about how people organize their musical activities—but is not limited to particular musical instruments, sounds, or repertories. It is my hope that this introductory exploration of the musical processes that characterize Indonesian gamelan music (and, in many ways, Southeast Asian music in general) will provide readers with some insights into how music molds individuals and societies; how musical values create, teach, reinforce, and even alter social values; and how musical change is an index of social change. It is easy to forget, amidst the buying and selling of commercial recordings, each of which is the perfected production of superhumanly "talented" artists and advanced technological magic, that musical processes—the doing and sharing of musical activities—have profound meaning and power. The book begins in Chapter One by describing some Southeast Asian musical processes; these processes are, I argue, particularly Southeast Asian because they are intimately related to Southeast Asian geography and history. Chapter Two discusses a sampling of gamelan ensembles and repertories on the Indonesian islands of Java and Bali, all of which bring those musical processes to bear on different social systems with different values. Chapters Three and Four focus on Sundanese music and dance from the western third of the island of Java. Chapter Three presents two rather different Sundanese gamelan ensembles (gamelan salendro and degung), their music, and their social contexts in some detail. At times these discussions present minute technical details; these can be skimmed or skipped by readers more interested in the social and cultural side of gamelan music. Chapter Four explores the role of dance in Sundanese society and addresses issues of change, authenticity, and meaning in the performing arts of West Java; I argue that some of the most "traditional sounds" of Indonesia are those that do not necessarily fulfill the Western expectation of exoticism. Chapter Five revisits the musical processes introduced in Chapter One and reflects once again on what it means for music to be traditional in a changing world. Out of necessity, this book includes many terms in several foreign languages. Since there are quite a few words in various Indonesian languages, it is worth taking a moment to mention a few salient facts about some of these languages. Virtually all Indonesians speak the Indonesian national language (called bahasa Indonesia, which English-speakers usually render as "Indonesian"). Most English speakers can pronounce Indonesian words passably well if they learn a few simple rules. Most of the consonants are pronounced more or less as they are in English, with the exception of `c,' which is pronounced `ch,' and `g,' which is always hard, even when followed by an `e' or and Most Indonesian `r' sounds are rolled (as in Spanish). Indonesians pronounce `a' as English speakers do in the word "father," `e' as in "bed" (or some-times as in "batter"), `i' as in "pizza," `o' as in "poker," and `u' as in "dude." If the same vowel appears two times in a row, it is pronounced twice with a glottal stop in between. An `h' at the end of a word calls for an audible aspiration (forceful exhalation of breath); a `k' at the end of a word is pronounced as a glottal stop. Many Indonesians speak a regional language other than Indonesian among their families and friends, saving Indonesian for official situations or to speak to Indonesians from other parts of the country. The two most widely spoken regional languages in Indonesia are Javanese and Sun-danese. Both of these languages have a few pronunciation peculiarities. Javanese distinguish between dental `d' and alveolar sounds; for the dental version, the tongue is right on the upper teeth, while for the alveolar version, the tongue is behind the upper teeth on the alveolar ridge, resulting in a slightly less explosive attack. Javanese make a similar distinction between dental `t' and an alveolar 'th'; a Javanese 'th' is not pronounced as in "the," but rather more like the 'th' in the name "Esther." Sundanese language includes a special vowel that is spelled `eu' and pronounced like the `e' in "the"; English speak- ers are not used to saying this vowel except in unaccented syllables, and so find many Sundanese words difficult to pronounce. A Sundanese word that ends in a vowel is pronounced with a glottal stop at the end. Indonesian, Javanese, and Sundanese (along with many other Southeast Asian languages) belong to the Austronesian language family, and share many words and grammatical constructions between them. They also have borrowed many words from the languages of other cultures with whom they have come into contact, including Sanskrit, Arabic, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. Americans are frequently amused to come across an Indonesian word that has clearly been borrowed from English, but whose pronunciation and spelling have changed. One common feature that many English speakers find startling about Austronesian languages is that they often make no adjustment to a noun to indicate whether it is singular or plural. Thus, the word gamelan might mean "one bronze percussion orchestra" or "many bronze percussion orchestras." Native speakers rely on the word's con-text in a sentence to figure out the meaning. Readers of this book will also have to rely on context, too; a sentence beginning with "the gamelan is" obviously is about one gamelan, while "the gamelan are" is clearly about more than one gamelan. Musical Ritual in Mexico City : From the Aztec to NAFTA by Mark Pedelty (University of Texas Press) On the Zócalo, the main square of Mexico City, Mexico's entire musical history is performed every day. "Mexica" percussionists drum and dance to the music of Aztec rituals on the open plaza. Inside the Metropolitan Cathedral, choristers sing colonial villancicos. Outside the National Palace, the Mexican army marching band plays the "Himno Nacional," a vestige of the nineteenth century. And all around the square, people listen to the contemporary sounds of pop, rock, and música grugera. In all, some seven centuries of music maintain a living presence in the modern city. This book offers an up-to-date, comprehensive history and ethnography of musical rituals in the world's largest city. Mark Pedelty details the dominant musical rites of the Aztec, colonial, national, revolutionary, modern, and contemporary eras, analyzing the role that musical ritual played in governance, resistance, and social change. His approach is twofold. Historical chapters describe the rituals and their functions, while ethnographic chapters explore how these musical forms continue to resonate in contemporary Mexican society. As a whole, the book is at once descriptive documentary, critical analysis, and celebration of Mexico's vibrant musical culture. From Mexica ceremonies to mariachi concerts, it provides a living record of cultural continuity, change, and vitality. Excerpt: Mexico City has been the cultural and political heart of the Mexican nation since the Mexica founded their capital there in 1325. In a matter of decades, the Aztec settlement grew into the metropolis of Tenochtitlán, an island city on Lake Texcoco. Although neither the ancient city of Tenochtitlán nor Lake Texcoco can be found today, traces of both re-main, buried just a few meters below the surface of modern Mexico City. Similarly, layers of time have created a cultural foundation for the modern city. The past can still be seen, felt, and heard in the capital. For example, on the zócalo, the main square of Mexico City, Mexico's entire musical history is performed every day. "Mexica" percussionists drum and dance in the square's cemented central part. Inside the Metropolitan Cathedral, on the northern edge of the zócalo, choristers sing colonial villancicos. Meanwhile, just outside the National Palace, to the east of the square, the Mexican army marching band plays the "Himno nacional," a vestige of the nineteenth century. These remarkable sounds are subsumed and incorporated into the city's soundscape, no longer a dominant cultural force but vital nonetheless as reminders of Mexico's past. Although pop, rock, and música grupera dominate the contemporary soundscape of the world's largest city, these more subtle echoes continue to resonate as well. We can learn a great deal by digging through these musical layers. With that in mind, this book presents an aural excavation of the city's musical history and a snapshot of its contemporary musical life. The goal is not just to detail past and present musical rituals, however, but to explore the inextricable relationship between the two. Such research requires not only historiographic examination but also ethnographic analysis. Both methods are applied here. Each chapter narrates the development, execution, and social functions of the main musical modes of a given historical period. Each historical survey is followed by a chapter describing how the same musical forms resonate to-day. For example, Chapter 2 is about Aztec music and ritual observance. Chapter 3 focuses on the ways in which Aztec ritual music is performed today, nearly five hundred years after the Conquest. The rituals of the Aztec Empire have been radically transformed, becoming rituals of renewal and even resistance when performed in the present. The sacred huehuetl drum no longer provides the soundtrack for sacrifice but in-stead renews the spirit of middle-class office workers and college students gathered in the zócalo. The conch trumpet no longer signals the hour of bloodletting; it entertains throngs of tourists at archaeological sites. The slit-gong teponaztli no longer plays for rituals of state but instead enlivens archaeomusicological ensembles at the National Museum of Anthropology. Catholic rites (Chapter 4) that once legitimated Spanish rule have likewise lost their social centrality, taking on new, often antithetical cultural meanings in the postcolonial present (Chapter 5). A similar fate was met by the profane jarabe, a ritualized dance that challenged the colonial hegemony of Spanish theocrats. The radical colonial dance be-came an official ritual of national identity after the first Mexican Revolution (1810-1821), only to fade into fossilized "folk" status after the next (1910-1921). The growth, florescence, death, and rebirth of the jarabe and other musical forms of nineteenth-century Mexico are examined in Chapters 6 and 7. Modern musical styles, from the revolutionary corrido to postmodern rock, are similarly detailed in Chapters 8-16. The book concludes with a spectacular ritual event, the presidential inauguration of Vicente Fox, a dramatic ceremony recapitulating 700 years of Mexican ritual history. Each of the musical movements described here has experienced a fairly similar life-trajectory, moving from creative obscurity to social dominance, only to be replaced in the next era by other musical forms and ritual regimes. Although each assemblage of sound has been quieted through time, none has been silenced altogether. Echoes of the musical past continue to resonate in Mexico City's museums, theaters, concert halls, restaurants, and parks. To understand those echoes, we must return to the beginning, when a relatively small Aztec band first reached the shores of Lake Texcoco. Song of the Outcasts: An Introduction to Flamenco (with CD) by Robin Totton (Amadeus Press) Flamenco has taken the world by storm in recent years. From Yet for the Andalusians flamenco has been familiar for a thousand years: it is the song of the outcasts, the poorest of the poor. Though it is not exclusively the music of the Gypsies, they are its catalysts and spiritual torchbearers, and so their story helps us to understand the music. In Song of the Outcasts, author Robin Totton writes – and offers the music on the accompanying 75-minute CD sampler – from his life among them. Totton is uniquely qualified to write about flamenco; he has been exploring flamenco for nearly a decade and has come as close to flamenco as any outsider can hope to do. Totten has published a guide to insert content here

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The walleye called the yellow pike, is a freshwater perciform fish native to most of Canada and to the Northern United States. It is a North American close relative of the European zander known as the pikeperch; the walleye is sometimes called the yellow walleye to distinguish it from the blue walleye, a subspecies, once found in the southern Ontario and Quebec regions, but is now presumed extinct. However, recent genetic analysis of a preserved'blue walleye' sample suggests that the blue and yellow walleye were phenotypes within the same species and do not merit separate taxonomic classification. In parts of its range in English-speaking Canada, the walleye is known as a pickerel, though the fish is not related to the true pickerels, which are a member of the family Esocidae. Walleyes show a fair amount of variation across watersheds. In general, fish within a watershed are quite similar and are genetically distinct from those of nearby watersheds; the species has been artificially propagated for over a century and has been planted on top of existing populations or introduced into waters devoid of the species, sometimes reducing the overall genetic distinctiveness of populations. The common name, "walleye", comes from the fact that the fish's eyes point outward, as if looking at the walls. This externally facing orientation of the eyes gives anglers an advantage in the dark because a certain eyeshine is given off by the eye of the walleye in the dark, similar to that of lions and other nocturnal animals; this "eyeshine" is the result of a light-gathering layer in the eyes called the tapetum lucidum, which allows the fish to see well in low-light conditions. In fact, many anglers look for walleyes at night; the fish's eyes allow them to see well in turbid waters, which gives them an advantage over their prey. Thus, walleye anglers look for locations where a good "walleye chop" occurs; this excellent vision allows the fish to populate the deeper regions in a lake, they can be found in deeper water during the warmest part of the summer and at night. Walleyes are olive and gold in color; the dorsal side of a walleye is olive. The olive/gold pattern is broken up by five darker saddles. The color shades to white on the belly. The mouth of a walleye is armed with many sharp teeth; the first dorsal and anal fins are spinous. Walleyes are distinguished from their close relative the sauger by the white coloration on the lower lobe of the caudal fin, absent on the sauger. In addition, the two dorsals and the caudal fin of the sauger are marked with distinctive rows of black dots which are absent from or indistinct on the same fins of walleyes. Walleyes grow to about 80 cm in length, weigh up to about 9 kg; the maximum recorded size for the fish is 13 kilograms in weight. The rate depends on where in their range they occur, with southern populations growing faster and larger. In general, females grow larger than males. Walleyes may live for decades. In fished populations, few walleye older than five or six years of age are encountered. In North America, where they are prized, their typical size when caught is on the order of 30 to 50 cm below their potential size; as walleye grow longer, they increase in weight. The relationship between total length and total weight for nearly all species of fish can be expressed by an equation of the form W = c L b Invariably, b is close to 3.0 for all species, c is a constant that varies among species. For walleye, b = 3.180 and c = 0.000228 or b = 3.180 and c = 0.000005337. This relationship suggests a 50 cm walleye will weigh about 1.5 kg, while a 60 cm walleye will weigh about 2.5 kg. In most of the species' range, male walleyes mature sexually between four years of age. Females mature about a year later. Adults migrate to tributary streams in late winter or early spring to lay eggs over gravel and rock, although open-water reef or shoal-spawning strains are seen, as well; some populations are known to spawn on vegetation. Spawning occurs at water temperatures of 6 to 10 °C. A large female can lay up to 500,000 eggs, no care is given by the parents to the eggs or fry; the eggs are adhesive and fall into spaces between rocks. The incubation period for the embryos is temperature-dependent, but lasts from 12 to 30 days. After hatching, the free-swimming embryos spend about a week absorbing a small amount of yolk. Once the yolk has been absorbed, the young walleyes begin to feed on invertebrates, such as fly larvæ and zooplankton. After 40 to 60 days, juvenile walleyes become piscivorous. Thenceforth, both juvenile and adult walleyes eat fish exclusively yellow perch or ciscoes, moving onto bars and shoals at night to feed. Walleye feed on crayfish and leeches; the walleye is considered to be a quite palatable freshwater fish, is fished recreationally and commercially for food. Because of its nocturnal feeding habits, it is most caught at night using live minnows or lures that mimic small fish. In Wisconsin, the walleye is fished for in the late afternoon o A reservoir is, most an enlarged natural or artificial lake, pond or impoundment created using a dam or lock to store water. Reservoirs can be created in a number of ways, including controlling a watercourse that drains an existing body of water, interrupting a watercourse to form an embayment within it, through excavation, or building any number of retaining walls or levees. Defined as a storage space for fluids, reservoirs may hold gasses, including hydrocarbons. Tank reservoirs elevated, or buried tanks. Tank reservoirs for water are called cisterns. Most underground reservoirs are used to store liquids, principally either water or petroleum, below ground. Reservoir is most an enlarged natural or artificial lake. A dam constructed in a valley relies on the natural topography to provide most of the basin of the reservoir. Dams are located at a narrow part of a valley downstream of a natural basin; the valley sides act as natural walls, with the dam located at the narrowest practical point to provide strength and the lowest cost of construction. In many reservoir construction projects, people have to be moved and re-housed, historical artifacts moved or rare environments relocated. Examples include the temples of Abu Simbel, the relocation of the village of Capel Celyn during the construction of Llyn Celyn, the relocation of Borgo San Pietro of Petrella Salto during the construction of Lake Salto. Construction of a reservoir in a valley will need the river to be diverted during part of the build through a temporary tunnel or by-pass channel. In hilly regions, reservoirs are constructed by enlarging existing lakes. Sometimes in such reservoirs, the new top water level exceeds the watershed height on one or more of the feeder streams such as at Llyn Clywedog in Mid Wales. In such cases additional side dams are required to contain the reservoir. Where the topography is poorly suited to a single large reservoir, a number of smaller reservoirs may be constructed in a chain, as in the River Taff valley where the Llwyn-on, Cantref and Beacons Reservoirs form a chain up the valley. Coastal reservoirs are fresh water storage reservoirs located on the sea coast near the river mouth to store the flood water of a river. As the land based reservoir construction is fraught with substantial land submergence, coastal reservoir is preferred economically and technically since it does not use scarce land area. Many coastal reservoirs were constructed in Europe. Saemanguem in South Korea, Marina Barrage in Singapore and Plover Cove in China, etc are few existing coastal reservoirs. Where water is pumped or siphoned from a river of variable quality or size, bank-side reservoirs may be built to store the water; such reservoirs are formed by excavation and by building a complete encircling bund or embankment, which may exceed 6 km in circumference. Both the floor of the reservoir and the bund must have an impermeable lining or core: these were made of puddled clay, but this has been superseded by the modern use of rolled clay; the water stored in such reservoirs may stay there for several months, during which time normal biological processes may reduce many contaminants and eliminate any turbidity. The use of bank-side reservoirs allows water abstraction to be stopped for some time, when the river is unacceptably polluted or when flow conditions are low due to drought. The London water supply system is one example of the use of bank-side storage: the water is taken from the River Thames and River Lee. Service reservoirs store treated potable water close to the point of distribution. Many service reservoirs are constructed as water towers as elevated structures on concrete pillars where the landscape is flat. Other service reservoirs can be entirely underground in more hilly or mountainous country. In the United Kingdom, Thames Water has many underground reservoirs, sometimes called cisterns, built in the 1800s, most of which are lined with brick. A good example is the Honor Oak Reservoir in London, constructed between 1901 and 1909; when it was completed it was said to be the largest brick built underground reservoir in the world and it is still one of the largest in Europe. This reservoir now forms part of the southern extension of the Thames Water Ring Main. The top of the reservoir is now used by the Aquarius Golf Club. Service reservoirs perform several functions, including ensuring sufficient head of water in the water distribution system and providing water capacity to out peak demand from consumers, enabling the treatment plant to run at optimum efficiency. Large service reservoirs can be managed to reduce the cost of pumping, by refilling the reservoir at times of day when energy costs are low. Circa 3 000 BC, the craters of extinct volcanoes in Arabia were used as reservoirs by farmers for their irrigation water. Dry climate and water scarcity in India led to early development of stepwells and water resource management techniques, including the building of a reservoir at Girnar in 3000 BC. Artificial lakes dating to the 5th century BC have been found in ancient Greece; the artificial Bhojsagar lake in present-day Madhya Pradesh state of India, constructed in the 11th century, covered 650 square kilometres. In Sri Lanka large reservoirs were created by ancient Sinhalese kings in order to save the water for irrigation. The famous Sri Lankan king Pa In structural geology, an anticline is a type of fold, an arch-like shape and has its oldest beds at its core. A typical anticline is convex up in which the hinge or crest is the location where the curvature is greatest, the limbs are the sides of the fold that dip away from the hinge. Anticlines can be recognized and differentiated from antiforms by a sequence of rock layers that become progressively older toward the center of the fold. Therefore, if age relationships between various rock strata are unknown, the term antiform should be used; the progressing age of the rock strata towards the core and uplifted center, are the trademark indications for evidence of anticlines on a geologic map. These formations occur because anticlinal ridges develop above thrust faults during crustal deformations; the uplifted core of the fold causes compression of strata that preferentially erodes to a deeper stratigraphic level relative to the topographically lower flanks. Motion along the fault including both shortening and extension of tectonic plates also deforms strata near the fault. This overturned fold. An antiform can be used to describe any fold, convex up, it is the relative ages of the rock strata. The hinge of an anticline refers to the location where the curvature is greatest called the crest; the hinge is the highest point on a stratum along the top of the fold. The culmination refers to the highest point along any geologic structure; the limbs are the sides of the fold. The inflection point is the area on the limbs; the axial surface is an imaginary plane connecting the hinge of each layer of rock stratum through the cross section of an anticline. If the axial surface is vertical and the angles on each side of the fold are equivalent the anticline is symmetrical. If the axial plane is tilted or offset the anticline is asymmetrical. An anticline, cylindrical has a well-defined axial surface, whereas non-cylindrical anticlines are too complex to have a single axial plane. An overturned anticline is an asymmetrical anticline with a limb, tilted beyond perpendicular, so that the beds in that limb have flipped over and may dip in the same direction on both sides of the axial plane. If the angle between the limbs is large the fold is an "open" fold, but if the angle between the limbs is small the fold is a "tight" fold. If an anticline plunges, it will form Vs on a geologic map view that point in the direction of plunge. A plunging anticline has a hinge, not parallel to the earth's surface. All anticlines and synclines have some degree of plunge. Periclinal folds are a type of anticlines that have a well-defined, but curved hinge line and are doubly plunging and thus elongate domes. Folds in which the limbs dip toward the hinge and display a more U-like shape are called synclines, they flank the sides of anticlines and display opposite characteristics. A syncline's oldest rock strata are in its outer limbs. A monocline is a bend in the strata resulting in a local steepening in only one direction of dip. Monoclines have the shape of a carpet draped over a stairstep. An anticline, more eroded in the center is called a breached or scalped anticline. Breached anticlines can become incised by stream erosion. A structure that plunges in all directions to form a circular or elongate structure is a dome. Domes may be created via diapirism from underlying magmatic intrusions or upwardly mobile, mechanically ductile material such as rock salt and shale that cause deformations and uplift in the surface rock; the Richat Structure of the Sahara is considered a dome, laid bare by erosion. An anticline which plunges at both ends is termed a doubly plunging anticline, may be formed from multiple deformations, or superposition of two sets of folds, it may be related to the geometry of the underlying detachment fault and the varying amount of displacement along the surface of that detachment fault. An anticlinorium is a large anticline. Examples include the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous Purcell Anticlinorium in British Columbia and the Blue Ridge anticlinorium of northern Virginia and Maryland in the Appalachians, or the Nittany Valley in central Pennsylvania. Anticlines are developed above thrust faults, so any small compression and motion within the inner crust can have large effects on the upper rock stratum. Stresses developed during mountain building or during other tectonic processes can warp or bend bedding and foliation. The more the underlying fault is tectonically uplifted, the more the strata will be deformed and must adapt to new shapes; the shape formed will be dependent on the properties and cohesion of the different types of rock within each layer. During the formation of flexural-slip folds, the different rock layers form parallel-slip folds to accommodate for buckling. A good way to visualize how the multiple layers are manipulated, is to bend a deck of cards and to imagine each card as a layer of rock stratum; the amount of slip on each side of the anticline increases from the hinge to the inflection point. Passive-flow folds form when the rock is so soft that it behaves like weak plastic and flows. In this process different parts of the rock body move at different rates causing shear stress to shift from layer to layer. There is no mec Cathedral of Learning The Cathedral of Learning, a Pittsburgh landmark listed in the National Register of Historic Places, is the centerpiece of the University of Pittsburgh's main campus in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, United States. Standing at 535 feet, the 42-story Late Gothic Revival Cathedral is the tallest educational building in the Western hemisphere and the second tallest university building in the world, it is the second tallest gothic-styled building in the world. The Cathedral of Learning was commissioned in 1921 and ground was broken in 1926; the first class was held in the building in 1931 and its exterior finished in October 1934, prior to its formal dedication in June 1937. Colloquially referred to as "Cathy" by some Pitt students, the Cathedral of Learning is a steel frame structure overlaid with Indiana limestone and contains more than 2,000 rooms and windows, it functions as a primary classroom and administrative center of the university, is home to the Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, the School of Social Work, many of its departments, as well as the University Honors College. It houses many specialty spaces, including a studio theater, food court, study lounges, offices and language labs, 30 Nationality Rooms, a 1⁄2-acre, 4-story-high, gothic study and event hall. The building contains noted examples of stained glass, stone and iron work and is used by the university in photographs and other advertisements; the basement and floors up to floor 40 are used for educational purposes, although most floors above 36 house the building's mechanical equipment. These floors include theaters, computer laboratories, language laboratories and departmental offices; the basement contains a black box theater and the ground floor contains computer labs, language labs and the Cathedral Café food court. The "lobby", comprising the first through third floors, contains a massive gothic "Commons Room", used as a general study area and for special events and is ringed by three floors of classrooms, including, on the first and third floors, the 30 Nationality Rooms designed by members of Pittsburgh's ethnic communities in the styles of different nations and ethnic groups. Twenty-eight of these serve as functional classrooms while more conventional classrooms are located on the second floor and elsewhere throughout the building. The first floor serves as the home to the offices of the Chancellor, Executive Vice Chancellor, other administration offices, as well as the Nationality Rooms Gift Shop; the fourth floor, home to the main stacks of the university's library and the McCarl Center for Nontraditional Student Success, now houses a mix of interdisciplinary studies programs. The fifth floor housed the main borrowing and reading rooms of the university library, now houses the Department of English; the Pitt Humanities Center is housed on the sixth floor. Additionally, the University Honors College is located on the 36th floors; the Cathedral of Learning houses the Department of Philosophy, considered one of the top five in the United States, the Department of History and Philosophy of Science ranked at the top of the field. Other departments in the Cathedral include English, Religious Studies, Theatre Arts, the School of Social Work which maintains the highest classrooms in the building located on the 23rd floor. Floors 37–40 are closed to the general public, as they contain electrical wiring for the building, as well as the Babcock Room, a large conference room on the 40th floor used for meetings and special events and which provides a panoramic view of downtown Pittsburgh and the rest of the university. The 40th floor balcony houses a nesting pair of Peregrine falcons. A view from the top is available via a webcam. Golden lights, dubbed "victory lights," surround the outside of the highest floors and are lit following Pitt football wins and other notable victories, giving the upper part of the Cathedral an amber glow; the top of the building serves as the site for the transmitter of the student-run radio station WPTS-FM as well as the amateur radio repeater W3YJ, run by the Panther Amateur Radio club on a frequency of 443.45 MHz. The building is one of the host buildings of Pennsylvania's Mock Trial Competition. In 1921, John Gabbert Bowman became the tenth chancellor of the university. At that time, the school consisted of a series of buildings constructed along Henry Hornbostel's plan for the campus and included "temporary" wooden structures built during World War I. He began to envision a "tall building", that would be termed the Cathedral of Learning, to provide a dramatic symbol of education for the city and alleviate overcrowding by adding much needed space in order to meet present and future needs of the university. His reasoning is summarized in this quote: The building was to be more than a schoolhouse, it was to make visible something of the spirit, in the hearts of pioneers as, long ago, they sat in their log cabins and thought by candlelight of the great city that would sometime spread out beyond their three rivers and that they were starting to build. Bowman looked at a 14-acre plot of land named Frick Acres. On November 26, 1921, with aid from the Mellon family, the university was given the $2.5 million plot, began plans for a proper university building on the site. One of the foremost Gothic architects of the time, Philadelphian Charles Klauder, was hired to design the tower; the design took two years to finish, with the final plan attempting Trout is the common name for a number of species of freshwater fish belonging to the genera Oncorhynchus and Salvelinus, all of the subfamily Salmoninae of the family Salmonidae. The word trout is used as part of the name of some non-salmonid fish such as Cynoscion nebulosus, the spotted seatrout or speckled trout. Trout are related to salmon and char: species termed salmon and char occur in the same genera as do fish called trout. Lake trout and most other trout live in freshwater lakes and rivers while there are others, such as the steelhead, which can spend two or three years at sea before returning to fresh water to spawn. Steelhead that live out their lives in fresh water are called rainbow trout. Arctic char and brook trout are part of the char family. Trout are an important food source for humans and wildlife, including brown bears, birds of prey such as eagles, other animals, they are classified as oily fish. The name'trout' is used for some species in three of the seven genera in the subfamily Salmoninae: Salmo, Atlantic species. Fish referred to as trout include: Genus Salmo Adriatic trout, Salmo obtusirostris Brown trout, Salmo trutta River trout, S. t. morpha fario Lake trout/Lacustrine trout, S. t. morpha lacustris Sea trout, S. t. morpha trutta Flathead trout, Salmo platycephalus Marble trout, Soca River trout or Soča trout – Salmo marmoratus Ohrid trout, Salmo letnica, S. balcanicus, S. lumi, S. aphelios Sevan trout, Salmo ischchan Genus Oncorhynchus Biwa trout, Oncorhynchus masou rhodurus Cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus clarki Coastal cutthroat trout, O. c. clarki Crescenti trout, O. c. c. f. crescenti Alvord cutthroat trout O. c. alvordensis Bonneville cutthroat trout O. c. utah Humboldt cutthroat trout O. c. humboldtensis Lahontan cutthroat trout O. c. henshawi Whitehorse Basin cutthroat trout Paiute cutthroat trout O. c. seleniris Snake River fine-spotted cutthroat trout, O. c. behnkei Westslope cutthroat trout O. c. lewisi Yellowfin cutthroat trout O. c. macdonaldi Yellowstone cutthroat trout O. c. bouvieri Colorado River cutthroat trout O. c. pleuriticus Greenback cutthroat trout O. c. stomias Rio Grande cutthroat trout O. c. virginalis Oncorhynchus gilae Gila trout, O. g. gilae Apache trout, O. g. apache Rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss Kamchatkan rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss mykiss Columbia River redband trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss gairdneri Coastal rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus Beardslee trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus var. beardsleei Great Basin redband trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss newberrii Golden trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita Kern River rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita var. gilberti Sacramento golden trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita var. stonei Little Kern golden trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita var. whitei Kamloops rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss kamloops Baja California rainbow trout, Nelson's trout, or San Pedro Martir trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss nelsoni Eagle Lake trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss aquilarum McCloud River redband trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss stonei Sheepheaven Creek redband trout Mexican golden trout, Oncorhynchus chrysogaster Genus Salvelinus Brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis Aurora trout, S. f. timagamiensis Bull trout, Salvelinus confluentus Dolly Varden trout, Salvelinus malma Lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush Silver trout, † Salvelinus agassizi Hybrids Tiger trout, Salmo trutta X Salvelinus fontinalis Speckled Lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush X Salvelinus fontinalis Trout that live in different environments can have different colorations and patterns. These colors and patterns form as camouflage, based on the surroundings, will change as the fish moves to different habitats. Trout in, or newly returned from the sea, can look silvery, while the same fish living in a small stream or in an alpine lake could have pronounced markings and more vivid coloration. In general trout that are about to breed have intense coloration, they can look like an different fish outside of spawning season. It is impossible to define a particular color pattern as belonging to a specific breed. Trout have fins without spines, all of them have a small adipose fin along the back, near the tail; the pelvic fins sit well back on each side of the anus. The swim bladder is connected to the esophagus, allowing for gulping or rapid expulsion of air, a condition known as physostome. Unlike many other physostome fish, trout do not use their bladder as an auxiliary device for oxygen uptake, relying on their gills. There are many species, more populations, that are isolated from each other and morphologically different. However, since many of these distinct populations show no significant genetic differences, what may appear to be a large number of species is considered a much smaller number of distinct species by most ichthyologists. The trout found in the eastern United States are a good example of this; the brook trout, the aurora trout, the silver trout all have physical characteristics and colorations that distinguish them, yet genetic analysis shows that they are one species, Salvelinus fontinalis. Lake trout, like brook trout, belong to the char genus. Lake trout inhabit many of the larger lakes in North America, live m A bathroom is a room in the home or hotel for personal hygiene activities containing a toilet, a sink and either a bathtub, a shower, or both. In some countries, the toilet is included in the bathroom, whereas other cultures consider this insanitary or impractical, give that fixture a room of its own; the toilet may be outside of the home in the case of pit latrines. It may be a question of available space in the house whether the toilet is included in the bathroom or not. Bathing was a collective activity, which took place in public baths. In some countries the shared social aspect of cleansing the body is still important, as for example with sento in Japan and the "Turkish bath" throughout the Islamic world. In North American English the word "bathroom" may be used to mean any room containing a toilet a public toilet; the term for the place used to clean the body varies around the English-speaking world, as does the design of the room itself. A full bathroom is understood to contain a bath or shower, a toilet, a sink. An ensuite bathroom or ensuite shower room is attached to, only accessible from, a bedroom. A family bathroom, in British estate agent terminology, is a full bathroom not attached to a bedroom, but with its door opening onto a corridor. A Jack and Jill bathroom is situated between and shared by the occupants of two separate bedrooms, it may have two wash basins. A wetroom is a waterproof room equipped with a shower. In the United States, there is a lack of a universal definition. Bathrooms are categorized as "master bathroom", containing a shower and a bathtub, adjoining to the largest bedroom. In some U. S. markets, a toilet and shower are considered a "full bath." In addition, there is the use of the word "bathroom" to describe a room containing a toilet and a basin, nothing else. Bathrooms have one or more towel bars or towel rings for hanging towels Some bathrooms contain a bathroom cabinet for personal hygiene products and medicines, drawers or shelves for storing towels and other items; some bathrooms contain a bidet. The design of a bathroom must account for the use of both hot and cold water, in significant quantities, for cleaning the body. The water is used for moving solid and liquid human waste to a sewer or septic tank. Water may be splashed on the walls and floor, hot humid air may cause condensation on cold surfaces. From a decorating point of view the bathroom presents a challenge. Ceiling and floor materials and coverings should be impervious to water and and cleaned; the use of ceramic or glass, as well as smooth plastic materials, is common in bathrooms for their ease of cleaning. Such surfaces are cold to the touch, so water-resistant bath mats or bathroom carpets may be used on the floor to make the room more comfortable. Alternatively, the floor may be heated by strategically placing resistive electric mats under floor tile or radiant hot water tubing close to the underside of the floor surface. Electrical appliances, such as lights and heated towel rails need to be installed as fixtures, with permanent connections rather than plugs and sockets. This minimizes the risk of electric shock. Ground-fault circuit interrupter electrical sockets can reduce the risk of electric shock, are required for bathroom socket installation by electrical and building codes in the United States and Canada. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, only special sockets suitable for electric shavers and electric toothbrushes are permitted in bathrooms, are labelled as such. UK building regulations define what type of electrical fixtures, such as light fittings may be installed in the areas around and above baths, showers. Contrary to some information provided with bathroom light fittings and basins do not affect bathroom zones, as a bathroom is defined as a room containing a bath or shower, by wiring regulations, it is good practice to avoid installing unsuitable fixtures close to sinks, as damage from water splashes may occur. Bathroom lighting should be uniform and must minimize glare. For all the activities like shaving, grooming etc. one must ensure equitable lighting across the entire bathroom space. The mirror area should have at least two sources of light at least 1 feet apart to eliminate any shadows on the face. Skin tones and hair color are highlighted with a tinge of yellow light. Ceiling and wall lights must be safe for use in a bathroom and therefore must carry appropriate certification such as IP44. All forms of bathroom lighting should be IP44 rated as safe to use in the bathroom; the first records for the use of baths date back as far as 3000 B. C. At this time water had a strong religious value, being seen as a purifying element for both body and soul, so it was not uncommon for people to be required t A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. A modern middle-class residential kitchen is equipped with a stove, a sink with hot and cold running water, a refrigerator, worktops and kitchen cabinets arranged according to a modular design. Many households have a microwave oven, a dishwasher, other electric appliances; the main functions of a kitchen are to store and cook food. The room or area may be used for dining and laundry; the design and construction of kitchens is a huge market all over the world. The United States are expected to generate $47,730m in the kitchen furniture industry for 2018 alone. Commercial kitchens are found in restaurants, hotels, hospitals and workplace facilities, army barracks, similar establishments; these kitchens are larger and equipped with bigger and more heavy-duty equipment than a residential kitchen. For example, a large restaurant may have a huge walk-in refrigerator and a large commercial dishwasher machine. In some instances commercial kitchen equipment such as commercial sinks are used in household settings as it offers ease of use for food preparation and high durability. In developed countries, commercial kitchens are subject to public health laws, they are inspected periodically by public-health officials, forced to close if they do not meet hygienic requirements mandated by law. The evolution of the kitchen is linked to the invention of the cooking range or stove and the development of water infrastructure capable of supplying running water to private homes. Food was cooked over an open fire. Technical advances in heating food in the 18th and 19th centuries changed the architecture of the kitchen. Before the advent of modern pipes, water was brought from an outdoor source such as wells, pumps or springs; the houses in Ancient Greece were of the atrium-type: the rooms were arranged around a central courtyard for women. In many such homes, a covered but otherwise open patio served as the kitchen. Homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a separate room next to a bathroom, both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses, there was a separate small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food and kitchen utensils. In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities had no kitchen of their own; some had small mobile bronze stoves. Wealthy Romans had well-equipped kitchens. In a Roman villa, the kitchen was integrated into the main building as a separate room, set apart for practical reasons of smoke and sociological reasons of the kitchen being operated by slaves; the fireplace was on the floor, placed at a wall—sometimes raised a little bit—such that one had to kneel to cook. There were no chimneys. Early medieval European longhouses had an open fire under the highest point of the building; the "kitchen area" was between the fireplace. In wealthy homes there was more than one kitchen. In some homes there were upwards of three kitchens; the kitchens were divided based on the types of food prepared in them. In place of a chimney, these early buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke could escape. Besides cooking, the fire served as a source of heat and light to the single-room building. A similar design can be found in the Iroquois longhouses of North America. In the larger homesteads of European nobles, the kitchen was sometimes in a separate sunken floor building to keep the main building, which served social and official purposes, free from indoor smoke; the first known stoves in Japan date from about the same time. The earliest findings are from the Kofun period; these stoves, called kamado, were made of clay and mortar. This type of stove remained in use for centuries to come, with only minor modifications. Like in Europe, the wealthier homes had a separate building. A kind of open fire pit fired with charcoal, called irori, remained in use as the secondary stove in most homes until the Edo period. A kamado was used to cook the staple food, for instance rice, while irori served both to cook side dishes and as a heat source. The kitchen remained unaffected by architectural advances throughout the Middle Ages. European medieval kitchens were dark and sooty places, whence their name "smoke kitchen". In European medieval cities around the 10th to 12th centuries, the kitchen still used an open fire hearth in the middle of the room. In wealthy homes, the ground floor was used as a stable while the kitchen was located on the floor above, like the bedroom and the hall. In castles and monasteries, the living and working areas were separated. In some castles the kitchen was retained in the same structure, but servants were separated from nobles, by constructing separate spiral stone staircases for use of servants to bring food to upper levels; the kitchen might be separate from the great hall due to the smoke from cooking fires and the chance the fires may get out of control. Few medieval kitchens survive as they were "notoriously ephemeral structures". An extant example of such a medieval kitchen with servants

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Biological hazard is the term used when speaking to certain biological chemicals that may potentially pose a very real and significant threat to the wellbeing of many living organisms, even though the term biohazard' is most commonly used when describing substances which are especially harmful to humans. The bca protein estimation kit can be anything ranging from medical waste, which may potentially have a detrimental effect on animal health in addition to individual well-being, microorganisms from a biological supply in addition to viruses and toxins. Image source: Google Such Biohazard substances are categorized into one of those four Biosafety Levels (BSL's), laid down by the United States' Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. In compliance with the criteria of the method of grading, Grade 1 is assigned to those biologically hazardous materials which pose only minimal risk, most commonly used when grading germs and viruses like chicken pox and canine hepatitis. Normally, there are fewer precautions taken from substances using a biohazard level 1, with the most frequent way of protection being gloves and face masks. However, biologically hazardous materials given a grading of 4 are assigned to those that pose the most damaging risk such as those viruses and bacteria. As would be expected, those materials given a hazardous evaluation of level 4 require much more substantial precautions, like the use of airlocks as well as using a Hazmat suit with a self-contained oxygen source. When deciding whether to use curtains or curtains in your home, it's very unlikely you've ever considered plantation shutters. In fact, it's unlikely that you know what plantation shutters are, even though you will definitely see them in action. The plantation window design allows the blades to be adjusted to control airflow and light. This is very useful in hot climates where airflow keeps the room cool while the blades keep heat and light too. Also known as grating and jalousie, aluminium plantation shutters can be specially made and sized to fit almost all windows and even doors. While the basic designs of these shutters have been around since the Middle Ages, they got their name from the fact that they are widely used and plantation houses. Image Source: Google These houses rarely have glass windows so plantation estates are used, because they can be closed to prevent rain in bad weather and reopened when the sun and burning the cake back for ventilation. While your home will probably have glass windows and hence there is no need for such practicality, the flexibility of the plantation shutter and various designs make it ideal for creating features and enhancing the decor in the room you choose and, of course, will still help prevent the lights when you want. A standard window usually covers the entire window with a bar in the middle to open and close the bar. 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Consider the amount of people that will use the entire space and what they are going to do about it. Left some inches where you can easily move around and not affect those who are sitting. If there are children or pets, give at least some rooms for them where they can move freely. Make sure to plan out everything. Thinking about what to do with the entire spaces is very challenging. It is important for individuals to find the time to think things through before doing any changes. It would also be beneficial for them to hire an interior designer to help them with their plans. A monitoring and security system is set up to protect your house from burglars, thieves, trespassers and other risks including fire. You will find an assortment of home alarm systems to pick upon. When considering one for the house remembers that they offer different operational purposes with something in common, they're intended to safeguard your house. Some of the typical kinds of home alarms systems consist of electric circuits, motion sensors, and infrared alarms along with other varieties which are all comparatively efficient. Below is more information about alerts and advice to have you pick one that best fits your requirements. A monitored system is one which is wired into alarm a central call center in the event the houses alarm is triggered. The call center is alerted of an alert through telephone wires. Clever thieves that have the ability to find outdoor phone wires which are vulnerable may cut them not permitting the call center to be alerted. When thinking of a system similar to this recall there is always the choice of using a radio or cellular back up to your monitored alarm system. One big drawback to your monitored alarm system is that when the alarm is triggered it takes thirty to forty minutes to your security business to get in touch with the homeowner. They wait this long to determine whether the alert has been accidentally set off from the homeowner. The homeowner has a code which they use to deactivate the alarm if this isn't entered along with the homeowner never gotten a grasp of the security business will alert police. The significant issue with this sort of system is the time that it takes this to happen and the seasoned burglar might have entered the house, caused injury to the household inside and discharged an assortment of possessions. If you're like most other individuals, maintaining excellent physical fitness is not easy. If you don't know where to begin, it's hard to begin a regimen. It's important that you receive advice and information. You can find both of those here and that will help you get fit. Breakfast is not the most important meal of the day like what most people think. 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Individuals who are interested in careers in dental assistance will find programs offered through tertiary institutions, vocational and private institutions. And it's important to consider the differences between these programs to get the most out of your education and money. With that in my mind; I write this in the hope that it can help you because depending on your needs, certain programs may or may not serve you. To know more about the dental assistant certification programs, you can browse the web. Nowadays, working adults and career changers are both looking to continue their education around a busy budget and schedule. Since then, academic institutions have recognized this trend and supported students' demands by implementing evening classes, online courses and acceleration degree programs. However, these schools tend to spend an average of two to three times more per credit hour than traditional colleges or universities. In addition, acceleration programs often lack proper accreditation through the American Dental Association's accreditation board: Dental Accreditation Commission (CODA). CODA accredited programs are usually a one-year certificate program; and recommended for those who want to be formally trained and certified. Graduates become 'certified' (CDA) by passing three parts, the national exam administered by the National Board of Dental Assistance (DANB). * There are three (3) ways for qualified people to take the DANB exam: Graduates from accredited programs Assist Dental or Dental Hygiene High school graduates with a minimum of 3,500 hours of experience that can be verified per dentist (employer). A CDA or OR graduate currently recognized by DANB from a foreign dentist degree program. People want owning the location of their wants. 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which affects people of all ages, income, race, and cultures, is a disturbance of mood and is characterized by a loss of interest or pleasure in normal everyday activities. People who are depressed may feel "down in the dumps" for weeks, months, or even years at a time. in the same 2 weeks, the patient has had 5 or more of the following symptoms, which are a definite change from usual functioning. Either depressed mood or decreased interest or pleasure must be one of the five: most of nearly every day, the patient reports depressed mood or appears depressed to others. Interests. For most of nearly every day, interest or pleasure is markedly decreased in nearly all activities (noted by the patient or by others). Eating and weight. Although not dieting, there is a marked loss or gain of weight (such as five percent in one month) or appetite is markedly decreased or increased nearly every day. Sleep. Nearly every day the patient sleeps excessively or not Motor activity. Nearly every day others can see that the patient's activity is agitated or retarded. Fatigue. Nearly every day there is fatigue or loss of energy. Self-worth. Nearly every day the patient feels worthless or inappropriately guilty. These feelings are not just about being sick; they may be delusional. Concentration. Noted by the patient or by others, nearly every day the patient is indecisive or has trouble thinking or concentrating. Death. The patient has had repeated thoughts about death (other than the fear of dying), suicide (with or without a plan) or has made a suicide attempt. These symptoms cause clinically important distress or impair work, social or personal functioning. They don't fulfill criteria for Mixed This disorder is not directly caused by a general medical condition or the use of substances, including prescription medications. symptoms are severe (defined as severely impaired functioning, severe preoccupation with worthlessness, ideas of suicide, delusions or hallucinations or psychomotor retardation), the episode has not begun within two months of the loss of a loved one. Use the following codes (including Chronic) for the current or most recent Major Depressive Episode in Major Depressive, Bipolar I or Bipolar II Disorders. Severity Code for Major Depressive Episode. .1 Mild. Symptoms barely meet criteria for major depression and result in little distress or interference with the patient's ability to work, study Intermediate between Mild and Severe. without Psychotic Features. The number of symptoms well exceeds the minimum for diagnosis, and they markedly interfere with patient's work, social or personal functioning. .4 With Psychotic Features. The patient has delusions or hallucinations, which may be mood-congruent or mood-incongruent. Specify, if possible: Mood-congruent Psychotic Features. The content of the patient's delusions or hallucinations is completely consistent with the typical themes of depression: death, disease, guilt, nihilism, personal inadequacy or punishment that is deserved. Mood-incongruent Psychotic Features. The content of the patient's delusions or hallucinations is not consistent with the typical themes of depression. Mood incongruent themes include delusions of control, persecution, thought broadcasting and thought insertion. .5 In Partial Remission. Use this code for patients who formerly met full criteria for Major Depressive Episode and now either (1) have fewer than five symptoms or (2) have had no symptoms for less than two months. .6 In Full Remission. The patient has had no material evidence of Major Depressive Episode during the past 2 months. Specifier: Chronic. All the criteria for a Major Depressive Episode have been met without interruption for the previous 2 years or Agitation and Psychomotor Retardation Psychomotor agitation and retardation occur in depression, producing states of over activity and under activity respectively. Agitation and retardation can lead to impaired cognition, judgment, reason, and decision making, which often further isolates depressed people and prolongs symptoms. Psychomotor agitation can also lead to generalized is rarer than motor retardation and is often occurs in the elderly. Over activity in this sense does not mean mania. The agitated state in major depressive disorder should not be confused with the manic episode that occurs in bipolar disorder, when mood is temporarily elevated by a transient sense of hope and elation. activities are the physical gestures that result from mental processes and are a product of the psyche. Many psychomotor behaviors associated with mental disorder affect impulses, cravings, instincts, and wishes. The spectrum of agitated behavior includes the following: Pacing and hair twirling Psychomotor retardation manifests as a slowing of coordination, speech, and impaired articulation. In this state, a person appears sluggish and seems hesitant or confused in speech and intention. illness, alcohol, medication, or street drug use. psychosis (e.g., Schizoaffective or Psychotic Disorder Not Otherwise Specified). Depressive Disorder causes the following mood Abnormal depressed mood: is usually a normal reaction to loss. However, in Major Depressive Disorder, sadness is abnormal because it: continuously for at least 2 weeks. Causes marked functional impairment. Causes disabling physical symptoms (e.g., disturbances in sleep, appetite, weight, energy, and psychomotor activity). Causes disabling psychological symptoms (e.g., apathy, morbid preoccupation with worthlessness, suicidal ideation, or psychotic sadness in this disorder is often described as a depressed, hopeless, discouraged, "down in the dumps," "blah," or empty. This sadness may be denied at first. Many complain of bodily aches and pains, rather than admitting to their true feelings of sadness. Abnormal loss of interest and pleasure mood: of interest and pleasure in this disorder is a reduced capacity to experience pleasure which in its most extreme form is called lack of motivation can be quite crippling. Abnormal irritable mood: may present primarily with irritable, rather than depressed or apathetic mood. This is not officially recognized yet for adults, but it is recognized for children and adolescents. irritable depressed individuals often alienate their loved ones with their cranky mood and constant criticisms. Major Depressive Disorder causes the following physical appetite: Most depressed patients experience loss of appetite and weight loss. The opposite, excessive eating and weight gain, occurs in a minority of depressed patients. Changes in weight can be significant. sleep: Most depressed patients experience difficulty falling asleep, frequent awakenings during the night or very early morning awakening. The opposite, excessive sleeping, occurs in a minority of depressed patients. or loss of energy: Profound fatigue and lack of energy usually is very prominent and disabling. or slowing: Psychomotor retardation (an actual physical slowing of speech, movement and thinking) or psychomotor agitation (observable pacing and physical restlessness) often are present in severe Major Depressive Disorder. Disorder causes the following cognitive self-reproach or inappropriate guilt: usually causes a marked lowering of self-esteem and self-confidence with increased thoughts of pessimism, hopelessness, and helplessness. In the extreme, the person may feel excessively and unreasonably thinking" caused by depression can become extremely dangerous as it can eventually lead to extremely self-defeating or suicidal poor concentration or indecisiveness: is often an early symptom of this disorder. The depressed person quickly becomes mentally fatigued when asked to read, study, or solve complicated problems. forgetfulness often accompanies this disorder. As it worsens, this memory loss can be easily mistaken for early senility Abnormal morbid thoughts of death (not just fear of dying) or most highly correlated with suicidal behavior in depression Features and Comorbitity 80 to 90% of individuals with Major Depressive Disorder also have anxiety symptoms (e.g., anxiety, obsessive preoccupations, panic attacks, phobias, and excessive health Anxiety may be prominent in children. third of individuals with Major Depressive Disorder also have a full-blown anxiety disorder (usually either Panic Disorder, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, or Social Phobia). in a person with major depression leads to a poorer response to treatment, poorer social and work function, greater likelihood of chronicity and an increased risk of suicidal behavior. with Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa often develop Major delusions or hallucinations may accompany severe Major of Major Depressive Disorder abuse is common (especially Alcohol and Cocaine). or street drugs are often mistakenly used as a remedy for depression. However, this abuse of alcohol or street drugs actually worsens Major Depressive Disorder. may also be a consequence of drug or alcohol withdrawal and is commonly seen after cocaine and amphetamine use. 25% of individuals with severe, chronic medical illness (e.g., diabetes, myocardial infarction, carcinomas, stroke) develop depression. of individuals initially diagnosed as having Major Depressive Disorder subsequently are found to have another medical illness which was the cause of their depression. conditions often causing depression are: disorders: hypothyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, Cushing's disease, and diabetes mellitus. Neurological disorders: multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's Disease, migraine, various forms of epilepsy, encephalitis, Medications: many medications can cause depression, especially antihypertensive agents such as calcium channel blockers, beta blockers, analgesics and some anti-migraine medications. Up to 15% of patients with severe Major Depressive Disorder die by suicide. Over age 55, there is a fourfold increase in death rate. History: 10-25% of patients with Major Depressive Disorder have preexisting Dysthymic Disorder. These "double depressions" (i.e., Dysthymia + Major Depressive Disorder) have a poorer prognosis. Males and females are equally affected by Major Depressive Disorder prior to puberty. After puberty, this disorder is twice as common in females as in males. The highest rates for this disorder are in the 25- to 44-year-old age group. The lifetime risk for Major Depressive Disorder is 10% to 25% for women and from 5% to 12% for men. At any point in time, 5% to 9% of women and 2% to 3% of men suffer from this disorder. Prevalence is unrelated to ethnicity, education, income, or marital status. Average age at onset is 25, but this disorder may begin at any stress: Stress appears to play a prominent role in triggering the first 1-2 episodes of this disorder, but not in subsequent An average episode lasts about 9 months. Course is variable. Some people have isolated episodes that are separated by many years, whereas others have clusters of episodes, and still others have increasingly frequent episodes as they grow older. About 20% of individuals with this disorder have a chronic The risk of recurrence is about 70% at 5 year follow up and at least 80% at 8 year follow-up. After the first episode of Major Depressive Disorder, there is a 50%-60% chance of having a second episode, and a 5-10% chance of having a Manic Episode (i.e., developing Bipolar I Disorder). After the second episode, there is a 70% chance of having a third. After the third episode, there a 90% chance of having a fourth. The greater number of previous episodes is an important risk factor For patients with severe Major Depressive Disorder, 76% on antidepressant therapy recover, whereas only 18% on placebo recover. For these severely depressed patients, significantly more recover on antidepressant therapy than on interpersonal psychotherapy. For these same patients, cognitive therapy has been shown to be no more effective than New research shows that a medication/psychotherapy combination - preferably Cognitive Behavior Therapy - seems to be most effective. Poor outcome or chronicity in Major Depressive Disorder is associated with the following: number of previous episodes recovery after one year severe mental disorder (e.g. Alcohol Dependency, Cocaine Dependency) Pattern And Genetics: There is strong evidence that major depression is, in part, a genetic disorder: who have parents or siblings with Major Depressive Disorder have a 1.5-3 times higher risk of developing for major depression in monozygotic twins is substantially higher than it is in dizygotic twins. However, the concordance in monozygotic twins is in the order of about 50%, suggesting that factors other than genetic factors are also involved. adopted away at birth from biological parents who have a depressive illness carry the same high risk as a child not adopted away, even if they are raised in a family where no depressive illness families having Major Depressive Disorder have an increased risk of developing Alcoholism Some disorders display similar or sometimes even the same symptoms. The clinician, therefore, in his diagnostic attempt has to differentiate against the following disorders which he needs to rule out to establish a precise diagnosis. due to physical illness, medications, or street drug use: to physical illness, diagnose: Mood Disorder Due to a General Medical Condition. to alcohol, diagnose: Alcohol-Induced to other substance use, diagnose: Other Substance-Induced Mood Disorder. Causes Of Severe Depression: Organic Mood Syndromes caused by: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), Adrenal (Cushing's or Addison's Diseases), Cancer (especially pancreatic and other GI), Cardiopulmonary disease, Dementias (including Alzheimer's Disease); Epilepsy, Fahr's Syndrome, Huntington's Disease, Hydrocephalus, Hyperaldosteronism, Infections (including HIV and neurosyphilis), Migraines, Mononucleosis, Multiple Sclerosis, Narcolepsy, Neoplasms, Parathyroid Disorders (hyper- and hypo-), Parkinson's Disease, Pneumonia (viral and bacterial), Porphyria, Postpartum, Premenstrual Syndrome, Progressive Supranuclear Palsy, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Sjogren's Arteritis, Sleep Apnea, Stroke, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Temporal Arteritis, Trauma, Thyroid Disorders (hypothyroid and "apathetic" hyperthyroidism), Tuberculosis, Uremia (and other renal diseases), Vitamin Deficiencies (B12, C, folate, niacin, thiamine), Wilson's Disease. Acetazolamine, Alphamethyldopa, Amantadine, Amphetamines, Ampicillin, Azathioprine (AZT), 6-Azauridine, Baclofen, Beta Blockers, Bethanidine, Bleomycin, Bromocriptine, C-Asparaginase, Carbamazepine, Choline, Cimetidine, Clonidine, Clycloserin, Cocaine, Corticosteroids (including ACTH), Cyproheptadine, Danazol, Digitalis, Diphenoxylate, Disulfiram, Ethionamide, Fenfluramine, Griseofulvin, Guanethidine, Hydralazine, Ibuprofen, Indomethacin, Lidocaine, Levodopa, Methoserpidine, Methysergide, Metronidazole, Nalidixic Acid, Neuroleptics (butyrophenones, phenothiazines, oxyindoles), Nitrofurantoin, Opiates, Oral Contraceptives, Phenacetin, Phenytoin, Prazosin, Prednisone, Procainamide, Procyclidine, Quanabenzacetate, Rescinnamine, Reserpine, Sedative/Hypnotics (barbiturates, benzodiazepines, chloral hydrate), Streptomycin, Sulfamethoxazole, Sulfonamides, Tetrabenazine, Tetracycline, Triamcinolone, Trimethoprim, Veratrum, having a previous history of elevated, expansive, or euphoric history of a Manic Episode, diagnose: Bipolar history of recurrent Major Depressive Episodes and at least one Hypomanic Episode, diagnose: Bipolar history of recurrent Hypomanic Episodes and brief, mild depressive episodes (milder than Major Depressive Episodes), diagnose: Cyclothymic Disorder - Exclude depressions that merely represent normal bereavement, instead diagnose: Uncomplicated associated with mood-incongruent psychosis: history of at least 2 weeks of delusions or hallucinations occurring in the absence of prominent mood symptoms, diagnose either: Disorder, Delusional Disorder, or Psychotic Disorder Not mild depression present for most of past 2 years (or 1 year in children), diagnose: Dysthymic brief mild depression clearly triggered by stress, diagnose: Adjustment Disorder with Depressed Mood, or Adjustment Disorder with Mixed Anxiety and Depressed Mood. depression is clinically significant, but does not meet the criteria for any of the previously described disorders, diagnose: Disorder Not Otherwise Specified. In the elderly, it is often difficult to distinguish between early dementia or Major Depressive Disorder: is a premorbid history of declining cognitive function in the absence of severe depression, diagnose: Dementia. was a relatively normal premorbid state and somewhat abrupt cognitive decline associated with severe depression, diagnose: Major Depressive Disorder. the body's chemistry influence mood and thought processes, and biological factors contribute to some cases of depression. In addition, chronic and serious illness such as heart disease or cancer may be accompanied by depression. With many individuals, however, depression signals first and foremost that certain mental and emotional aspects of a person's life are out of balance. transitions and major life stressors such as the death of a loved one or the loss of a job can help bring about depression. Other more subtle factors that lead to a loss of identity or self-esteem may also contribute. The causes of depression are not always immediately apparent, so the disorder requires careful evaluation and diagnosis by a trained mental health care professional. the circumstances involved in depression are ones over which an individual has little or no control. At other times, however, depression occurs when people are unable to see that they actually have choices and can bring about change in their lives. illnesses are highly responsive to treatment. In fact, 80 percent of people with depression report feeling better within a few weeks of starting treatment. There is still some stigma, or reluctance, associated with seeking help for emotional and mental problems, including depression. Unfortunately, feelings of depression often are viewed as a sign of weakness rather than as a signal that something is out of balance. The fact is that people with depression can not simply 'snap out of it' and feel and medication may be needed to treat depression. Although medication may help to control it, individuals must learn to recognize their own patterns of depression and develop more effective ways to cope with them. Treatment success depends on factors such as the type of depression, its severity, how long it has been going on, and how an individual responds to treatment. Left untreated, depression can become chronic and even worsen. and Psychotherapy [ See Therapy Section ]: several approaches to psychotherapy -- including cognitive-behavioral, interpersonal, psychodynamic and other kinds of 'talk therapy' -- that help depressed individuals recover. Psychotherapy offers people the opportunity to identify the factors that contribute to their depression and to deal effectively with the psychological, behavioral, interpersonal and situational causes. Pharmacotherapy [ See Psychopharmacology Section ] : Most antidepressants believed to be equally effective in equivalent therapeutic doses. Expect a 2- to 6- week latent period before the full effect is seen at therapeutic doses. To prevent relapse, continue medication for at least 4 to 9 months after patient becomes Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs):

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Drugs kill more than guns, cars and AIDS Dr. William Fannin has practiced medicine in Prestonsburg, Kentucky for 31 years. He has witnessed firsthand as the opioid crisis took a firm grip on the region in the late 1990s. Fannin lost his own son, Sean Fannin, at the age of 27. Alton Strupp/Louisville Courier Journal Dr. Bill Fannin found his son unconscious in his bedroom. Medical training and a father’s love told him what to do. Give him breath. Start his heart. The Pikeville, Kentucky, physician cupped his son’s face and tried to resuscitate him on this October evening in 2011. He pushed down on his son’s chest. Sean Fannin laid there, still unmoving. “It was,” Fannin recalled, his voice fading as he spoke, “too late.” He soon learned Sean had overdosed on a drug derived from the opium poppy. It was a drug the doctor knew all too well, one he had prescribed to many patients to ease their pain. 'God's own medicine' In Greek myth, when the goddess Aphrodite wept at the death of her lover, Adonis, her tears gave birth to a new plant. The colorful poppy contained a milky substance that promised to wash away sorrows. The Greeks worshipped the opium poppy, and so did the Egyptians. Doctors, including Hippocrates, the “Father of Medicine,” discovered that opium seemed effective in fighting certain diseases. But dangers followed. The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder recorded fatal opium overdoses, and the Greek physician Erasistratus condemned the drug as a deadly poison. Still, opium spread around the world. Hoping to turn opium into a better medicine, German scientist Friedrich Serturner extracted a substance from the poppy in the early 1800s. He named the new drug “morphine” after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams, dubbing it “God’s own medicine.” Hospitals welcomed the painkiller and so did the battlefield, but by the end of the Civil War, so many soldiers were suffering from addiction that it became known as the “Army Disease.” In response to that problem, Heinrich Dreser and others working for Bayer in Germany tried to develop a drug that would keep the medicine’s positive properties while removing its deadly and addictive nature. Dreser tried the new drug out on animals. Then he tried it on himself and others, who reported the substance made them feel better. Even heroic. He found that the new drug worked better than another opium-derived drug, codeine, on respiratory diseases. After trying the drug out on a number of people, he promised doctors it wasn’t addictive. “It possesses many advantages over morphine,” he wrote in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. “There’s no danger of acquiring a habit.” In 1898, Bayer began selling this supposed wonder drug, marketing it as a cough suppressant. Doctors also used the drug to treat pneumonia, tuberculosis, menstrual pain and even morphine addiction. The new drug’s name? Heroin. Within a year, Bayer was producing a ton of heroin, marketing it as a cough syrup for children and a medicine to fight pneumonia and bronchitis. “With Bayer’s Heroin Syrup one manages to have a restful sleep,” promised one advertisement featuring children. In reality, heroin turned out to be even more potent, addictive and deadly than morphine. Some addicts crushed heroin pills and snorted the substance. Others injected the drug directly into their veins for a quicker high. Hundreds of thousands of Americans became addicted to these opium-derived drugs, said David T. Courtwright, author of “Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America.” The average addict was a middle- or upper-class white woman suffering from chronic pain, often introduced to the drug by her physician, he said. In response to the epidemic, Congress gave the responsibility for protecting the nation’s food and medicine to a scientific bureau stuck in a basement of the Department of Agriculture building. The bureau became known as the Food and Drug Administration. In 1914, Congress backed the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act, which regulated and taxed products derived from the opium plant and the coca leaves (used to produce cocaine). Patients now needed prescriptions from doctors to obtain powerful narcotics. In the decades that followed, federal officials continued their crackdowns. They prohibited heroin from medical use and limited other opium-derived painkillers to patients recovering from surgery or other injuries or suffering from cancer or other terminal diseases. Categories of pain Growing up in Prestonsburg, Kentucky, Fannin spent lots of time in the woods and figured he would be a game biologist. His father wanted him to practice medicine, but becoming a doctor seemed impossible. After spending time in martial arts, he realized that by setting goals and working hard, he could achieve anything. Looking back, he recalled, “God had plans for me, it seems.” A cousin who was a physician offered Fannin a job and soon became a role model. Fannin attended the University of Kentucky’s medical school and trained under a pain specialist. He learned that pain fell into three categories: acute, cancer-related and chronic. Doctors typically treated patients who suffered acute pain (for instance, after surgery or an accident) with a short-term prescription of opioids mixed with less powerful painkillers, such as aspirin or acetaminophen (coming under brand names such as Percodan, Vicodin, Percocet and Lortab). Doctors typically treated patients suffering from cancer-related pain with opioids such as morphine. For patients with serious or terminal diseases, addiction was much less a concern. Doctors hesitated to prescribe these powerful opioids to patients suffering from chronic pain (pain that lasts more than three months, such as lower back pain) because doctors feared these patients might become addicted after taking these opioids for so long. Fannin understood some pain patients responded to physical therapy. Some could reduce their pain through biofeedback as patients began to learn from their bodies. Some could get help from chiropractors. Pain, he realized, didn’t always need pills. ‘New class of addicts’ German scientists took another swing at the morphine molecule, and they came up with oxycodone. The opioid seemed to have fewer side effects, but it was no less addictive. In 1950, the FDA approved Percodan, which combined oxycodone with aspirin. Nearly a quarter-century later, Percocet — a combination of oxycodone and acetaminophen — followed. Those opioids began to be abused. By 1962, doctors had prescribed nearly 36 million Percodan in California, with the chief narcotics enforcement official complaining that people were “eating Percodan as though it were popcorn,” and the state’s attorney general concluding that the drug was creating a “new class of addicts composed of otherwise honest, not criminally inclined persons.” Addicts eventually included singer Elvis Presley, who died of a drug overdose in 1977, and comedian Jerry Lewis, who received the opioid after a spinal injury and became addicted for 13 years. In the 1980s, some doctors, including pain specialist Dr. Russell Portenoy, called attention to millions of Americans suffering from “untreated pain,” saying opioids offered the solution. He became the first president of the American Pain Society, which drugmakers helped fund. The society campaigned for health care providers to make pain the “fifth vital sign,” joining blood pressure, temperature, heartbeat and breathing. “We had to destigmatize these (opioids),” Portenoy told The Wall Street Journal. “We had to bring them out of the cold into the mainstream medical practice. We had to have doctors think in terms of risk and benefit instead of thinking of these consequences that are so scary — like addiction and death.” In 1989, the Texas Medical Board adopted language to support wider use of painkillers by doctors. Other states followed. The Federation of State Medical Boards, which received up to $2 million from drugmakers, recommended doctors not face punishment for prescribing large amounts of opioids and called on those boards to punish doctors who “undertreated” pain. By the 1990s, juries awarded more than $16 million to patients and families whose loved ones suffered from pain, concluding that the nursing homes, nurses and doctors that failed to give opioids were guilty of negligence. Addiction specialist Dr. Drew Pinsky said this development made doctors wary about failing to prescribe opioids to any patient who complained of pain. From that point forward, he said he began to refer pain patients to pain clinics. ‘The fifth vital sign’ By the mid-1990s, Fannin, who served in the Army in Vietnam, was working part time at a Veterans Affairs clinic in Prestonsburg, treating war veterans. That was where he first heard doctors call pain “the fifth vital sign.” It seemed odd to equate pain with something like breathing, but he understood the need to “dignify” and take care of pain. He noticed that doctors seemed too willing to prescribe these opioid pills for chronic pain, patients seemed too willing to take them, and insurers seemed too willing to pay. “Pain as the fifth vital sign” became policy at the VA clinic where he worked as well as VA hospitals across the U.S. The Joint Commission began requiring hospitals to assess all patients for pain on a scale of 1 to 10, which some claimed caused more doctors to prescribe opioids. Purdue gave the commission a grant to produce a pain assessment and management manual. Officials from the commission and Purdue denied the company had anything to do with the content of the manual, co-written by Dr. June Dahl, who served on the speakers bureau for Purdue. The manual told health care facilities the side effects of opioids had been exaggerated and that physical dependence had been wrongly confused with addiction. “There is no evidence that addiction is a significant issue when persons are given opioids for pain control,” the manual said. Purdue officials explained that studies on opioid addiction depended on many factors, including mental health. They cited a 2008 article by Dr. David Fishbain of the University of Miami, who analyzed 79 published studies, saying he concluded the prevalence of abuse or addiction was 3.27 percent, or 0.19 percent for those with no past addiction. Fishbain responded that his study was misinterpreted and that addiction could be anywhere between 3.27 and 20.4 percent. Commission officials denied its new standards encouraged doctors to prescribe more opioids, blaming drug trafficking as well as diversion and abuse by individuals. At that time, the “evidence was broadly supported by experts across the spectrum that pain was undertreated and a serious problem leading to poor clinical outcomes,” the commission said. The commission concluded that “millions of people in the United States suffer from pain, and failure to treat their pain is inhumane.” The painkiller market Since 1987, Purdue Pharma had been selling a timed-release drug named MS Contin, the company’s version of morphine. Seven years later, annual sales topped $88 million — the best performing painkiller Purdue officials had — but they faced problems. Doctors knew how addictive morphine could be, and most were reluctant to prescribe MS Contin to patients suffering from chronic pain. The even bigger problem? MS Contin’s patent would expire soon. That meant generic drug manufacturers could make their own versions of MS Contin and eat into Purdue’s share of the painkiller market. A generation earlier, Arthur Sackler, the brother of Purdue’s owners, had marketed Valium and other tranquilizers to women experiencing anxiety, tension or countless other symptoms. The drug broke all sales records, turning many women into addicts and Sackler into a multimillionaire. The Sackler family planned to repeat that success with a timed-release version of OxyContin, the company’s version of oxycodone. In internal Purdue documents obtained by the USA TODAY NETWORK, company officials gushed that OxyContin could become a hit in “the $462 million Class II opioid marketplace.” These documents detail their strategy: They would first market OxyContin strictly for cancer pain, where doctors were familiar with oxycodone. Then the company would pivot to the lucrative market of chronic pain, which afflicted at least 25 million Americans. Purdue’s plan included targeting primary care physicians, surgeons, obstetricians and dentists. The company even targeted home care and hospice care nurses who would “rate the patients’ pain and make a recommendation on the type of opioid and dosage for pain control.” The plan also included targeting patients and caregivers through Purdue’s “Partners Against Pain” program. “You are the pain authority,” the website reassured patients. “You are the expert on your own pain.” The website declared that “there are 75 million Americans living with pain, although pain management experts say they don’t have to,” reassuring patients that doctors could control their pain “through the relatively simple means of pain medications” and that the risk of addiction to opioids “very rarely occurs when under medical supervision to relieve pain.” To ensure that OxyContin became a hit, Purdue sponsored more than 20,000 educational programs to encourage health care providers to prescribe the new drug and sent videos to 15,000 doctors. The company also hosted dozens of all-expenses-paid national pain management conferences, where more than 5,000 physicians, pharmacists and nurses were trained for the company’s national speakers bureau. By 2001, Purdue was spending $200 million on marketing and promotion and had doubled its sales force to 671. Before the year ended, sales bonuses reached $40 million. Addiction knowledge: ‘zip’ Fannin remembers sales reps from Purdue flooding doctors’ offices in Appalachia, where poverty and pain are constant realities. The reps gave away fishing hats, stuffed toys and music CDs titled “Get in the Swing with OxyContin.” “Every time you turned around, you saw their faces,” Fannin said. “We had a population of doctors with very little grounding in pain, and I think Purdue took advantage of that.” Many doctors knew about oxycodone from Percocet, which combined a small dosage of the potent opioid with 325 mg of acetaminophen. What many of those doctors didn’t realize was that oxycodone was nearly twice as powerful as morphine, delivering a powerful high to those who use the drug. “It’s more like heroin,” explained Dr. Andrew Kolodny, co-director of the Opioid Policy Research Collaborative at Brandeis University. “It crosses the blood-brain barrier more quickly.” But the sales reps never mentioned that. Instead, they said OxyContin didn’t create highs like other opioids and was less likely to get people addicted. Fannin recalled sales reps calling OxyContin “a revolution in pain care” and “much more effective” than the old drugs. They also talked of studies, citing one that found only four of 11,882 patients — less than 1 percent — became addicted after using opioids. Portenoy and others repeatedly cited this research, with some calling it a “landmark study.” The truth is it wasn’t even a study. It was a five-sentence letter to the editor that a doctor wrote the New England Journal of Medicine. For the most part, Fannin believed what the sales reps were telling him, and so did other doctors in the region. “Our knowledge about addiction,” he said, “was about zip.” So they spread the opioid with their prescription pads, and it settled into the Appalachian mountains like the ever-present morning fog. OxyContin, which some hailed as a “miracle drug,” became the blockbuster in 2001 that Purdue officials dreamed of, with more than 7 million in prescriptions and nearly $3 billion in revenue. By 2015, the Sackler family, who owned Purdue, had made $14 billion, joining Forbes’ 2015 list of America’s richest families, edging out the Rockefellers. ‘It was a setup’ Believing he was easing pain, Fannin turned increasingly to OxyContin. He typically prescribed it for people suffering for more than a year from chronic, non-cancer pain. He considered it “a good tool” for patients with serious back injuries, estimating that 150 or more of his patients took OxyContin back then. “Some doctors were more conservative” about prescribing the pills, he said. “Some prescribed them more freely.” Fannin believes doctors bore part of the blame for overprescribing OxyContin, but he believes Purdue bore blame, too. “From the get-go, it was a setup,” he said. “This drug got turned loose in eastern Kentucky.” A nation addicted The trickle of OxyContin turned into a flood across the U.S. In five years, the drug’s prescriptions for chronic, non-cancer pain shot up almost tenfold from about 670,000 in 1997 to 6.2 million in 2002. At a conference sponsored by Purdue, Dr. Jeffrey Summers, a pain specialist in Flowood, Mississippi, recalled a law enforcement officer insisting that OxyContin couldn’t be abused, and that was why it had almost no street value. When the doctor asked one of Purdue’s experts about this, he said the expert replied that OxyContin couldn’t be abused by crushing or chewing because “the oxycodone would be released all at once.” Summers said that instant release “became the primary reason OxyContin was abused,” producing a heroin-like high for abusers. Admitted abusers of OxyContin jumped from 400,000 in 1999 to nearly 3 million in 2003. By 2009, abuse of prescription painkillers had played a role in the nation’s record 1.2 million emergency room visits. Former Mississippi Attorney General Mike Moore, who led the litigation against tobacco companies and is now involved in the litigation against opioids makers, said a Purdue salesman told him that each morning he would look at reports detailing doctors in his territory who had prescribed OxyContin or other opioids. Moore said the salesman told these doctors that OxyContin was less addictive, that it lasted 12 hours and that it was OK to increase the dosage to 40 mg to ensure that pain was controlled. “Sales skyrocketed,” Moore said, “and a nation became addicted.” It didn’t take long for Fannin to realize something was wrong. Instead of reporting less pain over time and needing less OxyContin, patients complained of worse pain and asked for more pills as their bodies grew more tolerant to the drug. They were getting hooked. Scientific studies countered Purdue’s claim of a “less than 1 percent” addiction rate, showing that as many as 1 in 4 who took prescription opioids long term for non-cancer pain struggled with addiction. In the years that followed, more than 2 million Americans began to abuse prescription opioids or become dependent on them, including some of Fannin’s patients. “I would’ve put a lot fewer people on that medicine if I knew then what I know now,” Fannin said. “I created problems and I didn’t know it. I created problems for people because of my ignorance.” Many other area doctors did the same. And a small percentage actually pushed the drug for profit, opening so-called “pill mills” where people could get OxyContin for cash just by asking, even with no medical need. Though these physicians were “looked down upon,” Fannin said, “we didn’t police our own ranks.” Gradually, pills spilled onto the streets. Addicts sold them to fuel their habits. Poor patients in real pain sold some to stay afloat. Children and teens raided medicine cabinets and sold them at school. ‘Unleashed … dangerous drug’ Soon America was awash in OxyContin, and other opioids followed. Those prescriptions had consequences. By 2001, the number of deaths related to oxycodone had risen fivefold. In 2007, Purdue’s holding company pleaded guilty to “misbranding” OxyContin, admitting that sales reps “with intent to defraud or mislead” had promoted the drug as less addictive and less likely to be abused than other opioid painkillers. “With its OxyContin, Purdue unleashed a highly abusable, addictive and potentially dangerous drug on an unsuspecting and unknowing public,” U.S. Attorney John Brownlee of Virginia announced. Purdue, a privately held company in Stamford, Connecticut, paid a $600 million fine, and three executives pleaded guilty to misbranding, paying nearly $35 million in fines. Despite their pleas, Purdue insisted the executives had not been guilty of misleading anybody. “To the contrary,” the company’s statement said, “they took steps to prevent any misstatements in the marketing or promotion of OxyContin.” At the sentencings, the judge gave the executives probation and community service. Some present praised OxyContin for killing their pain. Others said the drug had killed their teenage children. One mother held up a jar that contained the ashes of her late son. Treatment, sobriety, relapse By then pills were everywhere — and easy for Fannin’s son to find. Sean Fannin, the younger of two boys, was a smart kid who preferred skilled trades to medicine, telling his dad he wanted to be a welder. He would grow up to work in the coal mines for a time, like his grandfather. As he came of age, Fannin later learned, Sean was smoking pot, drinking and eventually abusing pills. Fannin and his wife thought he had attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or a mood problem until a University of Kentucky doctor diagnosed his addiction. A psychotherapist advised residential care. “It made me angry that I missed it,” Fannin said, “especially being a doctor.” On the long drive to a teen recovery center in the Tennessee woods, Sean confessed his drug use to his parents. He was around 14 at the time, and this stint in recovery was the first of many. The family filled the next several years with periods of treatment, sobriety and relapses. The ordeal gave Fannin a new perspective on addiction. For much of his life he hadn’t believed it was a disease. But watching his son suffer made him realize he needed to fight it like any other malady. And not just on a personal level. While supporting Sean’s recovery, Fannin began helping others trapped by addiction — first by covering shifts for another doctor doing recovery work at a Pikeville hospital. Eventually, he became one of the few board-certified addiction specialists in eastern Kentucky. In his family practice, meanwhile, Fannin prescribed far less OxyContin and required any patients on opioids to undergo urine screens and pill counts. He also checked their prescription history through the state’s electronic prescription drug monitoring system. He was determined not to fuel any more addiction in his community, but he was unable to pry his son from addiction’s grip. ‘Healers become dealers’ Opioids kill first by slowing down breathing, then by depriving the brain and body of oxygen, the very stuff of life. By 2009, drug overdose deaths had become the leading cause of accidental deaths in the U.S., surpassing traffic fatalities. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention declared that the nation faced an opioid epidemic. Overprescribing has fueled much of this epidemic, said Dr. Anna Lembke, an associate professor of psychiatry, behavioral sciences and anesthesiology at the Stanford University School of Medicine. “So how did healers become dealers?” she asked. It happened as medicine became an industry, she said, with doctors practicing “assembly-line medicine” in “health care factories.” Factories do well with things like knee replacements, but the system breaks down when it comes to addiction, said the psychiatrist, who runs Stanford’s Addiction Medicine Dual Diagnosis Clinic. “I can make more money spending five minutes with a patient and prescribing a pill than I can spending an hour with the patient in psychotherapy.” Two centuries ago, pain was considered beneficial, boosting the immune system, she said. “Now we consider pain dangerous — something that if left untreated will leave people with psychic scars.” The new thinking is that a patient in pain is an aggrieved party that doctors are supposed to fix, she said. “And if they don’t, they are not only lacking in knowledge and compassion, they are amoral.” She said physicians are taught to “first, do no harm,” and automatically prescribing opioids over the long term not only exposes these pain patients to the risk of addiction, but she said the drugs may also exacerbate their pain and slow their healing. With millions of Americans abusing prescription opioids, Mexican cartels found a new market for their cheap heroin. In 2001, fewer than 1,800 Americans died of a heroin overdose. By 2016, those deaths had topped 15,000. And that heroin has often been laced with synthetic opioids such as fentanyl, which is 50 times more powerful than morphine, and carfentanyl, which is 10,000 times more powerful than morphine. Fentanyl is used to treat breakthrough cancer pain. Carfentanyl is an elephant tranquilizer, and just a few grains can kill humans. In 2016, overdoses from these synthetic opioids surpassed 20,000 deaths. Lembke said the U.S. faces a “modern plague” with addiction, which affects more than 40 million Americans if tobacco and alcohol are included. Addiction costs the nation $442 billion in a single year, according to the surgeon general. “Karl Marx said religion is the opium of the masses,” she said. “We are at a point in history where opium has become the religion of the masses.” ‘It honors him’ Sean Fannin’s Pikeville funeral was standing room only. Fannin finds it tough to talk about the loss of his child, about the overdose of OxyContin and the anti-anxiety medicine Xanax that killed him at just 28. But he’ll share his experiences with addicted patients and their families. “Still to this day, he’ll use Sean’s story to get through to somebody,” said his longtime office manager, Amy Hunt. “And he’ll cry at the drop of a hat when he talks about it.” The pain of his death continues to haunt Fannin and his wife, an artist and quilter. But they also treasure their son’s living legacy — a 6-year-old daughter, born shortly before his death. Fannin, who turns 70 in February, recently retired from family practice to devote more time to hospice work and addiction treatment. At East Kentucky Rehabilitation Center in downtown Prestonsburg, he treats patients recovering with the help of medication such as Suboxone and Vivitrol. Before he sees them, he prays with Hunt. Not only have they worked together for years, but Fannin treated her late husband’s opioid addiction, which began after he took painkillers following a mine accident. On a recent afternoon, patients gathered in a downstairs waiting room with family members. One sidled over to another to ask what he had been doing lately. A preschool girl played near an older relative, and Hunt stopped over, bent down and cheerfully remarked on how she had gotten bigger. There are no strangers here. Fannin has been known to spend at least 45 minutes with each patient, even if that means staying late. Sometimes, Fannin gets a glimpse of the difference he’s making. At a local Walmart last year, a former patient walked up to Fannin with her baby, asking if he remembered her. He did. She pointed to her husband, another former patient, who was checking out fishing poles nearby. She told the doctor they were both staying clean and doing great. She’d been pregnant when he treated her, and now had two healthy kids. Tears flowed as she spoke to the doctor. “I just wanted to thank you.” Fannin knew that couple was among the lucky ones. Studies show that only 1 in 10 Americans are able to get treatment for addiction. David Gearheart, the certified alcohol and drug counselor who owns the recovery center, said, “It’s getting to the point where we could be open seven days a week, 24 hours a day. People drive two to three hours to come here. There’s just not enough treatment out there.” Fannin knows his job is far from over. The Vietnam veteran has lived long enough to see the drug scourge claim more lives in a single year than the entire Vietnam War. He stared out the window over downtown Prestonsburg, aching, as he always does, for his own loss. But the memory of Sean infuses his work. “The way I figure,” Fannin said, “it honors him.” The doctor finished off the last of his sandwich and made his way downstairs to see another patient. He wasn’t done. He would never be done, as long as there was someone else he might save.

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To use all functions of this page, please activate cookies in your browser. With an accout for my.bionity.com you can always see everything at a glance – and you can configure your own website and individual newsletter. - My watch list - My saved searches - My saved topics - My newsletter Acne Vulgaris (commonly called Acne) is an inflammatory disease of the skin, caused by changes in the pilosebaceous units (skin structures consisting of a hair follicle and its associated sebaceous gland). Acne lesions are commonly referred to as pimples, spots, or zits. Acne is most common during adolescence, affecting more than 85% of teenagers, and frequently continues into adulthood. For most people, acne diminishes over time and tends to disappear, or at least decrease, after one reaches his or her early twenties. There is, however, no way to predict how long it will take for it to disappear entirely, and some individuals will continue to suffer from acne decades later, into their thirties and forties and even beyond. The term acne comes from a corruption of the Greek άκμή (acme in the sense of a skin eruption) in the writings of Aëtius Amidenus. The vernacular term bacne or backne is often used to indicate acne found specifically on one's back. Additional recommended knowledge The most common form of acne is known as "acne vulgaris", meaning "common acne." Many teenagers get this type of acne. The face and upper neck are the most commonly affected, but the chest, back and shoulders may have acne as well. The upper arms can also have acne, but lesions found there are often keratosis pilaris, not acne. The typical acne lesions are comedones and inflammatory papules, pustules, and nodules. Some of the large nodules were previously called "cysts" and the term nodulocystic has been used to describe severe cases of inflammatory acne. Aside from scarring, its main effects are psychological, such as reduced self-esteem and, according to at least one study, depression or suicide. Acne usually appears during adolescence, when people already tend to be most socially insecure. Early and aggressive treatment is therefore advocated by some to lessen the overall impact to individuals. Causes of acne Acne develops as a result of blockages in follicles. Hyperkeratinization and formation of a plug of keratin and sebum (a microcomedo) is the earliest change. Enlargement of sebaceous glands and an increase in sebum production occur with increased androgen (DHEA-S) production at adrenarche. The microcomedo may enlarge to form an open comedo (blackhead) or closed comedo (whitehead). In these conditions the naturally occurring largely commensual bacteria Propionibacterium acnes can cause inflammation, leading to inflammatory lesions (papules, infected pustules, or nodules) in the dermis around the microcomedo or comedo, which results in redness and and may result in scarring or hyperpigmentation. There are many misconceptions and myths about acne. Exactly why some people get acne and some do not is not fully known. It is known to be partly hereditary. Several factors are known to be linked to acne: Several hormones have been linked to acne: the androgens testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), as well as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-I). In addition, acne-prone skin has been shown to be insulin resistant. Development of acne vulgaris in later years is uncommon, although this is the age group for Rosacea which may have similar appearances. True acne vulgaris in adults may be a feature of an underlying condition such as pregnancy and disorders such as polycystic ovary syndrome or the rare Cushing's syndrome. Menopause-associated acne occurs as production of the natural anti-acne ovarian hormone estradiol fails at menopause. The lack of estradiol also causes thinning hair, hot flashes, thin skin, wrinkles, vaginal dryness, and predisposes to osteopenia and osteoporosis as well as triggering acne (known as acne climacterica in this situation). A recent study, based on a survey of 47,335 women, did find a positive epidemiological association between acne and consumption of partially skimmed milk, instant breakfast drink, sherbet, cottage cheese, and cream cheese. The researchers hypothesize that the association may be caused by hormones (such as several sex hormones and bovine IGF-I) present in cow milk. Though there is evidence of an association between milk and acne, the exact cause is unclear. Most dermatologists are awaiting confirmatory research linking diet and acne but some support the idea that acne sufferers should experiment with their diets, and refrain from consuming such fare if they find such food affects the severity of their acne. Seafood often contains relatively high levels of iodine. Iodine is known to make existing acne worse but there is probably not enough to cause an acne outbreak. Still, people who are prone to acne may want to avoid excessive consumption of foods high in iodine. High carbohydrates/High GI It has also been suggested that there is a link between a diet high in refined sugars and other processed foods and acne. The theory is that rapidly digested carbohydrate food such as white bread and refined sugars produces an overload in metabolic glucose that is rapidly converted into the types of fat that can build up in sebaceous glands. According to this hypothesis, the startling absence of acne in non-westernized societies could be explained by the low glycemic index of these cultures' diets. Others have cited possible genetic reasons for there being no acne in these populations, but similar populations shifting to these diets do develop acne. Note also that the populations studied consumed no milk or other dairy products. Further research is necessary to establish whether a reduced consumption of high-glycemic foods (such as soft drinks, sweets, white bread) can significantly alleviate acne, though consumption of high-glycemic foods should in any case be kept to a minimum, for general health reasons. Avoidance of 'junk food' with its high fat and sugar content is also recommended. On the other hand there is no evidence that fat alone makes skin oilier or acne worse. One study[specify] suggested that chocolate, french fries, potato chips and sugar, among others, affect acne. Its results suggested that a high GI (glycemic index) diet that causes sharp rises in blood sugar worsens acne. If this study's conclusions are verified then a low GI diet may help acne also, but a 2005 review of somewhat dated scientific literature cannot affirm either way. A study in November 2006 in Australia gave a 50% reduction in 12 weeks in mild-moderate facial acne by introducing its subjects to a high protein, low GI diet. The American Medical Association says chocolate does not contribute to acne. A recent study shows that a diet high enough in sugars triggers the liver to convert these sugars into lipid; as a side-effect this stops production of Sex hormone binding globulin- a chemical which reduces the level of testosterone in the blood. Since high testosterone levels generally trigger acne, the researchers believe that this can be a cause. Vitamins A and E Studies have shown that newly diagnosed acne patients tend to have lower levels of vitamin A circulating in their bloodstream than those that are acne free. In addition people with severe acne also tend to have lower blood levels of vitamin E. Acne is not caused by dirt. This misconception probably comes from the fact that blackheads look like dirt stuck in the openings of pores. The black color is not dirt but simply oxidised keratin. In fact, the blockages of keratin that cause acne occur deep within the narrow follicle channel, where it is impossible to wash them away. These plugs are formed by the failure of the cells lining the duct to separate and flow to the surface in the sebum created there by the body. There are many products sold for the treatment of acne, many of them without any scientifically-proven effects. Generally speaking successful treatments give little improvement within the first week or two; and then the acne decreases over approximately 3 months, after which the improvement starts to flatten out. Many treatments that promise big improvements within 2 weeks are likely to be largely disappointing. However short bursts of cortisone can give very quick results, and other treatments can rapidly improve some active spots, but not usually all active spots. Modes of improvement are not necessarily fully understood but in general treatments are believed to work in at least 4 different ways (with many of the best treatments providing multiple simultaneous effects: A combination of treatments can greatly reduce the amount and severity of acne in many cases. Those treatments that are most effective tend to have greater potential for side effects and need a greater degree of monitoring, so a step-wise approach is often taken. Many people consult with doctors when deciding which treatments to use, especially when considering using any treatments in combination. There are a number of treatments that have been proven effective: Local heating may be used to kill the bacteria in a developing pimple and so speed healing. Widely available OTC bactericidal products containing benzoyl peroxide may be used in mild to moderate acne. The gel or cream containing benzoyl peroxide is rubbed, twice daily, into the pores over the affected region. Bar soaps or washes may also be used and vary from 2 to 10% in strength. In addition to its therapeutic effect as a keratolytic (a chemical that dissolves the keratin plugging the pores) benzoyl peroxide also prevents new lesions by killing P.acnes. Benzoyl peroxide often gives clearance rates of 60-70% after 6 weeks, improvements often continue with longer use.Unlike antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide has the advantage of being a strong oxidizer (essentially a mild bleach) and thus does not appear to generate bacterial resistance. However, it routinely causes dryness, local irritation and redness. A sensible regimen may include the daily use of low-concentration (2.5%) benzoyl peroxide preparations, combined with suitable non-comedogenic moisturisers to help avoid overdrying the skin. Care must be taken when using benzoyl peroxide, as it can very easily bleach any fabric or hair it comes in contact with. Other antibacterials that have been used include triclosan, or chlorhexidine gluconate but these are often less effective. Prescription-strength benzoyl peroxide preparations do not necessarily differ with regard to the maximum concentration of the active ingredient (10%), but the drug is made available dissolved in a vehicle that more deeply penetrates the pores of the skin. Externally applied antibiotics such as erythromycin, clindamycin, Stiemycin or tetracycline aim to kill the bacteria that are harbored in the blocked follicles. Whilst topical use of antibiotics is equally as effective as oral, this method avoids possible side effects of stomach upset or drug interactions (e.g. it will not affect the oral contraceptive pill), but may prove awkward to apply over larger areas than just the face alone. Oral antibiotics used to treat acne include erythromycin or one of the tetracycline antibiotics (tetracycline, the better absorbed oxytetracycline, or one of the once daily doxycycline, minocycline or lymecycline). Trimethoprim is also sometimes used (off-label use in UK). However, reducing the P. acnes bacteria will not, in itself, do anything to reduce the oil secretion and abnormal cell behaviour that is the initial cause of the blocked follicles. Additionally the antibiotics are becoming less and less useful as resistant P. acnes are becoming more common. Acne will generally reappear quite soon after the end of treatment—days later in the case of topical applications, and weeks later in the case of oral antibiotics. It has been found that sub-antimicrobial doses of antibiotics such as minocycline also improve acne. It is believed that minocycline's anti-inflammatory effect also prevents acne. These low doses do not kill bacteria and hence cannot induce resistance. Oral antibiotics such as Doxycycline have better results on the treatment of acne. and generally will work better if started with at a higher dose. In females, acne can be improved with hormonal treatments. The common combined oestrogen/progestogen methods of hormonal contraception have some effect, but the anti-testosterone, Cyproterone, in combination with an oestrogen (Diane 35) is particularly effective at reducing androgenic hormone levels. Diane-35 is not available in the USA, but a newer oral contraceptive containing the progestin drospirenone is now available with fewer side effects than Diane 35 / Dianette. Both can be used where blood tests show abnormally high levels of androgens, but are effective even when this is not the case. Along with this, treatment with low dose spironolactone can have anti-androgenetic properties, especially in patients with polycystic ovarian syndrome. If a pimple is large and/or does not seem to be affected by other treatments, a dermatologist may administer an injection of cortisone directly into it, which will usually reduce redness and inflammation almost immediately. This has the effect of flattening the pimple, thereby making it easier to cover up with makeup, and can also aid in the healing process. Side effects are minimal, but may include a temporary whitening of the skin around the injection point; and occasionally a small depression forms, which may persist, although often fills eventually. This method also carries a much smaller risk of scarring than surgical removal. A group of medications for normalizing the follicle cell lifecycle are topical retinoids such as tretinoin (brand name Retin-A), adapalene (brand name Differin) and tazarotene (brand name Tazorac). Like isotretinoin, they are related to vitamin A, but they are administered as topicals and generally have much milder side effects. They can, however, cause significant irritation of the skin. The retinoids appear to influence the cell creation and death lifecycle of cells in the follicle lining. This helps prevent the hyperkeratinization of these cells that can create a blockage. Retinol, a form of vitamin A, has similar but milder effects and is used in many over-the-counter moisturizers and other topical products. Effective topical retinoids have been in use over 30 years but are available only on prescription so are not as widely used as the other topical treatments. Topical retinoids often cause an initial flare up of acne and facial flushing (physiology). A daily oral intake of vitamin A derivative isotretinoin (marketed as Accutane, Sotret, Claravis) over a period of 4-6 months can cause long-term resolution or reduction of acne. It is believed that isotretinoin works primarily by reducing the secretion of oils from the glands, however some studies suggest that it affects other acne-related factors as well. Isotretinoin has been shown to be very effective in treating severe acne and can either improve or clear well over 80% of patients. The drug has a much longer effect than anti-bacterial treatments and will often cure acne for good. The treatment requires close medical supervision by a dermatologist because the drug has many known side effects (many of which can be severe). About 25% of patients may relapse after one treatment. In those cases, a second treatment for another 4-6 months may be indicated to obtain desired results. It is often recommended that one lets a few months pass between the two treatments, because the condition can actually improve somewhat in the time after stopping the treatment and waiting a few months also gives the body a chance to recover. Occasionally a third or even a fourth course is used, but the benefits are often less substantial. The most common side effects are dry skin and occasional nosebleeds (secondary to dry nasal mucosa). Oral retinoids also often cause an initial flare up of acne within a month or so, which can be severe. There are reports that the drug has damaged the liver of patients. For this reason, it is recommended that patients have blood samples taken and examined before and during treatment. In some cases, treatment is terminated or reduced due to elevated liver enzymes in the blood, which might be related to liver damage. Others claim that the reports of permanent damage to the liver are unsubstantiated, and routine testing is considered unnecessary by some dermatologists. Blood triglycerides also need to be monitored. However, routine testing are part of the official guidelines for the use of the drug in many countries. Some press reports suggest that isotretinoin may cause depression but as of September 2005 there is no agreement in the medical literature as to the risk. The drug also causes birth defects if women become pregnant while taking it or take it while pregnant. For this reason, female patients are required to use two separate forms of birth control or vow abstinence while on the drug. Because of this, the drug is supposed to be given to females as a last resort after milder treatments have proven insufficient. Restrictive rules (see iPledge Program) for use were put into force in the USA beginning in March 2006 to prevent misuse. This has occasioned widespread editorial comment. 'Blue' and red light It has long been known that short term improvement can be achieved with sunlight. However, studies have shown that sunlight worsens acne long-term. More recently, visible light has been successfully employed to treat acne (Phototherapy) - in particular intense violet light (405-420nm) generated by purpose-built fluorescent lighting, dichroic bulbs, LEDs or lasers. Used twice weekly, this has been shown to reduce the number of acne lesions by about 64%; and is even more effective when applied daily. The mechanism appears to be that a porphyrin (Coproporphyrin III) produced within P. acnes generates free radicals when irradiated by 420nm and shorter wavelengths of light. Particularly when applied over several days, these free radicals ultimately kill the bacteria. Since porphyrins are not otherwise present in skin, and no UV light is employed, it appears to be safe, and has been licensed by the U.S. FDA. The treatment apparently works even better if used with red visible light (660 nanometer) resulting in a 76% reduction of lesions after 3 months of daily treatment for 80% of the patients; and overall clearance was similar or better than benzoyl peroxide. Unlike most of the other treatments few if any negative side effects are typically experienced, and the development of bacterial resistance to the treatment seems very unlikely. After treatment, clearance can be longer lived than is typical with topical or oral antibiotic treatments; several months is not uncommon. The equipment or treatment, however, is relatively new and reasonably expensive to buy initially, although the total cost of ownership can be similar to many other treatment methods (such as the total cost of benzoyl peroxide, moisturiser, washes) over a couple of years of use. In addition, basic science and clinical work by dermatologists Yoram Harth and Alan Shalita and others has produced evidence that intense blue/violet light (405-425 nanometer) can decrease the number of inflammatory acne lesion by 60-70% in 4 weeks of therapy, particularly when the P.acnes is pretreated with delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), which increases the production of porphyrins. However this photodynamic therapy is controversial and apparently not published in a peer reviewed journal. Laser surgery has been in use for some time to reduce the scars left behind by acne, but research has been done on lasers for prevention of acne formation itself. The laser is used to produce one of the following effects: Since lasers and intense pulsed light sources cause thermal damage to the skin there are concerns that laser or intense pulsed light treatments for acne will induce hyperpigmented macules (spots) or cause long term dryness of the skin. The FDA has approved several companies, such as Candela Corp. to use a cosmetic laser for the treatment of acne. However, efficacy studies have used very small sample sizes (fewer than 100 subjects) for periods of six months or less, and have shown contradictory results., Also, laser treatment being relatively new, protocols remain subject to experimentation and revision,, and treatment can be quite expensive. Also, some Smoothbeam laser devices had to be recalled due to coolant failure, which resulted in painful burn injuries to patients. Less widely used treatments History of some acne treatments The history of acne reaches back to the dawn of recorded history. In Ancient Egypt, it is recorded that several pharaohs were acne sufferers. From Ancient Greece comes the English word 'acne' (meaning 'point' or 'peak'). Acne treatments are also of considerable antiquity: A 2007 microbiology article reporting the first genome sequencing of a Propionibacterium acnes bacteriophage (PA6) said this "should greatly enhance the development of a potential bacteriophage therapy to treat acne and therefore overcome the significant problems associated with long-term antibiotic therapy and bacterial resistance." Preferred treatments by types of acne vulgaris Severe acne often leaves small scars where the skin gets a "volcanic" shape. Acne scars are difficult and expensive to treat, and it is unusual for the scars to be successfully removed completely. Physical acne scars are often referred to as "Icepick" scars. This is because the scars tend to cause an indentation in the skin's surface. There are a range of treatments available. Although quite rare, the medical condition Atrophia Maculosa Varioliformis Cutis results in "acne like" depressed scars on the face. Ice pick scars - Deep pits, that are the most common and a classic sign of acne scarring. Pigmented scars is a slightly misleading term, suggesting a change in the skin's pigmentation, and that they are true scars. Neither is true. Pigmented scars are usually the result of nodular or cystic acne (the painful 'bumps' lying under the skin). They often leave behind an inflamed red mark. Often, the pigmentation scars can be avoided simply by avoiding aggravation of the nodule or cyst. When sufferers try to 'pop' cysts or nodules, pigmentation scarring becomes significantly worse, and may even bruise the affected area. Pigmentation scars nearly always fade with time taking between 3 months to two years to do so, although rarely can persist. On the other hand, some people, particularly people with naturally tanned skin do develop brown hyperpigmentation scars which is caused by a local increased production of the pigment melanin. These too typically fade over time. There are multiple grading scales for grading the severity of acne vulgaris, three of these being: Leeds acne grading technique: Counts and categorises lesions into inflammatory and non-inflammatory (ranges from 0-10.0). 'Cook's acne grading scale: Uses photographs to grade severity from 0 to 8 (0 being the least severe and 8 being the most severe). Pillsbury scale: Simply classifies the severity of the acne from 1 (least severe) to 4 (most severe). |This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Acne_vulgaris". A list of authors is available in Wikipedia.|

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Qapla’! How the successful adaption of lexicon from fictional media genres has led to a Eucatastrophe of linguistic evolution in world languages. This is the second installment of a series focusing on language we use that has etymological origins from fictional cultures and genres Only about 1% of the world’s languages are true isolates. Almost every major language spoken today has been influenced by other languages to some extent. And while some have only introduced a few words into their vocabularies to help them adapt to the increase in globalization the planet is currently experiencing, others have been radically transformed to the point where they are almost completely different from their original base language. English itself began as a Germanic language. It was then heavily influenced by Latin, French, and several other languages spoken around the world as the British Empire expanded its influence and culture around the globe. Authors like Chaucer and Shakespeare also contributed to the evolution of the English language in the British Isles. But within the past century, the explosion of the Information Age has created terminology and lingo originating not only from literature, but movies, comic books, radio, television, video games, the Internet, and recent social media platforms. While real world languages that are spoken today like German and historical languages like Latin have helped shape the English language, how much have fictional languages like Klingon, Newspeak, Quenya, etc. or terms heavily associated with genres like Doctor Who, Star Wars, or Superman actually have become real words we use in the English language? Has our lexicon also been influenced by mainstream artificial languages, such as Esperanto, Lojban, or Interlingua? In addition, have foreign languages been impacted by their own native forms of media in a similar manner, respectively? Yet, how much have fictional languages influenced our lives directly? We actually do use real words in everyday life that originate not from languages that evolved from human civilization, but the collective cultural imaginations of many different cultures. The following examples are some of the more prominent terms that is used colloquially from media around the world. Probably the most successful example of this linguistic anomaly comes from the classic 20th-century novel 1984 by George Orwell and the movie version that helped popularize its lingo even more widely. While several neologisms have been attributed to this work, three of the most popular terms that have arisen from the artificial language of Newspeak are “Big Brother”, “doublethink”, and “unperson”. The first two terms have become actual terms used in politics, as well as general speech, while the latter term “unperson” refers to stripping a human being of their humanity in multiple ways. The term unperson has gained even more meaning in the 21st-century as it is also an allusion to the deletion of friends and subscribers from social media accounts. A second definition for the word “unperson” might develop from new technological use in the coming years. While words originating from 1984 with the language of Newspeak is one of the most successful examples of linguistic adaptation of a fictional language from a fictional world and general genre, several other examples of genres and cultures from fictional worlds have influenced our colloquial speech to an even greater extent. LORD OF THE RINGS Some of the best classic examples of this are words that come from the Tolkien worlds and languages. The Lord of the Rings has been a classic part of the world’s culture in the past century, and many terms are so commonplace that we don’t even recognize it offhand. In addition to the term “hobbit”, which derived from a note J.R.R. Tolkien wrote in 1937 to refer to a humanoid of short stature, some of well-known terms from Tolkien literature are “tween”, “orc”, “middle-earth”. The word tween is another name for the age range demographic that is also commonly referred to as “pre-teen”, somewhere between the ages of 10–12 years old. And while the term “orc” has its roots in the Old English word for “demon” (with the same spelling), the Lord of the Rings genre has popularized the significance of this word. Today it refers more to a humanoid possessing clumsy, grotesque and ogre-like traits than a “demon”. Even though the term “middle-earth” isn’t generally used in colloquial language, its association with Tolkien literature is a fairly well known neologism that is widely recognized by many people. Several of the lesser known words which derive from Tolkien’s stories include “warg”, “mathom”, and “eucatastrophe”, the last term being used as part of the title of this article! The word eucatastrophe was invented in 1944 by Tolkien and is used to describe a “sudden and favorable resolution of events in a story; a happy ending.” And like the word orc, the terms mathom and warg originate from the Old English, but was popularized through Tolkien’s works. Mathom derives from the word ‘maðm’, an Old English term meaning “treasure” and typically refers to random items in a collection that generally are useless but have value by just being possessed. A warg is used to describe people with psychic abilities in Westeros within the Game of Thrones genre. It’s fascinating to think about how the final term has poetically connected the fantasy worlds of Lord of the Rings and Game of Thrones together! The English words and names that come from fictional technologies and characters are so extensive you could write an entire dictionary of just those terms, the linguistic terminology that has the most impact on culture are the catch phrases and words that adapt to our everyday reality. One of the most surprising examples of this comes from the famous sitcom Seinfeld. Aired in 1995, the episode “The Soup Nazi” introduces a disgruntled restaurant owner with a foreign accent that serves his customers in a very stringent fashion. If he disagrees with any of their behavior, they are cast away by the famous phrase “No soup for you!” This tongue-and-cheek scene became one of the most iconic scenes from the Seinfeld series. And as it caught on, the term “Soup Nazi” started to reference any person who strictly implements mundane everyday tasks, especially when they are trivial. Replace any term for soup, and the general meaning still fits. One can even say “No soup for you!” as a comical gesture for taking something away from someone else. Another example of the impact that Seinfeld had on mainstream culture was the creation and popularization of the holiday of “Festivus” which was aired in the 1997 episode titled “The Strike”. This amusing variation of religious holidays is celebrated on December 23rd, by some people, especially those who are more secular and non-religious in their beliefs. The aluminum pole shown on the episode became so heavily associated with the holiday that a former governor of Wisconsin Jim Doyle displayed a Festivus Pole during the 2005 holiday season, which was later entered into the collection of the Wisconsin Historical Museum. But it isn’t only neologisms that have entered the English lexicon from fictional realities in recent years, but idioms as well. The best example of this is from the 2007 video game Portal in which the player is promised a cake as a reward after doing several tasks in the game, but instead finds a wall with the message “The cake is a lie” written on it instead. The idiom has become used in the English language to describe a situation where the purported end of something being pursued is unobtainable or misguided, or a person being motivated by the promise of a gift in order complete something but not actually having the promised reward delivered. Within the past decade, this idiom has become a very commonplace reference in the English language and can only be understood if one references the video game as its base context. LEXICON AND CULTURAL RELATIVITY By far, the most prolific source for lexicon are the fictional TV, book, and movie genres that have heavy distinctions from our reality that have often turned into metaphorical cornerstones of modern culture. Our world would really be a different place if we did not have the socio-cultural impact from genres such as Star Trek, Star Wars, Game of Thrones, Harry Potter, and others. While the previous examples have either been relatively older examples of influential dramas or limited to one or two words, the more modern genres have had a much more profound and immediate impact. And even more interestingly, some of the specific cultures portrayed within these genres have influenced our language beyond just a few catch phrases that have similarities to English words. Just as foreign languages like Finnish or Arabic have influenced our speech, so has speech portrayed by fictional, non-English speaking cultures such as the Klingons of Star Trek, the Na’vi of Avatar, the Dothraki of Game of Thrones, and the Hutts of Star Wars. Of all of these examples, Star Trek has had the most influence, at least in a linguistic sense. Ask anybody who Captain Kirk or Mr. Spock are, or what a “warp drive” or a “transporter beam” is, and most people would have a general idea of what you are talking about, whether they are interested in the Star Trek genre or not. But beyond many of the aspects Star Trek has had on the real world are how the languages of alien cultures have been integrated into our everyday speech, whether we realize it or not. Beyond the example mentioned in Part I of this series of a celestial object being called “mob nagh” in an astronomy paper, the Klingon language has proven to be the second or third most successful artificial language in history itself! Klingon music, Shakespearean translations, and even an entire organization dedicated to the language called the Klingon Language Institute have evolved from a conlang created by Marc Okrand in the early 1980s. But what are some other words that have entered English from one of the (if not the most) richest fictional cultures ever created? One of the most recognizable Klingon words is “qapla’ ” which means “success” or “victory”, and is sometimes said by Klingon characters in Star Trek to wish themselves or others success in battle. When used in an English context, albeit mockingly, it can have the connotation of wishing yourself or someone “Good luck! Be successful or victorious in your endeavor!” Though it’s used in jest, its short and simplistic message is still often a legitimate source of motivation for the handful of Anglophones that use the phrase. With the expansion of the new TV series of Star Trek: Discovery that is out right now, as well as with plans for the Star Trek genre being expanded even more in the near future, it wouldn’t surprise me if this the use of this phrase also increases. A very successful representation of Klingon culture and language into mainstream society are the Klingon hand weapons called a “Bat’leth” and “Mek’leth”, akin to a sword and knife. These are often must-have collector items for many Trekkies and are used primarily as wall displays as a deep representation of fandom, rather than being integrated into martial arts. The best example of this cultural crossover can be seen in the apartment of the character Sheldon Cooper in the hit sitcom The Big Bang Theory. Though they are generally used only as symbolic displays, the invented words of bat’leth and mek’leth would be completely unknown beyond what is seen onscreen in TV shows and movies. Other words that originate from Klingon that are also sometimes used in everyday speech include “gagh” and “p’tak”. The former refers to a fictional Klingon dish of live worms and can be used in English as a metaphor for a pile of garbage. The latter is a pejorative term that roughly translates as “stupid human” (I think you can figure out how that can be transcribed into English speech occasionally). No list of Star Trek neologisms can be stated without also mentioning the influence of the fictional culture of the Vulcans. The most famous Vulcan character is Mr. Spock from Star Trek: The Original Series. His use of the term “logic” reinvigorated the meaning in the English language. Interestingly, the two most prominent aspects of Vulcan culture that have become widely known in mainstream culture are not words, but rather gestures. Holding up the hand with the palm out and splitting the fingers in the middle is a Vulcan greeting on the show that means “Live long and prosper”. This gesture now has the same meaning in our body language. The Vulcan nerve pinch, a tight gripping of a vein on the neck to incapacitate someone, is also closely associated with the fictional culture. Within the Vulcan language, the most well-known phrase is “pon farr”, the yearly mating ritual of the Vulcan people in the genre. This has become a humorous slang term in English that can refer to the sudden and unexpected sexual arousal in people. Other Vulcan terms include “kroykah” and “katra”. The term “kroykah” means something in between “stop” and “damn it” depending on the context of the situation it is used in. The term “katra” is something akin to a soul or one’s individual consciousness, but is still used as English slang term to humorously compare a person’s spiritual state of being in the context of the fictional Vulcan culture. This metaphor to something that is obviously not real often create amusing statements to compare with real world spirituality. In addition to the major cultures mentioned in the genre, there are also many other important cultural phrases beyond character names and titles of technology have been integrated into mainstream culture as well. One of the most famous imagined animal species shown in the Star Trek Universe is a “tribble”. Tribbles look like small balls of fur, but are famous for their reproduction habits as they are born pregnant and die after they give birth. Their population thus increases very quickly and they create swarms wherever they end up. The phrase that has developed from this iconic creature is thus “they breed like tribbles”, which has the same connotation as “breeding like rabbits” but with exponentially greater tone. In quasi-similar manner, the term “redshirt” in the context of Star Trek denotes the concept that characters wearing red colored uniforms are the first to die in rough situations as many of the characters who have been the first people killed on away missions wore red colored uniforms. Other prominent Trek terminology that has entered into our casual language include “You will be assimilated. Resistance is futile.” and the word “tranya”. The former is the chilling warning given by Borg cubes to ships they encounter before they are aggressively attacked and integrated into a collective of robotic zombies. One can imagine how this phrase has been used metaphorically for forceful integration of people into a societal situation against their will, as well as being used to denote the strength of an aggressor about to attack their opponent. The latter is the name of an alcoholic beverage featured in the episode original series of Star Trek “The Corbomite Maneuver” and has become a term used in jest to refer to fancy and exotic alcoholic beverages, as well as a code name used in the jargon of drug users to conceal the actual names of drugs they possess. Like Star Trek, Star Wars has given us numerous character names and technological titles. However, terms and like “Jedi” and “the Force”, or phrases such as “May the force be with you” and “the Dark Side” are so ingrained in our culture that we often say them naturally and overlook their etymological origins in the mythology of Star Wars. Even the name Star Wars itself has been used in geopolitics, as the name was applied to President Reagan’s space technological development program in the 1980s! A lesser-known term from Star Wars that has gradually gained wider usage is the derogatory term “nerfherder” used to refer to someone being a zoophile, or a person with sexual attraction to animals. This is often a common insult fans of Star Wars use to jokingly mock each other in everyday life. In a more positive manner, Jediism is an actual recognized religion in Canada, originating from the religious beliefs prevalent in the Star Wars genre. Another example of Star Wars being publicly represented in Canadian culture is by the April 2018 discovery of the world’s largest striped karst cave, accidentally discovered in British Colombia during aerial observations of caribou herds. While the Canadian government consults local First Nations peoples about any potential cultural significance it may have for them before an official name is given, the generally accepted nickname for this location is “Sarlacc’s Pit”, which references the lair of the sarlacc creature on Tatooine in the sci-fi canon. And in turn, the nickname “Tatooine-planets” is sometimes used by astronomers to describe earth-like exoplanets that orbit double star systems beyond the Solar System. In the Star Wars movies, Tatooine was the name of the home world of Luke Skywalker, and was located in binary star system. While genres like these often have had multiple examples of linguistic influence, other genres have had either some influence or some specific isolated cases. The term “kryptonite” from Superman has come to represent something that is a person’s ultimate weakness that they will automatically succumb to and be defeated by, despite possessing other strengths at the same moment conjointly. And just as the “man of steel” has become a modern mythological hero, so has the character Tarzan, who has the most distinctive and recognizable forms of yelling that people recognize. In addition to the “Tarzan yodel”, the Tarzan genre also gave us the word “tantor”, an alternative term for the word “elephant”. This name has also been adopted by an actual book publishing company. Another term that has come from fiction that has been officially copyrighted is “TARDIS” from the BBC’s Doctor Who franchise that refers to the iconic British time traveling phone booth whose recognition is comparable to that of the USS Enterprise from Star Trek or the Millennium Falcon from Star Wars in the United States. If you are safely trying to cross a street with heavy traffic that is widely spread out, then you are said “to be playing Frogger”, a reference to Frogger, a 1981 arcade game developed by Konami, in which the player directs frogs across a busy road and other hazards. If you call someone a “tert”, then you might be referring to them using a racial slur for the human species in general used by alien immigrants to Earth in the science fiction Alien Nation series. (Likewise, humans used the racial slur “slag” to refer to the alien Tenctonese immigrants in the series. In addition to the name Tenctonese, another politically correct term for these beings in this series is “newcomer”). And if you identify as a “Browncoat”, then you are a fan of the short lived space opera Firefly, as the characters in the western style sci-fi show are noted for wearing large, brown coats. Fans of Babylon 5 often joke about “spoo”, a dish of meal worms from the alien culture of the Narn’s from the show (which has similarities with the Klingon “gagh” from Star Trek). And fans of the Stargate franchise will immediately pay attention if they hear the word “kree”, as that is the call for “listen up” said by the Jaffa warriors from the Goa’uld language, which in itself was created with influence from Ancient Egyptian. One of the most fascinating cases of a single phrase entering into mainstream lexicon comes from the comedy cartoon South Park in the 1998 episode “Chef Aid” where the phrase “Chewbacca Defense” is introduced. This term (also sometimes called “Chewbacca Law”), is an actual legal term that is sometimes used in courts to describe a situation where a lawyer deliberately creates a confusing statement to confuse the case of a prosecutor as a way to distract the opponent instead of refuting them. What makes this example so fascinating is that it comes from double sources of fictional genres, as it is a reference to the Star Wars character “Chewbacca” that speaks in only grunts and growls. This name was then used in a new phrase originating in an episode in South Park, and then eventually was adapted as actual term. As you can see, there are many examples of fictional cultures and genres from the media that have influenced the development of the English language within the past century and helped define our sense of modernity. But what about non-English media in other languages and in different countries? Have they developed new lexicons in a similar manner as English has done? Also, what are popular genres of the 21st-century that are influencing the current development of the English language? Let’s explore some foreign language examples of media-based linguistic development, as well as more recent genres and fictional cultures that are helping to shape the culture of the 21st-century! Stay posted for the next installment of this series.

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PDF | The main aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between the amount of physical activity and academic performance in 3rd-year. [Purpose] The purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between physical fitness level and academic achievement in middle school. Relationship Between Physical Fitness and Academic Performance. By Karen Rodenroth. APPROVED: COMMITTEE CHAIR. Leonard Parker, Ed.D. September 27, Correspondence: Physical exercise and academic performance. However, in the last decades, it has increased the number of studies that relate physical exercise, cognitive functions and academic performance. In recent years, many studies have reported the relationship between physical exercise and grades obtained at primary, secondary and university levels, which may be influenced by the improvement of attention, work memory and executive functions after the increase of blood vessels and neurogenesis influenced by the practice of physical exercise. Physical exercise; Aerobic exercise; Academic performance; Cognitive functions Introduction The continuous practice of physical exercise has been shown to have positive effects on various metabolic functions such as cardiovascular capacity, pulmonary ventilation, secretion of certain hormones, platelets function and coagulation, renal function, etc. In many educational systems this concept is often associated with a rating scale 1 to 10, 1. Artunduaga 9 establishes the importance of demographic variables age, sex, work, etc. For its part, Barahona 10 shows that variables such as gender, conformity to studied area and qualifications in verbal and mathematical tests, are excellent predictors of general academic performance. Finally, Tejedor 12 establishes gender, age, personality, intelligence, motivation, study habits, teaching methods, evaluation strategies, parental studies, etc. Most models that account for factors influencing qualifications include cognitive variables such as attention, memory and executive functions. Discussion A study by Dubuc, et al. The authors propose the relationship between healthy body weight and academic achievement. On the other hand, an investigation of Beck, et al. The control group received conventional math classes, the intervention group 1 G1 received a math class integrated with gross motor movements and intervention group 2 G2 received an integrated math class with fine motor movements. The children were examined before, immediately after and 8 weeks after the intervention. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers around 10 youth of a similar age were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance. The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands Singh et al. Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs Biddle and Asare, ; Singh et al. Basch conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education Sirin, Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity NASPE, Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards see Chapter 2. Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject Grissom, ; Cottrell et al. Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease Dwyer et al. Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance Shephard et al.Exploring How Social Networks Affect Student Academic Performance and Health Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males Trudeau et al. Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity Glenmark, ; Telama et al. From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life Aberg et al. Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education Grissom,indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant. State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sportmultiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness Welk et al. Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage Duncan et al. Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship Van Dusen et al. Using a large sample of students in gradesChomitz and colleagues found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleaguessocioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness London and Castrechini, In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness Grissom, ; Cottrell et al. Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness e. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain. Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance. In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth agedsuggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children e. Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health. The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition Sallis et al. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing. In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Bartonsix different conditions of physical activity no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity were completed by 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender. A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of —, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement Carlson et al. Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males. Ahamed and colleagues found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition CAT Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise Budde et al. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores Coe et al. Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations Mechanic and Hansell, ; Dexter, ; Crosnoe, ; Eitle and Eitle, ; Stephens and Schaben, ; Eitle, ; Miller et al. Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance Fisher et al. The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport e. Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities Page et al. Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups about 10 students rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function Sallis et al. Single Bouts of Physical Activity Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum see also Chapter 6. The relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement among adolescent in South Korea Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers Sallis et al. Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention Hillman et al. Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults Tomporowski, As seen in Figurehigh levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. The relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement among adolescent in South Korea For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's cognitive-energetic model of human information processing adapted from Jones and Hardy, For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking 60 percent of maximum heart rate resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition e. These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention see Figure and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Pontifex et al. Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming O'Leary et al. It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise Drollette et al. The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear. A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum PAAC used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement Donnelly et al. The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity 3—6 metabolic equivalents [METs] and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed boys and girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. FIGURE Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas — It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes i. Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm i. Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition. Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance Mahar et al. After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week Mahar et al. Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included students, while served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures. A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10! The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! Further, children in the Take 10! Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task Grieco et al. Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI. In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified. Recess It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity NASPE, Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play Pellegrini and Bohn, ; see also Chapter 6. When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch Getlinger et al. To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10, 8- to 9-year-old children. Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom Barros et al. In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior Jarrett et al. The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading Pellegrini et al. Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess. From a slightly different perspective, survey data from Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance Wilkins et al. Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. - Discover the world's research Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms. The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging see Etnier et al. Specifically, older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking i. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging Kramer et al. Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention MacDonald et al. Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility Diamond,processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition or inhibitory control refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment Davidson et al. For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information Davidson et al. In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action Blair et al. For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study. Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis Smith et al. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition. Hillman and colleagues examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition one aspect of cognitive control using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in individuals aged Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance Hillman et al. With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies Colcombe et al. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue Colcombe et al. Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition. Colcombe and colleagues investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging MRI in 55 healthy older adults aged They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging. In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise i. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group.

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Forget what you may have heard about neural networks in software. This startup is making a computer with living neurons. It’s an odd thing for someone to say about neurons: “Let’s see if anyone is awake.” And it’s an even odder thing to hear in a cavernous, half-furnished office suite where one whole room is occupied only by copy machines and a lonely foosball table. Not far from that foosball table, Oshiorenoya Agabi and Benjamin Sadrian are sitting in a lab at their startup, Koniku, in Berkeley, California. Agabi founded the company, and Sadrian is a senior neuroscientist. They are toggling between a microscope and a screen full of blue graphs, looking for signs of activity in a cluster of neurons. Sadrian pauses as he scrolls through slightly fuzzy readouts on the screen, reminiscent of stock charts with buzz cuts. “I wish you’d come later, even tomorrow,” he sighs. These readouts measure signals inside cells, and Agabi and Sadrian are looking for spikes that would show Koniku’s neurons reacting to a chemical Sadrian exposed them to moments ago. When we examined them under the microscope, they glowed a faint neon green, which indicates they’re starting to mature. A few tentative dendrites reached out into the void, the neurons just beginning to form connections with one another. But the telltale spikes don’t materialize on the screen. At just six days old, these neurons are still too young to do the jobs they’ve been engineered to do. Agabi and Sadrian aren’t just babysitting neurons out of curiosity. Nor are they out to build some biological system for study or observation, as their colleagues up the hill at UC Berkeley might. They’re trying to use these neurons to create computers unlike any that have existed before. They’ll eventually connect these neurons not just to each other but to silicon chips. At first those chips are being used in devices that sense airborne chemicals. Other possible applications await the technology in industries from drug development to agriculture. A successful brain-machine connection could also someday help us study and treat neurological diseases. And Agabi is very open about his grandest ambition of all, to create a wetware artificial intelligence. Wetware, a gurgly word with a science-fiction definition, refers to the combination of biology and machine, performing a task that neither can do alone. And this may well be the most ambitious wetware company in the world. Koniku comes from a Nigerian word that means “immortal.” Since we still don’t know exactly how neurons work together, why try to mimic them? After Agabi and Sadrian show me their still-maturing neurons, we spend the next hour touring Koniku’s lab, making stops in a “dry” room for working with silicon, which is connected by a custom-built window to a “wet” room for working with cells. We peer into liquid nitrogen storage where, I’m told, some 18 million neurons are incubating. Later, Agabi and Sadrian happily show off their high-powered laser, which they call the “Death Star,” used for manipulating complicated neuron networks on an incredibly precise level. At the moment, it’s being operated by Renaud Renault, who, along with holding the intriguing title of chief unlisted project architect, is known around the office for creating a 200-micron-high image of Big Ben when he was in college. A neuron-silicon hybrid chip is certainly an elegant idea. Nature spent billions of years evolving neurons for the unparalleled efficiency and flexibility that allows us to sense, analyze, remember, and infer using a tiny fraction of the energy computers require. Since we still don’t know exactly how neurons work together, why try to mimic their processes with “neural networks” in silicon? Why not just use actual neurons in computers? But nothing is ever that simple. Neurons are optimized to work in the brain but not necessarily to be computers in the way we might like them to be. They’re notoriously finicky to grow and even more difficult to keep alive. And anyone trying to develop and sell this kind of wetware has to answer all kinds of strange new questions: How do you reliably interpret the electrical signals that neurons generate? How do you encode neurons to follow certain rules and test that the cells are behaving accordingly? How do you design a supply chain for technology that is alive? Although academic researchers have been hooking neurons up to computers for decades, Koniku appears to be the first private company to market a product using this kind of technology. Agabi is thus perhaps understandably cagey about revealing the nitty-gritty details that would show skeptics that his science is sound. But if he is right, he’s closer than anyone else to designing a novel method of computing that blurs the line between biology and electronics. If he’s right, then a peek into this lab is a peek into the future. The coolest stuff Agabi, who goes by “Osh,” is tall and slim, with a spiky haircut that matches his neuron readouts, and a light mustache and goatee. He likes fashionable, form-fitting sweaters; speaks with verve, volume, and enormous enthusiasm; and swears prodigiously. His background isn’t that of your typical startup founder. The 37-year-old grew up the second of seven children in Lagos, Nigeria, roaming a garbage dump near his house to find junk he could tinker with. His mother, whom he calls the “best entrepreneur I know,” runs a general store but never learned to read; his father worked long hours at the local port. Both of them emphasized the importance of education above all else, a focus that eventually compelled Agabi to leave Nigeria to seek a new professional and personal adventure. His first stop was Switzerland in 2002, where he worked for a robotics company, Neuronics, building neural networks in software for a robot arm. “One of the things that became clear to me was that this system was really, really primitive,” incredibly simple when compared to real arms and brains, he says. So after a year at Neuronics, he left for Sweden to complete a master’s degree in theoretical physics, with an eye toward using math to explain biology. There, he worked on a project that interfaced neurons with silicon. But that work mainly revealed to him that there were gaping holes in institutional knowledge surrounding the mechanics of cellular biology. At one point, he asked a professor: has anyone ever modeled a cell and figured out all of its processes? “I remember her laughing,” he says, “like, ‘This guy is super naïve; nobody can do that.’” “Maybe we’ll be able to put 10 billion neurons on a chip. They might even be able to hold a conversation.” His physics studies planted the seed that would become Koniku, instilling in him the conviction that, given the inherent complexities of all living organisms, the best route to artificial intelligence would be to build it with biology. He believes that cognition is an inherent, emergent property that will inevitably result when a complex-enough network of neurons fire together to make sense of the surrounding world. The density and energy efficiency of biological systems is impossible to match, he argues, and its computation potential far outstrips the limitations of silicon. That’s where he got the title for his 2016 TEDx Talk: “Biology is Technology.” Everything else, he says, is “a simulation.” Agabi tried unsuccessfully to found Koniku in the United Kingdom first, finally finding funding and support in the U.S. through the IndieBio startup accelerator. There, his unconventional ideas were welcomed. “That’s why for me, coming to the Bay Area was like coming home,” he says. “It was like that kid who could go the dump and build cool stuff could now build the coolest stuff.” The first product Koniku is developing uses its neuron-silicon hybrid chip — which the company calls the Koniku Kore — to “smell” or otherwise sense the presence of a given compound. Early reports indicated Koniku had signed contracts with the pharmaceutical company AstraZeneca, presumably to build a system for testing potential new drugs. But although Agabi won’t say much about his clients, he will say that Koniku is “not actively pursuing” drug development work. The customers that have agreed to buy the startup’s sensors are mostly interested in defense applications, he says. Koniku also recently signed on with a consumer products company to design a system that would use the neurons in the Koniku Kore as taste testers, which could eventually render expensive focus groups unnecessary. Agabi envisions future applications for testing soap or other hygiene products as well. By creating individual technologies that perform some sensing task, such as tasting, feeling heat, or even seeing, Agabi hopes to lay the groundwork for his ultimate goal of a wetware AI. That stepwise progression also fits with his financing model. Including an initial seed round of $250,000 from IndieBio, Koniku raised a total of $1.4 million in 2016. Then, Agabi heeded the advice of his most trusted business advisor — his mother. Rather than raising more more outside capital, he decided to make do with revenue from customers who are paying to have devices developed and to get early prototypes. He says Koniku had $8 million in revenue last year and is on track to quadruple that number in 2018. Koniku’s chemical sensor is still in development, so what Agabi and Sadrian show me is likely to continue evolving for some time. On the outside, it sports a globular, gray-green shell with a vaguely alien look, about eight inches wide. Inside, metal architecture supports a silicon chip with spidery wires converging in the center, where networked neurons sit inside a clear bubble made of a biocompatible polymer. When a client tells Koniku what substance it wants to sense, the company identifies cellular receptors that would ordinarily bind to that substance. Then it creates neurons that have those receptors. To do that, it uses gene-editing technology to tweak the DNA of neuron precursors. Koniku obtains those from a supplier, which manipulates skin or blood cells from mice into blank-slate cells known as induced pluripotent stem cells. Once Koniku has nurtured these engineered precursors into living neurons, they could, in theory, smell odors like a drug-sniffing dog might. Or they could detect any number of substances that have corresponding receptors. Some receptors are more sensitive and narrowly tuned to attach to one substance. Others are, as Agabi puts it, more “promiscuous,” accepting an entire class of chemicals, like nitrates. The Koniku Kore contains neurons with both types of receptors. After they’ve created their mix of customized neurons, Agabi and his colleagues use the Death Star laser to build a polymer structure for the neurons to sit on. Then they place the cells on that structure and wait for them to begin to network together among a set of mushroom-shaped electrodes. Ultimately, a few “reporter” neurons will serve as the essential neuron-silicon connection. This means they are both connected to the neuron network and “plugged in” to the chip using the natural process of endocytosis, in which a cell gradually engulfs foreign matter. Agabi says Koniku has developed a special DNA coating for its electrodes. When a neuron tries to engulf the DNA, it creates a seal that will later let the electrode pick up electrical signals the neuron produces when its receptors bind to a given chemical or class of chemicals. Almost all of this technology was around before Koniku, though not exactly in this arrangement. Perhaps the newest element here is what Agabi calls “pink juice.” The usual life span of a neuron in a lab is counted in days or weeks, but Koniku’s neurons can survive for up to two months. That’s because they’re bathed in pink juice, which feeds them and keeps them alive. At first, Agabi won’t tell me the exact recipe beyond saying that they’re a mix of “vitamins, minerals, and sugars.” But I piece some of it together by talking to Thomas DeMarse, a neuroscientist at the University of North Carolina. Biology is technology, Agabi says. Everything else is a simulation. DeMarse spent time in the spotlight in the early 2000s for his research teaching rat neurons in a dish to fly a virtual plane by connecting them to flight simulator software. He also did groundbreaking research on neuron survival. He points out that there are a number of similar “juices” already on the market, with names like BrainPhys and Neurobasal. Those pink juices get their color from a substance called phenol red, which indicates the liquid’s pH level. They also contain a carbonate buffer that helps maintain acidity and simulates conditions in the brain. Using similar materials, DeMarse was able to keep neurons alive on a desk for two years. They would have lived longer, he says, but during that time he moved from Caltech to Georgia Tech, and the plates started to leak en route. Later, when I ask Agabi if he’ll at least tell me whether his pink juice contains phenol red and a carbonate buffer, he confirms the first and denies the second. Academic groups may have needed the carbonate buffer to simulate the brain, but unlike those neuroscience labs, Koniku is unconcerned with mimicking the brain, Agabi says. “The power of the neuron comes from the computational density — as long as we maintain that, we can change everything else.” With the help of Koniku’s pink juice and a new automated pump system that will be incorporated into each sensor, Agabi expects to eventually reach DeMarse’s record for neuron longevity. Even then, his customers would have to swap out their Koniku equipment every two years, but no one has requested products with greater neuron longevity — and therefore, Agabi says, it has not been a development priority. With the technology at hand, he says, he could develop a Koniku Kore that would last five years, were a customer to require it. Improving on evolution “To me the devil is in the details here,” says DeMarse. What he means is: before Koniku, its kind of wetware lived in academic and government labs. In addition to DeMarse’s research, scientists at DARPA have worked for a long time on an artificial nose to detect cancer. William Ditto, now of the Nonlinear Artificial Intelligence Lab at North Carolina State University, used leech neurons in a dish to carry out basic computations. Although no one has done exactly what Koniku says it’s doing, there’s plenty to back up the argument that someone could do it. In fact, DeMarse says he was “tickled” to read about Koniku’s innovations. Gabriel A. Silva, director of the Center for Engineered Natural Intelligence at the University of California, San Diego, is also intrigued by Koniku’s potential. “I never underestimate groups like this because they’re trailblazers,” he says. Still, Agabi’s colleagues in the academic world maintain some skepticism about whether his technology can live up to his grand ambitions and radical vision for the future of machine intelligence. For one thing, neurons have evolutionary baggage that might be unnecessary for a computer. As an example, Rajesh Rao, director of the Center for Neural Engineering at the University of Washington, points to myelin, the fatty sheath that insulates nerve fibers and helps signals propagate in the brain. It’s not clear, Rao says, that the optimal computer would have to mimic that method of communication. Or consider dendrites, the branches that stretch out from the body of a neuron. Neuroscientists aren’t sure whether dendrites actually participate in information processing or are just wires that pass information from cell to cell. Does moving information in a computer really demand some version of dendrites? With issues like this in mind, all the scientists I spoke with for this article said that while looking to biology for inspiration will be essential for the development of AI, they were not entirely convinced by Agabi’s argument that it will require biology itself. Just as planes use the same principles of lift as birds do without feathers or hollow bones, “we can extract the computational principles of how the brain processes information” and use them in a manner “independent of actual implementation in biological tissue,” Rao says. For example, neuromorphic chips are silicon chips designed using biological principles, attempting to mimic some ways that the brain processes information while leaving some of its baggage behind. Ditto, the researcher who once made a computer out of leech neurons, is now working on a “chaotic chip,” which constantly changes from analog to digital processing — as often as a billion times a second — in order to solve problems more efficiently. He argues that AI will require the plasticity and adaptive capacity of biology, but that the biological element is optional. After all, coaxing neurons in a dish into computation isn’t so easy, either. Even making sure they grow successfully is difficult; Silva remembers struggling during graduate school with neurons that had suddenly stopped growing, seemingly for no reason. “It turned out that the manufacturer of the coverslips we used had changed the formulation of the glass,” he says. “That alone was enough to make the neurons unhappy.” Even when they do grow, a group of neurons, however well networked and organized, do not automatically make a brain. The distance from chemical sensing to cognition is awfully long, and the slippery nature of even the idea of cognition complicates this question. A basic system that uses reward or punishment to teach things to computers “is going to give you some behavior that will look intelligent,” Rao says. But isn’t there more to cognition than that, more ingredients and sensory inputs that help us react to, interact with, and make sense of the world? The wetware recipe for that is far from clear. “I never underestimate groups like this because they’re trailblazers.” There are also ethical concerns, even this early on, about whether a neuron-silicon hybrid could become too smart and somehow go rogue. Ditto has stopped neuron-based research because of these worries: “That’s how much I believe it could work.” He feels strongly that there ought to be a kill switch built into any kind of wetware, even in the beginning stages, as the simplest form of constraint and control. “We want to think about that now,” he says, “before anything we have wakes up.” When I bring all these questions to Agabi, he seems genuinely thrilled, his answers tumbling out of him faster and louder the more excited he gets. Still, he doesn’t give much credence to his skeptics. In response to the argument that biology makes for good inspiration but not necessarily a good material for computing, he returns to his “biology is technology” mantra. He’s convinced that building with biological elements is the only way to reach and then surpass the capabilities of the real thing. He also brushes off Rao’s concerns about the evolutionary baggage in neurons, arguing that the same innovations in gene editing that allow Koniku to create neurons with custom receptors can help him take what nature has given and turn it into wetware that is better. “Evolution is non-directed; it dicks around a lot,” he says, smiling. “But when we have it in our heads, we can direct it, and that’s more powerful. We know exactly what we want to delete. We want to build a brain; we don’t want to build the brain. There’s a massive difference.” As for a kill switch, there’s already one built into the Koniku Kore’s design, although Agabi won’t elaborate on how. His customers required it. Taking out the humans Long before Agabi can begin tackling the design of a true wetware-based intelligence, he’ll face a more prosaic challenge, one that confronts most hardware companies: how do you scale up? There’s no existing chip manufacturing process that incorporates live cells, so one would have to be created — bringing up a novel constellation of logistical questions, such as when in the shipping process a device that is alive should “wake up” and be ready to function. And as Rao points out, we still don’t understand the learning dynamics of neural networks, especially using real neurons. “They might learn decision-making skills that aren’t easy to understand,” he says. “There isn’t an easy way to validate that the way you would with a chip.” That might require a whole new generation of testing and verification software. One hallmark of any reliably scalable product — automated manufacturing — would seem to be impossible with a product that requires so much exacting care. But Agabi believes the problem of neuron delicacy and the problem of scalability can be solved the same way. “Seventy percent of the problems you come across [in working with neurons] are because of human handling,” he says. “This is why we want to take the humans out of it.” In the last six months alone, he says, Koniku has invested more than $1 million in systems like one he shows me on our tour. In a small windowless alcove an apparatus rears neurons, monitoring their health and growth. The place is filled with complicated machinery, a low, pervasive hum — and no humans. Automation aside, delivering Koniku customers their “smelling” sensors and beginning work on its Koniku Kore-based taste tester constitute most of the company’s current work. The company also plans to release a neuron-silicon hybrid developer chip for a select few tinkerers to play with by the end of the year. Beyond that yawns the chasm between neurons-as-material and neurons-as-intelligence. With the real possibilities of smelling and tasting machines in the offing, even skeptics like Rao can’t help but daydream about possible applications for Koniku’s technology: machines that help injured brains repair themselves, perhaps, or that monitor disease, helping us understand the mechanics of Alzheimer’s. Ethical concerns and logistical tangles aside, it would seem a wetware market is coming. A human brain has about 86 billion neurons. The test chip Agabi and Sadrian showed me hosted 200,000 neurons arranged around 120 electrodes. The most neurons Koniku has successfully networked is about two million, but Agabi expects that number, like the neurons themselves, to continue to grow. “Eight years from now, maybe we’ll be able to put 10 billion neurons on a chip; they might even be able to hold a conversation,” he predicts. Really? In eight years? He grins. “I think if any company is gonna do it, it’s us.”

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Benefits of Interactive Music Therapy on Children with Autism Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a wide range of severity, encompassing mild to severe levels of social, communicative, cognitive, and behavioral functioning. This social functioning disorder affects every 1 in 68 children born in the U.S., with prevalence rates doubling since 2000. ASD is associated with left hemisphere responsibilities, such as decreased joint attention, inability to comprehend social cues, insufficient linguistic knowledge, and a difficulty forming meaningful relationships. Children with ASD are faced with many problems, including a lack of friends, limited social activities, and are often excluded from mainstream school. Unfortunately, they are also frequently kept from valuable social, educational, and leisurely life experiences; from not being able to pick out their own clothes, to learning how to drive or becoming independent, the daily struggles of autism hinder them from living “normal” lives. In the most severe cases, some will commit crimes during adolescence due to their frustration and inability to control their aggression or understand other's perspectives. The symptoms of autism impact not only familial relationships, but a family’s financial stability as well. Parents of autistic children often feel isolated, depressed, and emotionally and physically exhausted from the strenuous care involved in caring for and supporting their children. In a study of 196,159 households conducted by Saunders et. al. (2015), 52% of caregivers and parents of autistic children reported having financial difficulty, with many having to leave work to care for their children. However, these problems can be alleviated by providing an effective and appropriate therapy regimen that will not only help autistic children live more “normal” lives, but allow them to better integrate as active members of society, benefiting themselves and those who care around them. Traditional social skill and communication therapies such as Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) and Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) have helped many families and children diagnosed with ASD. However, they are concealing the benefits of using a more creative and flexible form of therapy more often: music therapy. Where speech therapies such as ABA and PRT are more structured and focused around specific objectives, music offers a means of self-expression, communication and interaction that can be more easily assimilated by children with autism. From previous studies, it is clear that music therapy provides an additional aspect to just the traditional patient-therapist treatment. Specifically, Wigram (2006), a professor of Music therapy in Aalong University, states that “music therapy has been recommended as an effective treatment in facilitating communication, as music is a medium that involves a complex range of expressive qualities, dynamic form and dialogue, and offers a means by which some form of alternative communication can be established to help achieve engagement, interaction and successful relationships” (p. 535). Harrill and Jones (2009) describe music in therapy as therapy that “creates an activity setting that is far different from either traditional psychotherapy or naturalistic play settings” because vocalization, an especially encouraged portion of therapy, is a “crucial developmental prerequisite to satisfying social interaction” (p. 200). In addition, when compared to the structured “play” routine of the traditional therapies, “improvisational musical interaction can foster flexibility and creativity in a structured framework for those children who cannot readily adjust themselves to the unpredictability of daily life” (Kim, J. Wigram, T., & Gold, C.; 2008). Therefore, improvised music in relation to the child’s musical and non-musical expression is an ideal way to work through issues of self-stimulation, rigidity, and control. The therapist may also adjust the theoretical approach depending on the client’s needs. Hooper, J., Wigram, T., Carson, D., & Lindsay, B. (2011) explain that a practitioner can use “musical experiences to develop a relationship that promotes health by resolving an individual’s physical, emotional and psychological difficulties” or can promote “health by providing music as a stimulus to reduce or eliminate inappropriate behaviors that tend to be considered an ‘unhealthy’” (p. 23). More importantly, interactive and improvisational music therapy can circumvent monotonous and inefficient practices in learning social communication and behavioral skills that traditional therapies such as ABA and PRT often use. Unlike the creative format of music therapy, speech and occupational therapies rely on structured therapy sessions to achieve specific goals, obstructing the child’s naturally artistic thinking. So, can interactive music therapy really be an effective tool to overcome developmental obstacles in children with ASD? An increase in education and use of interactive music therapy can revolutionize current therapy protocol and allow for more efficient improvements in emotional expression, social responsiveness, and behavioral aspects that affect over 1% of the entire world population. One example of music therapy, Melodic Based Communication Therapy (MBCT), is a treatment that utilizes a standard melody for each target word and the musical strengths of a child with severe autism (10 words or less) in order to increase verbal output. Standardization of the melody is made possible with a pre-recorded melody, which varies significantly from the other melodies. For example, for the word “apple,” the therapist will show a picture of an apple, while a melodic recording of the word “apple” will repeat 10 times, so the child is led to clap along while saying or singing the words. Sandiford, Mainess, and Daher (2013) describe their findings in a 5-week MBCT study of 12 children between 5 and 7 years old with, “While both therapies were found to be effective at the completion of the study, results suggest a possible faster rate of improvement for the MBCT group as well as greater overall gains in verbal attempts and imitative attempts” (p. 1303). Because the aim of the study was to compare the efficacy of MBCT and traditional therapy in eliciting speech in nonverbal children with severe autism, the increased success rate further supports the positive effects of music-based interventions. In addition, the faster rate of improvement, greater number of verbal attempts, as well as the significant improvement in number of words said in the home environment might have been contributed to an increased motivation of the child to complete the task when melody and rhythm were implemented. So, if individuals with autism demonstrate strengths in tasks associated with the right cerebral hemisphere, such as creativity and imagination, then it may be expected that individuals with autism might show an affinity for tasks relating to music and rhythm. Sandiford, Mainess, and Daher continue to explain that, “research indicates an increase in fibers in the corpus callosum in those exposed to music, potentially allowing for better transfer of information,” (p. 1304) thus explaining how the corpus callosum, an area of impairment in children with autism, can be greatly helped with MBCT. This example utilizes scientific and behavioral analysis of 12 autistic children to show the many potential uses of music therapy. The anatomical aspect of evaluating the effect of music therapy bolsters the argument that music therapy is an effective way to help children appropriately communicate and better assimilate into society. Another example, Orff-Schulwerk music therapy (Orff therapy), is a treatment that is based on imitation, exploration, improvisation, and composition. Compared to MBCT’s focus on outward communication, Orff therapy helps develop understanding of oneself to achieve a personal and interpersonal identity by practicing creativity and spontaneity in expressive environments. In a clinical setting, a trained music therapist can play or sing a song for the child, then hand the instrument over to allow the child to participate while the therapist repeats the song to reinforce the child’s “answer.” By interacting in this way, it is possible for the therapist to provide the child with a means of music and play in interaction. Specifically, Nabiollah et. al. (2015) describe their study of 27 mild-moderate autistic children who participated in Orff-Schulwerk music therapy sessions twice a week: “Musical activities were conducted based on the Orff-Schulwerk method with the help of two musical therapists in components of music hearing, singing songs, and clapping” (p. 43). Because communication in Orff therapy groups is in the form of songs and chants, this method puts emphasis on the rhythm of speech and body movement, allowing the Orff–Schulwerk method to be considered nonverbal. Therefore, it can also be explained that since the Orff method puts emphasis on nonverbal elements of music, it has been able to improve poor nonverbal behaviors of children with autism and lead to enhancement of their social skills. For severely autistic children with significant impairments in their basic innate skills in communication, musical outlets provide a context and instrument for reciprocal interaction and development that considerably enhances the lack of sharing and turn-taking in traditional play therapies. Nabiollah et. al. (2015) conclude that from their results, music is predictable, flexible and success-oriented; these characteristics bring a sense of security, encouraging the individual to take risks and be more spontaneous in their interactions with others. In the real world environment, these children will be better equipped to connect to others on a more substantial level, helping them form meaningful relationships. Overall, Orff music therapy is another underutilized form of therapy that can significantly help an autistic child’s social and behavioral skills. Voices Together Music Therapy is an additional example of the effectiveness of music therapy. Voices Together therapy utilizes an engaging music-based therapy with evidence-based educational and specialized therapeutic techniques, such as “talking songs” to increase communication, social, and emotional learning. Technique strategies and songs are interactive by design and inherently have a high expectation of a reciprocal response by establishing a pattern for each song. For example, Mendelson et. al. (2016) published a 15 week study of 37 elementary school aged children with mild autism who participated in Voices Together and sang “The ‘Hello’ song, which acts as an introduction and requires the participants to greet each other and say their name as part of the song; the ‘Feelings’ song, which requires participants to respond to the group by describing how they are feeling that day; and the ‘Topic’ song, which requires the participants to respond by bringing up a topic of interest” (p. 3). These songs use specific strategies to evoke social responses from all the children and are designed to improve social and communication skills by encouraging them to create unique responses within a familiar format. This pattern of brainstorming, listening, and responding all greatly contribute to the long-term success in terms of creativity of responses and level of communication. The teachers reported social improvement at three time points, to increase accuracy of the degree of development in all participating children. Behavioral observation outcomes were also measured at two time points to analyze the progress of the effects of the Voices Together program on real world communication, vocal assertion and engagement, and behavioral transformations. The results from this preliminary investigation in a classroom setting indicate that there was an increase in level of communicative response from all 37 participants. Mendelson et. al. predict that from the advances of the preliminary group, “longer duration of exposure to Voices Together may promote a greater degree of improvement” (p. 6) and that the use of interactive music in a classroom setting can be used as a basis for further research into the efficacy of music therapy. So, with the use of “talking songs,” Voices Together Music Therapy allows children with developmental disabilities a chance to practice and improve communication skills in an environment directly applicable to real world experiences. Although it is clear that music therapy is exceedingly valuable to an autistic child’s early age development, many autistic children still do not receive music therapy treatment, often due to accessibility and financial reasons. As an autistic child enters school age curriculum, an individualized education plan (IEP) is written to ensure the child receives appropriate services while in school. An IEP is a legal document created by parents and an IEP committee of therapists and school administrators that explicitly describes the child’s needs, the services the school will provide, and how progress will be measured. This process is extremely cumbersome, as only after an IEP meeting is held, an evaluation is requested, an evaluation is conducted, and an IEP meeting is held to discuss results, is the autistic child approved for therapy. Unlike occupational, speech, or other more “convenient” traditional therapies, music therapy is considered a “related service,” which is a list of services biasedly deemed unnecessary by the school IEP committee (Altom 2016). So, when school districts interpret a related service list as exhaustive, many services cannot, and will not be legally provided. In many cases, interactive music therapy is kept off this list due to financial and accessibility reasons. School administrators, often illegally, predetermine that they do not offer the service, because if the IEP team concludes the child requires the service, then it must be provided (Altom 2016). For example, if a school district is held responsible for providing music therapy to autistic children, but no local board-certified music therapist is available, then the district will have to pay for the relocation and salary of the music therapist, often an avoidable expenditure. Due to these many reasons, some school districts do not provide the financially inopportune music therapy service. If a child will greatly benefit from the advantages of music therapy, it is unjust to refuse an essential service. The lack in music therapy education also reduces the use of music therapy. Not only are there only 12 certified music therapy programs in the US compared to the over 250 speech therapy certified programs, but there are only 5,000 board-certified music therapists compared to the over 300,000 speech and occupational therapists. Consequently, in a poll of 28,000 parents through the Autism Speaks organization, less than 1% of parents reported having used music therapy as a treatment for their child’s autism. Additionally, the Heartbeat Music Therapy program in Austin, Texas claims that music therapy cost will be similar to occupational therapy, physical therapy, or speech therapy sessions. For example, if a family is looking for a music therapist that is trained in psychological or counseling techniques, the cost of music therapy may be similar to what other psychological services are offering. If the music therapist is not accepting private insurance payments, then the cost of music therapy will probably be lower than occupational therapy, physical therapy, or speech therapy sessions (Lindstrom 2012). It is this discrepancy between the availability and financial convenience of music therapy and the accessibility of settling for the more traditional speech or occupational therapies that is plaguing the autism therapy community. Although there is much evidence that improvisational music therapy can be effective in short and long-term social, behavioral, and communicative aspects, many skeptics believe that there is still a paucity of current research and data regarding both the benefits and consequences of improvisational music therapy. Some scholars find studies that are afflicted with problems such as an insufficient sample size, poor study design, or poor description of therapy techniques resulting in unempirical generalizations and an inability to reproduce the therapy in a clinical setting. For example, Sandiford et al. (2013) referred to a case study where a 3-year-old nonverbal male with autism was introduced to melodic intonation therapy. He suggests that, “Despite the success of this case study, the use of a single subject cannot be generalized to the greater population, nor can it be determined without the use of a control group whether the adapted melodic intonation therapy in and of itself resulted in the increase in language...” (p. 2). However, it is important to notice the complexity and intricacies that are inherent in the developing music therapy field. There will be inherent inconsistencies in study design due to the nature of the patient’s learning style; it is the advantage of personalization that will be most effective to patients with autism because the variability in music treatments can be specifically designed to fit the needs and wants of each patient. In addition, some music therapists, such as Aigen (2015), criticize the philosophical bases of the conventional view of music therapy to support the notion that alternative views are possible. Aigen questions that if music therapy is considered a healthcare profession, then why is the curriculum predominantly music? Here, Aigen does not consider the scope of the music therapy practice and education. With a proper musical background, therapists are more suited to utilize different harmonic, rhythmic, and intonational tools to provide medically based treatments that other therapists are not trained to use. In another example, Aigen argues that if music, in the context of music therapy, is treated as a medical intervention, then why do many healthcare professionals believe that music is too idiosyncratic to be analogous to a medical intervention? Aigen again fails to notice that the predominance of the music therapy theory has been created from ideas originating in a variety of external disciplines, such as neurological science and psychoanalysis. It is the combination of empirical-based data from music-based interventions that allow music therapy to be useful to a wide range of autistic children. Since its beginning in the 1940s, the profession of music therapy has developed significantly with the creation of national standards, evidence-based practice models, and an increase in the clientele served. An understanding of autism has also increased, which includes more succinct diagnoses, national awareness, and research on effective treatments. Currently, music therapy is emerging as a valid treatment option for children with autism through the use of therapies such as MBCT, Orff-Schulwerk, and Voices Together. Although there is still more research to be done, many studies demonstrate how effective and motivating music can be to help children function across many domains. As more quantitative research is conducted in the field of music therapy for children with autism, this therapy may soon be recognized as an established treatment rather than an emerging one. The modern world has progressed towards interdisciplinarity in many realms of society, which can be directly applied to services such as music therapy. Therefore, it is imperative to further investigate this as a non traditional outlet for autism treatment, and not allow it to be overlooked as it has been in the past. Aigen, K. “A Critique of Evidence-Based Practice in Music Therapy.” Music Therapy Perspectives (2015). doi: 10.1093/mtp/miv013 Altom, M. "Can Music Therapy Be a Part of a Child’s IEP?" Music Therapy Kids. N.p., 23 Mar. 2015. Web. 4 June 2017. Ghasemtabar, S. N., Hosseini, M., Fayyaz, I., Arab, S., Naghashian, H., & Poudineh, Z. (2015). Music therapy: An effective approach in improving social skills of children with autism. Advanced Biomedical Research, 4, 157. http://doi.org/10.4103/2277-9175.161584 Harroll, T. and Jones, P. (2009). The Use of Creative Therapies with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas Publishers. Hooper, J., Wigram, T., Carson, D., & Lindsay, B. (2011). The practical implication of comparing how adults with and without intellectual disability respond to music. British Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 39(1), 22-28. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3156.2010.00611.x Kim, J., Wigram, T., & Gold, C. (2008). The Effects of Improvisational Music Therapy on Joint Attention Behaviors in Autistic Children: A Randomized Controlled Study. Journal Of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 38(9), 1758-1766. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0566-6. Lindstrom, J. “Cost of Music Therapy” Heartbeat Music Therapy. N.p., 30 June. 2009. Web. 4 June 2017. Mendelson, J., White, Y., Hans, L., Adebari, R., Schmid, L., Riggsbee, J., & ... Dawson, G. (2016). A Preliminary Investigation of a Specialized Music Therapy Model for Children with Disabilities Delivered in a Classroom Setting. Autism Research & Treatment, 1-8. doi:10.1155/2016/1284790. Sandiford, G., Mainess, K., & Daher, N. (2013). A Pilot Study on the Efficacy of Melodic Based Communication Therapy for Eliciting Speech in Nonverbal Children with Autism. Journal Of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 43(6), 1298-1307. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1672-z. Saunders, B. S., Tilford, J. M., Fussell, J. J., Schulz, E. G., Casey, P. H., & Kuo, D. Z. (2015). Financial and Employment Impact of Intellectual Disability on Families of Children With Autism. Families, Systems & Health: The Journal Of Collaborative Family Healthcare, 33(1), 36-45. doi:10.1037/fsh0000102 Wigram, T., & Gold, C. (2006). Music therapy in the assessment and treatment of autistic spectrum disorder: clinical application and research evidence. Child: Care, Health & Development, 32(5), 535-542. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00615.x

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